2006, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org). Published in ASHRAE Journal Vol.

48, Dec. 2006. For personal use

only. Additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAEs prior written permission.

HVAC Power Density

An Alternate Path to Efficiency

By Stephen P. Kavanaugh, Ph.D., Fellow ASHRAE; Steven Lambert, P.E.; and Nickless Devin, Student Member ASHRAE

o improve building energy efficiency, the development and building type listed in Standard 90.1 for
use of HVAC power density (HvacPD) allowances could be a

powerful tool for improving building efficiency. In a format similar

to the lighting power density (LPD) values that appear in ANSI/
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, HvacPDs would be set
in terms of electrical power input per unit area (We/ft2 [We/m2])
for the entire HVAC system.
The HvacPD development process
begins by computing the required specific design cooling and heating loads
for energy-efficient buildings (Btu/hft2
[Wt/m2]). These values are divided by the
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ASHRAE Journal

system energy-efficiency ratio (EER

Btu/Wh or COP Wt/We) for cooling
and the thermal efficiency (ht) for heating
to arrive at HvacPD values. HvacPDs can
be developed for each climate zone and
ashrae.org

LPDs. Each building type will have efficiency targets that are easily identified,
consider the impact of all HVAC system
components, and offer an alternative to
building energy simulations. However,
this concept and the values resulting from
the procedures described in this article
are not proposed as a replacement for the
building envelope and HVAC sections of
Standard 90.1.
Modern HVAC systems may contain
a multitude of subsystems that impact
About the Authors
Stephen P. Kavanaugh, Ph.D., is a professor
of mechanical engineering at the University of
Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Ala. Steven Lambert,
P.E., is a graduate research assistant, and Nickless
Devin is an undergraduate research assistant at the
University of Alabama.

December 2006

In a format similar to the lighting power density (LPD)

values that appear in ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings, HvacPDs would be set in terms of
electrical power input per unit area (We/ft2 [We/m2]) for
the entire HVAC system.
building energy use and demand. Standard 90.1 provides
minimum eff iciency prescriptions on a component-bycomponent basis and contains no parallel to the LPD allowances
that also appear in the standard.
Limits of LPD in allowable input power per unit area (We/ft2
[We/m2]) are listed for 32 building types. Designers can choose
to comply with the value for the entire building or use a spaceby-space method. Higher LPD levels are permitted for spaces
that require higher illumination levels. Designers can minimize
LPD in these spaces with more efficient luminaries or higher
illumination in critical areas only (task ambient lighting). While
LPD allowances focus on demand reduction, the standard also
mandates lighting control strategies to ensure energy consumption also is minimized. The entire lighting section of the standard
consists of only three pages of text and four tables compared to
10 pages of text and 20 tables for the HVAC equipment section
and five pages of text and more than 25 tables for the building
envelope section.
HvacPD allowances must be based on building type because
envelope requirements, internal loads, and ventilation requirements vary widely. The development of HvacPD allowances is
further complicated by climate variations and need for both heating and cooling values. However, these complications merely
increase the number of tables required. Once the building type
and climate type are identified, HvacPD allowances can be applied either as a preliminary to more complex building energy
simulation or as an alternative efficiency indicator if building
design budgets do not support detailed simulations used with
the Standard 90.1 energy cost budget method.
The parallels of HvacPD to LPD guidelines are evident. Just
as some building types inherently require high illumination
levels, some buildings require much higher cooling and heating
December 2006

capacity (tons, MBtu/h or kWt) due to ventilation requirements,

internal loads, high occupant densities, and severe climates.
Values for approximate thermal cooling (qc) or heating (qh)
load per unit area (Btu/hft2 [Wt/m2]) or the inverse, area per
unit thermal capacity (ft2/ton [m2/kWt]), have been used as
indicators for the building requirements.1,2 Just as buildings
with stringent LPD requirements can be equipped with high
efficiency lighting systems, buildings with high thermal loads
can be fitted with high efficiency HVAC systems. Useful figures
of merit for cooling equipment performance in this application
are system electrical power (kWe) requirement per unit capacity (kWe/ton [kWe/kWt]), energy efficiency ratio (EER
Btu/Wh), or coefficient of performance (COP kWt/kWe).
The electrical demand requirement (kWe) includes input for all
HVAC system components (chillers, compressors, distribution
fans, pumps, ventilation fans, etc.). Heating allowances are more
typically expressed in capacity per unit floor area (Btu/hft2
[Wt/m2]).
The building cooling mode thermal requirements are combined with the HVAC system efficiency indicators to arrive at
the cooling power density (CPD) at design conditions.

CPD (We/ft2) = qc/A(Btu/hft2)EER(Btu/Wh)

(1)

Heating input densities (HID) would be the heating requirement (qh) per unit area (Btu/hft2 or Wt/m2) divided by thermal
efficiency (ht) values for fossil fuel equipment.

HID (Btu/hft2, Wt/m2) = qh/Aht

(2)

HvacPD Benefits and Limitations

Power density allowances encompass the entire system that

includes the quality of the building envelope, the efficiency
of HVAC equipment, and the attention to load minimization
ASHRAE Journal

41

Component

Base Efficiency

High Efficiency

Premier Efficiency

Envelope (Walls, Roof,

Std. 90.1-2004 Compliant
Windows, Floors)

U-factors/SHGC/C-factors
25% lower than Std. 90.1-2004

U-factors/SHGC/C-factors
50% lower than Std. 90.1-2004

Lighting

LPDs Comply
With Std. 90.1-2001

LPDs Comply
With Std. 90.1-2004

LPDs 20% Lower

Than Std. 90.1-2004

Internal Loads

Medium for Building Type

(i.e., 1.0 We/ft2 [11 We/m2]
For Office)

Low for Building Type

(i.e., 0.75 We/ft2 [8 We/m2]
For Office)

Very Low for Type

(i.e., 0.5 We/ft2 [5.4 We/m2]
For Office)

Ventilation Air

Std. 62.1-2004 Compliant

90% Vent. Efficiency
(EV = 0.9)

Std. 62.1-2004 Compliant

With 70% HRU,
90% Vent. Efficiency

Std. 62.1-2004 Compliant

With 70% HRU,
And 100% Vent. Efficiency

50% Thicker Insulation Than

Std. 90.1-2004

No LossesAll Duct
In Conditioned Space

Ductwork
Std 90.1-2004 Compliant

Building Mass

Medium Mass for Building Type (i.e., Office: Heavy Weight Walls [HW Block, Rigid Insulation,
Brick Veneer] and Lightweight [Metal] Roof)

Table 1: Characteristics of buildings used to determine cooling and heating requirements.

Central U.S.Zone 4
(St. Louis Weather Data)

Occupant Density
People/1,000 ft2
< People/100 m2

Building Type

Premier Efficiency

Cool

Heat

Cool

Heat

Cool

Heat

25 (80)

22 (70)

20 (65)

17 (55)

17 (55)

15 (50)

Office, High Density

12

30 (95)

24 (75)

25 (80)

22 (70)

20 (65)

18 (60)

School Classroom

30

40 (125)

35 (110)

35 (110)

30 (95)

32 (100)

25 (80)

Computer Room

30

50 (160)

35 (110)

40 (125)

30 (95)

37 (115)

26 (82)

Cafeteria/Kitchen

70

80 (250)

60 (190)

75 (235)

50 (160)

70 (220)

45 (140)

Motel

10

30 (95)

22 (70)

25 (80)

18 (55)

20 (65)

16 (50)

22 (70)

32 (100)

15 (50)

25 (80)

10 (32)

18 (60)

Retail, Medium Density

15

32 (100)

28 (90)

28 (90)

25 (80)

24 (75)

21 (65)

Retail, High Density

25

40 (125)

35 (110)

36 (115)

30 (95)

32 (100)

26 (82)

Office, Medium Density

Multifamily Housing

Building Loads, (Btu/hft2[Wt/m2])

Base Efficiency
High Efficiency

Table 2: Building cooling and heating allowances using Table 1 building characteristics.

(ventilation efficiency, internal equipment, and lighting). To

meet the system targets, trade-offs for less than optimum
practices must be made up with better than minimum enhancements in other components, so that detailed computations
are not required. Additional computation beyond current
design practice consists primarily of summing the demand
of the HVAC system components (compressors, fans and
pumps). The concept of HvacPD provides the following
benefits.
Building envelope quality must be high to minimize required equipment capacity.
Internal loads must be optimized to lower required equipment capacity.
HVAC system efficiency is used rather than multiple component efficiencies.
The impact of all auxiliary equipment, a significant factor,
is included.
Oversizing (to ensure comfort if poor installation quality compromises performance) is minimized since larger
44

ASHRAE Journal

equipment increases power input (We/ft2 [We/m2]).

If oversizing is minimized, proper system installation and
operation is necessary to provide adequate comfort.
As-built conditions are used rather than predesign simulation assumptions.
The time and cost to compute the building HVAC power
density are less than the time and cost to conduct hour-byhour building energy simulations.
Limitations of the HvacPD concept include the following.
The allowances are based on peak load demand. Provisions
for part-load operation and scheduling for unoccupied
periods similar to the lighting control provisions given in
Standard 90.1 (Section 9.4.1) must be included to ensure
energy efficiency reductions are more fully realized.
Multiple tables are required since values are climate dependent and building types are many.
In the heating mode, electric equipment input (heat
pumps, auxiliary equipment, resistance boilers or furnaces) must be converted to equivalence with either an

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December 2006

System 1

kWe

Ton

kWt

System 2

kWe Ton

kWt

System 3

kWe

Ton

Water Cooled
0.5 1.0 3.5
Centrifugal Chiller

Scroll
Compressor

0.62

2 Supply Fan 4 in.

0.30 0.09 0.3
w.c. (1.0 kPa) TP1

Supply Fan 4 in.

0.30 0.09 0.3
w.c. (1 kPa) TP1

Supply Fan 1 in.

w.c. (249 Pa) TP1

0.10 0.03 0.1

3 Return Fan 2 in.

w.c. (0.5 kPa) TP2

No Return Fan

No Return Fan

4 No CW Pump

CW Pump 50 ft
0.04
(15 m) Head3

CW Pump 30 ft
(9 m) Head3

5 CHW Pump 100

0.07 0.02 0.06
ft (30 m) Head4

CHW Pump 70 ft
0.05 0.01 0.05 No CHW
(21 m) Head4
Pump

0.15 0.03

0.11

6 Condenser Fan

0.07

Cooling Tower Fan

7 FPVAV Fan1

0.16 0.05

No FPVAV

0.16

2.9

0.07

1.0

kWt

1 Air Cooled
1.1
1.0
3.5
Screw Chiller

3.5

0.07

No Fan
No FPVAV

Net Demand/Capacity 1.85

0.81

0.96 0.90 3.2

0.79

System kW/ton

2.27

1.07

System EER (Btu/Wh)

5.3

11.3

System COP (Wt/We)

1.55

3.29

0.97

3.4

0.81
14.7
4.23

1. Supply fan airflow = 400 cfm/ton (54 L/s/kWt); 2. Recirculated airflow = 320 cfm/ton (43 L/s/kWt); 3. Condenser water (CW) flow = 3 gpm/ton (3.2 L/s/
kWt) and entering water temperature =85F (29C); 4. Chilled water (CHW) flow = 2.4 gpm/ton (2.6 L/s/kWt) and leaving liquid temperature = 44F (7C).

Table 3: Summary computation of HVAC system efficiency with auxiliary equipment demand and heating deductions included.

electrical system conversion efficiency (i.e., generation,

transmission) or energy prices (electrical vs. fossil
fuel costs).
Building Cooling and Heating Requirements

ing efficiency levels are given for Climate Zone 4, which is

the middle region of the continental United States. Occupant
densities in commercial applications are consistent with values used in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004, Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, to compute default minimum breathing zone ventilation rates. Two sets of values are
provided for two of the building types (office and retail) to
represent average and high occupant densities.

Tables for building cooling and heating requirements for

the primary climate zones can be developed by conducting
heat gain and heat loss calculations for buildings with energyefficient envelopes, lighting,
HVAC System
EER
COP Specific Demand Heating
equipment, and ventilation
HVAC System Efficiency
Efficiency Level (Btu/Wh)
(We/Net Ton)
AFUE
practices.
Table 3 provides a sumBase
10
2.9
1.2
80%
Occupant densities (and,
mary of three examples that
therefore, ventilation rates)
demonstrate options for deHigh Efficiency
11.5
3.4
1.04
90%
have dramatic impact on
termining equipment system
Premier Efficency
13
3.9
0.9
95%
results and values used are
efficiency (or the inverse systypical for each building Table 4: Suggested HVAC system cooling and heating efficiencies.
tem demand per unit capactype. Results are expressed
ity). System 1 is an air-cooled
in three levels to reflect a range of building energy efficiency chiller with variable air volume (VAV) system that includes
that is possible using technology commercially available in supply, return and series terminal fans. System 2 is a waterthe HVAC industry. The base efficiency level results when a cooled centrifugal chiller with only supply fans. System 3 is
building is compliant with practices prescribed by Standard a ground-coupled heat pump system with unitary equipment
90.1. Two levels of improvement (high efficiency and premier and low head individual loop pumps.
efficiency) are provided above the base level when more strinThe table subdivides the HVAC system components into
gent building practices are followed. Table 1 provides a listing seven categories. The first category is the demand (kW) of
of the specifications for the primary building components that the primary chilling device per ton (3.51 kW) of capacity. The
influence required cooling and heating loads.
auxiliary equipment demand (fans and pumps) is included
Table 2 presents values for thermal cooling and heating along with the cooling capacity deduction (heat penalty) of
loads per unit area (Btu/hft2 [Wt/m2]) for several different those components in the cooling loop (supply fans, the recirbuilding types. Results were generated by conducting a series culated air fraction of the return fans, chilled water pump,
of heating and cooling load calculations3 for buildings with and terminal fans). The heat penalty is also done on a per
the characteristics listed in Table 1. Values for all three build- ton basis but is noted as a negative value in the computation.
December 2006

ASHRAE Journal

45

Central U.S.Zone 4
(St. Louis Weather Data)

Occupant Density
People/1,000 ft2
< People/100 m2

Building Type
Office, Medium Density

Cooling Power Density, We/ft2 (We/m2) and

Heat Input Density, Btu/hft2 (Wt/m2)
Base Efficiency
High Efficiency
Premier Efficiency

CPD

HID

CPD

HID

CPD

HID

2.5 (27)

28 (87)

1.7 (18)

19 (60)

1.3 (14)

16 (50)

Office, High Density

12

3.0 (32)

30 (95)

2.2 (24)

24 (77)

1.5 (16)

19 (60)

School Classroom

30

4.0 (43)

44 (138)

3.0 (32)

33 (105)

2.5 (27)

26 (83)

Computer Room

30

5.0 (54)

44 (138)

3.5 (38)

33 (105)

2.8 (30)

27 (86)

Cafeteria/Kitchen

70

8.0 (86)

75 (236)

6.5 (70)

56 (175)

5.4 (58)

47 (149)

Motel

10

3.0 (32)

28 (87)

2.2 (24)

20 (63)

1.5 (16)

17 (53)

Multifamily Housing

2.2 (24)

40 (126)

1.3 (14)

28 (88)

0.8 (9)

19 (60)

Retail, Medium Density

15

3.2 (34)

35 (110)

2.4 (26)

28 (88)

1.8 (19)

22 (70)

Retail, High Density

25

4.0 (43)

44 (138)

3.1 (33)

33 (105)

2.5 (27)

27 (86)

Table 5: Resulting cooling power density and heating input density allowances. (Building cooling and heating allowances [Table 2]
HVAC system efficiencies [Table 4].)

Note that not all systems contain equipment in all seven categories. The electrical input to fans on a per ton (kWe/ton)
basis can be computed with Equation 3 using the airflow rate
(Qa), total pressure (TP), fan efficiency (hfan), and fan motor
efficiency (hmotor). As demonstrated in Equation 4, the water
flow (Qw) and pump efficiency (hpump) are used to find the
pump power input.4

kWe
kW =
t

0.284

kWe
ton

(3)

kWe
kW Qw(gpm/ton)Dh(ft of water)
= 0.746

;
ton
hp
3,960hpump hmotor

kWe
kWe
= 0.284
kWt
ton


(4)
The heat penalty for fans (qFan penalty) with the motors inside
the air-handling unit is found using Equation 5.

qFan penalty (tons) = 0.284 kWe; [qFan penalty (kWt) = 1.0 kWe]
(5)
Equation 5 also can be used for the return fans heat penalty
by multiplying the equation by the recirculated air fraction
[(QSupplyQExhaust)/QSupply] to recognize that some of the
return fan heat is exhausted. The heat penalty for the chilled
water pump also can be computed with Equation 5, but the
motor heat is not typically included. This can be corrected by
multiplying Equation 5 by the pump motor efficiency (hmotor).
No heat penalty exists for condenser pumps or fans.
For each of the three systems shown in Table 3, the summarized value of demand in the kW column is divided by the
summarized value of net capacity (ton = 3.51 kW) to arrive at
the system demand per unit of net cooling capacity (kW/ton).
December 2006

12,000 Btu/tonhour
12
EER = (Btu/Wh) =
=
kW
1000 W
kW

ton
kW
ton (6)

kWe
kW
Q (cfm/ton)TP(in. w.c.)
= 0.746
a
;
ton
hp
6,350hfan hmotor

This is converted to system efficiency and COP by inverting

this value and applying the appropriate conversion factors as
shown in Equations 6 and 7.

COP (kWt/kWe) =

EER (Btu/Wh)

3.412 Btu/Wh

(7)

Table 3 is a departure from the traditional componentby-component method of expressing HVAC equipment
performance. Systems with low efficiencies that are possible
using the traditional approach (System 1, Table 3) can be
identified and avoided. Although the net efficiency is low
(EER = 5.3, COP = 1.55), this system complies with Standard
90.1-2004.
Table 4 provides suggested metrics for HVAC system performance for base efficiency, high efficiency, and premier
efficiency that are compatible with current state-of-the-art technology as demonstrated by the examples in Table 3. The base
efficiency level is set slightly above the minimum EER of 9.7
Btu/Wh listed in Standard 90.1-2004 for room air conditioners
(Table 6.8.1d). The room air conditioner value is a system EER
since the reported capacity includes the heat penalty deduction and power input is for the compressor, condenser fan and
indoor fan. The medium and premier levels were set based on
system computations using the procedures demonstrated in the
development of Table 3.
Central systems with very efficient chillers will have difficulty
attaining high efficiency designation. So, the values were not
set outside the limits of conventional state-of-the-art systems.
Heating efficiencies are set slightly above the minimum annual
fuel utilization efficiency (78%) for the base efficiency. Medium
and premier values are near the minimum and maximum values
for condensing fossil fuel furnaces.5
ASHRAE Journal

47

HVAC Power Density

The desired result of this HVAC system efficiency computation is the generation of a set of power density allowances similar to Table 5. The building cooling and heating
load values in Table 2 are divided by the HVAC system
efficiencies from Table 4 to generate a set of tables for various building types. Table 5 demonstrates the results for nine
building types and subtypes for Standard 90.1 Climate Zone
4. Three levels of efficiency are generated by applying the
corresponding values from Tables 2 and 4. For example, the
premier levels of power densities are generated using the
premier building load values and the premier HVAC system
efficiency. These tables can be expanded to include all the 32
building types in all eight climate zones identified in Standard
90.1-2004.
Summary

Identifying the impact of energy-efficient building envelopes, internal equipment, lighting and HVAC systems is
difficult given the complexity of modern installations. The
recommended practice of conducting a building energy simulation may not be an affordable option for many projects. The
use of HVAC system power density guidelines is an alternative

that does not require much beyond the level of effort required
for conventional design. It also directly identifies the impact of
all system components upon the net efficiency of the building
HVAC system. The concept is not proposed as a replacement
for Standard 90.1, which is frequently used for code compliance. HVAC power densities are intended to provide a set of
indicators to identify good, better, best building efficiency
levels for a variety of building types and climates.
Acknowledgments

This work discussed in this paper is supported by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, OAR/OAP/Climate Protection Partnerships Division.
References
1. 2005 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals, Chapter 17, Energy
Resources.
2. Means, R. S. 2004. Mechanical Cost Data. Kingston, Mass.:
Reed Construction Data.
3. Kavanaugh, S.P. 2006. HVAC Simplified. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
4. Kavanaugh, S.P. 2003. Estimating demand and efficiency.
ASHRAE Journal 45(7):3640.
5. 2004 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment,
Chapter 28, Furnaces.

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