Physics Part IA

Cambridge University, 2012-2013

Notes for Dynamics:

Ideal bodies:
When dealing with ideal systems in dynamics, the bodies involved are
considered to be ideal bodies as follows:
Ideal masses:
Ideal masses are perfectly rigid.

For an extended body of mass

mass

m , gravity acts as it would on a point

located at the centre of mass of the extended body.

Ideal springs:

Ideal springs obey Hookes law such that

For springs of a particular type/rigidity,

as

F=

Ideal

Ideal

l , where

F x , F=kx .
k

varies with unstretched length

is a property of the particular spring type. Thus

x , so that longer springs require less force to achieve the same

l

extension.
Ideal springs have no mass.
Ideal springs act in just one dimension.
strings:
Ideal strings do not stretch.
Ideal strings have no mass and are often referred to as light strings.
Ideal strings provide a way of transferring force from one end to the other.
pulleys:
Ideal pulleys have no mass.
Ideal pulleys are frictionless.

Friction:
Microscopic description of friction:
Two surfaces are placed into contact interact at the molecular level to
decrease their surface energies
When the surfaces in contact are moved parallel to each other, the
interactions between surface electrons are weakened, raising the energies
of the surfaces
Some of the energy exerted on the objects is therefore by these
interactions, rather than being converted into kinetic energy
This absorbed energy is the work done against friction, and as such, it
exerts a force in the opposite direction to the applied force
Coefficients of friction:
The coefficients of friction are the constants of proportionality between the
frictional force

Ff

acting on an object due to a given surface, and the normal

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reaction force

exerted by the surface on the object.

Ff N

since a higher

indicates a higher degree of interaction between objects.

There are two different coefficients of friction the coefficient of static friction (

s ) and the coefficient of dynamic friction ( d ). It is always the case that

s d , since when an object is moving relative to a surface, the interactions

between its molecules and those of the surface are not so strong as when it is
stationary relative to the surface.

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Coefficients of friction:
Coefficient of static friction (

s ):

The coefficient of friction between a

surface and an object when that object
is not moving:

F f ,max =s N

d ):

The coefficient of friction between a

surface and an object when that object
is moving.

F f =d N

F f ,max

Where

Coefficient of dynamic friction (

is the maximum force

which can be exerted parallel to the

plane of contact, without disturbing the
state of static equilibrium.

Where

Ff

is the frictional force

exerted on the object by the surface as

the object moves along it.

Kinematics:
The standard kinematic equations for uniform acceleration can be derived via
vector integration as follows:

v =a t+ u :
v

d v
a =
d v =a dt v = d v = a dt
dt
u
0
v u =a t v = a t+ u
1
s =u t + a t 2 :
2
s

v =

d s
d s =v dt s = d s = v dt= a t + u dt
dt
0
0
0
t

1
1
s = u t+ a t 2 s =u t+ a t 2
2
2
0
2 a s = v 2u 2 :
v =a t+ u t=

v u
a

v u 1 v u 2
s =u
+ a
=
a
2
a

( ) ( )

1
1 2 1 2
u ( v u ) + ( v u )2
v u
2
2
2
=
a
a

1
1
a s = v 2 u 2 2 a s =v 2u 2
2
2

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Projectile motion:
The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration can be used to show that an
ideal projectile (neglecting the effects of air resistance, the rotation of the Earth
(Coriolis force) and weather patterns) fired at an angle of 45 will achieve
maximum range:

a h
u v

v v

u h
t=0

sh

t=T

s h
T

s h= d s=
0

a v

v h
Horizontal motion:

T
v h+ u h
dt= u h dt=uT cos
2
0

Vertical motion:
v v

d v = a v dt=g dt v v u v=g T 2 uv = g T
uv

2 v sin =g T T =

2 v sin
g

Substituting vertical motion into horizontal motion:

s h=u

( 2 v sing ) cos = uvg ( 2sin cos )= uvg ( sin 2 )

Thus, when

d s h uv
= (2 cos 2)
d
g

s h

is maximum,

2 :

2 cos 2=0 2= = =45

2
4

Equations of motion:
A bodys equation of motion results from applying Newtons Second Law

F=d
P /dt

to that body.

It relates the net force acting on the body

The constant of proportionality between force

P
.

to its motion, specified by

and acceleration

is

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called the inertial mass of the object, and quantifies the reluctance of the body
to change its velocity in response to a force:

d P =m d v =m a
F=
dt
dt
Where acceleration

is proportional to applied force and hence always in the

direction of the applied force, and mass

is a scalar quantity. The following

sign conventions apply:

If velocity/acceleration is in the direction of increasing displacement, it is
positive.
If velocity/acceleration is in the direction of decreasing displacement, it is
negative.

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Fundamental equations of motion:
Linear motion:

Rotational motion:

d v d s
a =v = s a = = 2
dt d t

F=m

d 2 s
d t2

d v d 2
a =v = a = = 2
dt d t

F=m

d 2
dt2

Equation of motion for a simple pendulum:

The equation of motion for a simple pendulum consisting of a mass
suspended on a light, inextensible strong of length

is as follows:

d s d
d 2 s d 2
=
s =l =l
2 =l 2
2 2 l
dt
dt
dt
dt
Resolving forces perpendicular to the string:

2
T =m g sin =ml d
F
d t2
2
d
g sin =l
d t2

This is the equation of motion of the simple pendulum, and can be used to find
the form of the motion

(t)

as follows:

Let

A e t 2+
Ae
=

Letting

g
t
l

2 t
A et =
=
A e :

g
g
=0, A et 0 =i
l
l

+B e

g
= 0
l

g
t
l

and considering only the real/physical part of the motion:

(t)
cos( 0 t )

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Work and potential energy:

Work is defined as the cumulative product of force and displacement in the
direction of this force (scalar quantities) or as the cumulative projection of
displacement onto applied force (vector quantities):
Work done on a system:
Work done on a system is given by:
x 2

W 12= F 12 d x
x 1

Where

12
F

is the force applied to the system to move it through displacement

x 1 x 2 .
Mechanical energy is converted to potential energy, thus the potential energy of
the system increases such that:
x 2

W 12=U ( x )= F 12 d x
x 1

F 12 =

dU
d x

Work done by a system:

Work done by a system is given by:
x 2

W 21= F 21 d x
x 1

Where

21
F

is the force exerted by the system to move some object through

displacement

x 1 x 2 .

Potential energy is converted to mechanical energy, thus the potential energy of

the system decreases such that:
x 2

W 21=U ( x ) U ( x )= F 21 d x
x 1

F 21 =

dU
d x

Types of potential energy:

Elastic potential energy ( U k ( x ) ): Defined as the work done to extend or

compress a spring by a distance

x 0 :

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x0

x 0

[ ]

d x = k x d x = 1 k x 2
U k ( x ) = F
2
0
0
1
U k ( x )= k x 02
2

x0

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Gravitational potential energy ( U g ( x ) ): Defined as the work done to lift an

object to a height
h

h :

d x = m g d x =[ m g x ] 0
U k ( x ) = F
0

U k ( x )=m g h
Potential energy and equilibrium:
If a system is in equilibrium, it has no net force acting upon it, and is exerting
no net force on its surroundings, such that:

12= dU =0, F 21=dU =0

F
d x
d x
Thus, the equilibrium positions of a system are the values of

for which

U ( x ) has a stationary point:

the function

Stable equilibrium position:

U ( x ) is at a minimum, such that

d2 U
>0
d x 2

Infinitesimal movements in either direction will cause an energy increase,

thus will be energetically unfavourable, and hence the system will remain
at the equilibrium position
Unstable equilibrium position:

U ( x ) is at a maximum, such that

d2U
<0
d x 2

Infinitesimal movements in either direction will cause an energy decrease,

thus will be energetically favourable, and hence the system will move
away from the equilibrium position, such that the forces acting on it
become unbalanced and it accelerates

Power and kinetic energy:

Power:
x

Power is the rate of doing work. If an amount of work

a time interval

dW d
P=
=
dt dt

dt , then the power is given by:

d x
F d x = F dt = F d v
0
0
0

W = F d x
0

is done over

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If the force

is constant with respect to time, the expression is simplified to:

P= F v
Thus:
v

P= F d v F v
0

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Kinetic energy ( T ):
Kinetic energy is the form of energy associated with an objects speed. When
work is done on a body, a component of force is applied parallel to the direction
of increasing displacement, hence its speed must necessarily change. This
produces a change in kinetic energy
x 2

x 2

T :
v 2

d v
d v
W = F d x = m
d x = m
v dt= m v d v
dt
dt
x
x
0
v
1

v 2

v2

] [

1
1
1
1
T = m v 2 = m v 2 = m v 22 m v 12
2
2
2
2
v
v
1

Thus, for an object accelerated to speed

from

0 , the kinetic energy

gained is given by:

1
2
T= mv
2

The conservation of energy:

In any closed, complete system, the total energy in all its forms is conserved.
Specifically, the sum of kinetic and potential energy stored within the system is
conserved:

T + V =0
The law of the conservation of energy is useful when all stores of energy within a
system are quantitatively known. When an unknown amount of energy is
dissipated from the system, the law becomes less useful.
Example using the conservation of energy:
A mass is placed on a rough plane of length

l , which is gradually tilted until

the mass slides down the plane, at which point the angle is fixed with a
corresponding height of

h . What fraction of gravitational potential energy is

converted to heat?

Find the angle

at which the mass

begins to slide:

Ff
mg

mg sin=F f =N s
mgsin =mg s cos

Find total loss of gravitational potential energy:

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V =mg h=mgl sin

Find work done against friction, which dissipates energy as heat:

W f =N d l= d l( mgcos )
Express the energy dissipated as a fraction of the total loss of potential energy:

W f d l( mgcos )

=
= d = d
V
mgl sin
tan s

Momentum:

) is the product of the mass of a body

Momentum ( p

and its velocity

as follows:

p=m v
Thus momentum is a vector quantity with the same direction as velocity. Newton
originally formulated his Second Law in terms of the rate of change of
momentum:

= d p
F
dt
Thus the direction in which momentum changes is the same direction as that in
which force is applied.
The conservation of momentum:
By Newtons Second Law, no change in momentum occurs if no external force
acts. Thus, if a system is isolated, momentum does not change but is constant in
every direction:

The total linear momentum of an isolated system is constant.

Derivation of the conservation of momentum:
Consider a system of

particles which interact with each other according to

Newtons Third Law, and are subject to external forces:

Newtons Second Law:
The rate of change of momentum of the

n th particle in the system is given by:

N
d pn
=( F n )ext + F 1 n + F 2 n ++ F N n= F i n
dt
i=1

The total rate of change of momentum of all the particles in the system is given
by:

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d p1 d p2 d p3
d p N N d p i
dP
=
+
+
+ +
=
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
i=1 dt
Newtons Third Law:

Fi j=F j i , thus all the internal forces cancel out, such that:
N

dP
=( F 1 )ext + ( F 2 )ext + ( F 3 )ext ++ ( F n ) ext = ( F i )ext
dt
i=1
N

Thus, if the system is isolated such that

( F i )ext =0
i=1

, the rate of change of

momentum of the system is zero in all directions:

dP
=0 momentum is conserved
dt

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Rockets:
An important application of the conservation of momentum is to the flight of
rockets. As a rocket is propelled forward by the ejection of its fuel, both its mass
and velocity change, and thus the conservation of momentum can be applied to
find the final velocity of the rocket in terms of the mass and velocity of the
ejected fuel.
The general situation is as follows:
Before ejection of fuel: Time

t :

After ejection of fuel: Time

t+ t :

v+ v
v ej v

m+ m

By the conservation of momentum:

mv=( m+ m ) ( v + v )+ ( m) (( v ejv ) )
mv=mv+ mv +m v + m v+ m v ej mv
0=m v + m v + m v ej
Since the second-order term

mv

is much smaller than all the other terms,

it can be neglected:

0=m v + m v ej

m v= m v ej

v m
=
v ej
m

Integrating this equation:

vf

v
vi

ej

mf

=
mi

m
v v
m
m v f v i

=ln f f i =ln i
m
v ej
mi
v ej
mf
v f v i=v ej ln

mi
mf

Or, if the rocket is initially at rest:

v f =v ej ln

mi
mf

Impulse ( Q ):
Impulse ( Q ) is the cumulative effect of a force on a system over an interval of
time

t :

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t

pf

d p
Q= F dt Q=
dt= d p = p f p i= p
dt
p
0
0
i

It is most useful in describing forces which act over brief periods

t , over

which force can be considered approximately constant:

Q= F t= p
Relationship between impulse and average force exerted:
Since the average force exerted over an interval of time

is given by

Fav = F dt / t , the relationship between impulse and average force is:

0

Q=F av t

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Collisions:
The conservation of momentum is highly relevant in many types of collision,
since no matter what happens within an isolated system (including collisions),
momentum must always be conserved, unlike energy, which may be dissipated
as heat and sound.
Types of collision:
Elastic: Kinetic energy is conserved.
Perfectly inelastic: The colliding objects stick together and energy is
dissipated.
Otherwise: The colliding objects move away separately and energy is
dissipated.
Modelling collisions:
Both perfectly elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions can be modelled, in
general, as follows:
Perfectly elastic collisions:
The result of a perfectly elastic collision between two masses

and

depends on the relative sizes of these masses:

Before collision:

After collision:

By the conservation of momentum:

Mu=MV +mv u=
V =

MV + mv
M

Mumv
MuMV
, v=
M
m

By the conservation of kinetic energy:

1
1
1
M V 2 +m v 2
M u2= M V 2+ mv 2 u 2=
2
2
2
M
Therefore:

MV +mv 2 M V 2 +m v 2 (
2
=
MV +m v ) =M ( M V 2 +m v 2 )
M
M

M 2 V 2+ 2mMvV + m2 v 2=M 2 V 2+ mM v 2
2 MvV + mv 2 =M v2 v ( M m )=2 MV

Substituting to find

v :

Substituting to find

V :

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v ( M m )=2 M

Mumv
=2( Mumv)
M

v ( M +m )=2 Mu v=

2 Mu
M +m

MuMV 2 Mu
2 mMu
=
MV =Mu
m
M +m
M +m
MV =

( M m ) u
M umMu
V=
M +m
M+m

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Result of perfectly elastic collisions:

M > m : Both

If

and

are positive, therefore both masses move

off in the same direction with a non-zero velocity.

M
m :

If

v 2u

original velocity, and

M<m :

If

V u , therefore

and

continues at close to its

moves off at twice this original velocity.

is positive and

is negative, therefore both masses

move off with non-zero velocities, but in opposite directions, with

moving back towards its starting position.

M
m :

If

v 0

If

V u , therefore

effectively rebounds off

and moves back towards its starting position with close to its original

speed.

and

M =m :

V =0

and

v =u , such that all momentum is transferred

from the first to the second mass; the first mass stops and the second
mass moves off at its original velocity.
Perfectly inelastic collisions:
The result of a perfectly inelastic collision between two masses

and

depends on the relative sizes of these masses:

Before collision:

After collision:

By the conservation of momentum:

Mu=( M+ m) v v=

Mu
M +m

Thus, the initial and final kinetic energies are given by:

1
1
Mu 2 1 M 2 u2
T i = M u2 ,T f = ( M + m )
=
2
2
M +m
2 M+m

T f =

M
T
M +m i

Result of perfectly inelastic collisions:

If

mM :

T f T i , thus the collision is nearly elastic.

If

mM :

T f 0 , thus almost all kinetic energy is dissipated and

simply sticks to

m , which remains almost stationary.

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If

m=M :

and

1
T f = T i , thus half the kinetic energy is dissipated, and
2

move off together with a non-zero velocity.

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Frames of reference:
A frame of reference is simply a reference frame relative to which the
displacements, velocities and accelerations of objects in motion are measured:
All frames of reference are equivalent and any frame of reference can be
chosen for a system
Thus no object has an absolute displacement, velocity or acceleration
relative to some absolute reference frame

( x , y , z)

Objects are assigned spatial co-ordinates

reference
An observer is defined by a set of spatial co-ordinates.
An event is defined by a set of spatial co-ordinates.

relative to frame of

Inertial and non-inertial frames of reference:

Inertial frame of reference:
Newtons First Law is valid
If no net force acts on a body, that bodys velocity will not change the
body will not accelerate
Thus, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference which is not
accelerating, such that objects in the reference frame do not accelerate
relative to it, unless an external force is applied
Non-inertial frame of reference:
Newtons First Law is not valid
The frame of reference itself is accelerating, causing objects within it to
accelerate relative to it, when they are experiencing no net external force
The Earths surface is usually taken to approximate an inertial reference frame at
short distances and low velocities, for which its rotation on its axis and its orbit
around the Sun can be neglected.
Galilean transformations:
Galilean transformations are essentially relationships between the
displacements, velocities and accelerations of events relative to two different
inertial frames of reference,

S'

and

S'

in the standard configuration:

The velocity of

The motion of the object in

The motion of the object in

S'

Initially, at

The frames are non-relativistic, such that the times in both are always
equal,

relative to

is

and

is defined by
is defined by

x , v

is parallel to

and

x ' , v '

a '

and

'

t=t =0 , the origins of the frames are aligned

t=t '

Displacement transformation or Galilean co-ordinate transformation:

In one dimension only:

x =( x , y , z ) , x '=( x' , y' , z' )

If origins were
aligned at
'

t=t =0 , then:
Event

x ' =xut
y'= y
z ' =z

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x
x'

ut

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Velocity transformation: In one dimension only:

dx dy dz
d x' d y' d z'
v =
, ,
, v '=
,
,
dt dt dt
dt ' dt ' dt '

) (

d x ' d x ' dx
x =xut ' =
= u
dt dt
dt
'

y'= y
z ' =z

'

'

d y d y dy
=
=
dt '
dt dt

d z ' d z' dz
=
=
dt ' dt dt

Therefore, if origins were aligned at

v ' =vu

'

t=t =0 , then:

in direction of velocity (one dimension only).

Acceleration transformation: In one dimension only:

d2 x d2 y d2 z
d2 x ' d2 y ' d 2 z '
a =
,
,
,
a
'=
,
,
d t 2 d t2 d t 2
d t '2 d t ' 2 d t '2

v ' =vut

) (

d x ' dx
d 2 x' d 2 x
=
u

=
d t ' dt
d t' 2 d t 2

d y ' dy d 2 y ' d2 y
= '2 = 2
dt ' dt
dt
dt
'

2 '

d z dz d z d z
' = '2= 2
d t dt
dt
dt
Since the reference frames are both inertial, and hence

is constant.

'

a =a
Such that all inertial observers measure the same acceleration for an event,
since none are themselves accelerating.
Newtons laws of motion under Galilean transformations:
The forces between objects depend only on their relative positions from
each other
Galilean transformations do not alter the relative positions of objects, as
they do not take the postulates of special relativity into account

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Thus Newtons laws of motion are Galilean invariant they are the same
in different frames of reference which are distinguished by Galilean
transformations
Thus Newtons laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames of
reference

Kinetic energy in inertial frames of reference:

The change in kinetic energy of a system observed in any inertial frame of
reference is the same, although the total kinetic energy may vary due to the
differing relative velocities of these frames of reference.

This can be proven for a general system of

S , the

In one inertial reference frame

u i

and final velocity

v i

particles with masses

mi :

i th particle has initial velocity

after an interaction.

S ' , moving at velocity

In another inertial reference frame

u iw

to the first, the initial and final velocities are

relative

v iw ,

and

respectively.
Kinetic energy in inertial frames of reference:
Reference frame
n

T =
i=0

S :

1
1
m v 2 m u2
2 i i 2 i i

T '=
i=0

( 12 m ( v w ) 12 m (u w ) )
2

And the reference frame is

inertial, therefore
n

T '=
i=0

ptotal=0

T ' =
i=0

( mi vi mi ui ) =0
i=0

S' :

Reference frame

T ' =
i=0
n

T =
'

i=0

( 12 m ( v u 2 w ( v u )))

2
i

2
i

1
1
mi ( v 2i u 2i ) 2 w mi ( v iui )
2
i=0 2

( 12 m ( v u ))w p
i

2
i

2
i

total

( 12 m ( v u ))= T
i

2
i

2
i

T ' = T
Instantaneous rest frames:
An instantaneous rest frame is an inertial reference frame in which a particular
object is instantaneously at rest. Thus, even if an object is accelerating, its
instantaneous rest frame is inertial, since the object is only defined as being at
rest relative to the frame for an instant.
The analysis of the dynamics of an accelerating system can often be simplified
by considering the instantaneous rest frame of an object in the system. For
example, the case of finding the rebound height of a very small ball dropped

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h , just above a very big ball, can be solved using

from a height

instantaneous rest frames as follows:

Laboratory frame after

has hit

Instantaneous rest frame of

the ground

it has hit the ground:

v
v
Instantaneous rest frame of
hitting

after

m :

Laboratory frame after collision

between balls:

v
Therefore, the rebound height of

1
2
V i=mgh=T i= m v
2
1
2
V f =mgH = m ( 3 v ) =9 T i
2
H =9 h

is found as follows:

after

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The Zero Momentum (ZM) frame:

The Zero Momentum frame is a special inertial reference frame moving at
such a velocity relative to a system that the total momentum of that system is
zero. Thus, the net momentum of objects in the reference frame both before and
after an interaction is zero, making the interaction particularly easy to visualise
and manipulate in the ZM frame.
Transformations between inertial reference frames do not alter the relative
motion of the objects in a system, their net change in kinetic energy, or their net
change in momentum. Therefore the dynamics of an interaction can therefore be
simplified by transforming into the ZM frame, then back to the laboratory frame.
Velocity of the ZM frame:
The velocity of the ZM frame for a system can be found in terms of the velocities
and masses of the elements of a system by considering the relationship between
the total momentum of the system in two different inertial reference frames,
and

S ' , with a relative velocity of

u , where

S'

is the ZM frame, thus

u=v ZM :
Momentum in the laboratory
frame:
n

Momentum in the ZM frame:

n

ptotal= m i v i

total = m i ( v iu )=0
p'

i=1

i=1

i=1

i=1

i=1

0= mi v iu m i= mi v i u M
Where

is the total mass of all the

components in the system.

0= ptotal M u
Thus, the velocity

u =v ZM

of the system is given by:

mi v i

v ZM =

total i=1
p
= n
M

mi

Total momentum of system

Total mass of system

i=1

The ZM frame and collisions:

The ZM frame is particularly useful for solving problems involving collisions, since
the conservation of momentum means that momentum must be zero both before
and after the collision has occurred. This makes the dynamics after the collision
very easy to visualise.
The general method for applying the ZM frame to collisions is as follows:

Physics Part IA
Cambridge University, 2012-2013

v ZM .

Find the velocity of the ZM frame,

Transform the situation before the collision to the ZM frame by subtracting

v ZM

to find the velocity of the components of the system relative to the

ZM frame.
Find the final velocities of the objects after the collision in the ZM frame by
applying the conservation of momentum and considering what happens to
the energy depending on whether the collision is elastic or inelastic, and
whether or not energy is added to the system during the collision.
Transform the situation after the collision back into the laboratory frame
by adding

v ZM

(subtracting the relative velocity of the laboratory frame)

to find the velocity of the components relative to the laboratory frame.

Physics Part IA
Cambridge University, 2012-2013
General collisions in the ZM frame:
General elastic collision:
The ZM frame can be used as follows to deduce the result of a perfectly elastic

collision between masses

and

m :

Before:

After:

Laborator
y frame:

V0

M
V

ZM frame:

v ZM =

MV0
M+m

mV 0
m+ M

v'

M V0
m+ M

V'
By the conservation of kinetic energy:
' 2

' 2

' 2

' 2

M ( V ) +m ( v ) =M ( U ) +m ( u )

By the conservation of momentum:

M V ' mv ' =0 v ' =

MV'
m

M U ' mu' =0 u' =

MU
m

'

Combining the two conservation laws:

' 2

( )
M
M
(V ) ( M +
= ( U ) ( M +
)
m
m )
2

M ( V ' ) +m

' 2

' 2

'

V =U '
'

MV
u =
=v ' v ' =u '
m
'

V ' =

mV0 ' MV 0
,v =
m+ M
m+M

MV
m

=M ( U ' ) +m

' 2

( )
MU
m

Physics Part IA
Cambridge University, 2012-2013
Conclusions:
If the collision is elastic, the two masses must have the same velocities
after the collision as before the collision, with opposing directions at some

, in order for both kinetic energy and momentum in all

angle

directions to be conserved
If the collision is inelastic, the masses still have to move apart at exactly
opposing angles, since linear momentum must be conserved in all
directions, hence momentum in the ZM frame must be zero in all
directions
General collisions in the ZM frame:
General elastic collision:
A vector diagram can be used to transform the system from the ZM frame back
to the laboratory frame as follows:

The final velocities

m
v ZM

M V0
m+ M

and

of the masses in the

laboratory frame can be

deduced from this diagram
using basic trigonometry.

mV 0
m+ M

Special cases:
1.

v=

=0 , in which case the collision is head-on, and by trigonometry:

2 MV0
M V 0 mV 0 V 0 ( M m )
,V =

=
m+ M
m+ M M + m
M +m

2.

m=M , in which case

2 m +2 M = m + M =

2 , and thus the vector

diagram becomes a right-angled triangle.

General perfectly inelastic collision:
The ZM frame can be used as follows to deduce the result of a perfectly elastic
collision between masses
Before:

and

m :

After:

Laborator
y frame:

V0

ZM frame:

M V0
m+ M

Physics Part IA
Cambridge University, 2012-2013

v ZM =

MV0
M+m

mV 0
m+ M

M V0
m+ M

Since the particles stick together, they must come to rest in the ZM frame in
order to satisfy the condition of net zero momentum. Thus, they must travel at

M V0
m+ M

in the laboratory frame.