Sources of Energy

light, organic, & inorganic molecules

Rate of Energy Acquisition is limited !
Optimal
Foraging Theory
helps explain the
choice and location of
food items

Question
How is life on Earth being fed?

Energy Use & Kingdoms

HeteroHow is energy
trophic
obtained?
Bacteria
Which
captures
the most?
Protists

What is the
key point
here?
What is PAR?
(next)

Plants

Fungi
Animals

PhotoChemosynthetic trophic

What is PAR?
Photosynthetically Active Radiation
Measured by Photon flux, which is the number of
photons striking 1m2/second
Visible light (400-700 nanometers) carries
~45% of solar energy at sea level.

Question
What ecological consequences
(e.g., specific (dis)advantages) do
these biochemical pathways
of photosynthesis have?

C4 plants use lower concentration of CO2:

- can afford to open stomata less than C3 plants
- conserve water
The two pathways involve different number of carbon
atoms in the initial photosynthate (3 vs 4).
CAM plants combine day and night phases with C3
pathway very efficient water use.

Question
Are needs for nitrogen
different between
plants and animals?
If yes, why?

Why does Nitrogen take center stage?

Can you get nitrogen from the air (recall 1M03)?
What is it for?

So, how do we
get it?
Do all organisms
contain the same
amount of
nitrogen?
C:N ratio (concept)

C:N ratio tells us if the biomass is rich in protein

Since animals, bacteria, and fungi have low C:N ratios, they
must obtain much more nitrogen per unit of biomass (or C):

Eating plants or
each other is a
solution
Some plant
material is of low
value

High C:N ratio; low

nutrition value do
not feed children
with wood chips
Low C:N ratio;
high nutrition
value

Question
But what is the plant perspective
regarding the preference
for greens?

Both marine and terrestrial plants are more

defended in the tropics
Why?
More consistent
and diverse
attacks on plants
in the tropics
Result: a suite of
anti-predatory
defenses

Because nutritional values of various prey is similar, it

allows predators to match their diet to what is locally
available
European otter diet changes from north to south;
note the fish are in blue

Portugal
England

Shetlands

In ocean depths, a different chain

of energy acquisition develops

Symbiosis
is quite
common;
nitrogen
fixing,
corals.

Symbiosis

Questions
Does the amount of food
consumed change
depending on how much
is available?
Is this change regular or can it
take different forms?

How much a predator eats

depends on prey density.

mechanical

But it does not depend in the same way ...

Three types of response:

Shapes:
- linear
- gradually saturating
- slow to start

glutton

They tell us how an animal

finds or handles prey
connoisseur

Is based on balancing the energy invested

and energy gained (optimization)
Can be applied to plants; helps predict the best
way of using water and nutrients.

Low prey capture

rate and high
search effort are
bad news

Root length changes in response to Water Availability

Root : Shoot Ratio

a measure of
relative importance
of above and below
ground parts
More nitrogen -> less
roots relative to the
rest of the plant

Root : shoot ratio

Same applies to other

nutrients plants optimize
resource allocation

Questions
Can a simple theoretical index (C:N ratio)
help with management of environmental
problems?

How?
Any suggestions?

Cyanide, CN, removed from gold mine ore

Ore contains
much N (1:1 ratio)
but not much
carbon
Bacteria eating
CN have C:N = 5,
so
Thus adding sugar (C)
to the ore speeds
consumption of CN

Organisms use three sources of energy: light,

organic, and inorganic molecules
Only a fraction of energy contained in the three
sources can effectively be used
Optimum foraging theory helps to understand
how costs and benefits of energy acquisition
affects organisms (reading, skip math)
Knowledge of nutrient requirements aids in new
technologies (sewage, toxic compounds)

Distribution limits
Distribution patterns
Density (abundance)
Rarity and extinction

Images show spacing

of nests & wildebeest
migration aspects of
distribution & density

Climate & Distribution

of Kangaroo Species
M. rufus where
conditions are hot
and dry

M. fuliginosus
where winter
rainfall
dominates

Macropus giganteus where precipitation

varies little from season
to season but rain is not
rare

Distribution and Climate Often Match:

The Case Of A Beetle

What climate would

you expect here?

Unlike some
other species,
its
temperature
preference
is constant

But not bumblebees, camels, or

plants from different habitats

When Related Species (Encelia), Have

Different T and Water Requirements, They
Are Differently Distributed
E. californica confined to a
narrow zone along the
coast; cool and moist in
the north and cool and dry
in the south

E. actoni lives
further inland;
drier and warmer
areas

E. farinosa and
frutescens live in
much hotter areas
inland

How do they manage?

Encelia Species Differ In Light Absorbance

This difference is puzzling as the
occupy the same very hot and dry
area frutescens should overheat

The clue is in
use of
different
microhabitats:

see
next

Temperature Regulation and Microhabitat

Distribution Of Two Species Of Encelia

Distribution Of Two
Barnacles Within The
Intertidal Zone
Balanus
Larvae Adults

Chthamalus
Larvae Adults

WHY?

Balanus larvae
settle throughout
intertidal zone
but survive to
adults only
below mean high
neap tide
Chthamalus
larvae settle in
middle and upper
zones but survive
to adults mainly
in upper zone

The Two Species Of Barnacle Differ In

Ability To Survive Exposure To Air

Chthamalus survives
longer in warm
weather without
wave spray
This explains why it
remains in higher
intertidal zones
but why is it missing
from deeper locations?
The answer is in Chp 13.

Microscale Distribution Can Reveal Species

Interactions

Regular and Random

Distributions Of
Stingless Bee Colonies In
The Tropical Dry Forest

Interactions May Change Over Time, With

Growth Of Individuals (shrubs in the
hypothetical situation below)

Creosote Bush Root Distributions:

Hypothetical vs Actual Root Overlap

Note the scientific

method here:
null model

Abundance Of Three Tree Species On A

Moisture Gradient In Smoky Mountains

Note the
greatest
abundance in
about the
middle of each
species
distributions
(the bell-shape)

Table mountain
pines are most
abundant on drier
upper slope
Red maples
at midslope

Hemlocks on
moist valley
bottom

Proportion of
population

Which Are More Numerous, Mice Or Deer?

Herbivorous
mammals of
North America
Body size and
density show
regularities

Animal Size and Population Density

(All Animals)
Many aquatic
inverts live at
higher population
densities than
other animals

Average
population density
declines with
body size
True for plants, too.

Mammals tend
to maintain
higher densities
than birds.

Why?

Analyze this picture

Note in what ways a species can be rare.
Think of how it threatens species survival.
Use three criteria:
Distribution, Habitat Tolerance, Population Size

Continues

The Rarest & Threatened Species have:

1. Narrow habitat tolerance
2. Restricted geographic range
3. Small local population

Physical environment limits the geographic

distribution of species
At small spatial scale individuals may form
regular (uniform), randomly, or clumped patterns.
Clumped at large scale

Population density decreases with increasing

body size
Rarity is influenced by geographic range, habitat
tolerance, and populations size
all affect species vulnerability to extinction

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