APPENDIX A

TIDAL GENERATION
OPTIMIZATION MODELS*
SINGLE-TIDE OPTIMIZATION MODEL (STOM)
The derivation of the model is based on the simulation of the levels of the
impounding reservoir or tidal basin over time,

y(t),

using the following

equations:

where hI is the sea level,

and

A(y)

Q(H)

H = y(t)-h(t)

(AI)

dy
Q=-A(y)dt

(A2)

Q= Q(H)

(A3)

the turbine or sluice discharge characteristic,

the tidal basin area as a function of level. Since the tidal basin

surface area is known at all water levels, Eq. (A.3) is a continuity equation,
equating

Q dt,

the aggregate volume of water discharged through turbines

and sluices, to A(y) dy, the reduction of storage, that is, changes in tidal basin
water level. As implied in Chapter

3,

the characteristics of the basin can have

considerable impact on energy production so that the relationship between

The model derivations have been abstracted from the reports of the Bay of Fundy Tidal Power

Review Board and Management Committee, 1977.

Elements of Tidal-Electric Engineering.

By Robert H. Clark

Copyright 2007 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

245

246

APPENDIX A TIDAL GENERATION OPTIMIZATION MODELS

basin water level and volume, which can be determined at small cost, should
be as accurate as possible.
If

Q(H),

the discharge characteristic, is

deterministic,

then the foregoing

equations may be combined into a single differential equation:

dy
dt

-Q[ y(t) -h(t)]

A(y)

(A4)

The numerical value of the right side can be computed for any values of
and

y.

The function

yet) is,

therefore, a solution of a differential equation of

the form

dy
dt

fbg

This equation can be solved using the Runge-Kutta method, that is, a step
by-step numerical integration. Computations must start at a given point when
the level Yo and the time

to are known.

Level Yl at time

from the following equations:

tJ

to + M is computed

(AS)

2
kJ
k3 Mf to +3" M , Yo -3+k2
=

k4 Mf (to + At, Yo +kJ -kl + k3 )

=

Yl

Yo + 8" (kJ + 3k2 + 3k3 +k4 )

(A6)

(A7)
(A8)
(A9)

The problem execution can be carried out either forward or backward and
the step-size or integration interval is automatically adjusted to specified error
bounds. Therefore, a starting level can be computed knowing the finishing
conditions, or vice versa. Generally, a time step of 5 or lOmin will be found

to be a satisfactory compromise between accuracy and execution time. Under

certain conditions, such as at the end of the turbining period, a time step of
1 min may be found to be necessary. To determine the relationship between
head and discharge for each time interval, appropriate turbogenerator perfor
mance curves must be used.
When

Q(H)

is not deterministic only with respect to head, such as when

a variable-pitch blade turbine is involved, a more complex formulation is

required. In order to optimize the energy production during a period of gen
eration

(t), t2),

the discharge during that period must be selected so that

SINGLE-TIDE OPTIMIZATION MODEL (STOM)

E= LP(t)N(Q,
t2

H)dt

(A.IO)

is a maximum where E is the revenue for the period,

varying with

Q and H,

and

pet)

247

N is

the power output

is the monetary value per kilowatt hour of

energy varying with time.

Using Eqs.

(A.I)

and

(A.2),

E= LP(t)N [-A(Y)y',
t2

y-h(t)]dt

t,

or

E= L
12

11

where

y'

t(t, y, y')dt

corresponds to the first derivative

dy/dt.

This equation represents a classical problem of finding a function

yet)

in

order to maximize E. Using the calculus of variations, it may be shown that

yet) must be the solution

of Euler's partial differential equation:

at_ atto

ay
with transversality conditions

,at I

In the present case,

(A. 1 1)

dt ay')

ay'

It

( at Il
ay'

(A.12)

_ dA(Y) aN aN
at
=P(t) y'
+
ay'
dy aQ aH

and

at =-p(t)A(y) aN

ay'
Hence,

aQ

aN
d aN
aN dp
p(t)-+p(t)A(y)- - +A(y)--=O
aH
dt aQ
aQ dt
Equation

(A.13)

(A.13)

is the fundamental equation that defines the local conditions

for an optimal relationship between the discharge, basin level, and time during

248

APPENDIX A TIDAL GENERATION OPTIMIZATION MODELS

the generation period. It can be evaluated in finite difference form and solved
numerically in the model.
In addition to this equation, the transversality conditions of Eq.

(A. l2)

provide some guidance on the starting and finishing conditions of a period of

generation. In this case,

If the starting level of the basin is given, then

iJy

0 and the turbines must

commence operation under the condition

or, by introducing the efficiency,

T](Q, H)

dT]
dQ

N(Q, H)
pgQH
=

Hence, turbining must start (or end) with a discharge giving maximum
efficiency. Although this condition does not fully define the starting con
ditions, the number of possible routes through the turbine hill chart is
reduced.
Equation (A13) is solved numerically during the generating period. Condi
tions are defined at the start of the computation by the optimization routine
as

to, Yo, Qo,

and

Ho.

New values are computed at

difference form of Eq. (A13):

P(t0 )

dN Qo+QI H o+HI

dH

'

][

tl

to

using the finite

CN
P(t O)X YO+Yl X CN
(Qb H1 ) dQ (Q0, H0 ) +
A
2
dQ
M
(A.l4)
Equations (Al) and (A2) provide the first estimate of Yl assuming
so that

Ql

Qo,

(A.lS)

SINGLE-TIDE OPTIMIZATION MODEL (STOM)

249

Having obtained a value for YI and H), Eq. (A.14) becomes an equation in
Ql' A solution is found by searching for QI from Q o. Improved values of YI
and HI are then obtained by a second use of Eqs. (A.IS) and (A.16), where
Q o is replaced by (Qo + Ql ) I 2 .
The computation should properly be started using the new estimates of Yl
and H], thereby initiating an iterative process. However, such an approach is
very time consuming and an alternative may be satisfactory. A time step of
2 min could be used and, by computing an initial Yl by Eqs. (A.IS) and (A.16)
and computing Ql from Eq. (A.14), the new value of Ql is used to recompute
Yl from Eqs. (A.IS) and (A.16). At each IO-min interval, closing errors are
balanced and the solution smoothed by recomputing the reservoir level using
the average discharge over the last five steps.
Values of N, aNlaQ, and aNiaH were computed from an equation fitted to
the hill chart. For the Fundy studies, a step length of 2.S m3/s was used in the
search for Ql. The equations may be used with either a positive or negative
time step to compute forward or backward in time.
Equation (A.14) is no longer valid when the solution implies operation
above the generator limiting capacity. In order to limit the turbine output as
the head increases, the turbine must be throttled to follow the line of limit
ing generator output (refer to Fig. 9.Sb). Figure A.I illustrates a typical path,
VWXYZ, followed through the hill chart.
At the intersection of the path VW with the limiting power curve, that is, at
point W, the discharge becomes deterministic with head and the Runge-Kutta
method is used as long as operation continues at generator limiting output.

Max. Power Curve

o
(])
Cl
c
<1l
.c
()
(J)

i:5

= 0 Max. Efficiency Curve

N = No Limiting Power Curve

Q=O

Figure A.1.

Typical operation for variable-pitch blade turbine.

250

APPENDIX A TIDAL GENERATION OPTIMIZATION MODELS

According to Gibrat (1966), the turbines must operate along the limiting
power curve until the following equation is satisfied:

L.,
W

pe t )

(aN )
aH

( a--NQ ) _
a
N
-O
aaQ

d
A( y) - p(t)
dt

p( t ) A ( y )

dt

(A.17)

This integral is computed from point W until it is satisfied, point Y. A finite

difference form of Eq. (A.17), which is similar to Eq. (A.14), is evaluated
numerically in the simulation models. Computation continues using Eqs.
(A.15), (A.16), and (A.14) along the path YZ.

ONE-CYCLE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING MODEL

The one-cycle dynamic programming model (OCDPM) is also based on
Eqs. (A.1), (A.2), and (A.3).
The program logic introduces a function G that is defined as the maximum
benefit that can be obtained by operation of the tidal power plant during a
single tidal cycle when the starting and finishing levels are known. Over a finite
number of cycles, there can be only one choice of basin starting level for each
cycle that produces an overall maximum, provided that the operation is always
optimized during each individual cycle.
The dynamic programming technique is used to select the reservoir level
at the beginning of each generating period. If the period being considered is
divided in steps S1. ... , Si' ... , Sn and the reservoir levels at the beginning of
each step are designated Yh ... , Yi, ... , Ym then there is only one optimal route
producing maximum energy provided, of course, that generation is optimum
during each step, that is, between levels Yi and Yi+l. The maximum benefit
during step Si can be represented by the function Gi(Yi, Yi+l ), with the given
starting and finishing conditions of Yl and Yi+), respectively. For the case where
the value of energy is constant, the maximum benefit is identical to maximum
energy production. The problem reduces to the determination of the optimal
route of levels, Yi, in order to maximize the sum of n partial benefits during n
steps. The best operation during one cycle and between two predetermined
levels, Yi and Y2 (refer Fig. A.2), is established as follows for single-effect,
fixed-blade runners with no pumping:
1. The lowest possible level (at the end of turbining), Yo , from which the
basin can be refilled to level Y2 is computed. Since Yo is a function of Y2
only, it may be computed by solving backward the refilling equations
at maximum capacity. Because of the minimum operating head of tur
bines, the reservoir can only refill to Y2, provided that turbining ends
on the curve ABC of Fig. A.2b.

251

ONE-CYCLE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING MODEL

Y1

CD

Ys = Y1

I@!
I, ,I

W, Waiting

c
0

T, Turbining
R, Refilling

>
Q)

LiJ

Y,

Y1

to

Time

t,

ts

(a)
tS
2

tS
1

Y2

1. Backward Computation
2. Forward Computation

(b)

Levels

'=--------1'-+---------------
Time
Energy
Value

Figure A.2

I I ,
"
I

(c)

Single-effect operation with one-cycle dynamic programming model.

single effect without pumping,

with zero energy value.

(b )

single effect suboptimization, and

(c)

(a )

single effect

2. For a given starting time, t" the reservoir level during turbining is
computed by solving forward the corresponding differential equa
tion. Turbining would end either when Yo is reached (tsl) or when the
minimum operating head is reached (tl2). The energy production and
benefit are simultaneously computed. Note that the benefit is a function
of only one variable, the starting time, t,.

252

APPENDIX A TIDAL GENERATION OPTIMIZATION MODELS

3. The maximum benefit, which is stored as Gi(YI, Y2), is found directly by

varying ts according to a given time step, t, starting from a minimum
time, to; the time step, t, should be reduced in the region of maximum
benefit.
4. If the energy value is zero for a period of time, the turbines are shut
down until it again has a value. The model program must recognize this
situation otherwise energy production could, on occasion, occur at a
time of zero energy value. If the energy value were zero for a complete
cycle, the reservoir level would be maintained to enhance the operation
during the subsequent cycle (Fig. A.2e).
5. The starting levels are optimized by solving the following equation:

(A.18)
for Yl with steps of Y varying between two extreme values. Ri is the
total benefit (energy production) between the present time, i, when
the reservoir is at level Y2, and the end of the time period. Gi-1 is the
benefit obtained by operating the reservoir between levels Yl and Y2
during time interval i 1, and the sum of Gi-1 and Ri is maximized to
select the optimum route between a given level Yl to the appropriate
level Y2 at he beginning of time stage i.
6. The lowest level of Yl is that level to which the reservoir would refill
-

from a level equal to the low tide level of the previous cycle plus

minimum operating head, that is, the lowest possible level at the end
of the previous turbining period.
7. The highest value of Yl is set equal to the lesser of either the greater
of the current and preceding high tide level or a given upper limiting
level. This upper limit assumes that, although it may be desirable not
to generate during one cycle, it would never be optimal to skip two
successive cycles.
8. Level Yl is varied in descending order, and for each such level Y2 is
varied in ascending order. Limits of variation of Y2 are the limits of Yl
for the next cycle.
9. The computation would not necessarily be repeated for each new value
of Y2 because the optimal operation remains the same so long as the
limiting level Yo, associated with a new Y2, is less than the finishing level
at the end of turbining.
10. When the full series of tides has been explored, the results are
reviewed to establish the optimum route through the series from a
given initial level in the first cycle. A single computation of the draw
down or turbining period for each cycle is repeated to provide the
final results, that is, the energy production during each hour of the
series of tides.

ONE-CYCLE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING MODEL

253

Maximum benefit Gi-1(yJ, Yz) can be readily estimated when the opera
tion (turbining, pumping, sluicing ) between levels Yl and Yz remains constant
during the time interval Si' This is true when the step is short. The new version
of the La Rance tidal power plant operation model (Merlin et al., 1980) still
uses a 10-min time step, an interval made necessary by the speed of variation
of the sea level, which can reach 3m/h. In the 1970s, the computer execution
time required when using such a step was very expensive for the type of study
being undertaken in the Fundy reassessment. Therefore, for those studies,
the time step used coincided with one tidal cycle on single-effect generation
models and with one-half cycle on double-effect models. For single-effect
models, in particular, the OCDPM achieved an important reduction in com
putation costs with a negligible loss of accuracy.