Mythological Places

Mythological places
Contents
1
Aaru
1.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aeaea
2.1
Other hypothetical locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Aeaea in literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Akilineq
3.1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lfheimr
4.1
In Old Norse texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aornum
5.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
World mountain
6.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2
Human gure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
6.1.3
Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
ii
CONTENTS
6.1.4
Shamanic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Traditional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
6.2.1
Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
6.2.2
Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
6.2.3
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
6.2.4
Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
6.2.5
The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
6.2.6
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
6.3
Modern expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
6.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
6.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
6.2
Baralku
16
7.1
16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barnumbirr
17
8.1
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
8.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Brahmavarta
18
9.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
9.2
References
18
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Cantre'r Gwaelod
20
10.1 The myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
10.1.1 Relationship to myth of Llys Helig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
10.2 Physical evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
10.2.1 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
10.3 Origins of the myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
10.3.1 Analogies in other legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
10.4 Cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
10.4.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
10.4.2 Music and art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
10.4.3 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
11 Celestial ocean
11.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
25
CONTENTS
iii
12 Celtic Otherworld
26
12.1 Irish mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
12.2 Welsh mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
12.3 Continental Celtic mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
13 Chinvat Bridge
29
13.1 In scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
13.2 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
13.3 In visual culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
14 Chryse and Argyre
31
14.1 References
32
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Cockaigne
33
15.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
15.2 Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
15.3 Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
15.4 Legacy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
15.5 Appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
15.5.1 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
15.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
16 Enchanted forest
36
16.1 Folktales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
16.2 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
16.3 Medieval romance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
16.4 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
16.5 Known inhabitants and traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
16.6 Modern fantasy and other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
16.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
16.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
17 Fairyland
42
iv
CONTENTS
17.1 Folklore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
17.2 In English and Scots texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
17.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
18 Grove of fetters
44
18.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
18.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
19 Hyperborea
46
19.1 Early sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
19.1.1 Herodotus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
19.1.2 Location of Hyperborea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
19.1.3 Later classical sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
19.1.4 Ancient identication with Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
19.2 Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
19.2.1 Physical appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
19.2.2 From east to west: Celts as Hyperboreans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
19.2.3 Abaris the Hyperborean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
19.3 Modern interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
19.4 Identication as Hyperboreans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
19.5 Hyperborean Indo-European hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
19.6 Hyperborea in modern esoteric thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
19.7 Cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
19.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
19.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
19.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
20 Kingdom of Opona
53
20.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
20.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
20.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
21 Lands Beyond
54
21.1 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
21.2 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
21.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
22 Leibethra
56
CONTENTS
22.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
22.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
22.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
23 Lemuria (continent)
58
23.1 Scientic origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
23.1.1 Superseded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
23.2 Kumari Kandam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
23.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
23.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
23.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
23.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
24 List of mythological places
61
24.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 Mashu
61
62
25.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Mu (lost continent)
62
63
26.1 History of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
26.1.1 Augustus Le Plongeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
26.1.2 James Churchward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
26.1.3 Modern claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
26.2 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
26.2.1 Geological arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
26.2.2 Archaeological and genetic evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
26.2.3 Troano Codex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
26.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
26.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
26.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
26.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
27 Muang Then
68
27.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 Mythical continents
68
69
28.1 Mythical Continents
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.1.1 Ancient Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.1.2 Mayan
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
CONTENTS
28.1.3 Sanskrit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.1.4 Medieval European . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.1.5 Modern Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
28.3 References
70
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Paristan
71
29.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 Pimpleia
71
72
30.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
30.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
31 Sacred grove
73
31.1 In history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
31.1.1 Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
31.1.2 Religions of ancient Greece and Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
31.1.3 Baltic polytheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
31.1.4 Germanic paganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
31.1.5 Celtic polytheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
31.2 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
31.2.1 Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
31.2.2 Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
31.2.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
31.2.4 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
31.2.5 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
31.2.6 Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
31.2.7 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
31.2.8 Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
31.2.9 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
31.3 Sacred woods, groves and trees in ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
31.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
31.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
31.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
31.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
31.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
32 Samseonghyeol
81
32.1 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
32.2 Legend
81
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
32.3 References
vii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
32.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
33 Thuvaraiyam Pathi
33.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34 Uhlanga
82
82
83
34.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 Underworld
83
84
35.1 Underworlds by mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
35.2 Underworld gures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
35.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
35.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
36 Lake Uniamsi
86
36.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
36.2 Early European contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
36.3 Erhardt's map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
36.4 Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
36.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
37 Venusberg (mythology)
37.1 References
93
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
37.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
38 Zazamanc
38.1 References
94
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39 Heaven in Christianity
94
95
39.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
39.2 Early Christian writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
39.3 Orthodox Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
39.3.1 Eastern Orthodox cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
39.4 Roman Catholicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
39.5 Protestant Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
39.6 Seventh-day Adventist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
39.7 Jehovah's Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
39.8 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
39.9 Swedenborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
39.10Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
viii
CONTENTS
39.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
39.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
40 Deva (Jainism)
102
40.1 Classes of Heavenly beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

40.2 Abode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
40.3 Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
40.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
40.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
40.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
41 Entering Heaven alive
104
41.1 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

41.1.1 Catholicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
41.1.2 Eastern Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
41.1.3 Simon Magus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
41.2 Hellenistic religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
41.3 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.3.1 Sant Tukaram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.3.2 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.3.3 Swami Ramalinga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.3.4 Mirra Alfassa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.4 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.5 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
41.6 Zoroastrianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
41.7 Ascended Master Teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
41.8 Fictional portrayals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
41.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
41.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
42 Fiddler's Green
109
42.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

42.2 Song lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
42.3 U.S. military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
42.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
42.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
43 Heaven
43.1 Etymology
112
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
43.2 Ancient Near East religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
CONTENTS
ix
43.2.1 Assyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

43.2.2 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
43.2.3 Canaanite and Phoenician views of Heaven
43.2.4 Hurrian and Hittite myths
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
43.2.5 Judaism (Iron Age) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

43.3 Bah' Faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
43.4 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
43.4.1 Dierent Heavens
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
43.5 Chinese faiths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

43.6 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
43.7 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
43.7.1 Brahma kumaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
43.8 Islam
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
43.8.1 Ahmadiyya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

43.9 Jainism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
43.10Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
43.10.1 Rabbinical Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
43.10.2 Kabbalah Jewish mysticism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
43.11Mesoamerican religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

43.12Polynesia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
43.12.1 Mori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

43.12.2 Paumotu, Tuamotus
43.13Theosophy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
43.14Criticism of the belief in heaven
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
43.15Neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
43.16Postmodern views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
43.17Representations in arts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
43.17.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

43.17.2 Film
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
43.17.3 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

43.17.4 Documentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
43.18See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
43.19References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
43.20Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

43.21External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
44 Heaven and Hell (Swedenborg)
124
44.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

44.2 Some basic teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
CONTENTS
44.2.1 God is One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
44.2.2 Angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
44.2.3 Men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
44.2.4 The Christian marriage ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
44.2.5 Polygamy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
44.2.6 Time and space in the spiritual world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
44.2.7 World of Spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
44.2.8 Equilibrium and spiritual free will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
44.3 Inuence on Joseph Smith and Mormon theology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
44.4 Print versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

44.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
44.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
45 Heaven in Judaism
129
45.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

45.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
45.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
45.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
45.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
45.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
46 Heavenly host
131
46.1 Biblical accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

46.1.1 Book of Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
46.2 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
46.2.1 Cherubim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
46.2.2 Archangels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
46.2.3 Angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
46.3 Angelic combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
46.4 In the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
46.5 Bah' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
46.6 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
46.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
46.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
47 Hyperuranion
134
47.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

48 Jade Emperor
135
48.1 Chinese mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
CONTENTS
xi
48.1.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

48.1.2 Vanquishing evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
48.1.3 Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
48.1.4 In The Journey to the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
48.1.5 The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
48.1.6 The zodiac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
48.1.7 His predecessor and successor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
48.2 Worship and festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
48.3 Toponyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
48.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
48.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
48.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
49 Third Heaven
139
49.1 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

49.1.1 Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
49.2 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
49.2.1 New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.2.2 New Testament apocrypha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.2.3 Latter Day Saint movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.3 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
49.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
50 Throne of God
142
50.1 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

50.1.1 Micaiah's throneroom vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
50.1.2 Zechariah's throneroom vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
50.1.3 Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
50.2 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
50.2.1 Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
50.3 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
50.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
50.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
50.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
51 Tian
145
51.1 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
xii
CONTENTS
51.2 Interpretation by Western Sinologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
51.3 Chinese interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
51.3.1 Confucius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
51.3.2 Mozi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
51.3.3 Schools of cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
51.3.4 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
51.3.5 Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
51.3.6 I-Kuan Tao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
51.4 Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
51.5 Pronunciations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
51.6 Etymologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
51.7 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
51.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
51.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
51.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
51.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
52 War in Heaven
151
52.1 Revelation 12:713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

52.2 Motif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
52.2.1 Hebrew Bible parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
52.2.2 Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
52.3 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
52.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
52.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
52.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
53 Aegilips
156
54 Antillia
157
54.1 Legend
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
54.2 Etymology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
54.3 Cartographic representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

54.4 Medieval beliefs and the Age of Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
54.5 Later inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
54.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
54.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
54.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
55 Argadnel
166
CONTENTS
xiii
55.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

56 Avalon
167
56.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

56.2 In Arthurian legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
56.3 Connection to Glastonbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
56.3.1 Other locations for Avalon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
56.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
56.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
57 Brasil (mythical island)
172
57.1 Etymology of the name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

57.2 Appearance on maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
57.3 Searches for the island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
57.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
57.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
57.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
57.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
58 Brittia
175
58.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

58.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
58.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
59 Buyan
177
59.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

59.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
60 Island of California
60.1 History
178
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
60.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

60.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
60.4 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
61 Chryse (island)
181
61.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

62 Elaea (island)
182
62.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

63 Emain Ablach
183
xiv
CONTENTS
63.1 Etymology
63.2 Inuence
63.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
63.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

64 Fortunate Isles
184
64.1 Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

64.2 Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
64.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
64.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
65 Hawaiki
186
65.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

65.2 Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
65.3 Modern science and practical testing of theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
65.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
65.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
65.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
65.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

66 Hufaidh
189
66.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

66.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
67 Isle of the Dead (mythology)
190
68 Kibu
191
68.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

68.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
69 Krocylea
192
69.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

70 Lanka
193
70.1 Rulers of Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

70.2 Lanka, Sri Lanka, and possible locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
70.3 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
70.4 References to Lanka in the Mahabharata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
70.4.1 Sahadeva's expedition to South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
70.4.2 Presence of the King of Lanka in Yudhishthira's Rajasuya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
70.4.3 Other fragmentary references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
CONTENTS
xv
70.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

70.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
70.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
71 Mag Mell
196
71.1 In popular media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

71.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
71.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
72 Neritum
198
72.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

73 Ogygia
199
73.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

73.2 Geographical account by Strabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
73.3 Geographical account by Plutarch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
73.4 Primeval Ogygia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
73.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
73.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
74 Onogoro Island
202
74.1 Mythological account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

74.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
74.3 Real-world placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
74.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
74.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
75 Panchaea
203
75.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

76 Mount Penglai
204
76.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

76.2 In Chinese mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
76.3 In Japanese mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
76.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
76.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
77 Planctae
206
77.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

78 Royllo
207
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78.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
79 Saint Brendan's Island
208
79.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

79.1.1 Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
79.1.2 Early Modern Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
79.1.3 Modern Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
79.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
79.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
80 Same (ancient Greece)
210
80.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

80.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
81 Satanazes
212
81.1 Cartographic depiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

81.2 Etymology and legend
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
81.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

81.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
82 Scheria
216
82.1 From Ogygia to Scheria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

82.2 Odysseus meets Nausicaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
82.3 The palace of King Alcinous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
82.4 The Phaeacian ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
82.5 Geographical location of Scheria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
82.5.1 Geographical account by Strabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
82.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
82.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
83 Las sergas de Esplandin
219
83.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

83.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
84 Symplegades
220
84.1 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

84.2 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
84.3 The Wandering Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
84.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
84.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
84.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
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85 Thule
222
85.1 Ancient geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

85.2 Ancient literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
85.3 Inhabitants of Thule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
85.4 Middle Ages to nineteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
85.5 Modern use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
85.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
85.6.1 Fictional characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
85.6.2 Fictional places and civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
85.6.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
85.6.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
85.7 Nazi AryanThule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
85.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
85.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
85.10Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
85.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
86 Tr na ng
229
86.1 Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

86.2 Similar tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
86.3 Related concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
86.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
86.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
86.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
86.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
87 World mountain
231
87.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

87.1.1 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
87.1.2 Human gure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
87.1.3 Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
87.1.4 Shamanic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
87.2 Traditional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
87.2.1 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
87.2.2 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
87.2.3 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
87.2.4 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
87.2.5 The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
87.2.6 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
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87.3 Modern expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

87.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
87.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
88 Mount Ararat
239
88.1 Political borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

88.2 Names and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
88.3 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
88.3.1 Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
88.3.2 Summit Ice Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
88.4 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
88.4.1 Geological history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
88.4.2 Recent volcanic and seismic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
88.5 Ascents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
88.5.1 First ascent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
88.5.2 Later notable ascents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
88.6 Resting place of Noah's Ark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
88.6.1 Origins of the tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
88.6.2 Prevalence of the legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
88.6.3 Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
88.7 Signicance among Armenians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
88.7.1 Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
88.7.2 Myth of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
88.7.3 Symbol of genocide and Western Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
88.7.4 Coat of arms of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
88.7.5 Territorial claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
88.8 Cultural depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
88.8.1 In visual art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
88.8.2 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
88.8.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
88.9 Places named for Ararat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
88.10Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
88.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
88.11.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
88.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
88.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
88.12.1 General works cited in the article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
88.12.2 Specic works on Ararat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
88.12.3 Books on Armenia with Ararat in their titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
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88.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

89 Debate between sheep and grain
260
89.1 Disputations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

89.2 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
89.3 Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
89.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
89.5 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
89.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
89.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
89.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
89.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
90 Debate between Winter and Summer
263
90.1 Disputations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

90.2 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
90.3 Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
90.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
90.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
90.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
90.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
90.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
91 Ekur
267
91.1 Origin and meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

91.2 The Ekur complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
91.3 The Ekur Archive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
91.4 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
91.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
91.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
92 Enamtila
271
92.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

92.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
93 Enlil and Ninlil
272
93.1 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

93.2 Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
93.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
93.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
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93.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
93.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
93.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
94 Feather Mountain
276
94.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

94.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
95 Hymn to Enlil
277
95.1 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

95.2 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
95.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
95.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
95.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
95.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
95.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
96 Jade Mountain (mythology)
281
96.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

96.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
97 Kesh temple hymn
282
97.1 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

97.2 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
97.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
97.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
97.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
97.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
97.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
98 Ehursag
287
98.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

98.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
99 Hursag
288
99.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

99.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
100Kiboreia
289
100.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
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101Mount Killaraus
290
101.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
102Kunlun Mountain (mythology)
291
102.1Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

102.2Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
102.3Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
102.4Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
102.4.1 Association with divinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
102.4.2 Creatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
102.4.3 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
102.4.4 Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.5Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.5.1 Marriage of Nwa and Fuxi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.5.2 Mu, Son of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.6Literary allusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.6.1 Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.6.2 Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.6.3 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.7Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
102.9Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
102.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
103Lament for Ur
296
103.1Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
103.2Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
103.3Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
103.4Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
103.5Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
103.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
103.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
103.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
104List of mythical Chinese mountains
301
105Mount Meru
302
105.1Geographical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
105.2Hindu legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
105.3Buddhist legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
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105.4Jain legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

105.5Javanese legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
105.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
105.7Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
105.8Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
105.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
106Mount Buzhou
306
106.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

107Mount Meru (Buddhism)
307
107.1Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
107.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
107.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
108Mount Nisir
309
108.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
109Mount Potalaka
109.1Origins
310
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
109.2Local traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

109.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
110Mount Qaf
312
110.1Iranian tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

110.2Arab tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
110.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
110.4Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
110.5References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
111Niafjll
314
111.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
111.2Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
111.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
112Old Babylonian oracle
315
112.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

112.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
112.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
113Mount Olympus
316
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113.1Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
113.2Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
113.3Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
113.4Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
113.5History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
113.6Climbing expeditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
113.7Ancient and medieval sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
113.8Christian monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
113.9Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
113.10Flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
113.10.1Flora zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
113.10.2Olympus' endemic plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
113.11Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
113.12National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
113.12.1Olympus' National Park's regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
113.13Access to the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
113.14Refuges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
113.14.1Emergency refuges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
113.15Coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
113.16See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
113.17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
113.18External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
114Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D)
324
114.1Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
114.2Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
114.3Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
114.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
114.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
114.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
115Sierra de la Plata
326
115.1Origins of the Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

115.1.1 Juan Daz de Sols
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
115.1.2 Aleixo Garcia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

115.2The Search
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
115.2.1 Sebastian Cabot
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
115.2.2 Pedro de Mendoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

115.2.3 Juan de Ayolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
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115.2.4 lvar Nez Cabeza de Vaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
115.2.5 Domingo Martnez de Irala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
115.3Cerro Rico de Potos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

115.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
115.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
115.6References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
116Song of the hoe
331
116.1Disputations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
116.2Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
116.3Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
116.4Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
116.5Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
116.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
116.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
116.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
117Teide
335
117.1Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
117.2Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
117.3Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
117.3.1 Stage one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
117.3.2 Stages two and three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
117.3.3 Stage four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
117.3.4 Stage ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
117.4Historical eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
117.5Potential eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
117.6Major climbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
117.7Flora and fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
117.8Scientic use
117.9Access
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
117.10Astronomical observatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

117.11Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
117.12Mountain of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
117.13Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
117.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
117.15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
117.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
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xxv
118Temples of Mount Hermon
344
118.1Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
118.2Summit site of Qasr Antar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
118.3Deities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
118.4Sites in Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
118.5Sites in Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
118.6Sites in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
118.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
118.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
119Anahita
349
119.1Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
119.1.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
119.1.2 Conation with Ishtar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
119.1.3 Cosmological entity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
119.2In scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
119.3Inscriptions and classical accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
119.3.1 Evidence of a cult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
119.3.2 Parsa, Elam, and Medea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
119.3.3 Asia Minor and the Levant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
119.3.4 Armenia and the Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
119.4Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
119.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
119.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
119.6.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
119.6.2 Citation index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
119.6.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
120Celadon (river)
356
120.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
121Gihon
357
121.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

121.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
122Hubur
358
122.1Usage and meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

122.2Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
122.3Cosmology and geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
122.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
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122.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
123Iardanus
360
123.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
123.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
124ngr
361
124.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
125River Malvam
362
126Pahruli
363
127Pishon
364
127.1Identication
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
127.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
128Sambation
365
128.1Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
128.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
128.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
128.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
128.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
129Sarasvati River
367
129.1Etymology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
129.2Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
129.3In the Rigveda
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
129.3.1 Praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

129.3.2 Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
129.3.3 As a goddess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
129.4Other Vedic texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
129.5Post-Vedic texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
129.6Identication theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
129.6.1 Ghaggar-Hakra River
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
129.6.2 Helmand river
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
129.6.3 Mythical river
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
129.7Drying-up and dating of the Vedas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

129.8Contemporary religious meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
129.9Revival
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
129.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
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xxvii
129.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
129.12References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
129.13Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
129.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
129.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
130Sillas River
380
131Styx
381
131.1Signicance of the River Styx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

131.2Goddess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
131.3Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
131.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
131.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
131.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
132Vaitarna River (mythological)
383
132.1Description of the river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

132.2Ways to cross the river
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
132.3Consequences of successfully crossing the river
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
132.4Mentions in scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

132.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
132.6Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
132.7References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
133Acheron
386
133.1Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
133.2Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
133.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
133.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
134Cocytus
388
134.1In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

134.2In The Divine Comedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
134.3References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
135Eridanos (river of Hades)
390
135.1Ancient references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

135.2Starry Eridanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
135.3Real river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
135.4Cenozoic river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
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CONTENTS
135.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
135.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
136Lethe
392
136.1Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
136.1.1 River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
136.1.2 Goddess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
136.2Role in religion and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
136.3References in literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
136.4Real rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
136.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
136.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
136.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
137Phlegethon
394
137.1Literary references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

137.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
137.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
137.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
138Nadistuti sukta
396
138.1External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

139Rigvedic rivers
398
139.1Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
139.2Seven Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
139.2.1 Identity of the Seven Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
139.3Geography of the Rigveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
139.4List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
139.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
139.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
139.7References
140Beas River
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
402
140.1Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
140.2History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
140.3Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
140.4Tragedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
140.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
141Bhagirathi River
405
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xxix
141.1Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
141.2Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
141.3Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
141.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
141.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
141.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
142Chautang
407
142.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

142.2Identication with Vedic rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
142.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
142.4References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
142.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

143Chenab River
143.1History
409
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
143.2Image gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

143.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
144Dangri
410
144.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

144.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
144.3References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
144.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

145Drishadvati river
411
145.1Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
145.2Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
145.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
145.4References
146Ganges
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
413
146.1Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
146.2Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
146.3Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
146.4History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
146.5Religious and cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
146.5.1 Embodiment of sacredness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
146.5.2 Avatarana or Descent of the Ganges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
146.5.3 Redemption of the Dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
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146.5.4 The purifying Ganges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
146.5.5 Consort, Shakti, and Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
146.5.6 Ganges in classical Indian iconography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
146.5.7 Kumbh Mela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
146.6Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
146.6.1 Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
146.6.2 Dams and barrages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
146.7Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
146.7.1 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
146.8Ecology and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
146.8.1 Ganga river dolphin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
146.8.2 Eects of climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
146.9Pollution and environmental concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
146.9.1 Water shortages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
146.9.2 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
146.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
146.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
146.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
146.13Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
146.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
146.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
147Ganges in Hinduism
437
147.1Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
147.2Descent To Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
147.3Consort, shakti and mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
147.4Rigveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
147.5Other Religious Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
147.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
147.7See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
147.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
147.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
148Ghaggar-Hakra River
441
148.1Ghaggar River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

148.1.1 Tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
148.2Hakra River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
148.3Palaeogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
148.4Ancient tributaries
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
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xxxi
148.4.1 Sutlej . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

148.4.2 Yamuna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
148.5Association with the Harappan civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
148.6Identication with the Rigvedic Sarasvati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
148.6.1 Rig Veda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
148.6.2 Identication with Vedic rivers in recent scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
148.7See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
148.8References
148.9Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
148.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

149Kaushalya river
450
149.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

149.3Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
149.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

149.5References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
149.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

150Markanda River, Haryana
452
150.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

150.3Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
150.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

150.5References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
150.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

151Tangri river
454
151.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

151.3Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
151.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

151.5References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
151.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

152Gomal River
456
152.1Origin and Course of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

152.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
152.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
152.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
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153Haro River
457
153.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
154Indori river
458
154.1Indus Valley Civilisation Archaeological ndings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

154.3Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
154.4See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

154.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
154.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
155Indus River
460
155.1Etymology and names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

155.1.1 Rigveda and the Indus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
155.1.2 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
155.2Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
155.3History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
155.4Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
155.4.1 Tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
155.5Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
155.6Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
155.7Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
155.7.1 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
155.8Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
155.9People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
155.10Modern issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
155.10.1Eects of climate change on the river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
155.10.2Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.10.32010 oods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.10.42011 oods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.11Barrages, Bridges and Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.11.1Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
155.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
155.13.1Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
155.13.2Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
155.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
156Jhelum River
470
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xxxiii
156.1Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
156.2History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
156.3Course
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
156.4Dams and barrages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

156.5Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
156.6Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
156.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
156.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
157Kabul River
475
157.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.1.1 Expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.1.2 In Sanskrit and Avesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.1.3 Al-Biruni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
157.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
158Dohan river
477
158.1Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
158.2Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological ndings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
158.4Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
158.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

158.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
158.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
159Krishnavati river
479
159.1Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
159.2Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological ndings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
159.4Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
159.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

159.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
159.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
160Ras
160.1References
161Ravi River
481
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
482
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161.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
161.2Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
161.2.1 River course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
161.3Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
161.4Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
161.5International water-sharing treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
161.6Interstate water dispute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
161.7Interbasin water transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
161.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
161.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
161.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
162Sahibi River
490
162.1Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
162.2Catchment area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
162.3Within Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
162.4History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
162.5Indus Valley Civilisation sites in the area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
162.7Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
162.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
162.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
162.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
163Sarayu
493
163.1Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
163.2Origin and course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
163.3Signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
163.3.1 Traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
163.3.2 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
163.4In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
163.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
163.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
163.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
163.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
164Sarsuti
495
164.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

164.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
CONTENTS
xxxv
164.3References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
164.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

165Somb river
496
165.1Origin and route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

165.2Irrigation and Hydal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
165.4Gallery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
165.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

165.6References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
166Sutlej
498
166.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
166.2Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
166.3Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
166.4Sutlej-Yamuna Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
166.5Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
166.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
166.7References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
166.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

167Swan River (Islamabad)
501
167.1Location and geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

167.2History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
167.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

167.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
167.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
168Swat River
503
168.1Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
168.2Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
168.3Economic signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
168.4Hydropower Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
168.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
168.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
168.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
169Yamuna
505
169.1Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
169.1.1 Important tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
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169.2History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
169.3Religious signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
169.4Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
169.4.1 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
169.4.2 The SutlejYamuna Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
169.4.3 Conservation zone
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
169.5Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
169.6Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
169.7Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
169.8Quotes on Yamuna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
169.9See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
169.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
169.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
169.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
170Yavyavati
170.1References
514
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
171Adi Badri (Haryana)
515
171.1Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
171.2Scientic Studies on the Origin of Sarasvati River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
171.3Adi Badri Heritage Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
171.4Nearby Attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
171.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
172Banawali
517
172.1Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.1.1 Period I (c. 2500-2300 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.1.2 Period II (c. 2300-1700BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.1.3 Period III (c.1700-1500/1450BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.2Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.2.1 Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172.3Artefacts recovered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.4Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.5Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.6Other observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.7See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.8References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
CONTENTS
173Bhagwanpura, Haryana
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520
173.1Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
173.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
173.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
174Helmand River
521
174.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
174.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
174.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
174.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
174.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
175Kapal Mochan
523
175.1Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.2Kapal Mochan Mela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.3History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.3.1 Mahadev Visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.3.2 Sri Rama Visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.3.3 Guru Nanak Visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
175.3.4 Guru Gobind Singh visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
175.4Nearby Attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
175.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
176Karoh Peak
525
176.1Etymology and Religious Signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

176.2Karoh Deota Temple and Archaeological Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
176.3Highest point in Haryana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
176.4River Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
176.5Forests and Trecking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
176.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
176.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
177Morni
527
177.1Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
177.2Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
177.3Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
177.4Morni Hill Fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
177.5Tikkar Taal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
177.6Morni Hill Water Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
177.7Morni Hill Archaeological Temple Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
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177.8Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
177.9See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
177.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
177.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
178Sarasvati Pushkaram
529
178.1See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

178.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
178.3Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
178.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
178.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
178.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Chapter 1
Aaru
This article is about reed elds. For Aalu, the tuberous the eld of oerings, Sekhet Hetepet in Egyptian.
crop, see Potato.
1.1
Reed eldsredirects here. For the natural habitat, see Reed bed. For the use of reeds to lter wastewater, see Constructed wetland. For the
Tamil lm, see Aaru (lm).
See also
Heaven
Elysium
The Summerland
In ancient Egyptian mythology, the elds of Aaru (/ru/;

Egyptian:
iArw meaning reeds"; altn. Yaaru, Iaru, Aalu), known
also as Sekhet-Aaru or the Egyptian reed elds, are the
heavenly paradise, where Osiris rules, since he became
part of the Egyptian pantheon and displaced Anubis in the
Ogdoad tradition. It has been described as the ka (a part of
the soul) of the Nile Delta.
1.2
References
[1] Fadl, Ayman. Egyptian Heaven. Article. Aldokkan.

Retrieved 2012-03-15.
Budge, Ernest Alfred Wallis (1906). The Egyptian

Heaven and Hell. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner & Co., Ltd. p. 37. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
The ancient Egyptians believed that the soul resides in the

heart; and so, according to their mythology, upon death, in
the mythical realm of the dead known as Duat, each human
heart is weighed on a giant scale against a feather, representing the concept of Ma'at. Those souls which balance
the scales are allowed to start a long and perilous journey
to Aaru, where they will exist in pleasure for all eternity.
Hearts heavy with evil tip and fall into the crocodilian jaws
of the demon Ammit. After thissecond death, the soul
is doomed to restlessness in Duat.* [1]
Jobes, Gertrude. Dictionary of Mythology, Folklore,

and Stymbols, Part 1. New York:The Scarecrow Press,
1962.
1.3
The souls who qualify undergo a long journey and face

many perils before reaching Aaru. Once they arrive, they
enter through a series of gates. The exact number of gates
varies according to sources, some say 15, some 21. They
are uniformly described as guarded by evil demons armed
with knives. Aaru is also known as the home of Osiris.
External links
Egyptian Field of Reeds (Aaru) and Christian Heaven
Aaru usually was placed in the east, where the Sun rises, and
described as boundless reed elds, like those of the earthly
Nile Delta. This ideal hunting and farming ground allowed
the souls here to live for eternity. More precisely, Aaru was
envisaged as a series of islands, covered inelds of rushes
(Sekhet Aaru), Aaru being the Egyptian word for rushes.
The part where Osiris later dwelt is sometimes known as
1
Chapter 2
Aeaea
Aeaea or Ea (/ii/ ee-EE- or /i/ -EE-; Ancient
Greek: , Aiaa [a..a]) was a mythological island
said to be the home of the sorceress Circe. In Homer's
Odyssey, Odysseus tells Alcinous that he stayed here for
a year on his way home to Ithaca. The modern Greek
scholar Ioannis Kakridis insists that any attempt at realistic identication is vain, arguing that Homer vaguely located Aeaea somewhere in the eastern part of his world,
perhaps near Colchis, since Circe was the sister of Aetes,
king of Colchis, and because the goddess Dawn had her
palace there.
on Mount Circe and her winter home on Ponza, which may

possibly be the island of Aeaea.
Before leaving Aeaea, Odysseus was given instructions by
Circe about how to cross the ocean* [3] and assisted by
North Wind to reach the underworld:
When your ship has traversed the stream of
Oceanus, you will reach the fertile shore of Persephone's country with its groves of tall poplars and
willows that shed their fruit untimely; here beach
your ship upon the shore of Oceanus, and go
straight on to the dark abode of Hades.(Odyssey
10.505, tr. Samuel Butler)
The somewhat inconsistent geography of Homer's Odyssey

is often considered more mythic than literal, but the geography of the Alexandrian scholar and poet, Apollonius of
Rhodes, is more specic. In his epic Argonautica, he locates
the island somewhere south of Aethalia (Elba), within view
of the Tyrrhenian shore (western coast of Italy).* [1] In the 2.1 Other hypothetical locations
same poem, Aetes remarks on the great distance between
Colchis and Aeaea in these terms:
Robert Graves (The Greek Myths) identies, as Aeaea, the
island of Loinj, near the Istrian peninsula in the north
Adriatic Sea.
I noted it once after taking a ride in my faTim Severin (The Ulysses Voyage) identies, as Aeaea, the
ther Helius' chariot, when he was taking my sisisland of Paxos in the Ionian Sea near the Greek coast. The
ter Circe to the western land and we came to
island is on the furthest west on a boundary between the sea
the coast of the Tyrrhenian mainland, where she
and the river of Okeanos, which is said to encircle the earth.
dwells to this day, very far from the Colchian land
Argonautica 3.309313* [2]
Gaedl Lomen (The Sea in the Greek Imagination) identies, as Aeaea the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern MediterAeaea was later identied by classical Roman writers with ranean.
Mount Circeo on Cape Circeo (Cape Circaeum) on the
western coast of Italy about 100 kilometers south of
Romewhich may have looked like an island due to the 2.2 Aeaea in literature
marshes and sea surrounding its base but which is a small
peninsula. It was already a peninsula according to Dionysius
of Halicarnassus. However, it may have been still an island In Richard Aldington's novel All Men are Enemies (1933),
in the days of Homer, with a long "lido" or sandy peninsula Aeaea is the island,twelve hours from Naples" (obviously
that gradually became attached to the mainland, in a com- mythical),*where his heroes meet, and love between them
mon geological process. Archeologists have identied one ourishes. [4]
cave or grotto on the cape as Grotta della Maga Circe, John Banville's 1993 novel Ghosts has a boating party shipthe cave of Circe. A second was found on the nearby Island wrecked on an unnamed island; one character, Sophie,
of Ponza. It is believed that Circe had her summer home speculates that it is Aeaea; another says,Yes...yes, Aeaea:
2
2.4. SOURCES
you will feel at home, no doubt, a reference to Sophie's
Circean nature.* [5]
Aeaeanwas an epithet of Circe and her niece Medea
(), who were the sister and daughter of Aetes,
the ruler of Aea () in Colchis* [6]* [7]* [8] Circe's son
Telegonus is likewise given this epithet.* [9] It was also a
name of Calypso, who was believed to have inhabited a
small island of the name of Aeaea in the straits between
Italy and Sicily.* [10]* [11]
2.3 References
[1] William H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, Loeb
Classical Library (2008), 4.654661
[2] translation by W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica,
Loeb Classical Library (2008), p.241
[3] Homer's Odyssey 10.503
[4] Books: Softer Answers. Time. 1933-07-31. Retrieved
2010-04-23.
[5] Banville, John. Ghosts, page 7.
[6] Apollonius of Rhodes, iii. 1136, iv. 559
[7] Homer, Odyssey ix. 32
[8] Virgil, Aeneid iii. 386
[9] quid petis Aeaei moenia Telegoni?, Propertius 2.32.4
[10] Pomp. Mela, ii. 7
[11] Propert. iii. 10.81
2.4 Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870).
"* article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 3
Akilineq
Akilineq is an Inuit language toponym meaning the opposite
country, which has variously been theorized to be a mythical
place, an area in northeastern North America, or possibly
even Europe.
One theory notes that the term was used in West Greenland
to refer to the territories across Davis Strait, such as the
Labrador Peninsula and Ban Island.* [1]
Renee Fosset notes that Gustav Holm of the 1880s Danish
polar expedition recorded east Greenlanders as describing
Akilineq as a land far to the east, which by evidence Holm
took to refer to Iceland.* [2]
The term was also used to refer to one or several trading
sites where the Inuit and neighbouring peoples would meet,
by the Akilineq Hills at the mouth of the Thelon River,* [3]
or on the north shores of Lake Aberdeen.* [4]
3.1 References
[1] Jack D. Forbes (2007). The American Discovery of Europe.
University of Illinois Press. pp. 150. ISBN 978-0-25203152-6. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
[2] Renee Fossett (1 January 2001). In Order to Live Untroubled: Inuit of the Central Arctic 1550 To 1940. Univ. of
Manitoba Press. pp. 76. ISBN 978-0-88755-328-8. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
[3] Mark Nuttall (12 November 2012). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. pp. 2. ISBN 978-1-57958-436-8. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
[4] Matthew D. Walls (31 December 2009). Caribou Inuit
traders of the Kivalliq Nunavut, Canada. Archaeopress.
ISBN 978-1-4073-0377-2. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
Chapter 4
lfheimr
This article is about the place in Norse mythology. For the
historical region, see lfheimr (region). For other uses, see
As a tooth-gift in ancient times.
Alfheim (disambiguation).
Alfheim (Old Norse: lfheimr, Land Of The Elves A tooth-gift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of
the rst tooth.
In the 12th century eddic prose Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson relates it as the rst of a series of abodes in heaven:
That which is called lfheim is one, where
dwell the peoples called ljslfar [Light Elves];
but the dkklfar [Dark Elves] dwell down in the
earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by
far more unlike in nature. The Light-elves are
fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Darkelves are blacker than pitch.
The account later, in speaking of a hall in the Highest
Heaven called Giml that shall survive when heaven and
earth have died, explains:
Meadow Elves, by Nils Blommr, 1850
It is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called
Andlang [Andlangr 'Endlong'] but the third
heaven is yet above that, and it is called Vdblin
[Vdblinn 'Wide-blue'] and in that heaven we
think this abode is. But we believe that none but
Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.
or Eland), also called Ljosalfheim (Ljslf[a]heimr,

home of the light-elves"), is one of the Nine Worlds and
home of the Light Elves in Norse mythology.
4.1 In Old Norse texts
It is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to

lfheim or distinct. Some texts read Vindblin (Vindblinn
'Wind-blue') instead of Vdblin.
See also: Svartlfaheimr
Modern commentators speculate (or sometimes state as

lfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice
fact) that lfheim was one of the nine worlds (heima) menin Old Norse texts.
tioned in stanza 2 of the eddic poem Vlusp.
The eddic poem Grmnisml describes twelve divine
dwellings beginning in stanza 5 with:
4.2
Popular culture
dalir call they the place where Ull

J. R. R. Tolkien anglicized lfheim as Elvenhome, or
Eldamar in the speech of the Elves. In his stories, Eldamar lies in a coastal region of the Undying Lands
A hall for himself hath set;

And lfheim the gods to Frey once gave
5
CHAPTER 4. LFHEIMR
in the Uttermost West. The High King of the Elves in
the West was Ingw, an echo of the name Yngvi often
found as a name for Frey, whose abode was in lfheim
according to the Grmnisml.
In the Japanese light novel and anime series Sword Art
Online, the setting for the second and fourth arc is
based on lfheimr.
In the Japanese game Bayonetta, there are angelic portals called Alfheim where the player travels to do specic angel slaying for broken witch hearts or moon
pearls to increase vitality or witch power. It does not
involve elves, however. Only its name is based on
Norse mythology.
4.3 See also

Fairyland
4.4 References
Wikisource:Prose Edda/Gylfaginning (The Fooling Of
Gylfe) by Sturluson, Snorri, 13th century Edda, in English. Accessed Apr. 16, 2007
Gylfaginning in Old Norse* [1]
Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959). The Encyclopedia of
Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.
Bulnch, Thomas (1834). Bulnch's Mythology. New
York: Harper & Row, 1970, p. 348. ISBN 0-69057260-3.
Marshall Jones Company (1930). The Mythology of
All Races Series, Volume 2 Eddic, Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, pp. 220221.
4.5 Sources
[1] Gylfaginning XI-XX
Chapter 5
Aornum
[2] The Greek Myths (Volume 1) by Robert Graves, 1990),page
112: "... He used the passage which opens at Aornum in
Thesprotis and, on his arrival, not only charmed the ferryman
Charon...
THRACE
Propontis
IA
Hebrus
ILLYRIA
Cicones
Drys
Nestos
Mt. Pangaion
Macedon
Pella
Pieria
Samothrace
Mygdonia
Methoni
Dion
Mt. Olympus
Lebeithra
Epirus
Sys
Aegean Sea
Iolcos
Pagasae
Smyrna
Dodone
Ionia
Acheron
Ionian Sea
[3] Pausanias, Description of Greece,Boeotia9.30.1,[6] Others

have said that his wife died before him, and that for her sake
he came to Aornum in Thesprotis, where of old was an oracle
of the dead. He thought, they say, that the soul of Eurydice
followed him, but turning round he lost her. The Thracians
say that such nightingales as nest on the grave of Orpheus
sing more sweetly and louder than others.
ASIA MINOR
Methymna
Antissa
Lesbos
Tempe
Thessaly
Aornum
Mt. Parnassus
Delphi
Thebes
Athens
Argolis
Aegina
Life of Orpheus
Cicones; Tribe he ruled

Dion, Pimpleia; Birthplace & early abode
Mygdonia; Kingdom of Oeagrus or Apollo
Parnassus; Residence with mother, Calliope,
taught to sing & given lyre by Apollo
Pella; Pierus, his grandfather by Calliope
Pagasae; Set sail with the Argonauts
Death; Pieria, Pangaion or Aornum by suicide
Lesbos; Limbs buried & lyre, later
constellation Lyra
Tomb; Lebeithra & relics in Lesbos & Smyrna
Athens; Son, Musaeus of Athens
Thebes; Brother, Linus
Lesbos, Antissa; Oracle & Temple, later
of Apollo Murikaios
Drys; Oaks of Orpheus
0
50
Laconia
Sparta
100 km
Taenarum
Crete
Tempe; Eurydice dies

Samothrace; Daktyloi mysteries initiation
Acheron; Mourns and fasts for 7 days
Aornum & Taenarum; Entrances to Hades
Methymna, Lesbos; Head turns to stone
Sys; River that destroyed Lebeithra
Sparta; Introduces worship of Cthonian
Demeter
Aegina; Introduces worship of Hecate
Methoni; Founded by Methon, ancestor
of Orpheus
Smyrna; Homer's birthplace, descendant
5.3
External links
Greek Mythology Link, Orpheus
Orpheus's life
Aornum (Ancient Greek: ) was an oracle in

Ancient Greece, located in Thesprotia in a cave called Charonium ( or ) which gave forth
poisonous vapours.* [1] The name of the cave, "Charon's
Cave, reects the belief that it was an entrance for
Hades, the Greek underworld.* [2] In a version of the myth,
Orpheus travels to Aornum to recover his wife, Eurydice,
from Hades.* [3]
5.1 See also

Leibethra
Pimpleia
5.2 References
[1] The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide
(Duckworth Archaeology) by Trevor Curnow,2004,page
184,... outside it, to the N, there is a place called Aornum, with a sacred cave called the Charonium which emitted
deadly vapours...""
Chapter 6
World mountain
Navel of the Worldredirects here. For other uses, see descend to lower ones and be disseminated to all.* [2] The
Navel of the World (disambiguation).
spot functions as the omphalos (navel), the world's point of
The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pil- beginning.* [3]* [4]* [5]
The image is mostly viewed as feminine, as it relates to
the center of the earth (perhaps like an umbilical providing nourishment). It may have the form of a natural object
(a mountain, a tree, a vine, a stalk, a column of smoke or
re) or a product of human manufacture (a sta, a tower, a
ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross, a steeple, a rope, a
totem pole, a pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may
carry implications that are chiey religious (pagoda, temple
mount, minaret, church) or secular (obelisk, lighthouse,
rocket, skyscraper). The image appears in religious and
secular contexts.* [6] The axis mundi symbol may be found
in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist belief
systems, in major world religions, and in technologically
advanced urban centers. In Mircea Eliade's opinion,
Every Microcosm, every inhabited region, has a Centre;
that is to say, a place that is sacred above all.* [7] The axis
mundi is often associated with mandalas.
6.1
Background
Mount Kailash, depicting the holy family: Shiva and Parvati,

cradling Skanda with Ganesha by Shiva's side
lar, center of the world, world tree), in certain beliefs and

philosophies, is the world center, or the connection between
Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic
pole, it expresses a point of connection between sky and
earth where the four compass directions meet. At this
point travel and correspondence is made between higher and Mount Fuji, Japan
lower realms.* [1] Communication from lower realms may
ascend to higher ones and blessings from higher realms may The symbol originates in a natural and universal psychologi8
6.1. BACKGROUND
cal perception: that the spot one occupies stands atthe center of the world. This space serves as a microcosm of order
because it is known and settled. Outside the boundaries of
the microcosm lie foreign realms that, because they are unfamiliar or not ordered, represent chaos, death or night.* [8]
From the center one may still venture in any of the four cardinal directions, make discoveries, and establish new centers as new realms become known and settled. The name of
China, meaningMiddle Nation( pinyin: Zhnggu),
is often interpreted as an expression of an ancient perception that the Chinese polity (or group of polities) occupied
the center of the world, with other lands lying in various
directions relative to it.* [6]
Within the central known universe a specic locale-often a
mountain or other elevated place, a spot where earth and sky
come closest gains status as center of the center, the axis
mundi. High mountains are typically regarded as sacred
by peoples living near them. Shrines are often erected at
the summit or base.* [9] Mount Kunlun lls a similar role in
China.* [10] For the ancient Hebrews Mount Zion expressed
the symbol. Sioux beliefs take the Black Hills as the axis
mundi. Mount Kailash is holy to Hinduism and several religions in Tibet. The Pitjantjatjara people in central Australia
consider Uluru to be central to both their world and culture.
In ancient Mesopotamia the cultures of ancient Sumer and
Babylon erected articial mountains, or ziggurats, on the
at river plain. These supported staircases leading to temples at the top. The Hindu temples in India are often situated on high mountains. E.g. Amarnath, Tirupati, Vaishno
Devi etc. The pre-Columbian residents of Teotihuacn in
Mexico erected huge pyramids featuring staircases leading
to heaven. Jacob's Ladder is an axis mundi image, as is the
Temple Mount. For Christians the Cross on Mount Calvary
expresses the symbol.* [11] The Middle Kingdom, China,
had a central mountain, Kunlun, known in Taoist literature
as the mountain at the middle of the world.To go
into the mountainsmeant to dedicate oneself to a spiritual life.* [12] Monasteries of all faiths tend, like shrines,
to be placed at elevated spots. Wise religious teachers are
typically depicted in literature and art as bringing their revelations at world centers: mountains, trees, temples.
Because the axis mundi is an idea that unites a number of
concrete images, no contradiction exists in regarding multiple spots as the center of the world. The symbol
can operate in a number of locales at once.* [7] Mount Hermon was regarded as the axis mundi in Caananite tradition,
from where the sons of God are introduced descending in
1 Enoch (1En6:6).* [13] The ancient Greeks regarded several sites as places of earth's omphalos (navel) stone, notably the oracle at Delphi, while still maintaining a belief
in a cosmic world tree and in Mount Olympus as the abode
of the gods. Judaism has the Temple Mount and Mount
Sinai, Christianity has the Mount of Olives and Calvary,
9
Islam has Ka'aba, said to be the rst building on earth,
and the Temple Mount (Dome of the Rock). In Hinduism,
Mount Kailash is identied with the mythical Mount Meru
and regarded as the home of Shiva; in Vajrayana Buddhism,
Mount Kailash is recognized as the most sacred place where
all the dragon currents converge and is regarded as the gateway to Shambhala. In Shinto, the Ise Shrine is the omphalos. In addition to the Kunlun Mountains, where it is believed the peach tree of immortality is located, the Chinese
folk religion recognizes four other specic mountains as pillars of the world.
Sacred places constitute world centers (omphalos) with the
altar or place of prayer as the axis. Altars, incense sticks,
candles and torches form the axis by sending a column of
smoke, and prayer, toward heaven. The architecture of sacred places often reects this role.Every temple or palace-and by extension, every sacred city or royal residence--is a
Sacred Mountain, thus becoming a Centre.* [14] The stupa
of Hinduism, and later Buddhism, reects Mount Meru.
Cathedrals are laid out in the form of a cross, with the
vertical bar representing the union of earth and heaven as
the horizontal bars represent union of people to one another, with the altar at the intersection. Pagoda structures
in Asian temples take the form of a stairway linking earth
and heaven. A steeple in a church or a minaret in a mosque
also serve as connections of earth and heaven. Structures
such as the maypole, derived from the Saxons' Irminsul, and
the totem pole among indigenous peoples of the Americas
also represent world axes. The calumet, or sacred pipe, represents a column of smoke (the soul) rising form a world
center.* [15] A mandala creates a world center within the
boundaries of its two-dimensional space analogous to that
created in three-dimensional space by a shrine.* [16]
6.1.1
Plants
Plants often serve as images of the axis mundi. The image of the Cosmic Tree provides an axis symbol that unites
three planes: sky (branches), earth (trunk) and underworld
(roots).* [17] In some Pacic island cultures the banyan tree,
of which the Bodhi tree is of the Sacred Fig variety, is the
abode of ancestor spirits. In Hindu religion, the banyan
tree is considered sacred and is called ashwath vriksha (
I am banyan tree among trees- Bhagavad Gita). It represents eternal life because of its seemingly ever-expanding
branches. The Bodhi tree is also the name given to the tree
under which Gautama Siddhartha, the historical Buddha,
sat on the night he attained enlightenment. The Yggdrasil,
or World Ash, functions in much the same way in Norse
mythology; it is the site where Odin found enlightenment.
Other examples include Jievaras in Lithuanian mythology
and Thor's Oak in the myths of the pre-Christian Germanic
peoples. The Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge
10
CHAPTER 6. WORLD MOUNTAIN
Yggdrasil, the World Ash in Norse myths
of Good and Evil in Genesis present two aspects of the

same image. Each is said to stand at the center of the
Paradise garden from which four rivers ow to nourish the
whole world. Each tree confers a boon. Bamboo, the plant
from which Asian calligraphy pens are made, represents
knowledge and is regularly found on Asian college campuses. The Christmas tree, which can be traced in its origins back to pre-Christian European beliefs, represents an
axis mundi.* [18] Entheogens (psychoactive substances) are
often regarded as world axes, such as the Fly Agaric mushroom among the Evenks of Russia. In China, traditional
cosmography sometimes depicts the world center marked
with the Jian tree (). Two more trees are placed at the
East and West, corresponding to the points of sunrise and
sunset, as described in the Huainanzi. The Mesoamerican
world tree connects the planes of the Underworld and the
sky with that of the terrestrial realm.* [19]
6.1.2
Human gure
The human body can express the symbol of world axis.* [20]
Some of the more abstract Tree of Life representations,
such as the serot in Kabbalism and in the chakra system
recognized by Hinduism and Buddhism, merge with the
concept of the human body as a pillar between heaven and
earth. Disciplines such as yoga and tai chi begin from the
premise of the human body as axis mundi. The Buddha rep-
Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1492)
resents a world centre in human form.* [21] Large statues of

a meditating gure unite the human gure with the symbolism of temple and tower. Astrology in all its forms assumes
a connection between human health and aairs and the orientation of these with celestial bodies. World religions regard the body itself as a temple and prayer as a column
uniting earth to heaven. The ancient Colossus of Rhodes
combined the role of human gure with those of portal and
skyscraper. The image of a human being suspended on a
tree or a cross locates the gure at the axis where heaven and
earth meet. The Renaissance image known as the Vitruvian
Man represented a symbolic and mathematical exploration
of the human form as world axis.* [18]
6.1.3
Homes
Homes can represent world centers. The symbolism for

their residents is the same as for inhabitants of palaces and
other sacred mountains.* [14] The hearth participates in the
symbolism of the altar and a central garden participates in
the symbolism of primordial paradise. In Asian cultures
houses were traditionally laid out in the form of a square
oriented toward the four compass directions. A traditional
Asian home was oriented toward the sky through feng shui,
a system of geomancy, just as a palace would be. Tradi-
6.2. TRADITIONAL EXPRESSIONS

tional Arab houses are also laid out as a square surrounding
a central fountain that evokes a primordial garden paradise.
Mircea Eliade noted that the symbolism of the pillar in
[European] peasant houses likewise derives from the 'symbolic eld' of the axis mundi. In many archaic dwellings the
central pillar does in fact serve as a means of communication with the heavens, with the sky.* [22] The nomadic
peoples of Mongolia and the Americas more often lived in
circular structures. The central pole of the tent still operated as an axis but a xed reference to the four compass
points was avoided.* [23]
11
victim of crucixion or hanging, a rod, a fruit, mistletoe.
Derivations of this idea nd form in the Rod of Asclepius, an emblem of the medical profession, and in the
caduceus, an emblem of correspondence and commercial
professions. The sta in these emblems represents the axis
mundi while the serpents act as guardians of, or guides to,
knowledge.* [25]
6.2
6.2.1
Traditional expressions
Asia
Wuji
Bodhi tree, especially where Gautama Buddha found
Enlightenment
Pagoda
Stupa (Buddhism, Hinduism)
Mount Meru in Hinduism
Mount Kailash regarded by Hinduism and several religions in Tibet, e.g. Bn
Jambudvipa in Hinduism and Jainism which is regarded as the actual navel of the universe (which is
human in form)
Kailasa (India), the abode of Shiva
The caduceus
Mandara (India)
Shiva Lingam (India)
6.1.4
Shamanic function
A common shamanic concept, and a universally told story,

is that of the healer traversing the axis mundi to bring back
knowledge from the other world. It may be seen in the
stories from Odin and the World Ash Tree to the Garden
of Eden and Jacob's Ladder to Jack and the Beanstalk and
Rapunzel. It is the essence of the journey described in The
Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. The epic poem relates
its hero's descent and ascent through a series of spiral structures that take him from through the core of the earth, from
the depths of Hell to celestial Paradise. It is also a central
tenet in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex.* [24]
Anyone or anything suspended on the axis between heaven
and earth becomes a repository of potential knowledge. A
special status accrues to the thing suspended: a serpent, a
Kunlun Mountain (China), residence of the Immortals

and the site of a peach tree oering immortality
Human gure (yoga, tai chi, Buddha in meditation, sacred images)
Ise Shrine (Shinto)
Central courtyard in traditional home
Bamboo stalk, associated with knowledge and learning
Mago Stronghold (Old Korea) also known as Magoseong, Mago San-seong, Go-Seong, Halmi-seong.
Primoridial Home of the Great Goddess and HER primoridal descendants* [26]
12
6.2.2
Middle East
Garden of Eden with four rivers

Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil
Mt. Ararat landing place of Noah's ark
Ziggurat, or Tower of Babel
Jacob's Ladder
Jerusalem, specically, the Holy Temple; focus of
Jewish prayer where Abraham bound Isaac
6.2.4
Europe
Yggdrasil (the world ash-tree in Norse cosmology)

Irminsul (the great pillar in Germanic paganism)
Hill of Uisneach (the navel and center of Ireland in
Irish mythology)* [27]
Mount Olympus in Greece, court of the gods (Greek
mythology)
Sampo or Sammas (Baltic-Finnic mythology)
Delphi, home of the Oracle of Delphi (Greek mythology)
Cross of the Crucixion
Colossus of Rhodes (Greek mythology)
Steeple
Maypole (East Europe and Germanic paganism)
Ka'aba in Mecca; focus of Muslim prayer and the rst

building built by Adam
Jack's Beanstalk (English fairy tale)
Qutb, In Susm, an intermediary gure between God

and mankind
Hearth
Dome of the Rock where Muhammad ascended to

heaven
Minaret
Dilmun
Garizim (Samaria)
Rapunzel's Tower (German fairy tale)
Central pillar of peasant homes

Altar
Vitruvian Man
Hagia Sophia
St. Peter's Basilica
Hara Berezaiti (Persia)
Umbilicus urbis Romae, a structure in the Roman Forum from where all the Roman roads parted.
Zaphon
Isle of Man (Emain Ablach, the gate to the Otherworld

in Irish Mythology)
6.2.3
Africa
6.2.5
The Americas
Meskel bonre
Teotihuacn Pyramids
Stelae of the Aksumite Empire
Totem Pole
Pyramids of Egypt
Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove of Nigeria
Jebel Barkal of Sudan
Idafe Rock of prehispanic La Palma
Tent
Black Hills (Sioux)
Calumet (sacred pipe)
Sipapu (Hopi)
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Mt Kenya of Kenya
Medicine wheels of the northern Great Plains
Mount Kilimanjaro
Temple Lot (Mormonism)
6.3. MODERN EXPRESSIONS

Cuzco (Incas), meaning navelin Quechua
Chakana
Mesoamerican world tree
Lanzon
Turtle Island
6.2.6
Australia
Uluru
Rainbow Snake
6.3 Modern expressions
13
ideals.* [28] The rst skyscraper of modern times, the Eiel
Tower, exemplies this role. The structure was erected in
1889 in Paris, France, to serve as the centerpiece for the
Exposition Universelle, making it a symbolic world center
from the planning stages. It has served as an iconic image for the city and the nation ever since.* [29] Landmark
skyscrapers often take names that clearly identify them as
centers.* [30]
Designers of skyscrapers today routinely evoke the axis
mundi symbolism inherent in ancient precedents. Taipei
101 in Taiwan, completed in 2004, evokes the staircase,
bamboo stalk, pagoda, pillar and torch. The design of the
Burj Khalifa (United Arab Emirates) evokes both desert
plants and traditional Arab spires. William F. Baker, one
of the designers, states that the goal of the Burj Dubai
[subsequently renamed Burj Khalifa] is not simply to be the
world's tallest building--it is to embody the world's highest aspirations.* [31] Twin towers, such as the Petronas
Towers (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) and the former World
Trade Center (Manhattan), maintain the axis symbolism
even as they more obviously assume the role of pillars.
Some structures pierce the sky, implying movement or ight
(Chicago Spire, CN Tower in Toronto, the Space Needle in Seattle). Some structures highlight the more lateral elements of the symbol in implying portals (Tuntex
Sky Tower in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, The Gateway Arch in St.
Louis).* [32]* [33]
The places with economic importance and where skyscrapers are founded are recognised as Financial centres. Examples of nancial centres are London, New York City, Rome,
Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Chicago, Seoul, Shanghai,
Toronto, Montreal, So Paulo, Frankfurt, and Amsterdam.
A geodesic place is another modern symbolism. Braslia,
capital of Brazil, is known as a Geodesic place, where it
is positioned at the middle of the country, on a drainage
divide.
Taipei 101 (Taiwan)
Axis mundi symbolism continues to be evoked even in modern societies. The idea has proven especially consequential
in the realm of architecture. Capitol buildings, as the direct
descendents of palaces, ll this role, as do commemorative
structures such as the Washington Monument in the United
States. A skyscraper, as the term itself suggests, suggests
the connection of earth and sky, as do spire structures of all
sorts. Such buildings come to be regarded ascentersof
an inhabited area, or even the world, and serve as icons of its
Ancient traditions continue in modern structures. The

Peace Pagodas built since the 1947 unite religious and secular purposes in one symbol drawn from Buddhism. The
inuence of the pagoda tradition may be seen in modern
Asian skyscrapers (Taipei 101, Petronas Towers). The ancient ziggurat has likewise reappeared in modern form, including the headquarters of the National Geographic Society in Washington, DC and The Ziggurat housing the
California Department of General Services. Architect
Frank Lloyd Wright conceived the Guggenheim Museum in
New York as an inverted ziggurat. The Washington Monument is a modern obelisk.* [34]
Artistic representations of the world axis abound. Prominent among these is the Colonne sans n (The Endless Column, 1938) an abstract sculpture by Romanian Constantin
Brncui. The column takes the form of asky pillar(co-
14
lumna cerului) upholding the heavens even as its rhythmically repeating segments invite climb and suggest the possibility of ascension.* [35]
Phurba
The association of the cosmic pillar with knowledge gives

it a prominent role in the world of scholarship. University
campuses typically assign a prominent axis role to a campus
structure, such as a clock tower, library tower or bell tower.
The building serves as the symbolic center of the settlement
represented by the campus and serves as an emblem of its
ideals. This symbolism of the center is closely tied to the
widespread symbolism of the world axis.* [36] The image
of theivory tower, a colloquial metaphor for academia,
sustains the metaphor.* [33]
Vorticism
The image still takes natural forms as well, as in the American tradition of the Liberty Tree located at town centers.
Individual homes continue to act as world axes, especially
where Feng shui and other geomantic practices continue to
be observed.
The corner of Haight and Ashbury Streets in San Francisco,
California is regarded as the axis mundi in the hippie subculture. Christopher Street in Manhattan in New York City
is the axis mundi in the gay subculture. Folsom Street, also
in San Francisco, is the axis mundi in the leather subculture.
Axis mundi symbolism may be seen in much of the romance surrounding space travel. A rocket on the pad takes
on all the symbolism of a tower and the astronaut enacts a
mythic story.* [37] Each embarks on a perilous journey into
the heavens and, if successful, returns with a boon for dissemination. The Apollo 13 insignia stated it succinctly: Ex
luna scientia (From the Moon, knowledge).* [38]
In ction, Stephen King's 'The Dark Tower' series, and
much of his other connected ction, revolves around a tower
that serves as the axis of all realities.
6.4 See also

Alchemy
Celestial sphere
Crucix
Fleur de lis
Herma
Hyperborea
North pole
Optical axis
Palmette
Taiji (philosophy)
6.5
References
[1] Mircea Eliade (tr. Philip Mairet). 'Symbolism of the

Centre' in Images and Symbols. Princeton, 1991. ISBN
069102068X. p.48-51
069102068X. p.40
[3] J. C. Cooper. An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional
Symbols. Thames and Hudson: New York, 1978. ISBN
0500271259.
[4] Mircea Eliade (tr. Willard Trask). 'Archetypes and Repetition' in The Myth of the Eternal Return. Princeton, 1971.
ISBN 0691017778. p.16
[5] Winther, Rasmus Grnfeldt (2014) World Navels. Cartouche 89: 15-21 http://philpapers.org/archive/WINWN.
pdf
[6] Jean Chevalier and Alain Gheerbrandt. A Dictionary
of Symbols. Penguin Books: London, 1996. ISBN
0140512543. pp.61-63, 173-175
069102068X. p.39
069102068X. p.37-39
069102068X. p.41-43
[10] Wang, Chong. Lunheng Part I: Philosophical Essays of Wang
Ch'ung. Trans. Alfred Forke. London: Luzac & Co., 1907.
p.337.
0140512543. pp.680-685
0140512543. pp.681
[13] Kelley Coblentz Bautch (25 September 2003). A Study of
the Geography of 1 Enoch 17-19: no One Has Seen what I
Have Seen. BRILL. pp. 62. ISBN 978-90-04-13103-3.
Retrieved 28 June 2011.
6.5. REFERENCES
15
ISBN 0691017778. p.12
[30] Judith Dupr. 'Skyscrapers: A History of the World's

Most Extraordinary Buildings.' Black Dog & Leventhal,
1998/2008. pp. 45, 69, 81, 91, 97,135, 136, 143

0140512543. pp.148-149
[31] Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. CTBUH

2008 Dubai Congress - William F. Baker, Engineering
the World's Tallest"" YouTube. YouTube, 17 May 2013.
Web. 02 July 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
1uaGND8vUhE>.

069102068X. p.52-54
069102068X. p.42-45
[18] Chevalier, Jean and Gheerbrandt, Alain. A Dictionary
0140512543. pp.1025-1033
[19] Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of
Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 186. ISBN 0500050686.
069102068X. p.54
[21] Mircea Eliade (tr. Philip Mairet). 'Indian Symbolisms of
Time and Eternity' in Images and Symbols. Princeton, 1991.
ISBN 069102068X. p.76
[22] Mircea Eliade. 'Brncui and Mythology' in Symbolism, the
Sacred, and the Arts. Continuum, 1992. ISBN 0826406181.
p. 100
0140512543. pp.529-531
[24] Townsend, Richard F. (2004). Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand.
Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10601-7.
0140512543. pp.142-145
[26] Hwang, Helen Hye-Sook (2015). The Mago Way: Rediscovering Mago, the Great Goddess from East Asia. Mago
Books. pp. 136142. ISBN 9781516907922.
[27] Alwyn and Brinley Rees. Celtic Heritage. Thames and Hudson: New York, 1961. ISBN 0500270392. pp. 159-161.
1998/2008. p.137
1998/2008. p. 19

1998/2008
0140512543. pp.1020-1022
1998/2008. p.15
p.99-100
[36] Mircea Eliade (1954). The Myth of the Eternal Return. New
York: Princeton University Press 1991, ISBN 0691017778.
p.12-17: The Symbolism of the Center
0140512543. pp. 18, 1020-1022
[38] Nasa Apollo Mission: Apollo 13. 2007-08-25
Chapter 7
Baralku
In Yolngu culture, Baralku (or Bralgu) is the island of the
dead and the place where the Djanggawul originated.* [1]
It is said to lie to the east of Arnhem Land, and is where
the Barnumbirr creator-spirit (who is identied as Venus)
came from (see Aboriginal Astronomy) as she guided the
Djanggawul sisters. Barnumbirr is also said to live on the
island* [2] and rises into the sky as Venus.
7.1 References
[1] Ronald M. Berndt (2004). Djanggawul: An Aboriginal Religious Cult of North-Eastern Arnhem Land. Routledge. p. 1.
ISBN 978-0-415-33022-0.
[2] Raymond Haynes; David Malin; Richard McGee (1996).
Explorers of the Southern Sky: A History of Australian Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0521-36575-8.
16
Chapter 8
Barnumbirr
Barnumbirr is a creator-spirit in the Yolngu culture of
Arnhem Land in Australia, who is identied as the planet
Venus. She guided the rst humans, the Djanggawul* [1]
sisters, to Australia. The rising of Barnumbirr in the sky
before sunrise marks an important ceremony of the Yolngu.* [2] As she approaches, in the early hours before dawn,
the Yolngu say that she draws behind her a rope of light
attached to the island of Baralku on Earth, and along this
rope, with the aid of a richly decorated Morning Star
Pole, the people are able to communicate with their ancestors.* [3]
After crossing the coastline near Yirrkala, Barnumbirr ew
across the land from East to West, creating a songline which
named and created the animals, plants, and natural features
of the land.
8.1 Further reading

Aboriginal Astronomy
8.2 References
[1] Ronald M. Berndt (2004). Djanggawul: An Aboriginal Religious Cult of North-Eastern Arnhem Land. Routledge. p. 1.
ISBN 978-0-415-33022-0.
[2] Ray & Cilla Norris (2009). Emu Dreaming: An Introduction
to Aboriginal Astronomy. ISBN 978-0-9806570-0-5.
[3] Allen, Louis A. (1975). Time before morning. Cowell, NY.
17
Chapter 9
Brahmavarta
The Hindu religious text Manusmriti describes Brahmavarta as the region between the rivers Saraswati and
Drishadwati in India. The text denes the area as the place
where thegoodpeople are born, withgoodnessbeing
dependent on location rather than behaviour.* [1] The name
has been translated in various ways, including holy land
, sacred land,* [2] abode of godsand the scene
of creation.* [3]
the heartland of Aryan communities and the geography described in it suggests that those communities had not moved
much beyond the area. He says that later texts, contained in
the Brahmanas, indicate that the centre of religious activity
had moved from Brahmavarta to an adjacent area southeast of it known as Brahmarisihidesa.* [lower-alpha 2]* [7]
Again, some sources consider Brahmarisihidesa to be synonymous with Brahmavarta.* [4]* [8]
The precise location and size of the region has been the
subject of academic uncertainty.* [4] Some scholars, such
as the archaeologists Bridget and Raymond Allchin, believe
the term Brahmavarta to be synonymous with the Aryavarta
region.* [5]
9.1
See also
Brahmarshi
According to Manusmriti, the purity of a place and its inhabitants decreased the further it was from Brahmavarta.
Aryan (noble) people were believed to inhabit the good 9.2
area and the proportion of Mleccha (barbarian) people in
the population rose as the distance from it increased. This Notes
implies a series of concentric circles of decreasing purity as
one moved away from the Brahmavarta centre.* [6]
References
[1] These are the ancient Kuru, Matsya, Panchala and Surasena
kingdoms.
The translation of Manusmriti made by Patrick Olivelle, a

professor of Sanskrit, says:
[2] Translated as Land of Brahmin sages.* [4]
The land created by the gods and lying between the divine rivers Sarasvati and Drsadvati
is called 'Brahmavarta' - the region of Brahman.
The conduct handed down from generation to
generation among the social classes and the intermediate classes of that land is called the 'conduct
of good people'.
Kuruksetra and the lands of the Matsyas,
Pancalas, and Surasenakas constitute the 'land
of Brahmin seers', which borders on the Brahmavarta. All the people on earth should learn
their respective practices from a Brahmin born
in that land.* [2]* [lower-alpha 1]
Citations
[1] Killingley, Dermot (2007). Mlecchas, Yavanas and Heathens: Interacting Xenologies in Early Nineteenth-Century
Calcutta. In Franco, Eli; Preisendanz, Karin. Beyond Orientalism: The Work of Wilhelm Halbfass and Its Impact on
Indian and Cross-cultural Studies. Motilal Banarsidass. p.
125. ISBN 978-8-12083-110-0.
[2] Manu (2004). Olivelle, Patrick, ed. The Law Code of Manu.
Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19280-271-2.
The French Indologist and convert to Hinduism, Alain

Danilou, notes that the Rig Veda, which is an earlier Hindu
text, describes the region later known as Brahmavarta as
18
[3] Bakshi, S. R.; Gajrani, S.; Singh, Hari, eds. (2005). Early
Aryans to Swaraj. 1. Sarup & Sons. p. 12. ISBN 978-817625-537-0.
[4] Scharfe, Hartmut (1989). The State in Indian Tradition.
BRILL. p. 12. ISBN 900-4-09060-6.
9.2. REFERENCES
[5] Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.
p. 250. ISBN 978-0-52128-550-6.
[6] Deshpande, Madhav (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 85. ISBN 978-812081-136-2.
[7] Danilou, Alain (2003) [1971]. A Brief History of India.
Trans. Hurry, Kenneth F. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp.
5556. ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3.
[8] Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.
p. 306. ISBN 978-0-52128-550-6.
19
Chapter 10
Cantre'r Gwaelod
The Lowland Hundredredirects here. For the band, see Cantre'r Gwaelod's capital was Caer Wyddno (English: the
The Lowland Hundred (band).
Fort of Gwyddno), seat of the ruler Gwyddno Garanhir.
Two princes of the realm held charge over the dyke. One of
these princes, called Seithenyn, is described in one version
Cantre'r Gwaelod, also known as Cantref Gwaelod or
Cantref y Gwaelod (English: The Lowland Hundred), is a as a notorious drunkard and carouser, and it was through his
negligence that the sea swept through the open oodgates,
legendary ancient sunken kingdom said to have occupied
a tract of fertile land lying between Ramsey Island and ruining the land.
Bardsey Island in what is now Cardigan Bay to the west of The church bells of Cantre'r Gwaelod are said to ring out in
Wales. It has been described as aWelsh Atlantis" and has times of danger.
featured in folklore, literature and song.
10.1.1
10.1 The myth

Cantre'r Gwaelod was an area of land which, according to
legend, was located in an area west of present-day Wales
which is now under the waters of Cardigan Bay. Accounts
variously suggest the tract of land extended from Bardsey
Island to Cardigan or as far south as Ramsey Island.* [1]
Legends of the land suggest that it may have extended 20
miles west of the present coast.* [2]
There are several versions of the myth. The earliest known
form of the legend is usually said to appear in the Black
Book of Carmarthen (Welsh: Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin'), in
which the land is referred to as Maes Gwyddno (English:
the Plain of Gwyddno). In this version, the land was lost
to oods when a well-maiden named Mererid neglected her
duties and allowed the well to overow.* [2]
Rachel Bromwich questions this identication, saying that
There is no certainty, however, that in twelfth century tradition Maes Gwyddneu did represent the submerged land in
Cardigan Bay.She also links Gwyddno with the northern
British kingdoms, not Wales.* [3]
The popular version known today is thought to have been
formed from the 17th century onwards. Cantre'r Gwaelod
is described as a low-lying land fortied against the sea by a
dyke, Sarn Badrig (Saint Patrick's causeway), with a series
of sluice gates which were opened at low tide to drain the
land.* [2]
Relationship to myth of Llys Helig
Rachel Bromwich discusses a similar tale, that of the submergence of the kingdom of Helig ap Glanawg in the
Conwy estuary. As with Cantre'r Gwaelod, there are tales
of remains being seen of the sunken kingdom (Llys Helig). Bromwich believes that the two stories inuenced each
other, and thatThe widespread parallels to this inundation
theme would suggest that the two stories are in fact one in
origin, and were localized separately in Cardiganshire and
in the Conway estuary, around two traditional gures of the
sixth century. She also notes that the Halliwell Manuscript
gives Helig the title Lord of Cantre'r Gwaelod.* [3] In
the book New Directions In Celtic Studies Antone Minard
wrote that The Welsh legends of Cantre'r Gwaelod and
Llys Helig (Helig's Court) contain the same details of audible bells beneath the waves and ruins which are visible at
the equinoctial tides, which are the anchors of credulity in
the story.* [4]
10.2
Physical evidence
There is no reliable physical evidence of the substantial

community that legend promises lies under the sea, although several reports exist of remains being sighted.
In 1770, Welsh antiquarian scholar William Owen Pughe
reported seeing sunken human habitations about four miles
(6.4 km) o the Ceredigion coast, between the rivers
20
10.2. PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
21
mouths in the north of Cardigan Bay. Modern geologists
surmise that these formations of clay, gravel and rocks are
moraines formed by the action of melting glaciers end of the
last ice age. In a 2006 episode of the BBC television documentary Coast, presenter Neil Oliver visited Sarn Gynfelyn
at Wallog. The programme also featured the remains of the
submerged forest at Ynyslas, near Borth which is associated
with the lost land of Cantre'r Gwaelod. The vista of dead
oak, pine, birch, willow and hazel tree stumps preserved by
the acid anaerobic conditions in the soil is revealed at low
tide and is estimated to be about 5000 years old.* [6]* [7]
10.2.1
Cardigan Bay, supposed location of Cantre'r Gwaelod
Images
Submerged forest remains, March

2008
Ystwyth and Tei.* [5]

In the 1846 edition of The Topographical Dictionary of
Wales, Samuel Lewis described a feature of stone walls and
causeways beneath the shallow waters of Cardigan Bay:
In the sea, about seven miles west of
Aberystwyth in Cardiganshire, is a collection of
loose stones, termed Caer Wyddno, the fort
or palace of Gwyddno;" and adjoining it are
vestiges of one of the more southern causeways
or embankments of Catrev Gwaelod. The depth
of water over the whole extent of the bay of
Cardigan is not great; and on the recess of
the tide, stones bearing Latin inscriptions, and
Roman coins of various emperors, have been
found below high-water mark: in dierent places
in the water, also, are observed prostrate trees.
Samuel Lewis, The Topographical Dictionary
of Wales.* [5]
Lewis takes the view that maps by the cartographer Ptolemy

marked the coastline of Cardigan Bay in the same location
as it appears in modern times, suggesting that the date of
the ood occurred before the second century AD.
The causewaysdescribed by Lewis can be seen today
at beaches around Cardigan Bay. Known as Sarnau, these
ridges stretch several miles into the sea at right angles to
the coast, and are located between each of the four river
Submerged forest remains,

details, March 2008
Petried tree stump on Borth

sands near Ynyslas
Sarn Gynfelyn revealed by low

tide
The end of Sarn Gynfelyn
22
CHAPTER 10. CANTRE'R GWAELOD
10.4.1
10.3 Origins of the myth
Literature
The legend has inspired many poems and songs throughout the ages. The earliest mention of Cantre'r Gwaelod is
thought to be in the thirteenth-century Black Book of Carmarthen in a poem calledBoddi Maes Gwyddno(The
Drowning of the Land of Gwyddno) which relates the tale
of Mererid and the well.
The story inspired a Victorian era-novel, The Misfortunes of
Elphin (1829), by Thomas Love Peacock.* [8] At the 1925
National Eisteddfod of Wales, held in Pwllheli, Dewi Morgan ('Dewi Tei') won the Bardic Chair with his Awdl recounting the legend, adopting Thomas Love Peacock's version as the basis for his poetic rendition.
Comparable Celtic myths describe a submerged kingdom near Brittany or Cornwall
The myth, like so many others, may be a folk memory of

gradually rising sea levels at the end of the ice age. The Ptolemy's map of Great Britain and Ireland (1467 copy)
physical remains of the preserved sunken forest at Borth,
and of Sarn Badrig nearby, could have suggested that some
great tragedy had overcome a community there long ago,
Geologist William Ashton's 1920 book, The Evolution of a
and so the myth may have grown from that.* [7]
Coast-Line, Barrow to Aberystwyth and the Isle of Man, with
Notes on Lost Towns, Submarine Discoveries, &C, discusses
the legend and takes Ptolemy's map as evidence of the ex10.3.1 Analogies in other legends
istence of an area of lost land in Cardigan Bay. Ashton also
a conjectural map of Cantre'r Gwaelod within the
The legend of Cantre'r Gwaelod is comparable to the deluge includes
*
bay.
[9]
myth found in nearly every ancient culture, and it has been
likened to the story of Atlantis.
Cantre'r Gwaelod is also featured in modern children's litSeveral similar legends exist in Celtic mythology which re- erature. Cantre'r Gwaelod is central to the setting of the
fer to a lost land beneath the waves. Both the Breton leg- 1977 Newbery Honor Book A String in the Harp by Nancy
end of Ker-Ys and the Arthurian tale of Lyonesse refer to Bond. The kingdom also plays a major role in Silver on the
a kingdom submerged somewhere in the Celtic Sea, o the Tree, the last book of The Dark Is Rising by Susan Cooper,
parts of which are set in Aberdy. Sin Lewis and Jackie
coast of Brittany or Cornwall respectively.
Morris's book Cities in the Sea (2002) retells the legend for
children,* [10] and Welsh musician Cerys Matthews's rst
children's book Tales from the Deep (2011) features a story,
The Ghost Bells of the Lowlands, which was adapted from
10.4 Cultural references
the legend of Cantre'r Gwaelod.* [11]
10.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
23
Lyonesse (Cornwall)
Ker-Ys (Brittany)
10.6
External links
Cantre'r Gwaelod - The Lost Land of Wales

Experts look for 'watery kingdom'
An exploration of the 'walled realm' version of the
myth, and the semi-legendary King Gwyddno
The bells of St Peter's, Aberdy can play Clychau Aberdy
10.4.2
Music and art
The folk song Clychau Aberdy("The Bells of Aberdovey"), popularised in the 18th Century, relates to the part
of the legend about the bells being heard ringing beneath
the waves in the town of Aberdy. This song inspired cultural projects in the town involving bells; a new chime of
bells was installed in September 1936 in the tower St Peter's Church, Aberdy, specically designed to allow the
playing of The Bells of Aberdovey.* [12] An art installation
by the sculptor Marcus Vergette, a bronzeTime and Tide
Bell, was mounted beneath the jetty in Aberdy Harbour
in July 2011 as a homage to the folk song. The bell is rung
by the action of water at high tide.* [13]* [14]
10.4.3
Television
An episode of the BBC CBeebies programme Telly Tales,

rst broadcast in 2009, featured a children's re-enactment
of the legend of Cantre'r Gwaelod through a mixture of animation and live action.* [15]
Cantre'r Gwaelod featured in the BBC documentary series Coast. Presenter Neil Oliver visited the sands of
Aberdy and Ynyslas, near Borth, and examined the remains of the submerged forest and Sarn Badrig which
are revealed at low tide, assisted by local historians and
dendrochronologists.* [6]* [7]
10.5 See also

Welsh mythology in popular culture
Lost lands
Lake-bursts (Ireland)
local history page looking at possible documentary evidence

Submerged forest, Borth Sands, Wattle walkway exposed by storms of January 2014 - from the Royal
Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
British band - The Lowland Hundred named for the
English translation of Cantre'r Gwaelod
10.7
References
[1] Gwyndaf, Robin (1989). 34. Cantre'r Gwaelod, Dyfed

. Welsh folk tales/Chwedlau gwerin Cymru (2 ed.). Cardi:
National Museum Wales/Amgueddfa Genedlaethol Cymru.
ISBN 978-0-7200-0326-0.
[2] Cantre'r Gwaelod The Lost Land of Wales. Legacies
- UK History Local to You. BBC. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
[3] Rachel Bromwich (1950). Cantre'r Gwaelod and Ker-Is
. In Cyril Fox, Bruce Dickins. The Early Cultures of NorthWest Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 231.
[4] Antone Minard (2000). Pre-Packaged Breton Folk Narrative. In Amy Hale and Philip Payton. New Directions
In Celtic Studies. University of Exeter Press. p. 60. ISBN
9780859896221.
[5] Haughton, Brian (2008). Haunted spaces, sacred places : a
eld guide to stone circles, crop circles, ancient tombs, and
supernatural landscapes. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page
Books. p. 100. ISBN 1-60163-000-X.
[6]Cardigan Bay to the Dee. Coast. Series 1. Episode 4.
2005. BBC.
[7] 5. Submerged Forest. Mid Wales Coast - Ynyslas Walk.
BBC. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
[8] Thomas Love Peacock, Thomas Love (1829).1. The Prosperity of Gwaelod. The Misfortunes of Elphin. Thomas
Hookham. p. 240.
24
[9] Ashton, William. 31. The Lost Cantref Gwaelod. The

Evolution of a Coast-Line, Barrow to Aberystwyth and the
Isle of Man, with Notes on Lost Towns, Submarine Discoveries, &C. London: Edward Stanford Ltd. ISBN 978-1-17660264-9. (map illustration on page 257)
[10] Morris, Sin Lewis & Jackie (2002). Cities in the sea.
Llandysul: Pont. ISBN 1-84323-172-7.
[11] Cerys Matthews writes children's book of Welsh legends
. BBC News. 4 May 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
[12] About us. St Peter's Church website. Archived from the
original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
[13] New bell rings as the tide rises in Aberdy, Gwynedd.
BBC News. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
[14] Time and Tide Bell. Marcus Vergette ocial website.
Retrieved 3 January 2012.
[15] Director: Elen Rhys, Producer; Dylan Adams, Writer (15
October 2009). Cantre'r Gwaelod. Telly Tales. BBC.
BBC Two Wales, Cbeebies. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
CHAPTER 10. CANTRE'R GWAELOD
Chapter 11
Celestial ocean
Several mythologies have the notion of a celestial ocean or
river, enveloping the world both above the heavenly sphere
and below the underworld.
11.1 See also

Oceanus
Uranos
Styx
Ras
Samudra
Varuna
Sea (astronomy)
25
Chapter 12
Celtic Otherworld
In Celtic mythology, the Otherworld is the realm of the
deities and possibly also of the dead.
In Gaelic and Brittonic mythology it is usually described as
a supernatural realm of everlasting youth, beauty, health,
abundance and joy.* [1] The Otherworld is usually elusive,
but various mythical heroes visit it either through chance or
after being invited by one of its residents. They often reach
it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, or by going under water or across the western sea.* [1] Sometimes,
the Otherworld is said to exist alongside our own and intrudes into this one; signaled by phenomena such as magic
mist, sudden changes in the weather, or the appearance
of divine beings or unusual animals.* [2] An otherworldly
woman may invite the hero into the Otherworld by oering an apple or a silver apple branch, or a ball of thread to
follow as it unwinds.* [2]* [3]
The Otherworld is usually called Annwn in Welsh mythology and Avalon in Arthurian legend. In Irish mythology
it has several names, including Tr na ng, Mag Mell and
Emain Ablach. In Irish myth there is also Tech Duinn,
where the souls of the dead gather.
12.1 Irish mythology

In Irish mythology, the Otherworld has various names.
Names of the Otherworld, or places within it, include Tr
nAill (the other land),* [4] Tr Tairngire (land of
promise/promised land),* [1] Tr na ng (land of the
young/land of youth), Tr fo Thuinn (land under the
wave),* [1] Tr na mBeo (land of the living),* [4] Mag
Mell (plain of delight), Mag Findargat (the whitesilver plain),* [5] Mag Argatnl (the silver-cloud plain
),* [5] Mag Ildathach (the multicoloured plain),* [5] Mag
Cuin (the gentle plain),* [5] and Emain Ablach (possibly isle of apples). It is described as a supernatural realm where there is everlasting youth, beauty, health,
abundance and joy, and where time moves dierently.* [1]
It is the dwelling place of the gods (the Tuatha D Danann)
as well as certain heroes and ancestors. It was probably sim-
Oisn and Niamh approaching a palace in Tr na ng, illustration by Stephen Reid in T. W. Rolleston's The High Deeds of Finn
(1910)
ilar to the Elysium of Greek mythology and both may have a

shared origin in ancient Proto-Indo-European religion. The
Otherworld is elusive, but various mythical heroessuch as
Cchulainn, Fionn and Branvisit it either through chance
or after being invited by one of its residents. In Irish myth
and later folklore, the festivals of Samhain and Beltane are
liminal times, when contact with the Otherworld was more
likely.* [1]
In the tales, the Otherworld is often reached by entering
26
12.3. CONTINENTAL CELTIC MYTHOLOGY

ancient burial mounds, such as those at Br na Binne and
Cnoc Meadha. These were known as sdhe (Otherworld
dwellings) and were the dwellings of the gods, later called
the aos s or daoine s (Otherworld folk).* [1] Irish
mythology says that the gods retreated into the sdhe when
the Gaels (Milesians) took Ireland from them. In some
tales, the Otherworld is reached by going under the waters
of pools, lakes, or the sea, or else by crossing the western
sea.* [1] In Irish Immrama (voyage) tales, a beautiful
young Otherworld woman often approaches the hero and
sings to him of this happy land. Sometimes she oers him
an apple, or the promise of her love in exchange for his help
in battle. He follows her, and they journey over the sea together and are seen no more. Their journey may be in a
boat of glass, in a chariot, or on horseback (usually upon
a white horse, as in the case of the goddess Niamh of the
Golden Hair). Sometimes the hero returns after what he believes is a short time, only to nd that all his companions are
dead and he has actually been away for hundreds of years.
Sometimes the hero sets out on a quest, and a magic mist
descends upon him. He may nd himself before an unusual
palace and enter to nd a warrior or a beautiful woman who
makes him welcome. The woman may be the goddess Fand,
the warrior may be Manannn mac Lir or Lugh, and after
strange adventures the hero may return successfully. However, even when the mortal manages to return to his own
time and place, he is forever changed by his contact with
the Otherworld.* [2]
27
and having become unaware of the passage of time.* [10]
Annwn is ruled by the Otherworld kings Arawn and Gwyn
ap Nudd.* [11]
In the First Branch of the Welsh tales known as The
Mabinogion, entitled Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed, the eponymous prince oends Arawn, ruler of Annwn, by baiting his
hunting hounds on a stag that Arawn's dogs had brought
down. In recompense, Pwyll swaps places with Arawn for
a year and defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan. Meanwhile,
Arawn rules Dyfed. During this year, Pwyll does not sleep
with Arawn's wife, earning himself gratitude from Arawn.
On his return, Pwyll becomes known by the title Pen Annwn, Head (or Ruler) of Annwn.
12.3
Continental Celtic mythology
According to Lucan, the Gaulish druids believed that the

soul went to an Otherworld, which he calls by the Latin
name Orbis alius, before being reincarnated.* [12]
Graeco-Roman geographers tell us about Celtic belief in

islands consecrated to gods and heroes. Among them were
Anglesey (Mn), o the north coast of Wales, which was
the sacred island of the druids of Britain; the Scilly islands,
where archaeological remains of proto-historical temples
have been found; and some of the Hebrides, which were,
The Otherworld was also seen as a source of authority. in the Gaelic tradition, home of ghosts and demons: on one
In the tale Baile in Scil (the phantom's ecstatic vision of them, Skye, the Irish hero Cchulainn was taught by the
), Conn of the Hundred Battles visits an Otherworld hall, warrior woman Scathach.
where the god Lugh legitimizes his kingship and that of his Byzantine scholar Procopius of Caesarea described the
successors.* [1]
Otherworld of the ancient Gauls. He said it was thought that
In Irish myth there is another otherworldly realm called the land of the dead lay west of Great Britain. The ContiTech Duinn (theHouse of DonnorHouse of the Dark nental Celtic myths told that once the souls of the dead had
One).* [6] It was believed that the souls of the dead trav- left their bodies, they travelled to the northwestern coast of
elled to Tech Duinn; perhaps to remain there forever, or Gaul and took a boat towards Britain. When they crossed
perhaps before reaching their nal destination in the Oth- the Channel, the souls went to the homes of the shermen,
erworld,* [7] or before being reincarnated.* [6] Donn is por- and knocked desperately at their doors. The shermen then
trayed as a god of the dead and ancestor of the Gaels. Tech went out of their houses and led the souls to their destination
Duinn is commonly identied with Bull Rock, an islet o in ghostly ships.
the west coast of Ireland which resembles a portal tomb.* [8] There are still remains of those beliefs in the Breton and
In Ireland there was a belief that the souls of the dead de- Galician traditions. In Brittany, the name Bag an Noz is
parted westwards over the sea with the setting sun.* [9]
used to denote those ships who carry the dead to their goal:
Anatole Le Braz describes in his book La lgende de la mort
chez les Bretons armoricains the existence of souls' processions which make their way toward coastal places like
12.2 Welsh mythology
Laoual, to start their last travel from there.
In Welsh mythology, the Otherworld is usually called
Annwn or Annwfyn. The Welsh tale of Branwen, daughter
of Llyr ends with the survivors of the great battle feasting in
the Otherworld, in the presence of the severed head of Bran
the Blessed, having forgotten all their suering and sorrow,
In Asturian mythology, there are many stories which describe human encounters with xanas, fairies which are
dancing around a chief fairy, the Xana Mega, or theQueen
of Fairies, known as xacias in Galicia. The castro of
Altamira is said to hide an enormous underground realm
28
which is ruled by a royal couple, and whose entrance is
found some place on the hill.
12.4 See also

Caer Sidi
Celtic animism
Celtic polytheism
12.5 References
[1] Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia.
ABC-CLIO, 2006. p.1671
[2] MacKillop, James. Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford
University Press, 1998. pp.21, 205, 270, 3223, 346, 359
60. ISBN 0-19-280120-1.
[3] Cf. Eleanor Hull, The Silver Bough in Irish Legend, in FolkLore, xii.
[4] MacCulloch, J. A. (1911). The Religion of the Ancient Celts.
p.362.
[5] Byrne, Aisling. Otherworlds: Fantasy and History in Medieval Literature. Oxford University Press, 2015. p.34
[6] Freitag, Barbara. Hy Brasil: The Metamorphosis of an Island. Rodopi, 2013. pp.98-99, 101
[7] MacKillop 1998, pp.1479
[8] hgin, Dith. The Lore of Ireland. Boydell Press, 2006.
p.179
[9] hgin, Dith. The Sacred Isle: Belief and Religion in
Pre-Christian Ireland. Boydell & Brewer, 1999. pp.27, 58
[10] Patrick K. Ford (ed/trans), The Mabinogi and other Medieval
Welsh Tales, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1977.
ISBN 0-520-03414-7
[11] MacKillop 1998, pp.1920
[12] Pharsalia, 1, 457
12.6 External links

http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/ffcc/ffcc260.
htm
CHAPTER 12. CELTIC OTHERWORLD
Chapter 13
Chinvat Bridge
The Chinvat Bridge [inva:t] (Avestan Cinvat Peretm,
bridge of judgementor beam-shaped bridge)* [1] or
the Bridge of the Requiter* [2] in Zoroastrianism is the
sifting bridge* [3] which separates the world of the living
from the world of the dead. All souls must cross the bridge
upon death. The bridge is guarded by two four-eyed dogs.
A related myth is that of Yama, the Hindu ruler of Hell who
watches the gates of Hell with his two four-eyed dogs.
13.1
The Bridge's appearance varies depending on the observer's

asha, or righteousness. As related in the text known as the
Bundahishn, if a person has been wicked, the bridge will
appear narrow and the demon Vizaresh will emerge* [4]
and drag their soul into the druj-demana (the House of
Lies), a place of eternal punishment and suering similar to the concept of Hell.* [5] If a person's good thoughts,
words and deeds in life are many, the bridge will be wide
enough to cross, and the Daena, a spirit representing revelation, will appear and lead the soul into the House of
Song. Those souls that successfully cross the bridge are
united with Ahura Mazda. Often, the Chinvat Bridge is
identied with the rainbow, or with the Milky Way galaxy,
such as in Professor C.P. Tiele'sHistory of Religion ".* [6]
However, other scholars such as C.F. Keary and Ferdinand
Justi disagree with this interpretation, citing descriptions of
the Chinvat Bridge as straight upward, rather than curvilinear.* [7]* [8]
13.2
In scripture
In the 71st chapter of the Avestan text, the Yasna, there is

a description of the Chinvat Bridge.
The Vendidad also describes the Chinvat Bridge in fargard
19.
In literature
Dimitris Lyacos's second part of the trilogy Poena Damni

With the People from the Bridge alludes to the Chinvat
Bridge. In the book a bridge functions as part of the setting
of a makeshift performance but also as a narrative element
that connects the world of the living with the world of the
dead.* [13]
American poet Charles Olson references the Chinvat
Bridge (Cinvatin his reading) in his epic, The Maximus Poems; a work which deals with Avestan mythology,
among numerous others.
13.3
In visual culture
Representations of bridges on early medieval Sogdian fuThree divinities are thought to be guardians of the Chin- nerary couches have been identied as the Chinvat Bridge.
vat Bridge: Sraosha (Obedience), Mithra (Covenant) and The most notable of these appears on the east wall of
Rashnu (Justice).* [5]
the funerary couch of the sabao Wirkak excavated at
Alternate names for this bridge include Chinwad, Cinvat, Xi'an,* [14]* [15] but another fragmentary depiction appears
on the funerary couch in the Miho Museum.* [16]
Chinvar or Chinavat.* [9]
The concept of the Chinvat bridge is similar to that of the
As-Sirt in Islam.
13.4
See also
As-Sirt
Bifrst
Vaitarna River
29
30
Zoroastrian eschatology
13.5 References
[1] Paradise Found: Part Fourth: Chapter V. The Cradle of
the Race in Iranian, or Old-Persian, Thought.
[2] Merriam-Webster, Inc. (1999). Doniger, W., ed. MerriamWebster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. MerriamWebster. p. 421. ISBN 9780877790440.
[3] Dawson, M. M. (2005). The Ethical Religion of Zoroaster.
Kessinger Publishing. p. 237. ISBN 9780766191365.
[4] The Bundahishn (Creation), or Knowledge from the
Zand: chapters 24-28.
[5] Eduljee, Ed. Page 1. Zoroastrianism After Life. Zoroastrian Funeral Customs & Death Ceremonies.
[6] Tiele, C.P. History of Religion. London and Boston, 1877:
p. 177.
[7] C. F. Keary, Primitive Belief. Lond., 1882: p. 292.
[8] Rawlinson, The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World: Parthia and Sassania. Gorgias Press LLC, 2002.
ISBN 1-931956-47-2
[9] Glossary of Zoroastrian terms.
[10] AVESTA: YASNA (English): Chapters 54-72.
[11] http://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd19.htm
[12] AVESTA: VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 19..
[13] Exercise Bowler Issue 21.
[14] Lerner, Judith A.Les Sogdiens En ChineNouvelles Dcouvertes Historiques, Archologiques Et Linguistiques and
Two Recently Discovered Sogdian Tombs in Xi'an. Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 15 (2001): 151-62.
JSTOR 24049043.
[15] ""Les Sogdiens en Chine--Nouvelles dcouvertes historiques, archologiques et linguistiquesand Two Recently
Discovered Sogdian Tombs in Xi'an.
[16] Grenet, Frantz. Mary Boyce's Legacy for the Archaeologists.Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 22 (2008):
29-46 (illustrated on page 42). http://www.jstor.org/stable/
24049233.
CHAPTER 13. CHINVAT BRIDGE
Chapter 14
Chryse and Argyre

For the Chryse region of Mars, see Chryse Planitia.
For the Argyre region of Mars, see Argyre Planitia.
As European geographers gathered more reliable information about the Indian Ocean, the purported location of
Chryse and Argyre shifted farther and farther east to the
Chryse and Argyre were a pair of legendary islands, lo- fringes of the known world. By the time Martin Behaim
created his Erdapfel globe in 1492, the islands were though
cated in the Indian Ocean and said to be made of gold
to be near Japan, possibly because Marco Polo had claimed
(chrysos in Greek) and silver (argyros).
Japan itself (which he called Cipangu) to be rich in gold and
In Book 6, chapter 23 of his Natural History, concerning the silver; Behaim is known to have used both Pliny and Marco
regions near the Indus River, Pliny the Elder (2379 CE) Polo as sources.* [3]
wrote that Beyond the mouth of the Indus are the islands
of Chryse and Argyre, abounding in metals, I believe; but With the discovery of the Americas the search for fabled
as to what some persons have stated, that their soil consists lands of gold became focused on El Dorado, the works
of gold and silver, I am not so willing to believe that.* [1] of Isidore of Seville fell out of fashion, and the islands of
Chryse and Argyre slowly faded from the popular imaginaSome ve or six centuries later, in section XIV.vi.11 of his tion.
encyclopedic Etymologies, Isidore of Seville (c. 560636)
repeated much the same information: Chryse and Argyre
are islands situated in the Indian Ocean, so rich in metal
that many people maintain these islands have a surface of
gold and silver; whence their names are derived.* [2] This
was almost certainly takenlike much else in the Etymologies, as Isidore freely admitteddirectly from the Natural
History. Both of these Latin works, the Naturalis Historia
and especially the Etymologiae, were widely read in Europe
throughout the Middle Ages, and this ensured the survival
of the legend of the Gold and Silver Islands until the beginning of the Age of Discovery.
Schiaparelli's 1877 map matched with the actual surface of Mars

as seen from orbit by Mariner 9. Chryse and Argyre are left of
centre.* [4]
A modern facsimile of Martin Behaim's 1492 Erdapfel map.
Chryse and Argyre are in the same map section as Cipangu (Japan)
on the right, with Chryse just to the west of its southern tip, labelled
Crisis and coloured yellow-brown; Argyre is to the southwest of
Chryse, labelled Argire and coloured white.
In 1877, however, they were recalled to life by the astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli, who used the planetary opposition of that year to begin mapping the planet Mars. As
an expert in ancient astronomy and geography he was very
31
32
familiar with classical legends and fabled lands, and used
them to name the features he could see through the telescope. He assumed that dark areas might be low atseas
, as they are on the Moon, while landwould be lighter.
In particular he noted several light patches that he took to
be islands; he named the most striking circular one Hellas
(for Greece), and two others Chryse and Argyre.
It was only with the observations made from Martian orbit
by Mariner 9 in 1972 that it became clear that these light
areas were not islands at all, but depressions carpeted with
light windblown dust. Chryse is really a low at plain, but
the name has been kept, and it is now known as Chryse
Planitia, Chryse Plain. Argyre (like Hellas) is in fact
a broad impact crater, and is now Argyre Planitia, Argyre Plain, which in turn has given its name to one of the
cartographic quadrangles of the Martian atlas.
14.1 References
[1] Pliny the Elder. Bostock, John; Riley, H.T., eds. The
Natural History, Book 6. Perseus Digital Library. Tufts
University.
[2] Isidore of Seville. Barney, Stephen A.; Lewis, W.J.; Beach,
J.A.; Berghof, Oliver, eds. The Etymologies of Isidore of
Seville (pdf). sfponline.org. Cambridge University Press.
p. 294.
[3] The Behaim Globe(html). cartographic-images.net. Retrieved 29 Nov 2016.
[4] Surface Features on Mars: Ground-Based Albedo
and Radar Compared With Mariner 9 Topography. 79 (26). Journal of Geophysical Research.
1974:
39073916.
Bibcode:1974JGR....79.3907F.
doi:10.1029/JB079i026p03907.
CHAPTER 14. CHRYSE AND ARGYRE
Chapter 15
Cockaigne
For other uses, see Cockayne (disambiguation).
(OED). In Ireland it was mentioned in the "Kildare PoCockaigne or Cockayne /kken/ is a land of plenty ems" composed c.1350. In Italian, the same place is called
Paese della Cuccagna; the Flemish-Belgian equivalent
is Luilekkerland(relaxed luscious, delicious land),
translated from the Middle-Belgian word Cockaengen
, and the German equivalent is Schlaraenland. In Spain
an equivalent place is named Jauja, after a rich mining region of the Andes, and Pas de Cucaa (fools' paradise)
may also signify such a place. From Swedish dialect lubber
(fat lazy fellow) comes Lubberland,* [3] popularized in the
ballad An Invitation to Lubberland.
Pieter Bruegel the Elder's "Luilekkerland" (The Land of Cockaigne), 1567. Oil on panel. (Alte Pinakothek, Munich)
in medieval myth, an imaginary place of extreme luxury

and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand and where the harshness of medieval peasant life does not exist.* [1] Specically, in poems like The Land of Cockaigne, Cockaigne is a land of
contraries, where all the restrictions of society are deed
(abbots beaten by their monks), sexual liberty is open (nuns
ipped over to show their bottoms), and food is plentiful
(skies that rain cheeses). Writing about Cockaigne was a
commonplace of Goliard verse. It represented both wish
fulllment and resentment at the strictures of asceticism and Accurata Utopiae Tabula, anaccurate map of Utopia", Johann
Baptist Homann's map of Schlaraenland published by Matthus
death.
Seutter, Augsburg, 1730
15.1 Etymology
In the 1820s, the name Cockaigne came to be applied jocularly to London,* [4] as the land of Cockneys,* [5] and thus
Cockaigne, though the two are not linguistically connected otherwise. The composer Edward Elgar used the
title Cockaignefor his concert overture and suite evoking the people of London, Cockaigne (In London Town)
(1901).
While the rst recorded use of the name are the Latin
Cucaniensis, and the Middle English Cokaygne,
or modern-day "Cuckoo-land", one line of reasoning has
the name tracing to Middle French (pays de) cocaigne* [2]
"(land of) plenty,ultimately adapted or derived from a
word for a small sweet cake sold to children at a fair The Dutch villages of Kockengen and Koekange were
33
34
CHAPTER 15. COCKAIGNE
named after Cockaigne. The surname Cockayne also derives from the mythical land, and was originally a nickname
for an idle dreamer.* [6]
15.2 Descriptions
Like Atlantis and El Dorado, the land of Cockaigne was a
utopia, a ctional place where, in a parody of paradise, idleness and gluttony were the principal occupations. In Specimens of Early English Poets (1790), George Ellis printed a
13th-century French poem calledThe Land of Cockaigne
where the houses were made of barley sugar and cakes,
the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied
goods for nothing* [7]
Greasing the pole during the Tomatina festival of Buol, Spain.
According to Herman Pleij, Dreaming of Cockaigne: Medieval Fantasies of the Perfect Life (2001):
roasted pigs wander about with knives in their
backs to make carving easy, where grilled geese
y directly into one's mouth, where cooked sh
jump out of the water and land at one's feet. The
weather is always mild, the wine ows freely, sex
is readily available, and all people enjoy eternal
youth.* [8]
Cockaigne was amedieval peasants dream, oering relief
from backbreaking labor and the daily struggle for meager
food.* [9]
The Brothers Grimm collected and retold the fairy tale in
Das Mrchen vom Schlaraenland (The Tale About the
Land of Cockaigne).
15.3 Traditions
A Neapolitan tradition, extended to other Latin-culture
countries, is the Cockaigne pole (Italia: cuccagna; Spanish: cucaa), a horizontal or vertical pole with a prize (like
a ham) at one end. The pole is covered with grease or soap
and planted during a festival. Then, daring people try to
climb the slippery pole to get the prize. The crowd laughs
at the often failed attempts to hold on to the pole.
15.4 Legacy
Cockaigne was depicted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in

The Land of Cockaigne (1567, above).
The Land of Toys (Pleasure Island) from The Adventures of Pinocchio is said to be located in Cockaigne.
The album Land of Cockayne by Soft Machine, 1981.
Cockaigne (In London Town) is a concert overture
composed by Edward Elgar in 1901.
Cockaigne, a 2003 painting by Vincent Desiderio
Cockaigne is the home of Narda, the wife of
Mandrake the Magician (created by Lee Falk), most
recently mentioned in The Phantom (also by Lee Falk)
in the Sunday series shown on May 19, 2013. Mandrake and Narda are visiting Kit The Ghost Who
Walksand Diana Walker.* [10]
The folk song Big Rock Candy Mountain, rst
recorded by Harry McClintock in 1928, depicts a
hobo's idea of paradise along the lines of Cockaigne,
with cigarette treesand hens that lay soft-boiled
eggs.
A ski resort in Cherry Creek, New York bore the name
Cockaigne until its 2011 closure.* [11]
15.5
Appearances in media
Ego sum abbas Cucaniensis (I am the Abbot of Cockaigne) is one of the drinking songs (Carmina potatoria) 15.5.1 Film
found in the 13th-century manuscript of Songs from
Mischief in Wonderland, a 1957 German fantasy lm
Benediktbeuern, better known for its inclusion in Carl
Or's secular cantata, Carmina Burana.
starring Alexander Engel.* [12]
35
[2] Le Pastel et le Pays de Cocagne. Lautrec.fr. Retrieved

2012-10-02.
[3] Today's wwftd is... Worthless words for the day, by Michael
A. Fischer.
[4] OED notes a rst usage in 1824.
[5]Cockneyfrom a cock's egg, an implausible creature
(see also basilisk).
[6] Hanks, Patrick; Hodges, Flavia; Mills, A. D.; Room, Adrian
(2002). The Oxford Names Companion. Oxford: the University Press. ISBN 0198605617.
[7] Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham (2001-05-01). The Wordsworth
Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Wordsworth Editions. p.
265. ISBN 9781840223101.
[8] Dreaming of Cockaigne. Cup.columbia.edu. Retrieved
2012-10-02.
[9] New York Public Library: Utopia. Utopia.nypl.org. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
[10] The Phantom. seattlepi.com. 2013-05-19. Retrieved 16
September 2014.
[11] Emke, Dave (2011-01-26). Trying To Regroup: Ski Center Owners Look To Future After Fire Destroys Lodge.
The Post-Journal. Archived from the original on 2014-0222. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
[12] Aufruhr im Schlaraenland (1957), a lm by Otto Meyer
. cinema.theiapolis.com. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
15.8
External links
Original text and translations of poems of Cokaygne

Occultopedia entry
La cucaa, Francisco Goya
Reference.com Word of the Day entry
15.6 See also
Encyclopedia.com entry
Arcadia (utopia)
Paradise
Shangri-La
Utopia
15.7 References
[1] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cockaigne, Land of".
Encyclopdia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 622.
Encyclopdia Britannica entry
Chapter 16
Enchanted forest
For other uses, see Enchanted Forest (disambiguation).
In literature, an enchanted forest is a forest under, or
16.1
Folktales
The forest as a place of magic and danger is found among

folklore wherever the natural state of wild land is forest:
a forest is a location beyond which people normally travel,
where strange things might occur, and strange people might
live, the home of monsters, witches and fairies. Peasants
who seldom if ever traveled far from their villages could
not conclusively say that it was impossible that an ogre could
live an hour away.* [1] Hence, in fairy tales, Hansel and Gretel found a cannibalistic witch in the forest;* [2] Vasilissa the
Beautiful encountered Baba Yaga herself;* [3] Molly Whuppie and her sisters ran into a giant.* [4] It was in a forest that the king of The Grateful Prince lost his way, and
rashly promised his child for aid,* [5] where the heroines,
and their wicked stepsisters, of The Three Little Men in the
Wood* [6] and The Enchanted Wreath* [7] met magical tests,
and where Brother and Sister found the streams that their
evil stepmother had enchanted.* [8] In Beauty and the Beast,
Belle's father is lost in the forest when he nds the Beast's
castle.* [9] The evil cat-spirits of Schippeitaro live in the forest.* [10]
Indeed, in Grimm's Fairy Tales, the hero always goes into
the forest. It is not itself enchanted, but it contains enchantments and, being outside normal human experience, acts as
a place of transformation.* [11] The German fairy tale has
an unusual tendency to take place in the forest; even such
"Genoveva in the Forest Seclusionby Adrian Ludwig Richter a neighboring countries as France or Italy are less like to have
refuge and a magical deer.
fairy tales situated in the forest.* [12]
containing, enchantments. Such forests are described in the

oldest folklore from regions where forests are common, and
occur throughout the centuries to modern works of fantasy.
They represent places unknown to the characters, and situations of liminality and transformation.
Even in folklore, forests can also be places of magical

refuge.* [13] Snow White found refuge with dwarfs from her
stepmother,* [14] The Girl Without Hands found a hut to
stay in when she had been slandered to her husband,* [15]
and Genevieve of Brabant found not only a refuge from slander but a doe magically came to her aid.* [16] Even Brother
and Sister hid in the forest after their stepmother turned the
brother into a deer.
The forest can feature as a place of threatening danger, or At other times, the marvels they meet are benecial. In the
one of refuge, or a chance at adventure.
forest, the hero of a fairy tale can meet and have mercy
36
16.3. MEDIEVAL ROMANCE
37
Gilgamesh and Enkidu traveled to the Cedar Forest to ght
the monsters there and be the rst to cut down its trees.
In Norse myth and legend, Myrkvir (or Mirkwood) was
dark and dangerous forest that separated various lands;
heroes and even gods had to traverse it with diculty.* [23]
Romans referred to the Hercynian Forest, in Germania, as
an enchanted place; though most references in their works
are to geography, Julius Caesar mentioned unicorns said
to live there, and Pliny the Elder, birds with feathers that
glowed.
16.3
Medieval romance
In Tsarevitch Ivan, the Fire Bird and the Gray Wolf, the hero,
heroine, and wolf travel through the forest.
on talking animals that aid him.* [17] The king in many

variants of the ballad The Famous Flower of Serving-Men
nds an enchanted hind that leads him astray uncanny, but
it brings him to a talking bird that reveals to him a murder and that a servant of his is actually a woman, whom the
king then marries.* [18] It is in the forest that the dwarf of
Rumpelstiltskin* [19] and the fairy of Whuppity Stoorie* [20]
reveal their true names and therefore the heroines of those
tales have a way to free themselves. In Schippeitaro, the cats
reveal their fear of the dog Schippeitaro when the hero of
the tale spends the night in the forest.* [10]
The creatures of the forest need not be magical to have
much the same eect; Robin Hood, living in the greenwood, has anities to the enchanted forest.* [21] Even in
fairy tales, robbers may serve the roles of magical beings;
in an Italian variant of Snow White, Bella Venezia, the heroine takes refuge not with dwarfs but with robbers.* [22]
16.2 Mythology
The danger of the folkloric forest is an opportunity for the
heroes of legend. Among the oldest of all recorded tales,
the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh recounts how the heroes
Gustave Dors illustration to Orlando Furioso: a knight and his

men see a knight and lady approach in the forest.
The gure of an enchanted forest was taken up into chivalric

romances; the knight-errant would wander in a trackless
forest in search of adventure.* [24] As in the fairy tales, he
could easily nd marvels that would be disbelieved closer
to home. John Milton wrote in Paradise Regained (Bk ii.
359) of
Fairy damsels met in forest wide
By knights of Logres, or of Lyones,
38
CHAPTER 16. ENCHANTED FOREST

Jerusalem Delivered by Torquato Tasso (1581), enchantments placed on the only forest near Jerusalem prevent the
Crusaders from constructing siege engines for most of the
epic poem, until they are broken by Rinaldo.
Giacinto Gimignani, Rinaldo and Armida meet in the enchanted

forest in Jerusalem Delivered.
and such ladies could be not only magical aid to the knight,
but ladies for courtly love.* [25] Huon of Bordeaux met the
fairy king Oberon in the forest.* [26] Guillaume de Palerme
hid there with the princess he loved, and found a werewolf
who would aid him. In Valentine and Orson, the Queen is
sent into exile and so forced to give birth in the woods; one
child, taken by a bear, turns to a wild man of the woods,
who later aids Valentine, his long-lost brother.* [27] In the
Dolopathosvariant of the Swan Children, a lord nds a
mysterious woman clearly a swan maiden or fairy in an
enchanted forest and marries her.* [28] Genevieve of Brabant, having rebued a would-be lover and found herself
accused of adultery by him, escaped to the forest.* [29]
This forest could easily bewilder the knights. Despite many
references to its pathlessness, the forest repeatedly confronts knights with forks and crossroads, of a labyrinthine
complexity.* [30] The signicance of their encounters is often explained to the knights particularly those searching
for the Holy Grail by hermits acting as wise old men or
women.* [31] Still, despite their perils and chances of error,
such forests are places where the knights may become worthy and nd the object of their quest; one romance has a
maiden urging Sir Lancelot on his quest for the Holy Grail,
which quickens with life and greenness like the forest.
*
[32]
While these works were being written, expanding geographical knowledge, and the decrease of woodland for
farmland, meant the decrease of forests that could be presumed magical. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, William
Shakespeare wrote of a forest that was enchanted specically by the presence of Oberon and Titania, the fairy king
and queen; like many forests in Shakespeare's works, it becomes a place of metamorphosis and resolution.* [34] Others of his plays, such as As You Like It, take place in a forest,
which contains no enchantments but acts much as the forest
of folklore.* [21]
16.5
Known inhabitants and traits
The forest is often lled with magical animals, plants,

maybe even magical rocks and creeks.
Often there will be Dragons, Dwarfs, Elves, Fairies, Giants,
Gnomes, Goblins, Imps, Ogres, Trolls, Unicorns, and other
mythical creatures.
The vegetation consists of trees that talk or with branches
that will push people o their horses, thorny bushes which
will open to let people in but close and leave people stuck
inside, and other plants that move, or turn into animals at
night, or the like.
Some stories have sorcerers and witches living somewhere
in the depths of the forest.
Perhaps there will even be creeks which will turn unwary
travelers into frogs if drunk from.
16.6
Modern fantasy and other media
The use of enchanted forests shaded into modern fantasy

with no distinct breaking point, stemming from the very
*
Dante Alighieri used this image in the opening of the earliest fantasies. [35]
Divine Comedy story Inferno, where he depicted his state
as allegorically being lost in a dark wood.* [33]
In George MacDonald's Phantastes, the hero nds
himself in a wood as dark and tangled as Dante's, una
selva obscura that blots out sunlight and is utterly still,
without any beasts or birdsong.* [35]
16.4 Renaissance
In the Renaissance, both Orlando Furioso and The Faerie

Queene had knight-errants who traveled in the woods. In
The more inviting but no less enchanted forest in The

Golden Key borders Fairyland and draws the hero to
nd the title key at the end of the rainbow.* [36]
16.6. MODERN FANTASY AND OTHER MEDIA

In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, L. Frank Baum depicted the wild and dangerous parts of the Land of Oz
as being forested, and indeed, inhabited with animated
trees with human-like traits, a common feature in children's literature.* [37]
William T. Cox in his 1910 work Fearsome Creatures of the Lumberwoods based the entire book o
of actual forests across North America; however, the
author combines these factual locations with fantastic
encounters between lumberjacks and mysterious creatures.* [38]
J.R.R. Tolkien made use of forests as representing enchantment and the ancientness of the world:
Mirkwood, Fangorn forest, and the Old Forest.* [39]
He also made use of folklore about trees, such as
the willow, believed to uproot themselves and stalk
travelers, in Old Man Willow.* [40] His elves are
strongly associated with forests, especially Mirkwood
and Lothlrien.* [41] Still more, Tom Bombadil is a
genius loci of the Old Forest, the wooded land about
the Shire,* [42] and the ents act as the forest come to
life.* [43]
Following J.R.R. Tolkien's work, the enchanted forest
is often a magical place in modern fantasy. It continues
to be a place unknown to the characters, where strange
dangers lurk.* [44]
The Enchanted Forest is particularly close to folklore
in fairytale fantasy, featuring in such works as James
Thurber's The White Deer and The 13 Clocks.* [45]
In the contemporary fantasy Harry Potter books, the
Forbidden Forest near Hogwarts is forbidden because
of its magical nature. The home of unicorns, centaurs,
and Acromantulas (a race of giant spiders), it continues the tradition of the forest as a place of wild things
and danger.* [46]
In Suzanna Clarke's Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell,
the Raven King's capital city of Newcastle in Northern England was surrounded by four magical wood,
with names like Petty Egypt, and St. Sirlow's Blessing.
These forests were supposedly enchanted by the Raven
King himself to defend his city. They could move
around, and supposedly devoured people approaching
the city with the intent of bringing harm to it. Clarke
brings the notion of magical places to life by contrasting this historical account within the story itself, to the
actual depictions of magical woods within the story,
where the trees themselves can be regarded as friend
or foe, and have alliances formed with magicians.* [47]
39
In My Neighbor Totoro, the forest home of the Totoros
is an idyllic place where no harm will come to the heroines of the movies.* [48]
In contrast in the Touhou Project series by ZUN,
the Forest of Magic is an extremely dangerous place
crawling with Youkai.
In Once Upon a Time, the Enchanted Forest is the main
setting that is located in the Fairy Tale World. It is often shown to viewers in the ashbacks of those who
live there ever since the Dark Curse enacted by the
Evil Queen and her followers brought them to Earth
in the form of Storybrooke. Some of the known locations include Aurora's Palace, the Beanstalk (which
leads up to a kingdom of giants), a kingdom that
was formerly ruled by King George, the Dark Castle
(where the current Dark One named Rumplestiltskin
lives), the Dark Dungeon (which Rumpelstiltskin was
once imprisoned and was built by Dwarves), the Dark
Palace (where the Evil Queen rules after poisoning
Snow White's father King Leopold), Demon's Blu,
Firey Hill, the Forbidden Fortress (which serves as a
retreat for Malecent), a Gingerbread House (where
the second Blind Witch resides), Glinda's Pocket Dimension, Granny's House (where Red's grandma resides), Hamelin (where Peter Pan posed as a Pied
Piper to bring children to Neverland), Hangman's Island (which is somewhere near the Enchanted Forest),
a House and Stables (where Cora and Henry raised a
younger version of the Evil Queen), the Innite Forest (a forest that loops around and traps those who enter it), King Midas' Kingdom, Lake Nostros (a lake
with waters which can magically restore something
or someone to a former state which is guarded by a
Siren), Maurice's Castle (where Sir Maurice lives),
Mulan's Home, Nottingham, Prince Eric's Kingdom,
Rapunzel's Tower, Rumplestiltskin's House (where
Rumplestiltskin raised Baelre), Ruth's Sheep Farm,
the Seven Dwarfs' Cottage, Sherwood Forest, the Safe
Haven (a community in the corner of the Enchanted
Forest that served as a refuge for those who weren't
aected by the Dark Curse), the Troll Bridge, and the
Werewolves' Den. There is also a desert that separates the Enchanted Forest from Agrabah. InA Tale
of Two Sisters,the Enchanted Forest's real name is
revealed to be Misthaven and is across the sea from
Arendelle.
The Enchanted Forest is featured in Ever After High.
It is a location in the Fairytale World that is located
next to Ever After High and the Village of Book End.
The students of Ever After High hang out there often....Especially when the students need time alone.
For this purpose, there's a gazebo located deep in the
40
CHAPTER 16. ENCHANTED FOREST

forest.
[16] Max Lthi, Once Upon A Time: On the Nature of Fairy Tales,
p 76, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York, 1970
There is an orchestral interpretation of The Enchanted

Forest. It was written by Loris O. Chobanian and given [17] Jack Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to
the Modern World, p 115, ISBN 0-312-29380-1
a world premiere in 1998 by the Heights Chamber Orchestra under the direction of Eric Berken. The work
[18] "The Famous Flower of Serving-Men"
is for orchestra and narrator. It is a Middle-Eastern
variation on the European themes of the myth. The [19] Jacob and Wilheim Grimm, "Rumpelstiltskin", Grimm's
performance can be found here.
Fairy Tales
16.7 See also

Hylophobia
[20] John Rhys, "Whuppity Stoorie", Celtic Folklore: Welsh and

Manx. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1901. Volume 2.
[21] Holt, J. C. Robin Hood p 9 (1982) Thames & Hudson. ISBN
0-500-27541-6.
Mythago Wood
[22] Italo Calvino, Italian Folktales p 739 ISBN 0-15-645489-0
Thai Forest Tradition
[23] L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers:

The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 227 ISBN 0-87054-0769
Ykai
16.8 References
[1] C. S. Lewis, On Science Fiction, Of Other Worlds, p68
ISBN 0-15-667897-7
[2] Heidi Anne Heiner, The Annotated Hansel and Gretel
[3] Heidi Anne Heiner,The Annotated Vasilissa the Beautiful
[4] Joseph Jacobs, "Molly Whuppie", English Fairy Tales
[5] W. F. Kirby, "The Grateful Prince", The Hero of Esthonia
[6] Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, "The Three Little Men in the
Wood" Household Tales
[7] Andrew Lang, "The Enchanted Wreath", The Yellow Fairy
Book
[8] Heidi Anne Heiner, The Annotated Brother and Sister
[9] Betsy Hearne, Beauty and the Beast: Visions and Revisions
of an Old Tale, p 28, ISBN 0-226-32239-4
[10] Andrew Lang, The Violet Fairy Book, Schippeitaro
[11] Jack Zipes, The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to
the Modern World, p 65-67, ISBN 0-312-29380-1
[12] Paul Delarue, The Borzoi Book of French Folk-Tales, p xvii,
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York 1956
[13] Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p73,
ISBN 0-691-06722-8
[14] Heidi Anne Heiner, The Annotated Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs
[15] Heid Anne Heiner, The Annotated Girl Without Hands
[24] Maurice Keen, The Outlaws of Medieval Legend p 1-2 ISBN

0-88029-454-X
[25] C.S. Lewis, The Discarded Image, p130 ISBN 0-521-477352
[26] Katharine Briggs, An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins,
Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures,Huon
de Bordeaux, p227. ISBN 0-394-73467-X
[27] Margaret Schlauch, Chaucer's Constance and Accused
Queens, New York: Gordian Press 1969 p 91-2
[28] Laura A. Hibbard, Medieval Romance in England pp. 240-1
New York: Burt Franklin, 1963.
[29] Margaret Schlauch, Chaucer's Constance and Accused
Queens, New York: Gordian Press 1969 p 107
[30] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, p 177, ISBN 08014-8000-0
[31] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, p 179181, ISBN
0-8014-8000-0
[34] Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p 182, ISBN 0-69101298-9
[35] Marion Lochhead, Renaissance of Wonder p6 ISBN 0-06250520-3
16.8. REFERENCES
[36] Marion Lochhead, Renaissance of Wonder p23 ISBN 0-06250520-3

[37] L. Frank Baum, Michael Patrick Hearn, The Annotated Wizard of Oz, p 303, ISBN 0-517-50086-8
[38] Cox, William T. with Latin Classications by George
B. Sudworth. Fearsome Creatures of the Lumberwoods.
(Washington, D.C.: Judd & Detweiler Inc., 1910. Fearsomecreaturesofthelumberwoods.com. Retrieved 2014-1219.
[39] John Clute and John Grant, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
Forestsp 362 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
[40] Katharine Briggs, An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins,
Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures,Fairy
trees, p159. ISBN 0-394-73467-X
[41] Andrew Light, Tolkien's Green Time: Environmental
Themes in The Lord of the Rings", p 153, The Lord of the
Rings and Philosophy, ISBN 0-8126-9545-3
[42] Tom Shippley, The Road to Middle-earth, p 108, ISBN 0618-25760-8
[43] Andrew Light, Tolkien's Green Time: Environmental
Themes in The Lord of the Rings", p 154, The Lord of the
Rings and Philosophy, ISBN 0-8126-9545-3
[44] Philip Martin, The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature:
From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest, p 115, ISBN 0-87116195-8
[45] Brian Attebery, The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature, p 148, ISBN 0-253-35665-2
[46] David Colbert, The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter, p 91-2,
ISBN 0-9708442-0-4
[47] Suzanna Clarke, Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell, London;
Bloomsbury Publishing, 2004.
[48] Helen McCarthy, Hayao Miyazaki: Master of Japanese Animation, p 123, ISBN 1-880656-41-8
41
Chapter 17
Fairyland
This article is about mythical land of fairies. For other
uses, see Fairyland (disambiguation).
Fairyland, in folklore, is the fabulous land or abode of
fairies or fays.* [1]
17.1 Folklore
Fairyland may be referred to simply asFairyorFaerie,
though that usage is an archaism. It is often the land ruled
by the "Queen of Fairy,and thus anything from fairyland
is also sometimes described as being from theCourt of the
Queen of Elfame" or from Seelie court in Scottish folklore. One of the entrances to the Cleeves Cove cave system, the Elf
The Scots word elfame or elphynefairyland* [2] has other Hameof the Bessie Dunlop story
variant forms, attested in Scottish witch trials, but Elf-hame
or Elphame with the -hame stem (meaninghomein Scots) Elphyneglossed asEland* [9] orFairyland.* [10]
were conjectural readings by Pitcairn.
In the medieval verse romance and the Scottish ballad of
Thomas the Rhymer the title character is spirited away by
a female supernatural being. Although identied by com17.2 In English and Scots texts
mentators as the Queen of Fairies, the texts refrain from
specically naming her or her domain except in ballad verRecords of the Scottish witch trials reveal that many ini- sion A, in which she is referred to as the Queen of Eland.
tiates claimed to have had congress with the Queen of Poet and novelist Robert Graves published his own alterElfameand her retinue. On 8 November 1576 mid- ation of the ballad, replacing her name with Queen of
wife Bessie Dunlop, a resident of Dalry, Scotland, was ac- Elphame":
cused of sorcery and witchcraft. She answered her accusers
that she had received tuition from Thomas Reid, a former
I'm not the Queen of Heaven, Thomas,
barony ocer who had died at the Battle of Pinkie 30 years
That name does not belong to me;
earlier, and from the Queen ofCourt of Elfamethat lay
I am but the Queen of fair Elphame
nearby.* [3] It resulted in a conviction and she was burned
Come out to hunt in my follie.
at the stake* [4] in 1576.
Allison Peirson was burned as a witch in 1588 for conversing with the Queen of Elfame, and for prescribing magic
charms and potions. (Byre Hills, Fife, Scotland)* [5] This
same woman (styled Alison Pearson) is also featured
in Robert Sempill's ballad (1583) where she is said to have
been in a fairy-ride.* [6]* [7]* [8] Sempill's piece mentions
Elfhame or Eland, is portrayed in a variety of ways in these

ballads and stories, most commonly as mystical and benevolent, but also at times as sinister and wicked. The mysteriousness of the land, and its otherworldly powers are a source
of scepticism and distrust in many tales. Additional journeys to the realm include the fairy tale "Childe Rowland",
42
17.4. REFERENCES
which presents a particularly negative view of the land.
17.3 See also

lfheimr
Tr na ng
17.4 References
Citations
[1] fairyland. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
public library membership required.)
[2] DOST ( Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue); Dictionary of the Scots Language. Retrieved October 2013.
Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
[3] Pitcairn (1833a), pp. 49-, 53, 56, 57.
[4] Pitcairn (1833a), p. 58.
[5] Pitcairn (1833b), pp. 162165.
[6] Pitcairn (1833b), p. 163n.
[7] Henderson & Cowan (2001), p. 166.
[8] Sempill (1891), p. 365.
[9] Volume 2 (1893), p. 320
[10] DOST (Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue) entry, retrieved using the electronic Dictionary of the Scots Language. Retrieved October 2013. Check date values in:
|access-date= (help)
Bibliography
Henderson, Lizanne; Cowan, Edward J. (2001).
Scottish Fairy Belief: A History. Dundrun. ISBN
9781862321908.
Pitcairn, Robert, ed. (1833a). Ancient Criminal Trials
in Scotland. Volume 1, part 1. Bannatyne Club.
Pitcairn, Robert, ed. (1833b). Ancient Criminal Trials
in Scotland. Volume 1, part 3.
Sempill, Robert (1891). Poem 45, v.372. In
Cranstoun, James. Satirical Poems of the Time of the
Reformation. Volume 1. William Blackwell and Sons
for the Scottish Text Society.
43
Chapter 18
Grove of fetters
the horrible beginning of their barbarous rite. Reverence also in other
ways is paid to the grove. No one enters it except bound with a chain, as
an inferior acknowledging the might
of the local divinity. If he chance to
fall, it is not lawful for him to be lifted
up, or to rise to his feet; he must crawl
out along the ground. All this superstition implies the belief that from this
spot the nation took its origin, that
here dwells the supreme and all-ruling
deity, to whom all else is subject and
obedient.
The Semnones' Grove of Fetters (1905) by Emil Doepler.
A Grove of fetters (Old Norse: Fjturlundr) is mentioned

Due to the resemblance between the two texts some scholars
in the Eddic poem Helgakvia Hundingsbana II:
have identied the deity of the Semnones with an early form
of Odin. Others suggest an early form of Tr may have been
Helgi obtained Sigrn, and they
involved as he is the Germanic continuation of Proto-Indohad sons. Helgi lived not to be old.
European sky-father '*dyeus', whose cognates are Jupiter
Dag, the son of Hgni, sacriced
and Zeus. Furthermore Tacitus reports that the Germanic
to Odin, for vengeance for his fapeoples of his age regarded a Tuiscoor Tuistoas
ther. Odin lent Dag his spear. Dag
the progenitor of mankind, which is sometimes surmised to
met with his relation Helgi in a place
be a Latinisation of Proto-Germanic '*Tiwaz', which later
called Fiturlund, and pierced him
becameTrin Old Norse. Ultimately there is insucient
through with his spear. Helgi fell
evidence for a certain identication.
there, but Dag rode to the mountains
and told Sigrn what had taken place.
Helgakvia Hundingsbana II,
18.1 References
Thorpe's translation
The description is often compared with a section by Tacitus
on a sacred grove of the Semnones:
Bksted, Anders (1986). Go og hetjur heinum si,

Eysteinn orvaldsson translated to Icelandic. Reykjavk: rn og rlygur. p. 93. Favors Odin.
Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1964). Gods and Myths of
Northern Europe. Penguin. p. 59 Favors Tr.
At a stated period, all the tribes

of the same race assemble by their
representatives in a grove consecrated
by the auguries of their forefathers,
and by immemorial associations of
terror. Here, having publicly slaughtered a human victim, they celebrate
Lindow, John (2001). Handbook of Norse mythology.

Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-57607-217-7.
Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology.
1993. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.
44
18.2. FURTHER READING

ISBN 0-85991-369-4. New edition 2000, ISBN 085991-513-1. p. 280. Favors Odin.
Tacitus, Cornelius (translated by Thomas Gordon).
Germania. Medieval Sourcebook edition
Thorpe, Benjamin (tr.) (1866). Edda Smundar
Hinns Froa : The Edda Of Smund The Learned. (2
vols.) London: Trbner & Co.: The Second Lay of
Helgi Hundingcide
18.2 Further reading

The following works are listed in Rudolf Simek's Dictionary.
O. Her (1952). Das Opfer im Semnonenhain
und die Edda(Edda, Skalden, Saga. Festschrift fr
Genzmer) Heidelberg.
R. W. Fischer (1963). Vinculo ligatus(Antaios 5).
R. Much (1967). Die Germania des Tacitus. Heidelberg.
J. de Vries (1970). Altgermanische Religiongeschichte.
Berlin.
45
Chapter 19
Hyperborea
For other uses, see Hyperborea (disambiguation).
In Greek mythology the Hyperboreans (Ancient Greek:
Never the Muse is absent

from their ways: lyres clash and utes cry
and everywhere maiden choruses whirling.
Neither disease nor bitter old age is mixed
in their sacred blood; far from labor and battle
they live.* [1]
Arctic continent on the Gerardus Mercator map of 1595.
(), pronounced [hyperbre()i]; Latin: Hyperborei) were mythical people who lived beyond the North
Wind. The Greeks thought that Boreas, the god of the
North Wind (one of the Anemoi, or Winds) lived in
Thrace, and therefore Hyperborea indicates a region that
lay far to the north of Thrace.
This land was supposed to be perfect, with the sun shining
twenty-four hours a day, which to modern ears suggests a
possible location within the Arctic Circle. However, it is
also possible that Hyperborea had no real physical location
at all, for according to the classical Greek poet Pindar,
neither by ship nor on foot would you nd
the marvellous road to the assembly of the Hyperboreans.
19.1
Early sources
19.1.1
Herodotus
The earliest extant source that mentions Hyperborea in detail, Herodotus's Histories (Book IV, Chapters 3236),* [2]
dates from circa 450 BC.* [3] However, Herodotus recorded
three earlier sources that supposedly mentioned the Hyperboreans, including Hesiod and Homer, the latter purportedly having written of Hyperborea in his lost work Epigoni:
if that be really a work of his. Herodotus also wrote that
the 7th-century BC poet Aristeas wrote of the Hyperboreans in a poem (now lost) called Arimaspea about a journey to the Issedones, who are estimated to have lived in
the Kazakh Steppe.* [4] Beyond these lived the one-eyed
Arimaspians, further on the gold-guarding grins, and beyond these the Hyperboreans.* [5] Herodotus assumed that
Hyperborea lay somewhere in Northeast Asia.
Pindar, Simonides of Ceos and Hellanicus of Lesbos, contemporaries of Herodotus in the 5th century BC, each
briey described or referenced the Hyperboreans in their
works.* [6]
19.1.2
Location of Hyperborea
The Hyperboreans were believed to live beyond the snowy

Riphean Mountains.
Pindar also described the otherworldly perfection of the According to Pausanias: The land of the Hyperboreans,
Hyperboreans:
men living beyond the home of Boreas.* [7]
46
19.2. LEGENDS
47
Homer placed Boreas in Thrace, and therefore Hyperborea 19.1.4 Ancient identication with Britain
was in his opinion north of Thrace, in Dacia.* [8]
Hyperborea was identied with Britain rst by Hecataeus of
Sophocles (Antigone, 980987), Aeschylus (Agamemnon,
Abdera in the 4th century BC, as in a preserved fragment
193; 651), Simonides of Ceos (Schol. on Apollonius
by Diodorus Siculus:
Rhodius, 1. 121) and Callimachus (Delian, [IV] 65) also
*
placed Boreas in Thrace. [9] Other ancient writers howIn the regions beyond the land of the Celts
ever believed the home of Boreas or the Riphean Mounthere lies in the ocean an island no smaller than
tains were in a dierent location. For example, Hecataeus
Sicily. This island, the account continues, is sitof Miletus believed that the Riphean Mountains were aduated in the north and is inhabited by the Hyjacent to the Black Sea.* [8] Alternatively Pindar placed
perboreans, who are called by that name because
the home of Boreas, the Riphean Mountains and Hypertheir home is beyond the point whence the north
borea all near the Danube.* [10] Heraclides Ponticus and
wind (Boreas) blows; and the island is both fertile
Antimachus in contrast identied the Riphean Mountains
and productive of every crop, and has an unusuwith the Alps, and the Hyperboreans as a Celtic tribe (perally temperate climate.* [22]
haps the Helvetii) who lived just beyond them.* [11] Aristotle placed the Riphean mountains on the borders of Scythia,
and Hyperborea further north.* [12] Hecataeus of Abdera Hecateaus of Abdera also wrote that the Hyperboreans had
and others believed Hyperborea was Britain (see below).
on their islanda magnicent sacred precinct of Apollo and
Later Roman and Greek sources continued to change the a notable temple which is adorned with many votive oerlocation of the Riphean mountains, the home of Boreas, ings and is spherical in shape. Some scholars have iden*
*
as well as Hyperborea, supposedly located beyond them. tied this temple with Stonehenge. [19] [23] Diodorus,
however,
does
not
identify
Hyperborea
with
Britain, and
However all these sources agreed these were all in the
*
his
description
of
Britain
(5.21-23)
makes
no
mention of
far north of Greece or southern Europe. [13] The ancient
the
Hyperboreans
or
their
spherical
temple.
(See
the secgrammarian Simmias of Rhodes in the 3rd century BC con*
tion
Legendsbelow.)
nected the Hyperboreans to the Massagetae [14] and Posidonius in the 1st century BC to the Western Celts, but Pseudo-Scymnus, around 90 BC, wrote that Boreas dwelled
Pomponius Mela placed them even further north in the at the extremity of Gaulish territory, and that he had a pilvicinity of the Arctic.* [15]
lar erected in his name on the edge of the sea (Periegesis,
In maps based on reference points and descriptions given by 183). Some have claimed this is a geographical reference to
Strabo,* [16] Hyperborea, shown variously as a peninsula or northern France, and Hyperborea as the British Isles which
*
island, is located beyond what is now France, and stretches lay just beyond the English Channel. [24]
further north-south than east-west.* [17] Other descriptions Ptolemy (Geographia, 2. 21) and Marcian of Heraclea
put it in the general area of the Ural Mountains.
(Periplus, 2. 42) both placed Hyperborea in the North Sea
which they called the Hyperborean Ocean.* [25]
In his 1726 work on the druids, John Toland specically
identied Diodorus' Hyperborea with the Isle of Lewis, and
the spherical temple with the Callanish Stones.* [26]
19.1.3
Later classical sources
19.2
Legends
Plutarch, writing in the 1st century AD, connected the Hyperboreans with the Gauls who had sacked Rome in the 4th Alone among the Twelve Olympians, Apollo was venerated
among the Hyperboreans, the Hellenes thought: he spent his
century BC (see Battle of the Allia).* [18]
winter amongst them.* [27] For their part the HyperboreAelian, Diodorus Siculus and Stephen of Byzantium all ans sent mysterious gifts, packed in straw, which came rst
recorded important ancient Greek sources on Hyperborea, to Dodona and then were passed from tribe to tribe until
but added no new descriptions.* [19]
they came to Apollo's temple on Delos (Pausanias). Abaris,
The 2nd century AD Stoic philosopher Hierocles equated Hyperborean priest of Apollo, was a legendary wandering
the Hyperboreans with the Scythians, and the Riphean healer and seer. Theseus visited the Hyperboreans, and
Mountains with the Ural Mountains.* [20] Clement of Pindar transferred Perseus's encounter with Medusa there
Alexandria and other early Christian writers also made this from its traditional site in Libya, to the dissatisfaction of his
same Scythian equation.* [21]
Alexandrian editors.* [28]
48
CHAPTER 19. HYPERBOREA

Diodorus Siculus added to this account: And the kings of
this (Hyperborean) city and the supervisors of the sacred
precinct are called Boreadae, since they are descendants of
Boreas, and the succession to these positions is always kept
in their family.* [31]
The Boreades were thus believed to be giant kings, around
10 feet tall, who ruled Hyperborea.
No other physical descriptions of the Hyperboreans are provided in classical sources.* [32] However, Aelius Herodianus, a grammarian in the 3rd century, wrote that the mythical Arimaspi were identical to the Hyperboreans in physical
appearance (De Prosodia Catholica, 1. 114) and Stephanus
of Byzantium in the 6th century wrote the same (Ethnica,
118. 16). The ancient poet Callimachus described the AriOn this 1570 map, Hyperborea is shown as an Arctic continent and
maspi
as having fair hair* [33] but it is disputed whether the
described asTerra Septemtrionalis Incognita(Unknown Northern
*
Land). Notice the similarities in the continent to that of Mercator's Arimaspi were Hyperboreans. [34]
map above.
19.2.2
Along with Thule, Hyperborea was one of several terrae
incognitae to the Greeks and Romans, where Pliny, Pindar
and Herodotus, as well as Virgil and Cicero, reported that
people lived to the age of one thousand and enjoyed lives of
complete happiness. Hecataeus of Abdera collated all the
stories about the Hyperboreans current in the fourth century
BC and published a lengthy treatise on them, lost to us, but
noted by Diodorus Siculus (ii.47.12).* [29] Also, the sun
was supposed to rise and set only once a year in Hyperborea;
which would place it above or upon the Arctic Circle, or,
more generally, in the arctic polar regions.
From east to west: Celts as Hyperboreans
Six classical Greek authors also came to identify these

mythical people at the back of the North Wind with their
Celtic neighbours in the north: Antimachus of Colophon,
Protarchus, Heraclides Ponticus, Hecataeus of Abdera,
Apollonius of Rhodes and Posidonius of Apamea. The way
the Greeks understood their relationship with non-Greek
peoples was signicantly moulded by the way myths of the
Golden Age were transplanted into the contemporary scene,
especially in the context of Greek colonisation and trade.
As the Riphean mountains of the mythical past were identied with the Alps of northern Italy, there was at least a
geographic rationale for identifying the Hyperboreans with
the Celts living in and beyond the Alps, or at least the Hyperborean lands with the lands inhabited by the Celts. A
reputation for feasting and a love of gold may have reinforced the connection.* [35]
The ancient Greek writer Theopompus in his work Philippica claimed Hyperborea was once planned to be conquered
by a large race of soldiers from another island (some have
claimed this was Atlantis), the plan though was abandoned
because the soldiers from Meropis realized the Hyperboreans were too strong for them and the most blessed of people;
this unusual tale, which some believe was satire or comedy,
In Ireland, however, the Celts had their own legends of an
was preserved by Aelian (Varia Historia, 3. 18).
advanced civilization in the far north. The Book of InvaApollonius wrote that the Argonauts sighted Hyperborea, sions records that this civilization was established by miwhen they sailed through Eridanos.
grants from Ireland, whose descendants returned to settle
Ireland several centuries later:
19.2.1
Physical appearance
Greek legend asserts that the Boreades, who were the

descendants of Boreas and the snow-nymph Chione (or
Khione), founded the rst theocratic monarchy on Hyperborea. This legend is found preserved in the writings of
Aelian: This god [Apollon] has as priests the sons of
Boreas (North Wind) and Chione (Snow), three in number,
brothers by birth, and six cubits in height [about 3 metres].
*
[30]
Bethach son of Iarbonel the Soothsayer son

of Nemed: his descendants went into the northern islands of the world to learn druidry and heathenism and diabolical knowledge, so that they
became expert in all the arts. And their descendants were the Tuatha De Danann ... These latter
acquired knowledge and science and diabolism in
four cities: Failias, Goirias, Findlias and Muirias
... Thereafter the Tuatha De Danann came to
Ireland, without ships, passing through the air in
19.4. IDENTIFICATION AS HYPERBOREANS

dark clouds.* [36]
49
Amber arrived in Greek hands from some place known to
be far to the north. Avram Davidson proposed the theory
that Hyperborea was derived from a logical (though erroneous) explanation by the Greeks for the insects, which apparently originated in a warm climate, found embedded inside the amber arriving in their cities from cold northern
countries.* [38]
Unaware of the explanation oered by modern science (i.e.
that these insects had lived in times when the climate of
northern Europe was much warmer, their bodies preserved
unchanged in the amber) the Greeks came up with the idea
that the coldness of northern countries was due to the cold
breath of Boreas, the North Wind. So if one travelledbeyond Boreasone would nd a warm and sunny land.
Map by Abraham Ortelius, Amsterdam 1572: at the top left

Oceanvs Hyperborevs separates Iceland from Greenland
19.2.3
Abaris the Hyperborean
A particular Hyperborean legendary healer was known as

Abarisor Abaris the Healerwhom Herodotus rst
described in his works. Plato (Charmides, 158C) regarded
Abaris as a physician from the far north, while Strabo
reported Abaris was Scythian like the early philosopher
Anacharsis (Geographica, 7. 3. 8).
19.3 Modern interpretations

As with other legends of this sort, details can be selectively
reconciled with modern knowledge. Above the Arctic Circle, from the spring equinox to the autumnal equinox (depending on latitude), the sun can shine for 24 hours a day;
at the extreme (that is, the Pole), it rises and sets only once
a year, possibly leading to the erroneous conclusion that a
dayfor such persons is a year long, and therefore that living a thousand days would be the same as living a thousand
years.
Since Herodotus places the Hyperboreans beyond the
Massagetae and Issedones, both Central Asian peoples, it
appears that his Hyperboreans may have lived in Siberia.
Heracles sought the golden-antlered hind of Artemis in
Hyperborea. As the reindeer is the only deer species of
which females bear antlers, this would suggest an arctic
or subarctic region. Following J. D. P. Bolton's location
of the Issedones on the south-western slopes of the Altay
mountains, Carl P. Ruck places Hyperborea beyond the
Dzungarian Gate into northern Xinjiang, noting that the Hyperboreans were probably Chinese.* [37]
19.4
Identication as Hyperboreans
Northern Europeans (Scandinavians), when confronted

with the classical Greco-Roman culture of the Mediterranean, identied themselves with the Hyperboreans, neglecting the traditional aspect of a perpetually sunny land
beyond the north. This idea was especially strong during the
17th century in Sweden, where the later representatives of
the ideology of Gothicism declared the Scandinavian peninsula both the lost Atlantis and the Hyperborean land. The
north of the Scandinavian peninsula is crossed by the Arctic
Circle, north of which there are sunless days during the
winter and sunlit nights during the summer. Western European culture equally self-identied as Hyperborean; thus
Washington Irving, in elaborating on Astoria in the Pacic
Northwest, was of the opinion that
While the ery and magnicent Spaniard, inamed with the mania for gold, has extended
his discoveries and conquests over those brilliant
countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics, the adroit and buoyant Frenchman, and the
cool and calculating Briton, have pursued the
less splendid, but no less lucrative, trac in furs
amidst the hyperborean regions of the Canadas,
until they have advanced even within the Arctic
Circle.* [39]
In this vein the self-describedHyperborean-Roman Company(Hyperboreisch-rmische Gesellschaft) were a group
of northern European scholars who studied classical ruins
in Rome, founded in 1824 by Theodor Panofka, Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, August Kestner and Eduard Gerhard.
Friedrich Nietzsche referred to his sympathetic readers as
Hyperboreans in The Antichrist (written 1888, published
1895): Let us look each other in the face. We are Hyperboreans we know well enough how remote our place is.
50
He quoted Pindar and added Beyond the North, beyond

the ice, beyond death our life, our happiness.
The term Hyperboreanstill sees some jocular contemporary use in reference to groups of people who live in a
cold climate. Under the Library of Congress Classication System, the letter subclass PM includesHyperborean
Languages, a catch-all category that refers to all the linguistically unrelated languages of peoples living in Arctic
regions, such as the Inuit.
19.5 Hyperborean
hypothesis
Indo-European
John G. Bennett wrote a research paper entitled The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture(Journal
Systematics, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 1963) in which
he claimed the Indo-European homeland was in the far
north, which he considered the Hyperborea of classical antiquity.* [40] This idea was earlier proposed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (whom Bennett credits) in his The Arctic Home in
the Vedas (1903) as well as the Austro-Hungarian ethnologist Karl Penka (Origins of the Aryans, 1883).* [41]
19.6 Hyperborea in modern esoteric

thought
H. P. Blavatsky, Ren Gunon and Julius Evola all shared
the belief in the Hyperborean, polar origins of Mankind and
a subsequent solidication and devolution.* [42] According
to these esotericists, Hyperborea was the Golden Age polar center of civilization and spirituality; mankind does not
rise from the ape, but progressively devolves into the apelike condition as it strays physically and spiritually from its
mystical otherworldly homeland in the Far North, succumbing to the demonic energies of the South Pole, the greatest
point of materialization (see Joscelyn Godwin, Arktos: The
Polar Myth).
Robert Charroux rst related the Hyperboreans to an
ancient astronaut race of reputedly very large, very white
peoplewho had chosenthe least warm area on the earth
because it corresponded more closely to their own climate
on the planet from which they originated.* [43] Miguel
Serrano was inuenced by Charroux's writings on the Hyperboreans.* [44]
19.7
Cultural references
George MacDonald's At the Back of the North Wind

features a feminine version of Boreas, namedNorth
Wind, who takes a sickly boy,Diamond, tothe
back of the North Wind, which she herself cannot
enter. More than two chapters are devoted to a description of MacDonald's Hyperborea and how Diamond got there.
Dante's Paradise, in his Divine Comedy, is the subject
of Hyperborean allusions: it is gured geographically
north of Purgatory; and, great and little bears (symbols
of the polar north) appear above the summit of Mount
Purgatorio.
In Herman Melville's Moby Dick, Ishmael suggests
that, among other things, the painting in the Spouter
Inn in Chapter 3 could be a Hyperborean winter
scene.
Clark Ashton Smith authored a series of short stories
known as the Hyperborean cycle (193158). Some elements were borrowed by H. P. Lovecraft in what later
became known as the Cthulhu Mythos.
In Robert E. Howard's Conan stories (193236), Hyperborea is a land to the north-east of Conan's native
Cimmeria.
The
Hyperboreans(Hyperboreisch-rmische
Gesellschaft) were a group of northern European
scholars who studied classical ruins in Rome, founded
in 1824 by Theodor Panofka, Otto Magnus von
Stackelberg, August Kestner and Eduard Gerhard.
Australian artist Norman Lindsay in July 1923 rst exhibited his etching Hyperborea in Sydney. A month
later he published two essays about Hyperborea, the
rst in Vision, No. 2, in which he said that only a
picture or a poem could describe Hyperborea. The
essays were later combined as Hyperborea: Two Fantastic Travel Essays by Fanfrolico Press in 1928.
Friedrich Nietzsche referred to those who followed
his philosophy as Hyperboreansin The Antichrist
(translated by Anthony M. Ludovici.)
German electronic music pioneers Tangerine Dream
released an album with the title Hyperborea in 1983.
Hyperborea and its inhabitants are referenced several
times in the back history of Hellboy comic book universe, particularly in the B.P.R.D series.
In Stephen King's Dark Tower series, Calvin Tower
calls Jake Chambers Hyperborean Wanderer.
19.9. NOTES
Ruins of the Hyperborean civilization play a role in the
plot of Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis.
In The Last Olympian by Rick Riordan Hyperborean
Giants are ghting for Kronos and, with Prometheus,
give Percy Jackson Pandora's Box, containing hope. In
Rick Riordan's subsequent book The Son of Neptune,
Percy Jackson and his friends also encounter the giants in Alaska on their quest to free the god of death,
Thanatos.
The Hyperboreans are the subject of the title track of
album Hyperboreans by Jackie Oates, an English folk
music singer/songwriter.
The Hyperboreans are the subject of the many songs
by Bal-Sagoth, an English symphonic black metal
band.
The 1977 lm Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger wove
a number of related references into the plot. Hyperborea was the name given to an island far in the North
Sea, described in the lm by the witch Zenobia as being past the Celtic Isles. The island had been
home to the Arimaspi and contained a pyramid structure called The Shrine of the Four Elements, located
in a temperate valley hidden amongst the ice of the
Arctic Circle.
Several of the characters in Ulysses by James Joyce
refer to themselves as Hyperborean, referring to their
Celtic ethnicity.
Serbian writer Milo Crnjanski wrote his autobiographical novel Among The Hyperboreans (Kod Hyperborejaca), describing his years as a diplomat in
Rome at the outbreak of the World War II. In his
escapist monologues and dialogues, he discusses art,
nature, historical gures, life and death, describing
the lives of his friends and contemporaries, as well
as looking for the hidden connections between everything there is in the world: from Ancient Rome to the
far Hyperborean North.
51
Southern Thule
Thule people
Thule Society
Avalon
Shambhala
Agharta
El Dorado
Ys
Iram of the Pillars
Lemuria (continent)
Zion
Sannikov Land
Uttarakuru
19.9
Notes
[1] Pindar, Tenth Pythian Ode; translated by Richmond Lattimore.

[2] The History of Herodotus, parallel English/Greek: Book 4:
Melpomene: 30
[3] Bridgman, Hyperboreans. Myth and history in CelticHellenic contacts, 2005, pp. 2731.
[4] Phillips, The Legend of Aristeas: Fact and Fancy in Early
Greek Notions of East Russia, Siberia, and Inner AsiaArtibus Asiae 18.2 (1955, pp. 161177) p 166.
[5] Bridgman, p. 31
[6] Bridgman, p. 61.
[7] Description of Greece, 5. 7. 8
[8] Aristeas of Proconnesus, Bolton, Oxford, 1962, p. 111
19.8 See also
[9] Bridgman, p. 35, 72

[10] Bridgman, p. 45
Atlantis
[11] Bridgman, pp. 6069.
Baltia
[12] Meteorologica, 1. 13. 350b.
Brittia
Mythical place
[14] Supplementum Hellenistcum, Berlin, 1983, No. 906, 411.
Pytheas, ancient Greek explorer who sailed to Great

[15] Bridgman, p. 79.
Britain and perhaps Iceland as well, described the
midnight sun
[16] Strabo, 11.4.3.
52
[17] Fridtjof Nansen.In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in

Early Times. Frederick A. Stokes co., 1911. Page 188.
[18] Plutarch Life of Camillus
[19] Bridgman, pp. 163173.
[21] Stromata iv. xxi' Exhortation, II.
[22] Diodorus Siculus, Book II, 4748
[23] Squire, Charles, Celtic Myth & Legend, p.42 . Squire's
claim that Diodorus locates this temple in the centre of
Britainis unfounded. Diodorus 2.47
[24] Lewis Spence, The Mysteries of Britain, 1905.
[26] Haycock, David Boyd (2002). Chapter 7: Much
Greater, Than Commonly Imagined.. William Stukeley: Science, Religion and Archaeology in Eighteenth-Century
England. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer. ISBN
9780851158648. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
[27] J. Rendel Harris, 1925. Apollo at the Back of the North
Wind, Journal of Hellenic Studies 45.2 pp. 229242.
[28] Perseus: Lin Carter, Behind the North Wind
[29] Bezalel Bar-Kochva (1997), The Structure of an Ethnographical Work, Pseudo-Hecataeus: On the Jews
[30] On the Nature of Animals, 11. 1
[31] Bibliotheca Historica, II. 47
[32] Bridgman, pp.92134
[33] Hymn IV to Delos, 292
[34] Bridgman, Timothy P. (2005), Hyperboreans: myth and history in Celtic-Hellenic contacts, Routledge, p. 76, ISBN 9780-415-96978-9
[35] See further Bridgman, Hyperboreans. Myth and history in
Celtic-Hellenic contacts (2005).
[36] Book of Invasions 265 and 304-306
[37] Wasson, R.G.; Kramrisch, Stella; Ott, Jonathan; et al.
(1986), Persephone's Quest Entheogens and the origins of
Religion, Yale University Press, pp. 227230, ISBN 0-30005266-9
[38] Davidson, Adventures in Unhistory: Conjectures on the Factual Foundations of Several Ancient Legends.
[39] Irving, Astoria or Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the
Rocky Mountains (1836).
[40] Bennett, John G (December 1963).The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture. Systematics. 1 (3).
[41] Arktos: the Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi

Survival, Jocelyn Godwin, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1993,
pp.3250.
[42] Jerey, Jason (JanuaryFebruary 2000). Hyperborea &
the Quest for Mystical Enlightenment. New Dawn (58).
[43] The Mysterious Past, Robert Charroux, Futura Publications
Ltd, 1974, p.29.
[44] Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of
Identity, Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, NYU Press, 2003.
19.10
References
Portions of this article were formerly excerpted from

the public domain Lemprire's Classical Dictionary,
1848.
Bridgman, Timothy M. (2005), Hyperboreans. Myth
and history in Celtic-Hellenic contacts, Studies in Classics, New York and London: Routledge
Chapter 20
Kingdom of Opona
The Kingdom of Opona is a mythical kingdom in Russian
folklore, envisioned by Russian peasants as lying at the edge
of the at earth. Here, it was believed, the peasants lived
happy lives undisturbed by the state or the gentry,* [1] under a 'White Tsar' who ruled 'truly and justly'.* [2] It was
also known under the names of the Golden Land, Land
of Chud, and Belovode.* [2]
The myth of the Utopian kingdom of old Russia is similar
to other myths of 'earthly paradises', out of sight but possibly reachable by the right courageous explorer, such as
Shambhala, El Dorado, etc.* [2]
Groups of peasants were even known to have gone on expeditions in the far north of Russia to nd the mythical
utopia.* [1] Dubbed 'Wanderers', they spent their lives trying to discover the hidden paradise, who it was said could
be reached by those who searched 'diligently enough'.* [2]
20.1 See also

Iriy
Kitezh
20.2 References
[1] Figes, p. 101
[2] Ellwood, p. 97
20.3 Bibliography
Ellwood, Robert (2008). Myth: Key Concepts in Religion. London & New York: Continuum International
Publishing Group. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
Figes, Orlando (2014). A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924. London: The Bodley
Head. ISBN 9781847922915.
53
Chapter 21
Lands Beyond
This article is about the book by this title. For the ctional
location, see The Phantom Tollbooth.
Lands Beyond is a study of geographical myths by L.
Sprague de Camp and Willy Ley, rst published in
hardcover by Rinehart in 1952,* [1]* [2] and reissued by
Barnes & Noble in 1993.* [2] It has been translated into
French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian.* [1] It was the
winner of the 1953 International Fantasy Award for nonction.* [1]* [2]
21.1 Contents
Introduction
Chapter I. The Land of Longing
Chapter II. The Long Homecoming
Chapter III. The Fabulous Feast
Chapter IV. The Sea of Sindbad
21.2
Reception
New York Times columnist Charles Poore placed Lands Beyond on his annual list of books recommended for Christmas giving.* [3] Kirkus Reviews recommended it asa zestful geographical round-up which combines fact, legend and
literature in equally interested parts.* [4]
Boucher and McComas praised the book, saying it was
written with scholarly authority, literary grace, and an
amusedly tolerant exposition of error, to make one of the
season's most enjoyable items.* [5] New Worlds reviewer
Leslie Flood described it asfascinating.* [6] Weird Tales
commended Lands Beyond to its audience, saying de Camp
and Ley ably treatedtheir subjects for reader enjoyment.* [7] George O. Smith wrote that it was a book
good for the younger and more impressionable to read, because it reduces to the realm of practicality many of the
fabulous mysteries of the past, thus stripping the glamorous
Long-Ago of its false superiority.* [8]
21.3
References
[1] Laughlin, Charlotte; Daniel J. H. Levack (1983). De Camp:

An L. Sprague de Camp Bibliography. San Francisco: Underwood/Miller. pp. 7172.
Chapter V. The Land of Prester John

Chapter VI. The Mislaid Tribes
Chapter VII. The Great Dream
[2] Lands Beyond title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction

Database
Chapter VIII. The Western Ocean
[3]Books of The Times, The New York Times, December

20, 1952
Chapter IX. Golden Men and Amazons
[4] Kirkus review
Chapter X. The Shape of the Earth
[5]Recommended Reading,F&SF, October 1952, pp. 98=99
Epilogue
[6]Book Reviews, New Worlds, April 1954, p.126

[7] The Eyrie, Weird Tales, January 1953, p.76
Bibliography
[8]Science: Fact and Fiction, Space Science Fiction, November 1952, p.104
Index
54
21.4 External links

book review by Mark Olson
book review by Chris Winter
55
Chapter 22
Leibethra
The Muses also gathered up the fragments of his body and
buried them at Leibethra below Mount Olympus, where
the nightingales sang over his grave. Cults of the Muses
were also located in Leibethra.* [8] Well-known springs and
memorials dedicated to Orpheus were there in great number.* [9]
THRACE
Propontis
IA
Hebrus
ILLYRIA
Cicones
Drys
Nestos
Mt. Pangaion
Macedon
Pella
Pieria
Samothrace
Mygdonia
Methoni
Dion
Mt. Olympus
Lebeithra
Epirus
Sys
ASIA MINOR
Methymna
Antissa
Lesbos
Tempe
Thessaly
Aornum
Aegean Sea
Iolcos
Pagasae
Smyrna
Dodone
When Alexander the Great set out against Persia, the * [10]
the cypress-wood statue of Orpheus was said to sweat.
Ionia
Acheron
Ionian Sea
Mt. Parnassus
Delphi
Thebes
Athens
Argolis
Aegina
Life of Orpheus

constellation Lyra
of Apollo Murikaios
0
50
100 km
Laconia
Sparta
Taenarum
Crete
22.1

Demeter
of Orpheus
References
[1] Orpheus and Greek Religion (Mythos Books) by William

Keith Guthrie and L. Alderlink, ISBN 0-691-02499-5,
1993, page 34: "...the tomb was near the town of Leibethra
on Olympos. ...
Orpheus's life
Libethra or Leibethra (Ancient Greek: or

) was a city close to Olympus where Orpheus was
buried* [1]* [2] by the Muses.* [3] His tomb was later destroyed by a ood of the river Sys.* [4] It was a place where
the Libethrian Nymphs were worshiped. Remains of Libethra have been found and there exists an archeological
site close to Olympus.* [5]
The location of Libethra was held to be a favourite place of
the Muses, hence their epithet Libethrides (Ancient Greek:
).* [6]
The 2nd-century geographer Pausanias writes:* [7]
In Larisa I heard another story, how that on
Olympus is a city Libethra, where the mountain
faces, Macedonia, not far from which city is the
tomb of Orpheus. The Libethrians, it is said, received out of Thrace an oracle from Dionysus,
stating that when the sun should see the bones of
Orpheus, then the city of Libethra would be destroyed by a boar. The citizens paid little regard
to the oracle, thinking that no other beast was big
or mighty enough to take their city, while a boar
was bold rather than powerful.
[2] The Dictionary of Classical Mythology by Pierre Grimal and

A. R. Maxwell-Hyslop, ISBN 0-631-20102-5, 1996, page
333,... tomb. It was said that this had once been at Leibethra and that an oracle of the Thracian Dionysus had predicted ...
[3] Orpheus: Ancient Greek History by Gregory Zorzos, ISBN
1-4414-6777-7, 2009, page 10: "... Muses collected them,
and buried them at the place called Leibethra : ...
[4] Pausanias,
Description
of
Greece
Boeotia,9.30.1,"Immediately when night came the god sent
heavy rain, and the river Sys (Boar), one of the torrents
about Olympus, on this occasion threw down the walls
of Libethra, overturning sanctuaries of gods and houses
of men, and drowning the inhabitants and all the animals
in the city. When Libethra was now a city of ruin, the
Macedonians in Dium, according to my friend of Larisa,
carried the bones of Orpheus to their own country.
[5] Leibethra
[6] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History,"To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra1. Its
towns are Iolcos2, Hormenium, Pyrrha3, Methone4, and
Olizon5. The Promontory of Sepias6 is here situate. We
then come to the towns of Casthanea7 and Spa- lathra8,
56
the Promontory of antium9, the towns of Meliba10,

Rhizus, and Erymn11; the mouth of the Peneus, the
towns of Homolium12, Orthe, Thespi, Phalanna13, Thaumacie14, Gyrton15, Crannon16, Acharne17, Dotion18,
Melita, Phylace19, and Potni20. The length of Epirus,
Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to
490 miles, the breadth to 287. 1 Near Libethrum; said to
be a favourite haunt of the Muses, whence their name Libethrides.It is near the modern Goritza.
[7] Pausanias, Description of Greece Boeotia,9.30.1
[8] Jennifer Larson (2001). Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore.
p. 169. ISBN 0-19-514465-1. ... had cults of the Muses
at several sites in Pieria: Pimpleia, Olympos, Leibethra, and
perhaps Thourion. Leibethra and Pimpleia were also ...
[9] Jennifer Larson (2001). Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore.
p. 169. ISBN 0-19-514465-1.
[10] Plut. Alex. 14the image of Orpheus at Leibethra (it was
made of cypress-wood) sweated profusely at about that time.
Most people feared the sign, but Aristander bade Alexander
be of good cheer, assured that he was to perform deeds worthy of song and story, which would cost poets and musicians
much toil and sweat to celebrate.

Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology (Studies in
Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol 107) (Hardcover) by
Carlos Parada
22.3 External links

27th department of antiquities in Greece, Leibethra
Leibethra, The Tomb of Orpheus
57
Chapter 23
Lemuria (continent)
For other uses, see Lemuria (disambiguation).
with what is now Asia; and that in Madagascar

and the Mascarene Islands we have existing relics
of this great continent, for which ... I should propose the name Lemuria!* [4]
Lemuria /lmjri/* [1] is the name of a hypothetical "lost

land" variously located in the Indian and Pacic Oceans.
The concept's 19th-century origins lie in attempts to account for discontinuities in biogeography; however, the concept of Lemuria has been rendered obsolete by modern theories of plate tectonics. Although sunken continents do exist like Zealandia in the Pacic as well as Mauritia* [2]
and the Kerguelen Plateau in the Indian Ocean there is Sclater's theory was hardly unusual for his time: "land
no known geological formation under the Indian or Pacic bridges", real and imagined, fascinated several of Sclater's
Oceans that corresponds to the hypothetical Lemuria.* [3] contemporaries. tienne Georoy Saint-Hilaire, also looking at the relationship between animals in India and MadaThough Lemuria is no longer considered a valid scientic
gascar, had suggested a southern continent about two
hypothesis, it has been adopted by writers involved in the
decades before Sclater, but did not give it a name.* [5] The
occult, as well as by some Tamil writers in India. Acacceptance of Darwinism led scientists to seek to trace the
counts of Lemuria dier, but all share a common belief that
diusion of species from their points of evolutionary oria continent existed in ancient times and sank beneath the
gin. Prior to the acceptance of continental drift, biologists
ocean as a result of a geological, often cataclysmic, change,
frequently postulated submerged land masses in order to
such as pole shift.
account for populations of land-based species now separated by barriers of water. Similarly, geologists tried to account for striking resemblances of rock formations on different continents. The rst systematic attempt was made
23.1 Scientic origins
by Melchior Neumayr in his book Erdgeschichte in 1887.
In 1864 the zoologist and biogeographer Philip Sclater Many hypothetical submerged land bridges and continents
wrote an article on The Mammals of Madagascarin were proposed during the 19th century, in order to account
The Quarterly Journal of Science. Using a classication he for the present distribution of species.
referred to as lemurs but which included related primate
groups,* [4] and puzzled by the presence of their fossils in
both Madagascar and India but not in Africa or the Middle
East, Sclater proposed that Madagascar and India had once
been part of a larger continent (he was correct in this;
though in reality this was the supercontinent Pangaea).
The anomalies of the Mammal fauna of
Madagascar can best be explained by supposing
that ... a large continent occupied parts of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans ... that this continent
was broken up into islands, of which some have
become amalgamated with ... Africa, some ...
After gaining some acceptance within the scientic community, the concept of Lemuria began to appear in the
works of other scholars. Ernst Haeckel, a Darwinian
taxonomist, proposed Lemuria as an explanation for the absence of "missing link" fossil records. According to another
source, Haeckel put forward this thesis prior to Sclater (but
without using the nameLemuria).* [6] Locating the origins of the human species on this lost continent, he claimed
the fossil record could not be found because it sunk beneath
the sea.
Other scientists hypothesized that Lemuria had extended
across parts of the Pacic oceans, seeking to explain the distribution of various species across Asia and the Americas.
58
23.3. IN POPULAR CULTURE
23.1.1
Superseded
59
23.3
In popular culture
The Lemuria theory disappeared completely from conven- Since the 1880s, the legend of Lemuria has inspired many
tional scientic consideration after the theories of plate tec- novels, television shows, lms and music.
tonics and continental drift were accepted by the larger scientic community. According to the theory of plate tecton- Main article: Lemuria in popular culture
ics (the current accepted paradigm in geology), Madagascar
and India were indeed once part of the same landmass (thus
accounting for geological resemblances), but plate movement caused India to break away millions of years ago, and 23.4 See also
move to its present location. The original landmass, the supercontinent Gondwana, broke apart; it did not sink beneath
Atlantis
sea level.
Doggerland
In 1999, drilling by the JOIDES Resolution research vessel
in the Indian Ocean discovered evidence* [7] that a large island, the Kerguelen Plateau, was submerged about 20 million years ago by rising sea levels. Samples showed pollen
and fragments of wood in a 90-million-year-old sediment.
Although this discovery might encourage scholars to expect
similarities in dinosaur fossil evidence, and may contribute
to understanding the breakup of the Indian and Australian
land masses, it does not support the concept of Lemuria as
a land bridge for mammals.
In 2013, the study of grains of sand from the beaches of
Mauritius led to the conclusion that a similar landmass
would have existed between 2,000 and 85 million years
ago.* [2]
Evolution of lemurs, primate from Madagascar

Kumari Kandam
Lost city
Legends of Mount Shasta
Mauritia (microcontinent)
Mu (lost continent)
Phantom island
Ramtha
Jane Roberts
23.2 Kumari Kandam
Thule
23.5
References
[1] OED
[2] Morelle, Rebecca (2013-02-25). BBC News - Fragments of ancient continent buried under Indian Ocean.
BBC.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-09-21.
[3] Navigation News. Frontline.in. Retrieved 2013-09-21.
[4] Neild, Ted Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of
Our Planet pp.Harvard University Press (2 Nov 2007) ISBN
978-0-674-02659-9 pp. 3839
Lemuriain Tamil nationalist mysticist literature, connecting
Madagascar, South India and Australia (covering most of the Indian Ocean).
Some Tamil writers such as Devaneya Pavanar have associated Lemuria with Kumari Kandam, a legendary sunken
landmass mentioned in the Tamil literature, claiming that it
was the cradle of civilization.
[5] Neild, Ted Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of

Our Planet pp.Harvard University Press (2 Nov 2007) ISBN
978-0-674-02659-9 p.38
[6] L. Sprague de Camp, Lost Continents, 1954 (First Edition),
p. 52
[7] "'Lost continent' discovered. BBC News. 27 May 1999.
60

Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2004). The Lost Land of
Lemuria: Fabulous Geographies, Catastrophic Histories. University of California Press. ISBN 0-52024032-4.
Ramaswamy, Sumathi. (1999). Catastrophic Cartographies: Mapping the Lost Continent of Lemuria
. Representations. 67: 92-129.
Ramaswamy, Sumathi. (2000). History at Lands
End: Lemuria in Tamil Spatial Fables. Journal of
Asian Studies. 59(3): 575-602.
Frederick Spencer Oliver, A Dweller on Two Planets,
1905
23.7 External links

Manufactured folklore: Shasta Lemuria.
CHAPTER 23. LEMURIA (CONTINENT)
Chapter 24
List of mythological places

This is a list of mythological places which appear in
mythological tales, folklore, and varying religious texts.
24.1 References
61
Chapter 25
Mashu
For other uses, see Mashu (disambiguation).
(http://www.public.iastate.edu/~{}ctrampel/Trampel_
Mythology_Journal_Format2.pdf), accessed 02.09.2013
Mashu, as described in the Epic of Gilgamesh of [3] Jerey H. Tigay (November 2002). The evolution of the GilMesopotamian mythology, is a great cedar mountain
gamesh epic. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. pp. 7678.
ISBN 978-0-86516-546-5. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
through which the hero-king Gilgamesh passes via a tunnel
on his journey to Dilmun after leaving the Cedar Forest, a
forest of ten thousand leagues span.* [1] Siduri, the Alewife, Jennifer Westwood: Gilgamesh & Other Babylonian Tales,
lived on the shore, associated with the Waters of Death 1968, Coward-McCann, New York
that Gilgamesh had to cross to reach Utnapishtim, the faraway.* [2]
The corresponding location in reality has been the topic
of speculation, as no conrming evidence has been found.
Jerey H. Tigay suggests that in the Sumerian version,
through its association with the sun god Utu, "(t)he Cedar
Mountain is implicitly located in the east, whereas in the
Akkadian versions, Gilgamesh's destination (is) removed
from the eastandexplicitly located in the north west, in
or near Lebanon.* [3] One theory is that the only location
suitable for being called acedar landwas the great forest
covering Lebanon and western parts of Syria and, in consequence,Mashuis the whole of the parallel Lebanon and
Anti-Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these
mountains constituting the tunnel. The word Mashu itself
may translate as two mountains, from the Babylonian
for twins. The twins, in Semitic mythology, were
also often seen as two mountains, one at the eastern edge
of the world (in the lower Zagros), the other at the western
edge of the world (in the Taurus), and one of these seem to
have had an Iranian location.
25.1 References
[1] P. T. H. Unwin; Tim Unwin (18 June 1996). Wine and
the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the
Wine Trade. Psychology Press. pp. 80. ISBN 978-0-41514416-2. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
[2] Trample, Christopher A Maiden Guards the
Door:
Symbolism and Meaning in Mythology
62
Chapter 26
Mu (lost continent)
Mu is the name of a suggested lost continent whose concept and name were proposed by 19th-century traveler and
writer Augustus Le Plongeon, who claimed that several ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesoamerica,
were created by refugees from Muwhich he located in the
Atlantic Ocean.* [1] This concept was popularized and expanded by James Churchward, who asserted that Mu was
once located in the Pacic.* [2]
isted the pride and life of the ocean, the Land of

Mu, which, at the epoch that we have been considering, had not yet been visited by the wrath
of Human, that lord of volcanic res to whose
fury it afterward fell a victim. The description
of that land given to Solon by Sonchis, priest at
Sais; its destruction by earthquakes, and submergence, recorded by Plato in his Timaeus, have
been told and retold so many times that it is useless to encumber these pages with a repetition of
it.* [1]* :ch. VI, p. 66
The existence of Mu was already being disputed in Le Plongeon's time. Today scientists dismiss the concept of Mu
(and of other alleged lost continents such as Lemuria) as
physically impossible, arguing that a continent can neither
sink nor be destroyed in the short period of time required Le Plongeon claimed that the civilization of ancient Egypt
by this premise.* [3]* [4] Mu's existence is now considered was founded by Queen Moo, a refugee from the land's
demise. Other refugees supposedly ed to Central America
to have no factual basis.* [5]* [6]
and became the Maya.* [4]
26.1 History of the concept

26.1.1
26.1.2
James Churchward
Augustus Le Plongeon
The mythical idea of Mu rst appeared in the works of

Augustus Le Plongeon (18251908), after his investigations of the Maya ruins in Yucatn.* [1] He claimed that
he had translated ancient Mayan writings which supposedly
showed that the Maya civilization of the Yucatn was older
than those of Greece and Egypt, and told the story of an
even older continent.
Le Plongeon actually got the name Mufrom Charles
tienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, who in 1864 mistranslated
what was then called the Troano Codex using the de Landa
alphabet. Brasseur believed that a word which he read as
Mu referred to a land which had been submerged by a catastrophe.* [7] Le Plongeon then identied this lost land with
Churchward's map showing how he thought Mu refugees spread
Atlantis, and turned it into a continent which had supposout after the cataclysm through South America, along the shores of
edly sunk into the Atlantic Ocean:
Atlantis, and into Africa
In our journey westward across the Atlantic
we shall pass in sight of that spot where once ex-
Mu, as a lost Pacic Ocean continent, was later popularised

by James Churchward (18511936) in a series of books,
63
64
beginning with Lost Continent of Mu, the Motherland of
Man (1926),* [2] re-edited later as The Lost Continent Mu
(1931).* [8] Other popular books in the series are The Children of Mu (1931), and The Sacred Symbols of Mu (1933).
Churchward claimed thatmore than fty years ago,while
he was a soldier in India, he befriended a high-ranking temple priest who showed him a set of ancientsunburntclay
tablets, supposedly in a long lost Naga-Maya language
which only two other people in India could read. Having
mastered the language himself, Churchward found out that
they originated fromthe place where [man] rst appeared
Mu.The 1931 edition states thatall matter of science
in this work are based on translations of two sets of ancient
tablets:the clay tables he read in India, and a collection
of 2,500 stone tablets that had been uncovered by William
Niven in Mexico.* [8]* :7
Churchward gave a vivid description of Mu as the home
of an advanced civilization, the Naacal, which ourished
between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, was dominated by a
white race,* [8]* :48 and wassuperior in many respects
to our own* [8]* :17 At the time of its demise, about 12,000
years ago, Mu had 64,000,000 inhabitants and many large
cities, and colonies on the other continents.
CHAPTER 26. MU (LOST CONTINENT)

the cylindrical hats as spheresthat seem to show red
in the distance, and asserts that they represent the Sun
as Ra.* [8]* :138 He also incorrectly claimed that some of
them are made ofred sandstone* [8]* :89 which does not
exist on the island. The platforms on which the statues rest
(ahu) are described by Churchward as beingplatform-like
accumulations of cut and dressed stone,which were supposedly left in their current positionsawaiting shipment to
some other part of the continent for the building of temples
and palaces.* [8]* :89 He also cites the pillarserected by
the Mori of New Zealandas an example of this lost civilizations handiwork.* [8]* :158 In Churchward's view, the
present-day Polynesians are not descendants of the dominant members of the lost civilization of Mu, responsible for
these great works, but are instead descendants of survivors
of the cataclysm that adopted the rst cannibalism and
savageryin the world.* [8]* :54
Churchward claimed that the landmass of Mu was located

in the Pacic Ocean, and stretched eastwest from the
Marianas to Easter Island, and northsouth from Hawaii to
Mangaia. He claimed that according to the creation myth he
read in the Indian tablets, Mu had been lifted above sea level
by the expansion of underground volcanic gases. Eventually
Mu was completely obliterated in almost a single night
:* [8]* :44 after a series of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, the broken land fell into that great abyss of re
and was covered by fty millions of square miles of wa- Underwater structures claimed to be remnants of Mu, near
Yonaguni, Japan
ter.* [8]* :50
Churchward claimed that Mu was the common origin of
the great civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Central America,
India, Burma and others, including Easter Island, and was
in particular the source of ancient megalithic architecture.
As evidence for his claims, he pointed to symbols from
throughout the world, in which he saw common themes of
birds, the relation of the Earth and the sky, and especially
the Sun. Churchward claims that the king of Mu was named
Ra and he relates this to the Egyptian god of the sun, Ra,
and the Rapa Nui word for Sun, raa, which he incorrectly
spells "raa.* [8]* :48 He claimed to have found symbols of
the Sun in Egypt, Babylonia, Peru and all ancient lands
and countries it was a universal symbol.* [8]* :138
In the 1930s, Atatrk, founder of the Turkish Republic, was interested in Churchward's work and considered
Mu as a possible location of the original homeland of the
Turks.* [10]
Churchward attributed all megalithic art in Polynesia to the

people of Mu. He claimed that symbols of the sun are
found depicted on stones of Polynesian ruins,such as
the stone hats (pukao) on top of the giant moai statues of
Easter Island. Citing W.J. Johnson, Churchward describes
Masaaki Kimura has suggested that certain underwater features located o the coast of Yonaguni Island, Japan (popularly known as the Yonaguni Monument) are ruins of
Mu* [11]* [12] (or ruins of the lost world of Muinaccording to CNN* [13]).
26.1.3
Modern claims
James Bramwell and William Scott-Elliott claimed that

the cataclysmic events on Mu began 800,000 years
ago* [9]* :194 and went on until the last catastrophe, which
occurred in precisely 9564 BC.* [9]* :195
65
26.2 Criticisms
forms are concentrated along the current coast of the island,

which implies that the island's shape has changed little since
they were built. Moreover, the Triumphal Roadthat
26.2.1 Geological arguments
Pierre Loti had reported ran from the island to the submerged lands below, is actually a natural lava ow.* [14]
Modern geological knowledge rules out lost continents
Furthermore, while Churchward was correct in his claim
of any signicant size. According to the theory of plate tecthat the island has no sandstone or sedimentary rocks, the
tonics, which has been extensively conrmed over the past
point is moot because the pukao are all made of native vol40 years, the Earth's crust consists of lighter "sial" rocks
canic scoria.
(continental crust rich in aluminium silicates) that oat on
heavier "sima" rocks (oceanic crust richer in magnesium silicates). The sial is generally absent in the ocean oor where 26.2.2 Archaeological and genetic evidence
the crust is a few kilometers thick, while the continents are
huge solid blocks tens of kilometers thick. Since continents The historical details and implications of the Mu theory,
oat on the sima much like icebergs oat on water, a conti- which from the start were even more controversial than the
nent cannot simply sinkunder the ocean.
physical ones, have been thoroughly discredited by archaeIt is true that continental drift and seaoor spreading can ological and genetic research.
change the shape and position of continents and occasion- There is evidence that the civilizations of the Americas
ally break a continent into two or more pieces (as hap- and the Old World developed independently of each
pened to Pangaea). However, these are very slow processes other* [15]* :62 and, in fact, agriculture and urban socithat occur in geological time scales (hundreds of millions eties probably rst developed after the end of the Ice Age,
of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of somewhere in the Levant some 10,000 years ago and gradyears), the sima under the continental crust can be consid- ually spread outwards from there to the rest of the Old
ered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. World. The development of the oldest known cities, such as
It is almost certain that the continents and ocean oors have atalhyk, can more easily be attributed to local and gradretained their present position and shape for the whole span ual evolution than to the coming of refugees from asupeof human existence.
rior civilization.
There is also no conceivable event that could have de- Easter Island was rst settled around 300 AD* [16] and the
stroyeda continent, since its huge mass of sial rocks would pukao on the moai are regarded as ceremonial,* [16] or trahave to end up somewhereand there is no trace of it at the ditional headdresses.* [16] There is no evidence of a highly
bottom of the oceans. The Pacic Ocean islands are not advanced civilisation on the island.* [17]
part of a submerged landmass but rather the tips of isolated
volcanoes.
26.2.3
Troano Codex
Other researchers who have tried to use the de Landa alphabet have reported that it produces only gibberish. Recent research into the Mayan alphabet has shown it to
not consist of letters but logograms. Recent translations of
the Troano Codex have shown it to be a treatise on astrology.* [18]
26.3
In popular culture
Film/television
Map of Easter Island showing locations of the ahu and moai
In the 1963 movie Atragon, Mu is an undersea kingdom.
This is the case, in particular, of Easter Island, which is

a recent volcanic peak surrounded by deep ocean (3,000
m deep at 30 km o the island). After visiting the island
in the 1930s, Alfred Metraux observed that the moai plat-
In the 19821983 French-Japanese animated series

The Mysterious Cities of Gold, Tao is the last living
descendant of the sunken empire of Mu (Hiva in the
English dub).
66
In the 19831984 anime Super Dimension Century
Orguss, the main antagonists are robots that were built
by the ancient civilization of the Mu that turned on
their creators and tried to annihilate all remaining life
on Earth. Throughout the series, the robots are referred to as the Mu.
Mu is heavily referenced throughout the 20012002
anime RahXephon.
Literature/print
H. P. Lovecraft (18901937) featured the lost continent in his revision of Hazel Heald's short story "Out
of the Aeons" (1935).* [19] Mu appears in numerous
Cthulhu mythos stories, including many written by Lin
Carter.* [20]
In Marvel Comics, the continents of Mu and Atlantis
were destroyed by the Celestials. Their evacuation was
aided by the Eternals.
The 1967 Andre Norton novel Operation Time Search
features a modern-day protagonist cast back in time,
where he participates in a war between Atlantis and
Mu.
The Justied Ancients of Mu Mu, a ctional secret society in Eye in the Pyramid, the rst book in the
1975 trilogy The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Anton
Wilson and Robert Shea
Tom Robbins' novel Still Life with Woodpecker (1980)
makes extensive reference to Mu.
In the manga version of Shaman King (19982004) the
nal rounds of the Shaman Tournament, as well as the
Great Spirit ceremony, are held on the island (which
is submerged and hidden by Patch Tribe rituals).
CHAPTER 26. MU (LOST CONTINENT)

One of the levels in 1993 the DuckTales 2 videogame
is set on the island of Mu.* [21]
In Illusion of Gaia from 1993, Mu is one of the ancient
ruin sites visited by player character Will, modeled in
part on Easter Island. Like the real-world island, the
Muian civilization fell due to a collapse of all natural resources, though some escaped via an underwater
tunnel to found the Village of Angels while those left
behind were mutated into the monsters on Mu by the
Chaos Comet. When Will arrives there, Mu is controlled by vampires.
The 1996 RPG Star Ocean features an alien race
known as the Muah who originated from the lost continent on Earth.
MU Online is a 2003 3D fantasy MMORPG developed
in Korea and popular there, based on the legendary
Continent of MU.* [22]
In the 2004 video game City of Heroes, Mu was a patron land of one of the ancient pantheons who opposed
the Orenbegans, a civilization of magic users under
the protection of a rival goddess. These civilisations
destroyed each other in war, but descendants of the
Mu were found and forced into service to the modern
criminal organisation, Arachnos.
Mega Man Star Force 2 from 2007 features a whole
story of Mu, the lost FM technology that past civilizations built was found here.
26.4
See also
Atlantis
Doggerland
Lemuria (continent)
Music
Robert Plant, of Led Zeppelin, used the feather symbol of Mu on the sleeve of some of his albums, including Swan Song, and others.
The rock band MU (19711974), created by American rock guitar musicians Je Cotton and Merrell
Wayne Fankhauser, took its name from the book The
Lost Continent Mu (1931).
The Justied Ancients of Mu Mu, an early name of
the British pop music group KLF active between 1987
and 1992.
Video games
Lost city
Lost lands
Mauritia (microcontinent)
Agartha
26.5
References
[1] Le Plongeon, Augustus (1896). Queen Mo & The Egyptian

Sphinx. The Author. pp. 277 pages.
[2] Churchward, James (1926). Lost Continent of Mu, the Motherland of Man. United States: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN
0-7661-4680-4.
[3] Haugton, Brian (2007). Hidden History. New Page Books.

ISBN 978-1-56414-897-1. Page 60.
[4] De Camp, Lyon Sprague (1971) [1954]. Lost Continents: Atlantis Theme in History, Science and Literature. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22668-2.
[5] Brennan, Louis A. (1959). No Stone Unturned: An Almanac
of North American Pre-history. Random House. Page 228.
[6] Witzel, Michael (2006). Garrett G. Fagan Routledge, ed.
Archaeological Fantasies. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780-415-30593-8. Page 220.
[7] John Sladek, The New Apocrypha (New York: Stein and day,
1974) 6566.
[8] Churchward, James (1931). The Lost Continent of Mu. New
York: Ives Washburn. Re-published by Adventures Unlimited Press (2007)
[9] Bramwell, James (1939). Lost Atlantis.
[10] Kayp Kta Mu, presentation, Ege-Meta Yaynlar, zmir,
2000, ISBN 975-7089-20-6
[11] Kimura, Masaaki (1991). Mu tairiku wa Ryukyu ni atta
(The Continent of Mu was in Ryukyu) (in Japanese). Tokyo:
Tokuma Shoten.
[12] Schoch, Robert M.Ancient underwater pyramid structure
o the coast of Yonaguni-jima.
[13] Japan's Underwater Ruins (video)". CNN.
[14] Metraux, Alfred. Mysteries of Easter Island (PDF).
[15] Abramyan, Evgeny (2009). Civilization in the 21st Century
(PDF). Russia: How to Save the Future?.
[16] Danver, Steven L. Popular controversies in world history :
investigating history's intriguing questions. Santa Barbara,
Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-077-3.;* :222
[17] The Ryukyuanist(PDF). The Ryukyuanist (57). Autumn
2002. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
[18] Citadels of Mystery, L Sprague deCamp and C decamp,
Fontana Books 1969, page 10
[19] Lovecraft, Howard P. and Hazel Heald.Out of the Aeons
(1935) in The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions,
S.T. Joshi (ed.), 1989. Sauk City, WI: Arkham House Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-87054-040-8.
[20] Harms, Daniel.Muin The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana (2nd
ed.), pp. 200202. Chaosium, Inc., 1998. ISBN 1-56882119-0.
[21] Duck Tales 2. Retroplay. 1993. Retrieved 1 September
2014.
[22] MU Introduction.
26.6 External links
67
Chapter 27
Muang Then
Muang Thaeng is a legendary Tai locality believed to
be associated with modern-day in Bin Ph, Vietnam.
*
[1]* [2]
In legend, it is signicant as the initial settlement of
Tai people migrating southward from Yunnan around
the time of the Kingdom of Nanzhao under their leader
Khun Borom, who is associated* [1] with Piluoge (ruler of
Nanzhao from 728-748).
27.1 References
[1] Jumsai, M.L. Manich (1967-08-05). History of Laos. ISBN
978-974-7390-21-6.
[2] Ratanavongsa, Prince Phetsarath (1978). The Iron Man of
Laos. Dalley Book Service, Inc.
68
Chapter 28
Mythical continents
turn seems to have inuenced Madame Blavatsky and
her speculations about Lemuria. Speculations about
Kumari Kandam also seem to be linked to this eld.
The name Lemuria originated from the scientic hypothesis about a land bridge between India and South
Africa.* [3] With the discovery of the continental drift,
however, this hypothesis is now considered obsolete.
28.1.4
Other mythical continents include Terra incognita,

such as Terra Australis Incognita, which were probably based on garbled accounts from early explorers,
but subsequently shown to have a basis in reality, and
to be valid after scientic investigation and concept
renement.
A map showing Atlantis and Mu
Further information: Lost lands
28.1 Mythical Continents

28.1.1
28.1.5
Ancient Greek
The most famous mythical continent is

Atlantis.* [1]* [2] Like Hyperborea and Thule,
Atlantis is ultimately derived from ancient Greek
geographic speculation.
28.1.2
Medieval European
Mayan
Modern Fiction
Mythical continents are a great theme for fantasy and

science ction writers. Many modern occult or New Age
writers speculate about ancient civilizations that dwelled on
continents now submerged below sea level. As the study
"Lost Continents" by L. Sprague de Camp seeks to show,
there is no real scientic evidence for any lost continents in
recent history; however, some rather large islands did sink
when the sea levels rose after the end of the last interglacial,
possibly being the origin of many lost continent legends,
and some lost continents are likely to have existed millions
of years ago. De Camp himself wrote some ction stories
on this theme.
The name of the hypothetical vanished continent Mu

originated from the rst attempted translation of the
Madrid Codex, one of only four remaining Maya
codices.
The landmasses of Tolkien's Middle-earth were greatly detailed; especially mythical is the land of Valinor where the
angelic Valar and Maiar along with the Elves lived.
28.1.3
Sanskrit
Something similar seems to have happened upon the

discovery of the Sanskrit literature by Europeans.
Louis Jacolliot claimed to have learned from this literature about a sunken continent called Rutas. This in
28.2
69
See also
Continent
70
Continental fragment
Lost lands
Mountains of Kong
Subcontinent
Submerged continent
Supercontinent
28.3 References
[1] ATLANTIS SEARCH SHIFTS TO AEGEAN; Lost Continent Legend Held Based on False Statistics 1966 New York
Times
[2]Ignatius Donnelly has recently published at work in defence
of the story that a continent known among the ancients as
Atlantis was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by an earthquake.
A Submerged Continent April 4, 1882 page 1 Los Angeles
Times
[3] November 28, 1932 The Sydney Morning Herald
CHAPTER 28. MYTHICAL CONTINENTS
Chapter 29
Paristan
For the lm, see Paristan (lm).
Paristan or Pari-estan (Persian: pariyestn,fairyland"; pari [fairy] + the sux -stan) is a name of a
fairyland in the folklore of Middle East, South Asia and
Central Asia. In many children's stories Koh-e-Qaf is also
used for fairyland. Koh-e-Qaf (Persian: ) refers to
the Caucasus mountains.
Most of the fairies are depicted as young females with very
fair colour, golden hair and light colored eyes. Most of the
people claim about Koh-e-Qaf that It is placed near the
Baghdad (Iraq). The story named Thief of Baghdad
mentions that the fairies of Koh-e-Qaf live in a place near
Baghdad.
29.1 See also

Peri
Fairy
71
Chapter 30
Pimpleia
[3] An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the
Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman
Hansen, 2005, page 797
THRACE
Propontis
IA
Hebrus
ILLYRIA
Cicones
Drys
Nestos
Mt. Pangaion
Macedon
Pella
Pieria
Samothrace
Mygdonia
Methoni
Dion
Mt. Olympus
Lebeithra
Epirus
Sys
Thessaly
Aornum
Aegean Sea
Iolcos
Pagasae
Smyrna
Dodone
Ionia
Acheron
Ionian Sea

Keith Guthrie and L. Alderlink, 1993, ISBN 0-691-024995, page 62
ASIA MINOR
Methymna
Antissa
Lesbos
Tempe
Mt. Parnassus
Delphi
Thebes

Keith Guthrie and L. Alderlink, 1993, ISBN 0-691-024995, page 61, "... is a city Dion. Near it is a village called
Pimpleia.It was there they say that Orpheus the Kikonian
lived ...
Athens
Argolis
Aegina
Life of Orpheus

constellation Lyra
of Apollo Murikaios
0
50
Laconia
Sparta
Taenarum
100 km
Crete

Demeter
of Orpheus
[6] Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (Mythos

Books) by Jane Ellen Harrison, 1991, ISBN 0-691-01514-7,
page 469, "... and `near the city of Dium is a village called
Pimpleia where Orpheus lived.... ...
Orpheus's life
[7] Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore by Jennifer Larson,2001,ISBN 0-19-514465-1,page 169
Pimpleia (Ancient Greek: ) was a city in Pieria

in Ancient Greece, located near Dion and Mount Olympus.* [1] Pimpleia is described as a "" (quarter, suburb) of Dion by Strabo.* [2] The location of Pimpleia is
possibly to be identied with the modern village of Agia
Paraskevi near Litochoron.* [3]
[8] Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore by Jennifer Larson, 2001,

ISBN 0-19-514465-1, page 169: "... had cults of the Muses
at several sites in Pieria: Pimpleia, Olympos, Leibethra, and
perhaps Thourion. Leibethra and Pimpleia were also ...
[9] Argonautica. Apollonius Rhodius. George W. Mooney.
London. Longmans, Green. 1912. : Pimpleia
in Pieria, a mountain (in later times a fountain) sacred to the
Muses, who were hence called , cf. Hor. C. 1.
26. 9, Pimplei dulcis.
It was renowned as the birthplace and early abode of

Orpheus.* [4]* [5]* [6] Many springs and memorials dedicated to Orpheus and Orphic cults.* [7] Cults of the
Muses were also celebrated,* [8] under the epithet Pimpleids
().* [9]
30.1 References
30.2
External links
Greek Mythology Link, Orpheus

[1] The Greeks and Greek Civilization by Jacob Burckhardt,
Oswyn Murray, and Sheila Stern, 1999, ISBN 0-312-244479, page 137, "... epic, or Pieria, and once lived in the village
of Pimpleia, near Dion. Then the northwestern corner of
Asia Minor, with ...
[2] Strabo, Geography VII.7
72
Chapter 31
Sacred grove
For particular sacred groves, and for other meanings, see Sacred grove (disambiguation).
and West Africa. Examples of sacred groves include the

Greco-Roman temenos, the Norse hrgr, and the Celtic
nemeton, which was largely but not exclusively associated
with Druidic practice. During the Northern Crusades, there
was a common practice of building churches on the sites of
sacred groves. The Lakota and various other North American tribes consider particular forests or other natural landmarks to be sacred.
Ancient holy trees still exist in the English and Estonian
countryside and are mentioned often in folklore and fairytales.
31.1
In history
31.1.1
Ancient Near East
Further information: Religions of the Ancient Near East

There are two mentions on this tradition in the Bible:
Ancient monoliths in Mawphlang sacred grove, India
A sacred grove or sacred woods are any grove of trees

that are of special religious importance to a particular culOlive trees can attain impressive age, as here at Gethsemane
ture. Sacred groves feature in various cultures throughout the world. They were important features of the
mythological landscape and cult practice of Celtic, Baltic,
Germanic, ancient Greek, Near Eastern, Roman, and
Abraham planted a grove in Beersheba, and
Slavic polytheism, and were also used in India, Japan,
called there the name of God.
73
74
CHAPTER 31. SACRED GROVE

of the Academy was a sacred grove of olive trees, still recalled in the phrase the groves of Academe.
In central Italy, the town of Nemi recalls the Latin nemus
Aricinum, or grove of Ariccia", a small town a quarter
of the way around the lake. In Antiquity the area had no
town, but the grove was the site of one of the most famous
of Roman cults and temples: that of Diana Nemorensis, a
study of which served as the seed for Sir James Frazer's
seminal work on the anthropology of religion, The Golden
Bough.* [2]
A sacred grove behind the House of the Vestal Virgins on
the edge of the Roman Forum lingered until its last vestiges
were burnt in the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE.
In the town of Spoleto, Umbria, two stones from the late
third century BCE, inscribed in archaic Latin, established
punishments for the profanation of the woods dedicated
to Jupiter (Lex Luci Spoletina) have survived; they are
preserved in the National Archeological Museum of Spoleto.* [3]
The Bosco Sacro (literally sacred grove) in the garden of
Bomarzo, Italy, lends its associations to the uncanny atmosphere.
Grove in front of the church in Weissenbach an der Triesting
Genesis 21:33
and
where the women wove hangings for the
grove.
II Kings 23:7
Lucus Pisaurensis,* [4] the Sacred Grove of Pesaro, Italy

was discovered by Patrician Annibale degli Abati Olivieri
in 1737 on property he owned along the 'Forbidden Road'
(Collina di Calibano),* [5] just outside Pesaro. This Sacred
Grove is the site of the Votive Stones of Pesaro and was dedicated to Salus, the ancient Roman demi-goddess of wellbeing.* [6]
The city of Massilia, a Greek colony, had a sacred grove
so close by it that Julius Caesar had it cut down to facilitate his siege.* [7] In Pharsalia, the poet Lucan dramatized
it as a place where sunlight could not reach through the
branches, where no animal or bird lived, where the wind
did not blow, but branches moved on their own, where human sacrice was practiced, in a clear attempt to dramatize
the situation and distract from the sacrilege entailed in its
destruction.* [8]
Excavations at Labraunda have revealed a large shrine

assumed to be that of Zeus Stratios mentioned by
Herodotus* [1] as a large sacred grove of plane trees sacred 31.1.3 Baltic polytheism
to Carians. In Syria, there was a grove sacred to Adonis at
Afqa.
Sacred groves have survived in the Baltic states longer
than in other parts of Europe. The main Baltic Prussian
31.1.2 Religions of ancient Greece and sanctuary, which is also considered a sacred grove was
Romowe. An important wave of destruction of sacred
Rome
groves was carried out in the lands of present-day Lithuania
after its Christianization in 1387, and in Samogitia in 1413.
Main articles: Temenos and Lucus
However, some groves, such as in ventybrastis, still survive in Lithuania. A sacred grove is known as alka(s) in
The most famous sacred groves in mainland Greece was the Lithuanian. Conversely, in Estonia numerous sacred groves
oak grove at Dodona. Outside the walls of Athens, the site (hiis) have survived to the present day and have recently
31.2. TODAY
75
Turkey are thought to be nemetons, sacred groves protected
by druids based on Celtic mythology. In fact, according to
Strabo, the central shrine at Galatia was called Drunemeton.* [12] Some of these were also sacred groves in Greek
times (as in the case of Didyma), but were based on a different or slightly changed mythology.
31.2
Today
31.2.1
Estonia
Based on historical data, it is estimated that there are around

2500 sacred natural sites in Estonia, the largest of them
covering up to 100 hectares. Although rather exceptional
been protected by the government of the country.
among most of the technologically developed countries, in
Estonia both the sacred natural sites and indigenous customs connected to them are still in use. Therefore, the her31.1.4 Germanic paganism
itage that is connected to sacred natural sites has great importance to the national identity and environment of EstoSacred groves feature prominently in Scandinavia. The nians.
most famous sacred grove of Northern Europe was at the
Temple at Uppsala in Old Uppsala, where every tree was In collaboration between followers of Estonian native reliconsidered sacred - described by Adam of Bremen. The gion (Maausk) and governmental ministries, a national plan
practice of blt - the sacricial ritual in Norse paganism was prepared in 2008: Sacred Natural Sites in Estonia:
was usually held in lunds or sacred groves. According to Study and Conservation 20082012which includes about
Adam of Bremen, in Scandinavia, pagan kings sacriced 550 hiis (sacred groves). The National Plan on Sacred Natnine males of each species at the sacred groves every ninth ural Sites consists of a historical overview about sacred natural sites in Estonia, a current sitation analysis, and several
year.* [9]
concrete conservation measures and instructions on how to
apply them. The coordinating steering committee of the
Conservation Plan consist of Environment, Agriculture, In31.1.5 Celtic polytheism
ternal Aairs and Education and Research ministries, NaMain article: Nemeton
tional Heritage Board and MK. The University of Tartu is
the implementing agency. Measures of the Conservation
The Celts used sacred groves, called nemeton in Gaulish, Plan are designed to handle natural sanctuaries and values
for performing rituals, based on Celtic mythology. The connected to them in all aspects.
Sacred Grove Island, Estonia
deity involved was usually Nemetona a Celtic goddess.

Druids oversaw such rituals. Existence of such groves have
been found in Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic and
Hungary in Central Europe, in many sites of ancient Gaul
in France, as well as England and Northern Ireland. Sacred groves had been plentiful up until the 1st century BC,
when the Romans attacked and conquered Gaul. One of the
most well known nemeton sites is that in the Nevet forest
near Locronan in Brittany, France. Gournay-sur-Aronde
(Gournay-on-Aronde), a village in the Oise department of
France, also houses the remains of a nemeton.* [10]* [11]
Nemetons were often fenced o by enclosures, as indicated
by the German term Viereckschanze meaning a quadrangular space surrounded by a ditch enclosed by wooden palisades.
Many of these groves, like the sacred grove at Didyma,
The Conservation Plan foresees creating a database which

supports researching and managing natural sanctuaries. The
database would consist of folkloric, archaeological, natural,
historical and other data on sacred natural sites and provide
information on the exact location, condition and form of
ownership of each site.* [13]
31.2.2
Ghana
Sacred groves are also present in Ghana. One of Ghana's

most famous sacred groves the Buoyem Sacred Grove
and numerous other sacred groves are present in the
Techiman Municipal District and nearby districts of the
Brong Ahafo Region. They provide a refuge for wildlife
which has been exterminated in nearby areas, and one
grove most notably houses 20,000 fruit bats in underground
76
caves.* [14] The capital of the historical Ghana Empire,

contained a sacred grove called al-gba (Ar. the forest) for performing religious rites of the Soninke people.
Other sacred groves in Ghana include sacred groves along
the coastal savannahs of Ghana.* [15] Many sacred groves
in Ghana are now under federal protection - like the Anweam Sacred Grove in the Esukawkaw Forest Reserve* [16]
Other well-known sacred groves in present-day Ghana include the Malshegu Sacred Grove in Northern Ghana - one
of the last remaining closed canopy forests in the savannah
regions,* [17] and the Jachie sacred grove.
31.2.3
India
Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all

over India, which act as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more
often rare ora, amid rural and even urban settings. Experts
believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as
high as 100,000. Threats to the groves include urbanization,
over-exploitation of resources. While many of the groves
are looked upon as abode of Hindu gods, in the recent past a
number of them have been partially cleared for construction
of shrines and temples.* [19]* [20]
Ritualistic dances and dramatizations based on the local
deities that protect the groves are called Theyyam in Kerala and Nagmandalam, among other names, in Karnataka.
There are sacred groves in Ernakulam region in a place
named Mangatoor in Kerala. Sacred groves are being destroyed as a part of urbanization.The family Nalukettil
Puthenpurayilstill protects sacred groves.
31.2.4
Japan
Sacred groves in Japan are typically associated with Shinto

shrines, and are located all over Japan. They have existed
since ancient times and shrines are often built in the midst
of preexisting groves. The Cryptomeria tree is venerated in
Shinto practice, and considered sacred.
The Sacred Hindoo Grove near Chandod on the Banks of the Nerbudda,by James Forbes, 1782
See also: Sacred groves of India

In India, sacred groves are scattered all over the country,
and do enjoy protection. Prior to 2002 these forest regions
were not recognized under any of the existing laws. But
in 2002 an amendment was brought in Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972 to include Sacred Groves under the act. Some
NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves.
Each grove is associated with a presiding deity, and the
groves are referred to by dierent names in dierent parts
of India. They were maintained by local communities with
hunting and logging strictly prohibited within these patches.
While most of these sacred deities are associated with local
Hindu gods, sacred groves of Islamic and Buddhist origins
are also known. Sacred groves occur in a variety of places
- from scrub forests in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan maintained by the Bishnois, to rain forests in the Kerala Western
Ghats. Himachal Pradesh in the North and Kerala in the
South are specically known for their large numbers of sacred groves. The Kodavas of Karnataka maintained over
1000 sacred groves in Kodagu alone.* [18]
Among the sacred groves associated with such jinjas or

Shinto shrines is the 20-hectare wooded area associated
with Atsuta Shrine ( Atsuta-jing) at Atsuta-ku,
Nagoya. The 1500-hectare forest associated with Kashima
Shrine was declared aprotected areain 1953.* [21] Today
it is part of the Kashima Wildlife Preservation Area. The
woods include over 800 kinds of trees and varied animal
and plant life.* [22]
Tadasu no Mori () is a general term for a wooded
area associated with the Kamo Shrine, which is a Shinto
sanctuary near the banks of the Kamo River in northeast
Kyoto.* [23] The ambit of today's forest encompasses approximately 12.4 hectares, which are preserved as a national
historical site ().* [24] The Kamigamo Shrine and
the Shimogamo Shrine, along with other Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities), have
been designated World Heritage Sites since 1994.
Okinawa
The Utaki sacred sites (often with associated burial
grounds) on Okinawa are based on Ryukyuan religion, and
usually are associated with toun or kami-asagi - regions dedicated to the gods where people are forbidden to go. Sacred
groves are often present in such places, as also in Gusukus fortied areas which contain sacred sites within them.* [25]
The Seifa-utaki was designated as a UNESCO World Her-
31.2. TODAY
itage Site designated in 2003.* [26] It consists of a triangular cavern formed by gigantic rocks, and contains a sacred
grove with rare, indigenous trees like the Kubanoki (a kind
of palm) and the yabunikkei or Cinnamomum japonicum
(a form of wild cinnamon). Direct access to the grove is
forbidden.
31.2.5
Malaysia
Much of the ways of the ancient inhabitants of Malaysia

have largely been forgotten, mostly due to the taboos among
the local populace on putting certain esoteric knowledge
down in ink, thus only passed down through examples and
word of mouth from mother to daughter and father to son.
However, much can be observed by the ways and habits of
the natives of Malaysia which include 18 tribes of Orang
Asli (Malay for Natural People) and the Malays, who are
often regarded as the 19th tribe.
There is a practice of tree planting around houses to the
extent that the walls and wooden structures are allowed to
give way to the roots of creeping plants, purposely sown
at the bases of these structures. With increased migration
towards the larger cities, these houses are abandoned and
allowed to return to nature. As most traditional Orang Asli
and Malay houses are made of only wood, bamboo, rattan
and woven palm leaves (being built without using a single
nail), the remains of those houses crumble easily into its
surrounding.
Besides that, a practice of creating arches of vine and creeping owering plants so that each time one were to enter the
gates of the house, one has to bow, as if implying or imitating respect upon entry to a sacred grove which were practiced by their ancestors. Such practices are even performed
by those who have migrated into the cities who prefer to
live in houses on the ground, rather than in high rise apartments. A garden of fruit trees surrounded by larger trees
are planted around the houses to provide shade and an illusion of being at 'home' as well as to provide sustenance (in
the form of fruits and seeds) to squirrels, foxes, insects and
birds. Commonly, a cat, or in most instances, many cats are
kept to patrol the gardens and guard from harmful spirits as
well as against rats which were believed to carry unclean
spirits and diseases.
However, one of the most striking example of the tree reverence among them can be seen in the graveyards which
are considered as holy ground, on which no stone structure
can be built upon. The whole area are covered by large and
tall trees, so much foliage that the scorching tropical sun is
reduced to a dim shadow as temperatures drop to a comfortable cool. Malay folklore relates that the trees whisper
prayers to the creator in absolution of the past transgression
of the ground's once human inhabitants. The trees are also
77
allowed to take root into the graves where the grave keepers
(penjaga kubur in Malay) slowly remove gravestones (which
used to be made from wood) as they are ejected from the
grounds onto the surface. There is also a ritual of planting
small tree sapling on fresh graves by family members who
will then water it and tend to it periodically. Petals from
fresh red and pink roses are also brought upon visitation to
be scattered on the graves and a ritual of pouring rose water
upon the soils are also performed.
The Malays regard visiting the graves from between sunset
to sunrise as a taboo as it is believed that as sunrise is the
beginning of day to mankind, sunset is perceived as the beginning of day to those who dwell in the grave area. Burials
are almost always postponed until the next day except in
certain cases where it is allowed, provided that additional
rules are observed, such as, women and children are not allowed at the night time burial ceremony.
An ancient ritual of renaming the deceased as she or he
is laid into the earth is also practiced. The Orang Asli
and Malay (see Malaysian names) naming system has a living name and a spirit name, which is given during the ritual of burial. This name is known as nama arwah (spirit
name). The living name is usually the given name plus the
word 'anak' which means 'son/daughter of' or 'bin' and 'binti'
which mean 'son of' or 'daughter of' respectively; followed
by the name of the father. When a person dies, the father's
name is replaced with his or her mother's name and this is
made known during the reading of burial sentences.
31.2.6
Nepal
Granted World Heritage status by UNESCO in

1997,* [27]* [28] Lumbini Grove is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the Rupandehi District of Nepal. It
is the place where, according to Buddhist tradition,
Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama in
623 BCE.* [27]* [28] Gautama, who achieved nirvana
some time around 543 BCE,* [29]* [30] became the Lord
Gautama Buddha and founded Buddhism after achieving
Enlightenment.* [31]* [32]* [33] The Mayadevi Temple is
located at Lumbini.
31.2.7
Nigeria
The concept of sacred groves is present in Nigerian mythology as well. The Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove, containing
dense forests, is located just outside the city of Osogbo, and
is regarded as one of the last virgin high forests in Nigeria.
It is dedicated to the fertility goddess in Yoruba mythology,
and is dotted with shrines and sculptures. Oloye Suzanne
Wenger, an Austrian artist, helped revive the grove. The
78
Sacred grove in Hyrule, Legend of Zelda

Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove, Nigeria
grove was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in

2005.* [34]
31.2.8
Thailand
woods in his ctional writings which he based on English and Norse mythology.
George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire features weirwoods, a ctional tree species that is
worshipped, particularly ancient groves holding extra
signicance.
Sacred groves, mostly connected to Thai folk belief, are

known to have existed in Thailand since medieval times.
Recently, new areas are being marked o as sacred as an
environmental movement.
In The Legend of Zelda video game series there is a

location called the Sacred Grove in Hyrule, usually depicted as a gateway to the Temple of Time and thus the
Sacred Realm, one of the most important locations in
the series' backstory.
31.2.9
In MTV's Teen Wolf a sacred tree known as a nemeton

serves as a beacon for supernatural creatures and retained some of its power even after being cut down.
United States of America
The Lakota and various other North American tribes consider particular forests or other natural landmarks to be sacred. This is one of the reasons that there has been recent
dispute over the nullication of acknowledgment of Native
American reservation land by the US government and an
attempt to compensate Native Americans for the reacquisition of this sacred space.* [35]
The Bohemian Grove, located at 20601 Bohemian Avenue,
in Monte Rio, California, is a sacred grove belonging to a
private San Francisco-based men's art club known as the
Bohemian Club. In mid-July each year, Bohemian Grove
hosts a two-week, three-weekend encampment of some of
the most powerful men in the world, where they perform
symbolic rituals, such as Cremation of Care.
See also: Sacred Grove (Latter Day Saints)
31.4
See also
Asherah pole
Clootie well
Donar's Oak
Gaia hypothesis
Heathen hofs
Hiisi
Iconoclasm
Kaya (Mijikenda), Kenya
31.3 Sacred woods, groves and trees

in ction
J. R. R. Tolkien included many magical trees and
Kleczanw Forest, Poland

Nature worship
Pole worship
Sacred tree at Uppsala
31.5. REFERENCES
Tree hugger (disambiguation)
Tree worship
Yggdrasil
31.5 References
[1] Herodotus, v.119. Herodotus adds that the Carians are
indeed the only people we know of to conduct sacrices
to Zeus Stratios"; the connection of the presiding deity at
Labraunda to Hellene Zeus is simply interpretatio graeca.
79
[16] Boakye Amoako-Atta, Preservation of Sacred Groves in

Ghana: Esukawkaw Forest Reserve and its Anweam Sacred
Grove, Working Papers, South-South Co-operation Programme for Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic Development in the Humid Tropics, UNESCO
[17] C. Dorm-Adzobu, O. Ampadu-Agyei, and P. Veit; Religious Beliefs and Environmental Protection: The Malshegu
Sacred Grove in Northern Ghana; World Resources Institute and African Centre for Technology Studies, Washington
DC, 1991
[18] A series of articles in the journal Down to Earth on sacred
groves
[2] James Frazer, The Golden Bough, Dover reprint of 1922

abridged edition, (ISBN 0-486-42492-8)
[19] Malhotra, K. C., Ghokhale, Y., Chatterjee, S. and Srivastava, S., Cultural and Ecological Dimensions of Sacred
Groves in India, INSA, New Delhi, 2001
[3] National Archeological Museum of Spoleto website entry for

the exhibit of the inscribed stones
[20] Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods, University of California Press, 2000 (ISBN 978-0520222359)
[4] Lucus Pisaurensis: Sacred Grove of Pesaro, Discovered by

Annibale degli Abati Olivieri http://www.ilpignocco.it/en/
about-us/lucus-pisaurensis/
[21] Secretariat of the Convention on Biodiversity: Protected

Areas in Today's World: Their Values and Benets for the
Welfare of the Planet, CBC technical Series No. 36.
[5] Lucus Pisaurensis http://www.ilpignocco.it/en/about-us/

lucus-pisaurensis/
[22] A guide to Japan's sacred forests at kateigaho.com
[6] http://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/
pesaro-history.php
[24] Shimogamo-jinja: Tadasu-no-mori (Forest of justice)"
[7] Ronald Hutton, The Druids, p97 ISBN 978-1-85285-533-8
[25] Asato Susumu, From Gusuku to Utaki : Okinawas Sacred

Areas from an Archeological Perspective, Board of Education of Urasoe
[8] Ronald Hutton, The Druids, p97-8 ISBN 978-1-85285-5338

[9] Tshan, Francis J. Adam of Bremen
[23] Terry, Philip. (1914). Terry's Japanese empire, p. 479.
[26] Wonder Okinawa: World Heritage site inclusion

[27] http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/180
[10] Venceslas Kruta, Les Celtes, Histoire et dictionnaire, Robert

Laont, coll. Bouquins, Paris, 2000, (ISBN 2-7028-6261-6)
[28] Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha. UNESCO.

Retrieved 1 March 2011.
[11] Maurice Meuleau, Les Celtes en Europe, ditions dilarge,

Rennes, 2004, (ISBN 2-7028-9095-4)
[29] Cousins, LS (1996).The Dating of the Historical Buddha:

A Review Article. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
6 (1): 5763. doi:10.1017/s1356186300014760. JSTOR
25183119.
[12] Horace L. Jones, ed. and tr. The Geography of Strabo. Vols
1-8, containing Books 1-17. Harvard University Press and
Heinemann, 1917-32
[13] Ahto Kaasik (2012) Conserving Sacred Natural sites in Estonia, in J-M Mallarach; T. Papayannis & R. Visnen, editors. the Diversity of Sacred Lands in europe. Proceedings
of the Third Workshop of the Delos Initiative - Inari/Aanaar
2010, pages 61-74. IUCN, WCPA & Metshallitus.
[14] Entry at the United Nations Division of Sustainable Development
[15] Michael O'Neal Campbell, Traditional forest protection and
woodlots in the coastal savannah of Ghana, Environmental Conservation (2004), 31: 225-232 Cambridge University
Press
[30] Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (2003). The Historical Buddha:

The Times, Life, and Teachings of the Founder of Buddhism.
Motilal Banarsidass Press. pp. 1013. ISBN 8120818172.
[31] Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha UNESCO
World Heritage Centre. Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 19
August 2013.
[32] ""Gautama Buddha (B.C. 623-543)" by T.W. Rhys-Davids,
The World's Great Events, B.C. 4004-A.D. 70 (1908) by
Esther Singleton, pp. 12435. Unz.org. 28 November
2012. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
[33] The Buddha (BC 623-BC 543) Religion and spirituality
Article Buddha, Bc, 623. Booksie. 8 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
80
[34] Entry at the UNESCO website

[35] Black Hills Land Claim
31.5.1
Notes

Taylor, Isaac (1864). Words and places: or, etymological illustrations of history, ethnology, and geography.
New York: Macmillan. OCLC 13735328.
31.7 External links

M. D. Subash Chandran Madhav Gadgil, Sacred
Groves and Sacred Trees of Uttara Kannada
Chapter 32
Samseonghyeol
agriculture and helped them to develop and populate the island. Eventually the three men shot three arrows from the
top of a mountain which landed in three dierent places on
the island, signifying the places of residence for their descendants.
32.3
References
32.4
The Samseonghyeol (Korean forthree clans' holes) are
three large holes in the ground in Jeju on Jejudo, an island
in the northern East China Sea. The holes are located in the
city's urban area on the island's central north coast.
32.1 Geology
32.2 Legend
According to legend, it was here that three demigods
emerged from the ground to become the founding fathers of
Tamna and its people, whose descendants bear their family
names:
1. Go Eulna ( = )
2. Yang Eulna ( = )
3. Bu Eulna ( = )
According to an animated lm shown at a local shrine, a
mysterious man later arrived by ship bringing three beautiful princesses who became their wives and taught them
81
External links
Samseonghyeol (English)
Chapter 33
Thuvaraiyam Pathi
Thuvaraiyam Pathi is described in Ayyavazhi mythology.
The Akilattirattu Ammanai, the holy text of Ayyavazhi,
tells about a sunken land at about 152 miles either south
or south-east to Kanyakumari, with 16008 streets.
This land also matches the sunken land, Kumarikkandam
of ancient Tamil Nadu.
33.1 See also

Ayyavazhi mythology
List of Ayyavazhi-related articles
82
Chapter 34
Uhlanga
In Zulu mythology, Uhlanga is the marsh from which
humanity was born.
Hahn suggests that the amaZulu people borrowed this creation myth from the Khoikhoi from whom they appropriated their lands, but that they misunderstood the word uhlanga which in isiZulu means marsh reed, but which means
oshootin some Khoikhoi languages.
However, myths about people emerging from a marsh, a
cave, or a hole in the ground are widespread in Bantu language speaking societies.
Unkulunkulu is humanity's progenitor and was the oshoot
of Umvelinqangi.
34.1 References
Leslie, David (1875) Among the Zulus and Amatongas: with sketches of the natives, their language and
customs; and the country, products, climate, wild animals, etc Edmonston & Douglas, Edinburgh;
Hahn, Theophilus (1881) Tsuni||Goam, the Supreme
Being of the Khoi-Khoi Trbner, London;
83
Chapter 35
Underworld
For other uses, see Underworld (disambiguation).
The underworld or netherworld is an otherworld thought
Yggdrasil, a modern attempt to reconstruct the Norse world tree

which connects the heavens, the world, and the underworld.
to be deep underground or beneath the surface of the world

in most religions and mythologies.* [1] Typically it is a place
where the souls of the departed go, an afterlife or a realm
of the dead. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things
of the underworld.
The legs of the god Vishnu as the Cosmic Man depict earth and the
seven realms of the Hindu underworld of Patala. The feet rest on
cosmic serpent Shesha.
35.2
Underworld gures
35.1 Underworlds by mythology

This list includes underworlds in various mythology, with This list includes rulers or guardians of the underworld in
links to corresponding articles.
various mythologies, with links to corresponding articles.
84
35.4. REFERENCES
35.3 See also

Otherworld
World Tree A tree that connects the heavens, the
earth, and the underworld in a number of spiritual belief systems
35.4 References
[1] Underworld. The free dictionary. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
85
Chapter 36
Lake Uniamsi
Lake Uniamsi or the Uniamesi Sea was the name given
by missionaries in the 1840s and 1850s to a huge lake or
inland sea they supposed to lie within a region of Central
East Africa with the same name.
Three missionaries, conned to the coastal belt, heard of
the region of Unyamwezi in the northwest of what is now
Tanzania and exaggerated its size to include a large part of
the continental interior. They heard of a great lake, and
imagined an enormous lake that would be the source of the
Benue, Nile, Zambezi and Congo rivers. They drew a map
showing a huge Lake Uniamesithat was published in
1855. The map spurred the expedition of Burton and Speke
to investigate the African Great Lakes region, where they
found that lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa were separate bodies of water. It was not until 1877 that it was conrmed that these lakes did feed the Nile, Congo and Zambezi, albeit separately.
36.1 Background
The Great Lakes of East Africa include lakes Albert,
Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika, all of which lie in the western or Albertine branch of the East African rift system,
Lake Victoria to the east of this chain and Lake Nyasa
(Malawi) to the south. Lake Victoria is the third largest
lake in the world, and lies on the plateau between the west
and east rifts. Unlike the long, narrow and deep lakes of the
rift, Lake Victoria is wide and relatively shallow.* [1]
German East Africa in 1894, showing lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika

and Victoria.Unjamwesiis below theDinDeutsch Ostafrika
The Unyamwezi region lies around the modern town of

Tabora, between the coast and Lake Tanganyika, and includes the Tabora, Nzega and Kahama districts of the western plateau of modern Tanzania. In the 19th century the
inhabitants were called Nyamwezi people by outsiders, although this term covered various dierent groups.* [6] Unyamwezi lay at a juncture where a trade route from the coast
split, with one branch continuing west to the port of Ujiji
on Lake Tanganyika while another branch led north to the
kingdoms of Buganda and Bunyoro.* [7] Coastal traders settled in Unyamwezi, some with hundreds of well-armed retainers.* [8] The Nyamwezi provided most of the porters for
the caravans organized by the coastal Arabs and Swahilis,
and also conducted their own caravans.* [9] The Nyamwezi
were long-distance traders throughout East Africa.* [6]
Bantu peoples moved into the region between the Great

Lakes and the Indian Ocean some time after 1000 BC and
mingled with the local population.* [2] By the rst century
AD ships from the Arabian peninsula were trading along
the East African coast. Muslim Arabs from Oman began to colonize the coast in the 8th century AD.* [3] The
coastal Bantu peoples intermarried with the Arabs to form
the Swahili people, with a language that combines Bantu,
Arabic and Persian elements.* [4] The Swahili culture incorporated many Arabic and Islamic aspects, while remaining
Ivory was not widely used by the Nyamwezi, but at some
essentially Bantu in nature.* [5]
86
36.2. EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS

point they became aware that there was an overseas market
for the product, and began to carry ivory along the route
from Tabora down to the Indian Ocean coast opposite Zanzibar. There are records of Sultan Sayyid Said of Zanzibar
negotiating with envoys from Unyamwezi in 1839 for safe
passage for caravans to the interior.* [10] The Nyamwezi
did not sell their own people as slaves, since they needed
manpower for the ivory trade, but after the 1850s the slave
trade began to become important. Slaves brought from the
Congo Basin or the Great Lakes region would be held at
Tabora, then sent down to the coast in small groups for onward shipment.* [11]
36.2 Early European contacts
Johann Ludwig Krapf
Early in 1844 Sultan Sayyid Said gave the German missionary Johann Ludwig Krapf (18101881) permission to establish a mission on the coast. Krapf arrived in Mombasa
on 13 March 1844.* [12] He was joined in 1846 by Johannes
Rebmann (18201876). On 12 November 1848 Rebmann
started a journey into the interior. The Church Missionary
Intelligencer reported that,The ultimate object, which our
Missionaries had in view, has been to reach Uniamsi, that
interior country where the roads to East Africa and West
Africa diverge.* [13] Uniamsi was said to lie about 150
to 200 hours to the west of the Chagga kingdom, which lay
on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.* [14]
87
On 10 June 1849 Jakob Erhardt (18231901) and John
Wagner arrived at the Rabbai Mpia mission station near
Mombasa. Wagner died on 1 August 1849. In the spring
of 1850 Erhardt and Krapf traveled by dhow down the
East African coast from Mombasa.* [15] On the journey
they met traders from Unyamwezi. Krapf recorded that
caravans of three to four thousand men from Unyamwezi
would arrive at the coast in December after a three-month
journey, and would leave on the return journey in March
or April.* [16] The Arabs of Zanzibar were hostile to Europeans reaching Unyamwezi. In 1847 they arranged for
Washenzis to kill a French trader, Mr. Maison, on his way
to the interior.* [lower-alpha 1]* [18]
The missionaries were impatient to learn more about the
great central country of Uniamsi, whither converge the
great rivers which have their embouchures on the western
and eastern coasts... from which, according to the native
conception, is an outlet to the four quarters of the globe.
There seemed to be no doubt that the Natives of this
central land trac with the western as well as the eastern
coast.* [19] In 1850 Krapf exclaimed that,Had we sufcient pecuniary means at our command, and were it not
our bounden duty to subordinate all secondary objects to
our chief vocation, which consists in the preaching of the
Gospel, the map of East Africa would soon wear another
aspect.* [20]
Krapf wrote,I have lately perused a paper making the lake
Niassa and that of Uniamesi appear as one and the same volume of water... from other native authorities I know at least
that the Natives clearly distinguish between the Niassa and
the Uniamesi lakes. But as I have made it a rule to distrust
all native reports, until they be conrmed by personal observation, I shall say nothing more on this point.* [20] Later
that year the Church missionary intelligencer published an
account by Krapf of a journey to Ukambani* [lower-alpha
2] that he had made in November and December 1849.
He speculated that the Niger and its tributary the Tshadda
(Benue), the Congo, Nile and Kilimani (Quelimane near
to the mouth of the Zambezi) would all provide access to
the center of Africa.* [22]
Uniamsi was thought to contain a great lake. Krapf said,
The sources of all these great rivers are not
so distant from each other as our present geographical knowledge would make us believe...
Certain it is, that he who reaches the sources of
the Nile will have a more than probable chance
of reaching the sources of the Tshadda, of the
Congo, and of the Kilimani. All of them verge
toward the equatortoward the extensive country of Uniamsi, and the territories around Uniamsi, which could be rendered by the interpretation Possession of the Moon... I will ...
88
CHAPTER 36. LAKE UNIAMSI

simply remark, that the Tshadda, the Congo, the
Nile, and the Kilimani rivers, either take their rise
from the great lake in Uniamsi, or very near to
that lake...* [23]
36.3 Erhardt's map
Erhard and Reibmann's map of the Uniamesi Sea as published in

the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society
Jakob Erhardt
Map of Lac d'Uniamsi by Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun dated June

1856, based on the Erhard and Reibmann sketch and on a map by
August Heinrich Petermann
They represented to him that the Sea of Uniamesi was simply a continuation of the Lake Niassa, the latter, according to them, striking out
westward from its northerly direction, and then
spreading itself out even to a greater expanse than
hitherto, so as to approach the mountains which
pass through the centre of the continent, and form
a most important and impenetrable barrier and
water-shed. The northern side of this barrier contains the sources of the Nile, of Lake Tsad, and
of the river Chadda, while the south side sends
its waters partly to the Atlantic Ocean, by the
river Congo or Zaire, partly to the Indian Ocean
by the Jub, Dana and Osi, and also, as I think
highly probable, to the great lake of the interior
itself.* [24]
Erhardt was struck by the fact that various travelers who had
gone inland from dierent points on the east coast of Africa
Jakob Erhardt spent six months at Tanga studying the had all come to an inland sea, and made a map based on
Kisambara language, where he heard the stories of ivory available information, including the ndings of Krapf and
traders who had visited the interior.* [24] According to Reb- Rebmann. In November 1854 while talking about the probmann, whose account was published in Krapf's memoirs,
lem to Rebmann,at one and the same moment, the prob-
36.4. EXPLORATION
lem ashed on both of us solved by the simple supposition
that where geographical hypothesis had hitherto supposed
an enormous mountain-land, we must now look for an enormous valley and an inland sea.* [25] On the map that he
and Rebmann drew the three lakes are shown as one very
large S-shaped lake.* [26]
89
36.4
Exploration
In 1855 Erhardt was repatriated due to poor health, and

took the map with him.* [27] Rebmann wrote letters to the
Calwer Missionary Intelligencer (Calwer Missionsblatt), received and published in 1855, in which he called the lake
Uniamesi or Ukerewe.* [lower-alpha 3] He said that according to accounts by traders, considered trustworthy by
the missionaries, the lake extended from latitude 0.5N to
13.5S and from longitude 23.5E to 36E, and had an
area of 13,600 German square miles, as compared to 7,860
German square miles for the Black Sea and 7,400 for the
Caspian.* [29] The map was rst published in the Calwer
Missionsblatt later in 1855, and then in the Church Missionary intelligencer in 1856.* [27] August Heinrich Petermann
published the map in his Mittheilungen, but warned that the
missionaries may not have accounted suciently for exaggeration by their informants. He provided a supplementary sketch showing the lake extending from 7S to 12S
and 22.5E to 30.5E, one third of Rebmann's estimated
size.* [30]
The map was reproduced with commentary in other publications.* [31]Ferdinand de Lesseps saw a pen-and-ink version of the map made byMr. Rehman of Moubar, on the
Zanguebar coast.In a letter of April 1857 to the Acadmie
des Sciences of Paris he commented that the inland sea
would be larger than the Black Sea. He said,The existence
of this sea was certied to me during my stay at Khartoum
by a pilgrim from Mecca, who inhabits Central Africa, and
who gave Mahmoud Pasha, one of the Viceroy's ministers,
particulars corresponding to Mr. Rehman's map. This pilgrim added that he had seen larger vessels on the Uniamesi
than that in which he had sailed down the Red Sea.* [32]
Johannes Rebmann
Burton and Speke reached Zanzibar on 20 December 1857,

visited Rebmann at his Kisuludini mission station, and paid
a visit to Fuga, capital of the Usambare kingdom.* [35] Burton met king Kimweri ye Nyumbai, once a powerful warrior
who had controlled the trade routes to the interior but now
extremely old.* [36] They left for the interior on 26 June
1858. After travelling through mountainous country they
The reports of snow on mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya, reached the inner plateau of Uniamesi. At the Arab trading
near to the equator, caused considerable controversy.* [33] post of Kazeh (now Tabora) they recorded an elevation of
Sir Francis Galton, who had won the Royal Geographical 3,400 feet (1,000 m).* [37]
Society's gold medal in 1853 for his southwest African explorations, had Erhardt's map published in the society's Pro- At Kazeh Burton and Speke found a mixed population of
ceedings. Galton was pressed to travel to Africa to conrm Nyamwezi, Tutsi and Arabs engaged in cattle farming and
the report about Mount Kilimanjaro. He declined on the cultivation of foods such as rice, cassava, pawpaw and citcalled Unyamwezi the garden of inter-tropical
basis that he had not yet fully recovered his health from rus. Burton
*
*
[38]
The land sloped down from there to Lake
Africa.
his previous expedition. [34] Instead, the Royal GeographTakanyika
[sic],
or Uniamesi, which they reached on 3
ical Society persuaded the British government to provide
March
1849
and
where
they recorded an elevation of 1,843
1,000 for an expedition by Richard Francis Burton and
*
*
feet
(562
m).
[37]
[lower-alpha
4]
John Hanning Speke to investigate the great lake, or lakes,
*
and determine if they were the source of the Nile. [34] The Burton and Speke found that the lake extended about 300
map came to be known as the slug mapfrom the shape miles (480 km) north from Ujiji, where it was closed by
of the Uniamesi or Niassa inland sea. Burton called it the a crescent-shaped mountain range.* [37] They were told by
Mombas Mission Map.* [33]
the local people that the lake reached down to latitude 8
90
south. Later David Livingstone was given consistent inAccording to Burton the name came from Ukerewe Island.* [28]
formation by an Arab trader who had skirted the south
of the lake, and a Swahili traveler also conrmed that
[4] Lake Tanganyika has a surface elevation of 2,536 feet (773
the Taganyikawas not connected to the Niassa to the
m) rather than 1,843 feet (562 m) recorded by Burton and
south.* [37] Burton and Speke returned to Kazeh, where
Speke.
Burton was forced to rest while Speke traveled north to explore Lake Victoria (also called Lake Ukerewe), reaching [5] Lake Victoria has a surface elevation of 3,717 feet (1,133
m), close to Speke's measurement of 3,788 feet (1,155 m).
it on 3 August 1849. Speke recorded an elevation of 3,788
*
feet (1,155 m) [lower-alpha 5] and was told that a river left
the north of the lake and owed into the Nile.* [39]
Citations
There was continued controversy about the Great Lakes and
the rivers that fed and drained them. Speke made a long
journey with James Augustus Grant between October 1860
and February 1863, traveling from the coast opposite Zanzibar via Tabora and Uganda to Khartoum.* [40] However,
the question of whether the Nile issued from Lake Victoria was left uncertain.* [41] In 186673 David Livingstone
left the coast at Pemba, followed the Ruvuma River inland and walked to the southern end of Lake Nyasa, which
he rounded to the west. He then traveled north to Lake
Tanganyika.* [42] After lengthy explorations of the country southwest of Lake Tanganyika, with his health broken
Livingstone reached Ujiji on the east of Lake Tanganyika,
where he had his famous meeting with Henry Morton Stanley on 10 November 1871.* [43]
Verney Lovett Cameron was sent in 1873 to assist David
Livingstone. Shortly after he left Zanzibar he learned that
Livingstone had died, but continued to Ujiji. He circumnavigated Lake Tanganyika and found that it had its outlet
to the west, feeding into a tributary of the Congo River.
Cameron went on to the Atlantic, becoming one of the
rst Europeans to make an east-west crossing of Equatorial
Africa.* [44] It was not until Stanley circumnavigated Lake
Victoria in 18741875 that it was conrmed that the lake
was the source of the White Nile.* [41] With Stanley's return to Zanzibar in 1877 the last of the main questions surrounding the Great Lakes drainage had been settled.* [45]
Krapf had conjectured there was one great lake feeding the
Congo, Zambezi, Nile and Benue. There had turned out to
be three great lakes, feeding the Congo, Zambezi and Nile.
[1] Griths 2013, p. 3.

[2] Taylor 1963, p. 4.
[3] Taylor 1963, p. 5.
[4] Taylor 1963, p. 6.
[5] Fyle 1999, p. 46.
[6] Jerman 1997, p. 111.
[7] Fage, Flint & Oliver 1976, p. 277.
[10] Jerman 1997, p. 112.
[12] Bursik 2008, p. 36.
[13] Church Missionary Intelligencer 1850, p. 106.
[15] Bursik 2008, p. 45.
[16] Jerman 1997, p. 114.
[17] Mbogoni 2012, p. 167.
[18] Church Missionary Intelligencer 1850, pp. 112113.
[19] Church Missionary Intelligencer 1850, pp. 392393.
36.5 References
[21] BMMK appeals... 2010.

Notes
[1]Washenziwas a derogatory term used by the coastal Arabs
for people of the interior who had failed to adopt any elements of Arab culture. It signiedbarbaric savage.* [17]
[2] Ukambani is a semi-arid region of today's Kenya, inland
from Mombasa and to the east of today's Nairobi.* [21]
[3] Lake Ukerewe is another name for Lake Victoria Nyanza.
[23] Krapf 1852, p. 456.

[24] Krapf & Ravenstein 1860, p. 486.
[25] Godsall 2008, p. 147.
[26] Bursik 2008, p. 76.
[27] Heldring 2011, p. 68.
[28] Burton 1860, p. 214.
36.5. REFERENCES
[29] The Lake Region in Central Africa 1862, p. 17.

[30] The Lake Region in Central Africa 1862, p. 18.
[31] Cooley & Petermann 1856.
[32] Lesseps 1888, p. 42.
[33] Newman 2009, p. 64.
[34] Wright 2001, p. 110.
[35] Krapf & Ravenstein 1860, p. xxvii.
[36] Briggs & McIntyre 2013, p. 175.
[37] Krapf & Ravenstein 1860, p. xxviii.
[39] Krapf & Ravenstein 1860, p. xxix.
[40] Kokwaro 1994, p. 3.
[41] Kalb 2001, p. 288.
[42] Moorehead 2000, p. 98.
[43] Moorehead 2000, p. 114-117.
[44] Koivunen 2008, p. 216.
[45] Moorehead 2000, p. 139.
Sources
BMMK appeals for famine relief for drought in
Ukambani. The World Federation of Khoja Shia
Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities. 5 January 2010.
Briggs, Philip; McIntyre, Chris (2013). Northern Tanzania, 3rd: Serengeti, Kilamanjaro, Zanzibar. Bradt
Travel Guides. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-84162-457-0.
Bursik, Heinrich (2008). Wissenschaft u. Mission
soll sich aufs innigste miteinander befreunden(PDF).
Universitt Wien.
Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1860). The lake regions
of Central Africa: A picture exploration. Longman,
Green, Longman, and Roberts. Retrieved 2013-0911.
Church Missionary Intelligencer: a monthly journal
of missionary information. Seeley. 1850. Retrieved
2013-09-11.
Cooley, W. Desborough; Petermann, August (1856).
Mmoire zur Erluterung der von ihm und Johannes
Rebmann zusammengestellten Karte von Ost- und
Central-Afrika. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. Gotha.
91
Fage, J. D.; Flint, John E.; Oliver, Roland Anthony
(1976). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge
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Fyle, C. Magbaily (1999-01-01). Introduction to the
History of African Civilization: Precolonial Africa.
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Griths, Ieuan L.l. (2013). The Atlas of African Affairs. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-85559-8.
Godsall, Jon R. (2008). The Tangled Web: A Life
of Sir Richard Burton. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p.
146. ISBN 978-1-906510-42-8. Retrieved 2013-0911.
Heldring, J.W. (2011). The Killing of Dr. Albrecht
Roscher. Xlibris Corporation. p. 68. ISBN 978-14653-6786-0. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
Jerman, Helena (1997). Between Five Lines: The Development of Ethnicity in Tanzania with Special Reference to the Western Bagamoyo District. Nordic Africa
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Visualizing Africa in
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Arminian Or Methodist Magazine First Publ. by John
Wesley. p. 456. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
Krapf, Johann Ludwig; Ravenstein, Ernest George
(1860). Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours,
During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa:
Together with Journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia and Khartum, and a Coasting
Voyage from Nombaz to Cape Delgado. Trbner and
Company, Paternoster Row. p. xxvii. Retrieved
2013-09-11.
92
Lesseps, Ferdinand de (1888). Recollections of Forty
Years. D. Appleton. p. 42. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
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Richard Francis Burton in Africa. Potomac Books,
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2013-09-11.
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Chapter 37
Venusberg (mythology)
Lied von dem Danheser, the principal source for Richard
Wagner's large three-act opera Tannhuser (1845), which
changes a few story elements and is known for including
a scandalous depiction of the revels of Venus's court in its
rst scene. In Heinrich Heine's laconic poem Tannhuser:
A Legend, the hero spent seven years there before departing for Rome. Algernon Charles Swinburne tells the story
in the rst person in his poem Laus Veneris. Ludwig Tieck
wrote a story on the subject, and Anthony Powell called an
early novel of his Venusberg. Another visitor was Thomas
the Rhymer (Thomas Ercildoune, c 1220-97).
The Tannhauser Gate of lm and ction originated as an
allusion to the pathway that the knight used to discover
and travel to this supposed place of ultimate erotic adventure. Venusberg is also a locality in the city of Bonn and in
Flensburg.
37.1
References
A.C. Swinburne, Laus Veneris on the Victorian

Web.
37.2
In the Venusberg by John Collier, 1901: a gilded setting that is
distinctly Italian quattrocento
Venusberg (German: Venus mountain) or Hrselberg

is the name of a mythical mountain in Germany situated
between Gotha and Eisenach and celebrated in German poetry. Caverns in the mountain housed the court of Venus,
goddess of love which was supposed to be perfectly hidden
from mortal men: to enter the Venusberg was to court eternal perdition. However, the legendary knight Tannhuser
spent a year there worshipping Venus and returned there after believing that he had been denied forgiveness for his sins
by Pope Urban IV; this is described in the sixteenth-century
93
External links
Chapter 38
Zazamanc
Zazamanc is the name of a legendary African or Arabian country mentioned in Wolfram von Eschenbach's epic
poem Parzival.* [1] As a story embedded in Wolfram's
poem, Zazamanc is generally seen as a myth created by
Wolfram. However, Zazamanc is also mentioned in the
Nibelungenlied.
38.1 References
[1] Eschenbach, Wolfram von (1980). Parzival. Penguin.
94
Chapter 39
Heaven in Christianity
turn to earth in the Second Coming. Various people have
been said to have entered heaven while still alive, including
Enoch, Elijah and Jesus himself, after his resurrection. According to Roman Catholic teaching, Mary, the mother of
Jesus, is also said to have been assumed into heaven and is
titled the Queen of Heaven.
In the Christian Bible, concepts about the future "Kingdom
of Heaven" are professed in several scriptural prophecies of
the new (or renewed) Earth said to follow the resurrection of
the deadparticularly the books of Isaiah and Revelation
and other sources of Christian eschatology.
Heaven is therefore spoken of in rather dierent senses: as
another dimension,* [4] as the physical skies or upper cosmos, as the realm of divine perfection already in existence,
or as the coming world at the return of Christ.
39.1
General
Some specic descriptions of this Kingdom as given in the

canon of scripture include(this list is by no means comprehensive):
The Ladder of Divine Ascent in Saint Catherine's Monastery,
Mount Sinai.* [1]
Traditionally, heaven in Christianity is the location of the

throne of God as well as the holy angels,* [2]* [3] though this
is in varying degrees considered metaphorical. In traditional
Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence
(rather than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos)
of the supreme fulllment of theosis in the beatic vision
of the Godhead. In most forms of Christianity, heaven is
also understood as the abode for the righteous dead in the
afterlife, usually a temporary stage before the resurrection
of the dead and the saints' return to the New Earth.
The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to heaven
where he now sits at the Right Hand of God and will re95
Seeing God as He is; sharing in his life1 Jn 3:2; 1

Cor 13:12; Jn 17:24
Peaceful Conditions on a New EarthIs. 2:24, 9:7,
11:69, 27:13, 32:1718, 33:2021, 60:1718, Ez.
34:2528, 37:26, Zech 9:10, Matt. 5:35, Rev. 21
Eternal Rule by a MessiahKingPs. 72, Jer 31:33
34, Zech 2:1011, 8:3, 14:9, Matt 16:27, Jude 2:3 4
an heir of David, Is. 9:67, 11:15
Bodily perfectionNo hunger, thirst, death, or sickness; a pure language, etc.Is. 1:25, 4:4, 33:24, 35:5
6, 49:10, 65:2024, Jer. 31:1213, Ez. 34:29, 36:29
30, Micah 4:67, Zeph. 3:919, Matt 13:43
Ruined cities inhabited by people and ocks of sheep
Is. 32:14, 61:45, Ez. 36:10,3338, Amos 9:14
96
CHAPTER 39. HEAVEN IN CHRISTIANITY
39.2 Early Christian writing

See also: Early Christianity and Heaven in Judaism
The earliest of the Apostolic Fathers Clement of Rome does
not mention entry into heaven after death but instead expresses belief in the Resurrection of the Dead after a period
of slumber* [5] at the Second Coming.* [6]
A fragment from the early 2nd century of one of the lost volumes of Papias, a Christian bishop, expounds thatheaven
was separated into three distinct layers. He referred to the
rst as just heaven, the second as "paradise", and the
third as the city. Papias taught that there is this distinction between the habitation of those who produce a hundredfold, and that of those who produce sixty-fold, and that
of those who produce thirty-fold.* [7]
According to some views, some Christians in the 1st century believed that the Kingdom of God was coming to earth
within their own lifetimes.* [3] They looked forward to a divine future on earth.* [3] When the Kingdom of God did not
arrive, according to this hypothesis, championed by Bart
Ehrman (2006), Christians gradually rened their hopes so
that they came to look forward to an immediate reward in
heaven after death, rather than to a future divine kingdom Eastern Orthodox icon depicting Christ enthroned in heaven, suron earth* [3]despite the churches' continuing to use the rounded by the ranks of angels and saints. At the bottom is Paradise
with the Bosom of Abraham (left), and the Good Thief (right).
major creeds' statements of belief in a coming Resurrection
Day and World to Come.
In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus (a Greek bishop) wrote rst to enter.
that not all who are saved would merit an abode in heaven
Various saints have had visions of heaven (2 Corinthians
itself.* [8]
12:2-4). The Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the prayers for the dead: "a place of
light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, from
39.3 Orthodox Christianity
whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are ed away.* [9]
The teachings of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox communions regarding the Kingdom of Heaven, or
Kingdom of God, are basically taken from scripture, and
thus many elements of this belief are held in common with
other scriptural faiths and denominations.
39.3.1
However, in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox,

it is only God who has the nal say on who enters heaven. In
the Eastern Orthodox Church, heaven is part and parcel of
deication (Theosis), the eternal sharing of the divine qualities through communion with the Triune God (reunion of
Father and Son through love).
Eastern Orthodox cosmology
Eastern Orthodox cosmology perceives heaven as having

dierent levels (John 14:2), the lowest of which is Paradise.
At the time of creation, paradise touched the earth at the
Garden of Eden. After the Fall of man, paradise was separated from the earth, and mankind forbidden entry, lest
he partake of the Tree of Life and live eternally in a state
of sinfulness (Genesis 3:22-24). At his death on the Cross,
the Orthodox believe Jesus opened the door to Paradise to
mankind again (Luke 23:43), and the Good Thief was the
39.4
Roman Catholicism
See also: Keys of Heaven

The Catholic Church teaches that heaven is the ultimate
end and fulllment of the deepest human longings, the state
of supreme, denitive happiness.* [10] It holds that, by
his death and Resurrection, Jesus Christ has 'opened' heaven
to us. The life of the blessed consists in the full and perfect
39.5. PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY

possession of the fruits of the redemption accomplished by
Christ... Heaven is the blessed community of all who are
perfectly incorporated into Christ.* [11] In the glory of
heaven the blessed continue joyfully to fulll God's will in
relation to other men and to all creation. Already they reign
with Christ; with him 'they shall reign for ever and ever'
(Rev 22:5).* [12] All of those who have made it to Heaven,
recognized by the Church or not, are Saints or the Church
Triumphant.
Heaven is considered a state, a condition of existence, rather
than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos. Pope John
Paul II declared: The 'heaven' or 'happiness' in which we
will nd ourselves is neither an abstraction nor a physical
place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with
the Holy Trinity. It is our meeting with the Father which
takes place in the risen Christ through the communion of the
Holy Spirit.* [2] Those Christians who die still imperfectly
puried must, according to Catholic teaching, pass through
a state of purication known as purgatory before entering
heaven.* [13]
97
not into a sanctuary made with hands, a copy of the true
one, but into heaven itself(ibid., 9:24). Since believers
are loved in a special way by the Father, they are raised
with Christ and made citizens of heaven... After the course
of our earthly life, participation in complete intimacy with
the Father thus comes through our insertion into Christ's
paschal mystery...* [2]
The Catechism of the Catholic Church indicates several images of heaven found in the Bible:This mystery of blessed
communion with God and all who are in Christ is beyond
all understanding and description. Scripture speaks of it in
images: life, light, peace, wedding feast, wine of the kingdom, the Father's house, the heavenly Jerusalem, paradise:
'no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the heart of man conceived, what God has prepared for those who love him'.
*
[15]
The happiness of the union with God that is heaven is called

the "beatic vision": Because of his transcendence, God
cannot be seen as he is, unless he himself opens up his mystery to man's immediate contemplation and gives him the
Pope Benedict XVI gave this explanation of what is meant capacity for it. The Church calls this contemplation of God
by heaven:
in his heavenly glory 'the beatic vision'.* [16]
We all experience that when people die they
continue to exist, in a certain way, in the memory
and heart of those who knew and loved them. We
might say that a part of the person lives on in them
but it resembles ashadowbecause this survival
in the heart of their loved ones is destined to end.
God, on the contrary, never passes away and we
all exist by virtue of his love. We exist because he
loves us, because he conceived of us and called us
to life. We exist in God's thoughts and in God's
love. We exist in the whole of our reality, not
only in our shadow. Our serenity, our hope
and our peace are based precisely on this: in God,
in his thoughts and in his love, it is not merely a
shadowof ourselves that survives but rather we
are preserved and ushered into eternity with the
whole of our being in him, in his creator love. It
is his Love that triumphs over death and gives us
eternity and it is this love that we callHeaven":
God is so great that he also makes room for us.
And Jesus the man, who at the same time is God,
is the guarantee for us that the being-man and the
being-God can exist and live, the one within the
other, for eternity.* [14]
According to Pope John Paul II,The New Testament amplies the idea of heaven in relation to the mystery of Christ.
To show that the Redeemer's sacrice acquires perfect and
denitive value, the Letter to the Hebrews says that Jesus
passed through the heavens(Heb 4:14), and entered,
39.5
Protestant Christianity
See also: Intermediate state, Christian mortalism,

Arminianism, and Calvinism
Some denominations teach that one enters heaven at the
moment of death (2 Corinthians 5:6-8), while others teach
that this occurs at a later time (the Last Judgment). Some
Christians maintain that entry into Heaven awaits such time
as When the form of this world has passed away.* [17]
Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in
Christianity are better described as the "resurrection of the
body" as contrasted with the immortality of the soul". In
the rst, the soul does not enter heaven until the last judgement or the end of timewhen it (along with the body)
is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul
goes to a heaven on another plane immediately after death.
These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine
of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at
death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a
second and nal judgement at the end of the world.* [18]
Those who believe in the immortality of the soul generally
conclude that the term Heaven is the realm in which God
currently resides. Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoiled and perfect creation, which can be termed
Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently
with his people, as seen in Revelation 21:3. That there will
98
no longer be any separation between God and man. The
believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected
and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no
tears.
Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but
was allowed to happen after Adam and Eve disobeyed God
so that mankind would not live forever in a state of sin and
thus a state of separation from God.* [19]* [20]* [21]

from the dead, and ascended to minister in the heavenly sanctuary in our behalf.* [23]
That Christ promises to return as Saviour at which
time He will resurrect the righteous dead and gather
them along with the righteous living to heaven. The
unrighteous will die at Christ's second coming.* [24]
Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided

into two distinct periods: rst, the Millennial Reign of
Christ (the one thousand years) on this earth, referred to
in Revelation 20:1-10; secondly, the New Heaven and The
New Earth, referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a revival of a strong tradition in
the Early Church that was dismissed by Augustine of Hippo
and the Roman Catholic Church after him.
That after Christ's second coming there will exist a

period of time known as the Millennium during which
Christ and His righteous saints will reign and the unrighteous will be judged. At the close of the Millennium, Christ and His angels return to earth to resurrect
the dead that remain, to issue the judgements and to
forever rid the universe of sin and sinners.* [25]
Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they
will also spend it with each other. Revelation describes
a New Jerusalem which comes from Heaven to the New
Earth, which is seen to be a symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another.Heaven
will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the
way that the designer planned, each believer loving the
Lord their God with all their heart and with all their soul
and with all their mindand loving their neighbour as
themselves(adapted from Matthew 22:37-38, the Great
Commandment)a place of great joy, without the negative aspects of current earthly life.
On the new earth, in which righteousness dwells, God

will provide an eternal home for the redeemed and
a perfect environment for everlasting life, love, joy,
and learning in His presence. For here God Himself
will dwell with His people, and suering and death
will have passed away. The great controversy will be
ended, and sin will be no more. All things, animate
and inanimate, will declare that God is love; and He
shall reign forever.* [26] It is at this point that heaven
is established on the new earth.
The Apostle Paul said in,* [22] Paradise is located in the

Third Heaven.Paul was taken there by the power of God
and Paul was not allowed to speak about the things that he 39.7 Jehovah's Witnesses
saw in Paradise. The third heaven is another universe, the
third universe and that's where Paradise is located-beyond
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that heaven is the dwelling
our heaven, our universe.
place of Jehovah God and his spirit creatures. Rather than
the traditional view that all Christians go to heaven, they
believe that only 144,000 chosen faithful followers will be
39.6 Seventh-day Adventist
resurrected to heaven to rule with Christ over the majority
of mankind who will live on Earth.* [27] M'Clintock and
Main articles: Heavenly sanctuary and Seventh-day Ad- Strong's Cyclopaedia (1891, Vol. IV, p. 122) comments:
ventist eschatology
In Isa. Ixv, 17, a new heaven and a new earth signify a new
government, new kingdom, new people.The primary purThe Seventh-day Adventist understanding of heaven is pose of Jesus' illustration of theten virgins(Mt 25:1-12)
is to teach. It is evident that Jesus was speaking about spirbased on biblical writings which set out the following:
itual virginity, remaining separate from the world, doctrinally pure. (Re 14:4; compare 1 Co 11:2) Of specic inter That heaven is a material place where God resides.
est is that the foolish virgins are avoided deliberately, even
That God sent His Son, Jesus Christ to earth to live though they thought they were keeping themselves morally
as a human being, but who perfectly exemplied and doctrinally pure. (Mt 7:21-23; 25:12) New Jerusalem is
the righteousness and love of God. By His miracles believed to be the nal abode of souls redeemed by Christ,
He manifested God's power and was attested as God's and an ideal earthly community. According to Webster's
promised Messiah. He suered and died voluntarily Collegiate DictionaryRevelation 3:12; 21:2 (1985); also
on the cross for our sins and in our place, was raised compare with Psalms 45:16; Isaiah 32:1.
39.9. SWEDENBORG
39.8 The Church of Jesus Christ of

Latter-day Saints
Main articles: Spirit world (Latter Day Saints), Exaltation
(Mormonism), and Degrees of glory
The view of heaven according to the Latter Day Saint movement is based on Section 76 of the Doctrine and Covenants
as well as 1 Corinthians Chapter 15 in the King James version of the Bible. The afterlife is divided rst into two levels
until the Last Judgement; afterwards it is divided into four
levels, the upper three of which are referred to asdegrees
of glorythat, for illustrative purposes, are compared to the
brightness of heavenly bodies: the sun, moon, and stars.
Before the Last Judgment, spirits separated from their bodies at death go either to Paradise or to Spirit Prison dependent on if they had been baptised and conrmed by the laying on of hands. Paradise is a place of rest while its inhabitants continue learning in preparation for the Last Judgement. Spirit Prison is a place of learning for the wicked
and unrepentant and those who were not baptised; however, missionary eorts done by spirits from Paradise enable those in Spirit Prison to repent, accept the Gospel and
the atonement and receive baptism through the practice of
baptism for the dead.* [28]
After the resurrection and Last Judgement, people are sent
to one of four levels:
The Celestial Kingdom is the highest level, with its
power and glory comparable to the sun. Here, faithful and valiant disciples of Christ who accepted the
fullness of His Gospel and kept their covenants with
Him through following the prophets of their dispensation are reunited with their families and with God the
Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit for all eternity. Those who would have accepted the Gospel with
all their hearts had they been given the opportunity
in life (as judged by Christ and God the Father) are
also saved in the Celestial Kingdom. Latter-Day Saint
movements do not believe in the concept of original
sin, but believe children to be innocent through the
atonement. Therefore, all children who die before
the age of accountability inherit this glory. Men and
women who have entered into celestial marriage are
eligible, under the tutelage of God the Father, to eventually become gods and goddesses as joint-heirs with
Jesus Christ.
99
to keep their covenants through continuing the process
of faith, repentance, and service to others; those who
died without law(D & C 76:72) but accepted the full
Gospel and repented after death due to the missionary
eorts undertaken in Spirit Prison. God the Father
does not come into the Terrestrial Kingdom, but Jesus
Christ visits them and the Holy Spirit is given to them.
The Telestial Kingdom is comparable to the glory of
the stars. Those placed in the Telestial Kingdom suffered the pains of Hell after death because they were
liars, murderers, adulterers, whoremongers, etc. They
are eventually rescued from Hell by being redeemed
through the power of the atonement at the end of the
Millennium. Despite its far lesser condition in eternity, the Telestial Kingdom is described as being more
comfortable than Earth in its current state. Suering
is a result of a full knowledge of the sins and choices
which have permanently separated a person from the
utter joy that comes from being in the presence of God
and Jesus Christ, though they have the Holy Spirit to
be with them.
Perdition, or outer darkness, is the lowest level and has
no glory whatsoever. It is reserved for Satan, his angels, and those who have committed the unpardonable
sin. This is the lowest state possible in the eternities,
and one that very few people born in this world attain, since the unpardonable sin requires that a person
know with a perfect knowledge that the Gospel is true
and then reject it and ght deantly against God. The
only known son of Perdition is Cain, but it is generally
acknowledged that there are probably more scattered
through the ages.
39.9
Swedenborg
Emanuel Swedenborg (16881772) wrote extensively on

the life after death and claimed to have traveled widely in
Heaven and Hell.* [29] He said his information was received
as revelation from Jesus Christ.* [30]
Swedenborg states that all angels and evil spirits, as the inhabitants of Hell are generally termed, were once people
in the physical world.* [31]* [32] Angels are not gods.* [33]
Furthermore, far from being ghostly, the people in Heaven
and Hell appear to each other as real as we do to each other
in this world.* [34] Indeed, Swedenborg saw cases where
the spirits involved thought they were still in the physical
*
[35]
world.
The Terrestrial Kingdom's power and glory is comparable to that of the moon, and is reserved for those who People do not go directly to Heaven or Hell. After death,
understood and rejected the full Gospel in life but lived they rst go to what is termed the World of Spirits,* [36]
good lives; those who did accept the Gospel but failed halfway between Heaven and Hell. In the World of Spirits
100
everyone goes through a three-stage process * [37] that ends
with their choosing, in free will, to go to Heaven or Hell to
eternity. This free-will-choice-based system works because
an evil person cannot stand the company in heaven, nor can
a good person stand the company in hell.* [38]
[4] http://angelart-gallery.com/heaven.html
[5] 1 Clement 26:2 For he saith in a certain place, And thou
shalt raise me up, and I will give thanks unto thee; and again:
I slumbered and slept; I arose up because thou art with me.
Angels, Swedenborg says, are male and female in every re- [6] E. C. Dewick, Tutor and Dean of St. Aidan's College,
Birkenhead, and Teacher in Ecclesiastical History in the
spect, just like we are here. Marriage between husband
University of Liverpool. Primitive Christian Eschatology:
*
and wife is a central and very good [39] component
The Hulsean Prize Essay for 1908 2007 reprint Page 339
*
of creation. [40] The quality of the relationship between
resurrection is 'that which shall be hereafter' ; and neither
husband and wife starts out the same in the spiritual world
salvation nor resurrection will be accomplished till the Lord
as it was at their death in this world. Thus, an angel couple
has come again
in true spiritual love will live literally happily ever after, to
eternity in heaven, according to Swedenborg, although con- [7] Papias, fragments, 5:1
trary to the teachings of Paul's Epistles.* [41] A couple in [8] Irenaeus of Lyons; Book 5, 36:1
which one or both partners lacks such love will initially live
together after death and then separate and nd new com- [9] Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead, trans.
Father Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY),
patible partners. A person who loved the ideal of spiritual
p. 77.
marriage but never found a partner in this world will nd
one there. Finally, as might be expected, an evil spirit re[10] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1024
ceives no such partner.* [42]
All children who die go directly to heaven, where they are [11] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1026
raised by angel mothers.* [43]
[12] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1029
Heaven is organized into groups, called societies, bound by
[13] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1030
common aections.* [44] The societies range in size from
small to large, like towns and cities here. An entire angelic [14] Homily by Pope Benedict XVI on 16 August 2010
society sometimes appears in the form of an angel, such
as Michael and Gabriel.* [45] Thus, for instance, Gabriel is [15] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1027
not an archangel, but a society in heaven whose ministry is [16] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1028
teaching from the Word. One of the people they taught was
Mary in the annunciation.* [46]
[17] JPII
All in heaven speak the same language, which they know [18] " JPII
instinctively without learning it.* [47]
Angels have power* [48] from God. In fact, a single angel
can command hundreds of thousands of evil spirits.* [49]
[19] Moody, D.L. Heaven. Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press,

2007. ISBN 978-1-84685-812-3.
[20] Bunyan, John. The Strait Gate: Great Diculty of Going
There is no time or space as we know it in heaven.* [50] Loto Heaven Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press, 2007. ISBN
cation and movement are determined by mental state. If,
978-1-84685-671-6.
for instance, you think about seeing a friend, that friend appears.* [51] Neither of you has physically moved, but you [21] Bunyan, John. No Way to Heaven but By Jesus Christ
Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1have changed your state of mind relative to whatever or
84685-780-5.
whoever you wish to see.
[22] NKJ Bible, 2Cor12vs2-4
39.10 Footnotes
[1] Festival icons for the Christian year by John Baggley 2000
ISBN 0-88141-201-5 pages 83-84
[23] General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Adventist

Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 4: The Son,
2006
[2] Audience Talk, 21 July 1999

Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 26: Death and
Resurrection, 2006
[3] Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University
Press, USA. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530013-0

Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 27: Millennium
and the End of Sin, 2006

Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 28: New Earth,
2006
[27] Reasoning From The Scriptures. Watchtower. 1989.
[28] Doctrine and Covenants 128:18, Standard Works, The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
[29] Swedenborg, E Heaven and its Wonders and Hell. From
Things Heard and Seen (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946).
[30] Swedenborg, E The True Christian Religion, Containing the
Universal Theology of The New Church Foretold by the Lord
in Daniel 7; 13, 14; and in Revelation 21:1,2 (Swedenborg
Foundation, 1946 #779)
[31] Earths in the Universe #30
101
39.11
Further reading
Gary Scott Smith, Heaven in the American Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Colleen McDannell and Bernhard Lang, Heaven: A
History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988; 2nd
ed. 2001.
Bernhard Lang, Meeting in Heaven: Modernising the
Christian Afterlife, 1600-2000. Frankfurt: Peter Lang
Publishing, 2011.
Randy C. Alcorn, Heaven, Wheaton, Tyndale House,
2004.
Jerry L. Walls, Heaven: The Logic of Eternal Joy, Oxford, Oxford University, 2002.
[32] Heaven and Hell #311

[33] Rev. 22:8, 9
[34] Heaven and Hell#28, 73.
[35] Swedenborg, E.Wisdom's Delight in Marriage (Conjugial
)Love: Followed by Insanitys Pleasure in Promiscuous
Love(Swedenborg society 1953 #31)
[38] Heaven and Hell#421.
[39] Genesis 1:31
[40] Genesis 1:27, 2:18, 24, Mark 10:9, Matt. 19:5-6
[41] See Review: Jesus and Paul on the eternity of marriage
[42] Marriage Love#32,33, 45-50
[45] Heaven and Hell#52
[46] Apocalypse Revealed#548
[50] Heaven and Hell #162, 191
39.12
External links
Christian's Heavenly Hope Article arguing against the

Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrine of two classes of Christians after death
Catholic Encyclopedia: Heaven
Randy Alcorn, Heaven
Chapter 40
Deva (Jainism)
This article is about Devas in Jainist teachings. For other
uses, see Deva (disambiguation).
The sanskrit word Deva has multiple meanings in Jainism. In many places the word has been used to refer the
Tirthankaras (Teachings Gods). But in common usage it is
used to refer the heavenly beings. These beings are born
instantaneously in special beds without any parents just like
hell beings (naraki).* [1]* [2] According to Jain texts, clairvoyance (avadhi jnana) based on birth is possessed by the
celestial beings.* [3]
40.1 Classes of Heavenly beings

According to Jain texts, the celestial beings are of four orders (classes):* [4] Residential
Peripatetic
Stellar
Heavenly beings
There are of ten, eight, ve and twelve classes up to the
Heavenly beings (kalpavasis). There are ten grades in
each of these classes of celestial beings, the Lord (Indra),
his Equal, the Minister, the courtiers, the bodyguards, the
police, the army, the citizens, the servants, and the menials.* [5]
Idol of Padmvat dev, sanadev of Lord Parshvanatha at

Walkeshwar Temple. She is one of the most popular demi-goddess
amongst the Jains. Worship of such persons is considered as
mithytva or wrong belief and many jains unknowingly get involved
in such worship.
bondage of life-karma has been accomplished prior to their

attainment of right belief) are reborn among the fourth order of devas and not among the three lower orders, namely
40.2 Abode
the Residential, the Peripatetic and the Stellar devas. Those
practising restraint with attachment and restraint-cum- nonMain article: Heaven Jainism
restraint are also characterized by right belief. Hence they
are reborn in the higher heavens of Saudharma Kalpa and
The abode of Devas is Svarga (heaven).* [2] According to so on and not among the three lower orders of celestial beJain texts, persons with right faith (except those whose ings.* [6] Merit which leads to the highest celestial state such
102
40.6. REFERENCES
as Sarvrthasiddhi is said to be acquired in the Bharata,
Airvata, and Videha Kshetra* [6]
40.3 Lifetime
1. Minimum lifetime of the Residential devas is ten thousand years.* [7] 2. Peripatetic devas is a little over one palyopama 3. Stellar devas same as Peripatetic devas.
40.4 See also

Jain cosmology
40.5 Notes
[1] Jain 2011, p. 28.
[2] Jaini 1998, p. 110.
[3] Jain 2011, p. 9.
[4] Jain 2011, p. 51.
[5] Jain 2011, p. 52.
[6] S.A. Jain 1992, p. 183.
[7] S.A. Jain 1992, p. 127.
40.6 References
Jain, Vijay K. (2011), Acharya Umasvami's Tattvrthstra, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1,
Non-Copyright
Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jaina Path
of Purication, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81208-1578-5
Jain, S.A. (1992), Reality (Second ed.), Jwalamalini
Trust, Non-Copyright
103
Chapter 41
Entering Heaven alive

Ascension (mystical)" redirects here. For a dierent Heaven alive. Jesus is considered by the vast majority
mystical ascension, see enlightenment (spiritual). For other of Christians to have died before being resurrected and asuses, see ascension (disambiguation).
cending to heaven. In regard to his mother Mary, Eastern
Orthodoxy considers her to have died prior to being assumed (translated) into heaven, while Roman Catholicism
Entering Heaven alive (called by various religions ascension,assumption, or "translation") is a belief held gives an ambiguous answer to the issue of her death prior to
her assumption, despite her death beingexpressly armed
to be true by multiple religions. Since death is the normal
*
end to an individual's life on Earth and the beginning of in the Liturgy of the Church. [1] Protestantism generally
believes that Mary died a natural death like any other huafterlife, entering Heaven without dying rst is considered
exceptional and usually a sign of God's special recognition man being and was not subsequently assumed into heaven,
although the Anglo-Catholic tradition of Anglicanism often
of the individual's piety.
arms the assumption.
Most Christians believe Jesus did initially die, but was then
resurrected from the dead by God, before being raised
bodily to heaven to sit at the Right Hand of God with a
promise to someday return to earth. The minority views
that Jesus didn't die are known as the Swoon hypothesis and
Docetism.
41.1 Christianity
Since the adoption of the Nicene Creed in 325, the

Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven, as related in the
New Testament, has been ocially taught by all orthodox
Christian churches and is celebrated on Ascension Thursday. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Ascension of the
Lord is a Holy Day of Obligation. In the Eastern Orthodox
Church the Ascension is one of twelve Great Feasts.
In the Reformed churches' tradition of Calvinism, belief in
the ascension of Christ is included in the Westminster Confession of Faith, the Heidelberg Catechism and the Second
Helvetic Confession.* [2]
Ascension Rock, inside the Chapel of the Ascension (Jerusalem), is
said to bear the imprint of Jesus' right foot as he left earth and
ascended into heaven.
The Raptureis a reference to being caught upas

found in 1 Thessalonians 4:17, when the dead in Christ
and we who are alive and remainwill be caught up in
the clouds to meet the Lord.* [3]
See also: Ascension of Jesus, Rapture, and Biblical

cosmology
41.1.1
Catholicism
Unlike the other entries in this article, this paragraph does Main article: Assumption of Mary
not, in the view of most Christians, relate to entering
104
41.2. HELLENISTIC RELIGION
105
The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between The

Ascension, in which Christ rose to heaven by his own
power, and The Assumptionin which Mary, mother of
Jesus, was raised to heaven by God's power.* [4] (Enoch and
Elijah are said in scripture to have been assumed[experienced assumption] into heaven.)
On November 1, 1950, Pope Pius XII, acting ex cathedra,
issued Municentissimus Deus, an authoritative statement of
ocial doctrine of Roman Catholicism. In Section 44 the
pope stated:* [5]
By the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of
the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by our
own authority, we pronounce, declare, and dene
it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary,
having completed the course of her earthly life,
was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.
The doctrine is based on Sacred Tradition that Mary,
mother of Jesus, was bodily assumed into heaven. For centuries before that, the assumption was celebrated in art. The
proclamation leaves open whether or not Mary died be- Orthodox icon of the Dormition of the Theotokos (1392, Theophan
fore assumption into heaven. Some theologians have argued the Greek).
(rightly or wrongly) that Mary didn't die, but the dogma itself doesn't say this.* [6]
tian martyrs before the Second Coming. According to Revelation, they will be resurrected and ascend again to heaven.
41.1.2
Eastern Christianity
Main article: Dormition of the Theotokos

The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that three other persons were taken bodily into heaven: Enoch, Elijah (Elias)
and the Theotokos (Virgin Mary). Similar to the Western Assumptionof Mary, the Orthodox celebrate the
Dormition of the Theotokos on August 15. Unlike Western uncertainty about Mary's physical death, the Orthodox
teach that Mary died a natural death like any other human being, that she was buried by the Apostles (except for
Thomas, who was late), and three days later (after Thomas
had arrived) was found to be missing from her tomb. The
church teaches that the Apostles received a revelation during which the Theotokos appeared to them and told them
she had been resurrected by Jesus and taken body and soul
into heaven. The Orthodox teach that Mary already enjoys
the fullness of heavenly bliss that the other saints will experience only after the Last Judgment.
There is a teaching among the Orthodox that the "Two Witnesses" referred to in the Book of Revelation 11:3-13 are
Enoch and Elijah, who will be sent back to earth to preach
the Gospel in the time of apostasy, and will be the last Chris-
41.1.3
Simon Magus
Simon Magus, a rst-century Gnostic who claimed to be

an incarnation of God (as conceived by the Gnostics) reportedly had the ability to levitate, along with many other
magical powers. As a dissenter from the Proto-orthodox
Christianity of the time, this was branded by Christians as
evil magic and attributed to demonic powers. He is said to
have attempted to levitate to the heavens from the Roman
Forum, but fell back to earth and injured himself.* [7]
41.2
Hellenistic religion
Main article: Hellenistic religion
Hercules it was believed, following the completion of

his twelve labors, was raised into Olympus, although in
some versions, his mortal half was burned away upon
his death, enabling his divine half to ascend and join
his godly family.
106
CHAPTER 41. ENTERING HEAVEN ALIVE
Apollonius of Tyana was said to have been assumed

into Elysium by Philostratus.* [8]
41.3 Hinduism
Yudhishthira of the Mahabharata is believed to be the only
human to cross the plane between mortals and heaven in his
mortal body.* [9]
41.3.1
Sant Tukaram
The Dome of the Rock
Sant Tukaram was taken to Vaikunta on Garuda Vahan

which was witnessed by all the village people.* [10]
Islamic texts deny the idea of crucixion or death attributed

to Jesus by the New Testament.* [13] The Quran states that
41.3.2 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
people (i.e., the Jews and Romans) sought to kill Jesus, but
they could not crucify or kill him, althoughthis was made
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu disappeared after entering the tem- to appear to them. Muslims believe that Jesus was not cruple deity room of Lord Jagannath.* [11]
cied but instead he was raised up by God unto the heavens,
and that God transformed another person to appear exactly
like Jesus who was then crucied instead. This raising
41.3.3 Swami Ramalinga
is often understood to mean through bodily ascension and
that he is to remain in Heaven until his Second Coming in
Ramalinga Swamigal (Swami Ramalinga), a great Sage the End Days.
revered by his teaching. Ramalinga supposedly attained the
Supreme Body of the Godhead when Divinity itself merged Some Islamic scholars have identied the prophet Idris to be
with him. He was reported to have disappeared after decid- the same person as Enoch from the Bible. This is because
ing to de-materialize his immortal body by his own free will, the Qu'ran states that God raised him to a lofty station
, and that has been taken to be a term for ascending, upon
his body was never found.* [12]
which it is concluded that 'Idris' was 'Enoch'.
41.3.4
Mirra Alfassa
The Mother (Mirra Alafassa), the foremost disciple of the

Hindu philosopher and guru Sri Aurobindo, attempted the
physical transformation of her body in order to become
what she felt was the rst of a new type of human individual
by opening to the Supramental Truth Consciousness, a new
power of spirit that Sri Aurobindo had allegedly discovered.
She believed that she could create for herself a new kind of
light body. However, she died and was cremated.
41.5
Judaism
In the Hebrew bible the word for heavensis shamayim.

This is plural - it meansheavens, notheaven- but seems
nevertheless to have a singular meaning: i.e., the older parts
of the bible speak of heavensin the plural but evidence
for a belief in more than one heaven from the bible is lacking. Shamayim also meant sky, the atmosphere, as it
does in modern English. The blue dome of the sky was
called the raqia, and was believed to be a solid shield between the atmosphere and the true heaven where God lived.
41.4 Islam
Heaven was the realm of God, earth of mankind, and the
underworld was for the dead, and travel between them was
See also: Kitab al-Miraj
generally impossible, although God and his messengers frequently appear on earth and the dead can be summoned up
Islamic teaching states that Muhammad ascended into from the underworld as the Witch of Endor summons the
heaven alive at the site of the Dome of the Rock. How- shade of Samuel.
ever, this ascent was temporary and he came back to Earth. There are two possible exceptions to this general rule that
It is ascribed to the exact descriptions presented in both the humans could not go to heaven, Enoch and Elijah, but neiQuran and the Hadith.
ther is clear. The Book of Genesis mentions Enoch as one
41.9. NOTES
whowas no morebecauseGod took him, but it does
not explicitly say whether he was alive or dead, and it does
not say where God took him. The Book of Kings describes
the prophet Elijah being taken towards shamayimin a
whirlwind, but the word can mean both heaven as the abode
of God, or the sky (as the wordheavensdoes in modern
English), and so again the text is ambiguous.
According to the post-biblical Jewish Midrash, eight people
went to heaven (also referred to as the Garden of Eden and
Paradise) alive:* [14]
Elijah (Kings II Chapter 2, Verse 11)
Serach, the daughter of Asher - one of
the sons of Jacob (Midrash Yalkut Shimoni
(Yechezkel 367))
Enoch (Genesis 5:22-24)* [15]
Eliezer, the servant of Abraham
Hiram, king of Tyre
Ebed-Melech, the Ethiopian
Jaabez, the son of Rabbi Yehudah ha-Nasi
Bithiah, the daughter of Pharaoh* [16]
41.6 Zoroastrianism
It is believed in Zoroastrianism that the Peshotanu was taken
up into Heaven alive and will someday return as the Zoroastrian messiah.
107
In C. S. Lewis's The Voyage of the Dawn Treader,
Reepicheep the Mouse is permitted to travel into
Aslan's Country while alive. He is next seen in The
Last Battle where he is the rst to greet the protagonists when they arrive at Aslan's Country.
In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium, Elves
who grow weary of life in Middle-earth may sail west
to the Undying Lands. A few mortals also follow this
route, including Erendil, the Ring-bearers Bilbo Baggins, Frodo Baggins, and Sam Gamgee, and the Dwarf
Gimli.
In the ctional universe of the Stargate franchise, the
Ancients, have learned how toascendfrom the physical plane and have moved on to a higher plane of existence.
In Gabriel Garca Mrquez's One Hundred Years of
Solitude, Remedios the Beauty, said to be the most
beautiful woman ever seen in Macondo, who unintentionally causes the deaths of several men who love
or lust over her. She appears to most of the town
as naively innocent, and some come to think that she
is mentally retarded. However, Colonel Aureliano
Buenda believes she has inherited great lucidity: It
is as if she's come back from twenty years of war,
he said. She rejects clothing and beauty. Too beautiful and, arguably, too wise for the world, Remedios ascends into the sky one afternoon in the 4pm sun, while
folding Fernanda's white sheet.
41.9
41.7 Ascended Master Teachings
Francis Bacon is believed to have undergone a physical Ascension without experiencing death (he then became the deity St. Germain) by members of various Ascended Master Teachings, a group of New Age religions based on
Theosophy. They also believe numerous others have undergone Ascension; they are called the Ascended Masters
and are worshipped in this group of religions. The leaders
of these religions claim to be able to receive channeled messages from the Ascended Masters, which they then relay to
their followers.* [17]* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21]
41.8 Fictional portrayals

In C. S. Lewis's That Hideous Strength, those who
ascended to heaven alive included Melchizedek,
Frederick Barbarossa, King Arthur and Elwin Ransom.
Notes
[1] Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott, Book III, Pt.

3, Ch. 2, 6, ISBN 0-89555-009-1
[2] Quotations as cited by Redman, Gary, article/Web page titledA Comparison of the Biblical and Islamic Views of the
States of Christ/ Part 2: The State of Exaltation, at The
Muslim-Christian Debate Website. Retrieved March 29,
2007.
[3] 1 Thess 4:16-4:17For the Lord Himself will descend from
heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with
the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise rst.
Then we who are alive and remain shall be caught up together
with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And thus
we shall always be with the Lord.
[4] Brumley, Mark,. Mary's Assumption: Irrelevant or Irreverent?". Catholic.net. Retrieved March 29, 2007.
[5] Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius XII / Municentissimus Deus / Dening the Dogma of the Assumption. Vatican.va. Archived from the original on September 4, 2013.
Retrieved March 30, 2007.
108
[6] Brumley, Mark. Mary's Assumption: Irrelevant or Irreverent?". Catholic.net. Retrieved March 29, 2007.
[7] Catholic Encyclopedia: Simon Magus: As proof of the
truth of his doctrines Simon oered to ascend into the heavens before the eyes of Nero and the Roman populace; by
magic he did rise in the air in the Roman Forum, but the
prayers of the Apostles Peter and Paul caused him to fall,
so that he was severely injured and shortly afterwards died
miserably.
[8] Lendering, Jona. Apollonius of Tyana. Retrieved March 28,
2007.
[9] Ramnarayan Vyas (1992). Nature of Indian Culture. Concept Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 9788170223887.
[10] Manabendra Nath Roy (2001). The Radical Humanist, Volume 65. p. 21.
[11] Prabhat Mukherjee (1981). The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa. Asian Educational Services. p. 159.
[12] Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.
Penguin Books India. p. 332.
[13] Shafaat, Dr. Ahmad, Islamic View of the Coming/Return
of Jesus article dated May 2003, at the Islamic Perspectives Web site: In 4:159, after denying that the Jews killed
or crucied Jesus and after stating that God raised him to
Himself, the Qur`an says .... Retrieved March 29, 2007.
[14] Derekh Erez Zuta (post-Talmudic tractate) cited in Encyclopedia Judaica New York 1972
[15] ENOCH. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 201403-05.
[16] Bithiah. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2014-0305.
[17] I AM Ascended Master Dictation List Saint Germain Press
Inc., 1995, Listing of those who are claimed to be Ascended
Masters by The I AM Activity
[18] Schroeder, Werner Ascended Masters and Their Retreats Ascended Master Teaching Foundation 2004, Listing of those
who are believed to be Ascended Masters by The I AM Activity and The Bridge to Freedom
[19] Luk, A.D.K.. Law of Life - Book II. Pueblo, Colorado:
A.D.K. Luk Publications 1989, Listing of those who are
claimed to be Ascended Masters by The I AM Activity and
The Bridge to Freedom
[20] Booth, Annice The Masters and Their Retreats Summit
Lighthouse Library June 2003, Listing of those who are believed to be Ascended Masters by The I AM Activity, The
Bridge to Freedom, and The Summit Lighthouse
[21] Shearer, Monroe & Carolyn I AM Adorations, Armations
& Rhythmic Decrees Acropolis Sophia Books and Works
1998, Listing of those who are claimed to be Ascended Masters by The I AM Activity, The Bridge to Freedom, The
Summit Lighthouse, and The Temple of The Presence
CHAPTER 41. ENTERING HEAVEN ALIVE
41.10
References
Encyclopedia of Religion s.v. Ascension; Eliade,

Mircea, ed. in chief. New York, Macmillan 1987
Chapter 42
Fiddler's Green
For other uses, see Fiddler's Green (disambiguation).
a comic book convention promoted asFiddler's Green, A

Sandman Conventionwas held at the Millennium Hotel
Fiddler's Green is a legendary supposed afterlife, where in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Author Neil Gaiman and several Sandman series artists and others involved in the series'
there is perpetual mirth, a ddle that never stops playing,
and dancers who never tire. In 19th-century maritime folk- publication participated in the convention, with prots beneting the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.
lore it was a kind of afterlife for sailors who have served at
least 50 years at sea.* [1]* [2]* [3]
42.2
42.1 Literature
Fiddler's Green appears in Frederick Marryat's novel The
Dog Fiend; Or, Snarleyyow, published in 1856,* [4] as lyrics
to a sailors' song:
At Fiddlers Green, where seamen true
When here theyve done their duty
The bowl of grog shall still renew
And pledge to love and beauty.
Herman Melville describes a Fiddlers Green as a sailors
term for the place on land providentially set apart for
dance-houses, doxies, and tapstersin his novella Billy
Budd, Sailor (published posthumously in 1924).
The author Richard McKenna wrote a story, rst published
in 1967, entitledFiddler's Green, in which he considers
the power of the mind to create a reality of its own choosing,
especially when a number of people consent to it. The main
characters in this story are also sailors, and have known of
the legend of Fiddler's Green for many years.* [5]
Fiddler's Green is an extrasolar colony mentioned in Robert
A. Heinlein's novels The Cat Who Walks Through Walls and
Friday.
In Neil Gaiman's The Sandman comic book series, Fiddler's
Green is a place located inside of the Dreaming, a place
that sailors have dreamed of for centuries. Fiddler's Green
is also personied as a character as well as a location in the
ctional world; the former largely based upon casual associations of G. K. Chesterton. From November 12 to 14, 2004,
109
Song lyrics
A song based on Fiddler's Green, called Fiddler's

Green or more often Fo'c'sle Song, was written and
copyrighted by John Conolly, a Lincolnshire (English)
songwriter. The song was recorded by The Dubliners'
1973 Plain and Simple album. It was also recorded
by Tim Hart and Maddy Prior in their 1976 album,
Folk Songs of Olde England Vol. 2.The song is
sung worldwide in nautical and Irish traditional circles, and is often mistakenly thought to be a traditional
song.* [6] A version of the Conolly song was recorded
by Un-Reconstructed on their 2011 CD We Dare Sing
Dixie.
Fiddler's Green appears as a destination in Archie
Fisher's Final Trawl.
Fiddler's Green appears in Hans Zimmer'sHoist the
Coloursfrom Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's
End.* [7] in the verse With the keys to the cage and
the devil to pay/We lay to Fiddler's Green
Fiddler's Greenis a song by the Canadian rock group
The Tragically Hip.
Fiddler's Greenis a song by Marley's Ghost, a band
out of Northern California.
Fiddler on the Greenis a song by the German power
metal Demons and Wizards (a side-project group of
the metal bands Blind Guardian and Iced Earth).
Fiddler's Greenis a song by Grimsby (UK)
folksinger John Conolly, widely recorded by such
110
CHAPTER 42. FIDDLER'S GREEN

artists as Liam Clancy, Irish folk group The Dubliners,* [8] and the American sailor band Schooner Fare;
Schooner Fare credits the song for bringing together
their band.
Fiddler's Greenis a song by the Scottish band The

Stereophonics
In the traditional shanty New York Girls,as
recorded by Tom Lewis on 1995's Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Singer!, the last line sung by the sailor is,Commend our bones to Davy Jones, our souls to Fiddler's
Green.
Fiddler's Greenis the name of the 2005 Grammy
Award-winning album by folk artist Tim O'Brien and
the title track of that album.
Fiddler's Greenis the name of an instrumental
theme composed by Yoko Kanno, included on her album Uncharted Waters II.
42.3 U.S. military
The larger of the two bars at the Leader's Club at Fort

Benning, Georgia
Building 2805 at Fort Hood, Texas, the former Ocers Club
A small E-club on the U.S. Marine Corps' Camp
Pendleton in area 43 (Las Pulgas)
The base pub at the Joint Forces Training Base, Los
Alamitos, CA
Former dining facility used by 2nd Cavalry Regiment
at Fort Polk, LA
An artillery only pub for the 10th Marine Regiment,
Camp Lejeune, NC
42.4
See also
Big Rock Candy Mountain

Cockaigne
Order of the Spur
The Cavalrymen's Poem, also entitled Fiddlers' Green

was published in the U.S. Army's Cavalry Journal in 1923
and became associated with the 1st Cavalry Division.* [9]
Paradise
The name has had other military uses. Many places associated with the U.S. Military have been named Fiddler's
Green:
Valhalla
The U.S. Marine Corps operates Firebase Fiddler's

Green in the heart of the Helmand River Valley, in
Helmand Province, Afghanistan.
An artillery Fire Support Base in Military Region III
in Vietnam in 1972, occupied principally by elements
of 2nd Squadron, 11th Armored Cavalry
The U.S. Navy's enlisted men's club in Sasebo, Japan
from 1952 to 1976
The cavalryman's poem about Fiddler's Green is the
regimental poem of the US 2nd Cavalry Regiment.
The enlisted men's club at Bainbridge Naval Training
Center
An informal bar at the Fort Sill Ocers' Open Mess
The stable and pasture used by Parsons Mounted Cavalry, a cadet group at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas
A bar at the Leaders Club in Fort Knox, Kentucky
Tr na ng
Friends of Fiddler's Green
42.5
References
[1] Eyers, Jonathan (2011). Don't Shoot the Albatross!: Nautical

Myths and Superstitions. A&C Black, London, UK. ISBN
978-1-4081-3131-2.
[2] The Sailor's magazine, and naval journal American Seamen's Friend Society. Life on the Ocean. American Seamen's Friend Society. February 1898. p. 168. Retrieved
October 14, 2011.
[3] Hotten, John Camden (1869). The slang dictionary: or, the
vulgar words, street phrases, and fastexpressions of high
and low society.
[4] Marryat, Frederick (1856). The dog end: or, Snarleyyow.
G. Routledge & Company. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
[5] McKenna, R. Casey Agonistes and other SF and Fantasy stories, Pan Books Ltd., London, 1976.
[6] Blood, Peter; Patterson, Annie, eds. (1988). Rise Up
Singing. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: Sing Out!. p. 201. ISBN
1-881322-12-2. O Fiddler's Green is a place I've heard tell,
where shermen go if they don't go to hell
42.5. REFERENCES
[7] Hans Zimmer Hoist the Colours

Metrolyrics.com. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
111
Lyrics.
[8] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9whbpYwk680
[9]Fiddler's Green and other Cavalry Songs by JHS. Cavalry
Journal. April 1923.
Page, Michael; Ingpen, Robert (1985). Encyclopedia

of Things that Never Were. Viking Press. ISBN 0670-81607-8.
Fiddlers green World Wide Words
Chapter 43
Heaven
This article is about the metaphysical term heavenand
the astral dimension it denotes. For other uses, see Heaven
(disambiguation).
Heaven, the heavens or seven heavens, is common
Heaven on Earth in a World to Come.

Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld.
In Indian religions, Heaven is considered as Svarga loka,
and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in dierent living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken
after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible
world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld.
43.1
Etymology
The modern English word heaven is derived from the earlier (Middle English) heven (attested 1159); this in turn
was developed from the previous Old English form heofon.
By about 1000, heofon was being used in reference to the
Christianized place where God dwells, but originally,
it had signied sky, rmament* [1] (e.g. in Beowulf, c.
725). The English term has cognates in the other Germanic
languages: Old Saxon hean sky, heaven, Middle Low
German hevensky, Old Icelandic himinnsky, heaven,
Gothic himins; and those with a variant nal -l: Old Frisian
himel, himul sky, heaven, Old Saxon/Old High German himil, Old Saxon/Middle Low German hemmel, Dutch
Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest heavens; from Gustave hemel, and modern German Himmel. All of these have
Dor's illustrations to the Divine Comedy.
been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form
*Hemina-.* [2]
religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings
such as gods, angels, jinn, saints, or venerated ancestors are
said to originate, be enthroned, or to live. According to the 43.2 Ancient Near East religions
beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to
earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven
See also: Religions of the ancient Near East
in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter Heaven alive.
Heaven is often described as a higher place, the holiest
place, a Paradise, in contrast to Hell or the Underworld or
thelow places, and universally or conditionally accessible 43.2.1 Assyria
by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity,
goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian religion
simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a
112
43.3. BAH' FAITH
43.2.2
Egypt
113
43.3
Bah' Faith
Main article: Aaru
Main article: Bah' Faith
In Ancient Egyptian religion, belief in an afterlife is much

more stressed than in ancient Judaism. Heaven was a physical place far above the Earth in adark areaof space where
there were no stars, basically beyond the Universe. According to the Book of the Dead, departed souls would undergo
a literal journey to reach Heaven, along the way to which
there could exist hazards and other entities attempting to
deny the reaching of Heaven. Their heart would nally be
weighed with the feather of truth, and if the sins weighed it
down their heart was devoured.
The Bah' Faith regards the conventional description of

Heaven (and hell) as a specic place as symbolic. The
Bah' writings describe Heaven as a spiritual condition
where closeness to God is dened as Heaven; conversely
Hell is seen as a state of remoteness from God. Bah'u'llh,
the founder of the Bah' Faith, has stated that the nature of
the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension
in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain
its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and
communicate with them.* [8]
43.2.3
For Bah's, entry into the next life has the potential to bring
Canaanite and Phoenician views of great joy.* [8] Bah'u'llh likened death to the process of
Heaven
birth. He explains: The world beyond is as dierent from
Main article: Canaanite religion
Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC)

Canaanite views of Heaven, and the archeological ndings
at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The 1st century Greek author Philo of Byblos may
preserve elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his
Sanchuniathon.* [3]
43.2.4
Hurrian and Hittite myths
In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the

gods. In the Song of Kumarbi, Alalu was king in Heaven
for nine years before giving birth to his son, Anu. Anu was
himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi.* [4] * [5]* [6]* [7]
43.2.5
Judaism (Iron Age)
See also: Yahweh

The term for Heavens in the Tanakh is shamayim, located
above the rmament (a solid, transparent dome which covered the earth and separated it from the watersabove).
Yahweh, the God of Israel, lived in Heaven or in the
Heaven of Heavens(the exact dierence between these
two, if any, is unclear) in a heavenly palace. His dwelling
on earth was Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, which was a
model of the cosmos and included a section which represented Heaven.
this world as this world is dierent from that of the child

while still in the womb of its mother.* [9] The analogy
to the womb in many ways summarizes the Bah' view of
earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the
physical world provides for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Bah's view life as a preparatory
stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities
which will be needed in the next life.* [8] The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current
Manifestation of God, which Bah's believe is currently
Bah'u'llh. Bah'u'llh wrote, Know thou, of a truth,
that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it
will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the
Beloved.* [10]
The Bah' teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of
souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in
the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of
those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent
on its own conscious eorts, the nature of which we are not
aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers
of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in
the name of that person.* [8]
43.4
Buddhism
In Buddhism there are several Heavens, all of which are still

part of samsara (illusionary reality). Those who accumulate
good karma may be reborn* [11] in one of them. However,
their stay in Heaven is not eternaleventually they will use
up their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another
114
CHAPTER 43. HEAVEN
realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because Heaven For a monk, the next best thing to Nirvana is to be reborn
is temporary and part of samsara, Buddhists focus more on in this Brahmloka.
escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching enlightenment The lifespan of a Brahms is not stated but is not eternal.
(nirvana). Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state.
Kmvacaraloka
According to Buddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through a number of existen- The lifespan of a Kmvacara is not stated but is not eternal.
tialplanesin which this human world is only onerealm Ctummaharaja
orpath.* [12] These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the Heavens existing above the human Here some denizens are kings that came from human lives
realm, and the realms of the animals, hungry ghosts and hell as being kings.
beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in The Anguttara Nikaya says that on the 15th day, the Cher book, Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other tummaharaja gods look down to earth and see if the huVoyagers, the realm of the asura is a later renement of the mans are still paying reverence to mother, father, samanas
heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and brahmanas.
and the Heavens. One important Buddhist Heaven is the
Bimbisra (the king of Magadha), and Pysi (the king of
Tryastria, which resembles Olympus of Greek mytholKosla) were reborn here.
ogy.
The denizens here have a lifespan of 9,216,000,000 years.
In the Mahayana world view, there are also pure lands which
lie outside this continuum and are created by the Buddhas Nimmnarati
upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in the pure land of The denizens here have a lifespan of 2,284,000,000 years.
Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once
reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence Paranimmitavasavatti
unless they choose to do so to save other beings, the goal The denizens here have a lifespan of 9,216,000,000 years.
of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment and
Tvatimsa
freeing oneself and others from the birthdeath cycle.
The ruler of this Heaven is Indra or Shakra, and the realm
One of the Buddhist sutras states that a hundred years of our
existence is equal to one day and one night in the world of is also called Trayatrimia.
the thirty-three gods. Thirty such days add up to their one
month. Twelve such months become their one-year, while
they live for a thousand such years though existence in the
heavens is ultimately nite and the beings who reside there
will reappear in other realms based on their karma.
Each denizen addresses other denizens as the titlemrisa

.
The governing hall of this Heaven is called Sudhamma Hall.
This Heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its
most magnicent sight.
The Tibetan word Bardo means literally "intermediate

state". In Sanskrit the concept has the name antarabhva. Ajita the Licchavi army general was reborn here. Gopika
the Skyan girl was reborn as a male god in this realm.
43.4.1
Dierent Heavens
Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the

previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings.
According to Anguttara Nikaya
The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.
Brahmloka
Tusita
Here the denizens are Brahms, and the ruler is Anthapindika, a Koslan householder and benefactor to
the Buddha's order was reborn here.
Mahbrahm.
Of all the devas, Brahms are the wisest of all gods and The denizens here have a lifespan of 576,000,000 years.
declared in Buddhism to be the highest but the Buddha and Yma
monks having reached the state of Arahant can surpass the
The denizens here have a lifespan of 1,444,000,000 years.
Brahms by status. Brahms also are asexual and do not
desire to procreate.
After developing the four Brahmavihras, King Makhdeva According to Tibetan Buddhism
rebirths here after death. The monk Tissa and Brhmana
There are 5 major types of Heavens.
Jnussoni were also reborn here.
43.5. CHINESE FAITHS
115
1. Akanishtha or Ghanavyiiha
people considered their supreme deity Tian to be identiThis is the most supreme Heaven wherein beings that cal with the Shang supreme deity Shangdi.* [13] The Zhou
have achieved Nirvana live for eternity.
people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes,
evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for
2. Heaven of the Jinas
Heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a
large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over
3. Heavens of Formless Spirits
all men. Heaven is aected by man's doings, and having
These are 4 in number.
personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses
those who please it and sends calamities upon those who of4. Brahmaloka
*
These are 16 in number, and are free from sensuality. fend it. [14] Heaven was also believed to transcend all other
spirits and gods, with Confucius asserting,He who oends
against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.* [14]
5. Devaloka
These are 6 in number, and contain sensuality.
Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such
43.5 Chinese faiths
as Mozi took an even more theistic view of Heaven, believing that Heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven
(the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that
spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to
carry out the will of Heaven, watching for evil-doers and
punishing them. Thus they function as angels of Heaven
and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the
world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising
that Mohism championed a concept calleduniversal love
(jian'ai, ), which taught that Heaven loves all people
equally and that each person should similarly love all human
beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and
those of others.* [15] In Mozi's Will of Heaven (), he
writes:
I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason.

Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons,
Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them.
Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the
ve grains and ax and silk that so the people could use and
enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines
and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's
good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords
to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather
Chinese Zhou Dynasty Oracle script for tian, the character for
metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultiheavenor sky.
vating the ve grains and ax and silk to provide for the
people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity
Main article: Tian
to the present.
Original Chinese:
Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philoso-

phies and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a
synonym of Shangdi (Supreme Deity) and on the other Mozi, Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th
naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Century BC
Chinese term for Heaven, Tian (), derives from the
name of the supreme deity of the Zhou Dynasty. After Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not foltheir conquest of the Shang Dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou lowing the teachings of Confucius. By the time of the later
In the native Chinese Confucian traditions, Heaven (Tian) is
an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from
which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic
propaganda, for example.
116
Han Dynasty, however, under the inuence of Xunzi, the
Chinese concept of Heaven and Confucianism itself had
become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside. Worship of
Heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the
last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and
the oering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese
dynasty would perform annual sacricial rituals to Heaven,
usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrice.
43.6 Christianity
Main article: Heaven (Christianity)
Traditionally, Christianity has taught that Heaven is the
location of the throne of God as well as the holy
angels,* [16]* [17] although this is in varying degrees considered metaphorical. In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence (rather than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos) of the supreme fulllment of theosis in the beatic vision of the Godhead. In
most forms of Christianity, heaven is also understood as
the abode for the redeemed dead in the afterlife, usually
a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and
the saints' return to the New Earth.
CHAPTER 43. HEAVEN

though the English word heavenstill keeps its original
physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to
the stars as lights shining through from Heaven, and
in phrases such as heavenly body to mean an astronomical
object, the Heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, neither an
abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living,
personal relationship with the Holy Trinity. It is our meeting with the Father which takes place in the risen Christ
through the communion of the Holy Spirit.* [16]
43.7
Hinduism
Main article: Hindu cosmology

Attaining heaven is not the nal pursuit in Hinduism as
heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body.
Only being tied by the bhoot-tatvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and
mundane material life. According to Hindu cosmology,
above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) Bhuva Loka,
(2) Swarga Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general
name for heaven in Hinduism, a heavenly paradise of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (Deva) reside along
with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatied mortals. Some
other planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and
Satya Loka. Since heavenly abodes are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of Heaven or Hell will
again be recycled to a dierent plane and in a dierent form
per the karma andmayai.e. the illusion of Samsara. This
cycle is broken only by self-realization by the Jivatma. This
self-realization is Moksha (Turiya, Kaivalya).
The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to heaven

where he now sits at the Right Hand of God and will return to earth in the Second Coming. Various people have
been said to have entered heaven while still alive, including Enoch, Elijah and Jesus himself, after his resurrection.
According to Roman Catholic teaching, Mary, mother of
Jesus, is also said to have been assumed into heaven and is The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism and is untitled the Queen of Heaven.
paralleled. Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle
The Gospel of Matthew frequently uses the phrase of birth and death and nal communion with Brahman.
"Kingdom of Heaven", where the other Synoptic Gospels With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and onespeak of the "kingdom of God", one of the key ele- ness with Brahman or Paramatma. Dierent schools such
ments of the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament.* [18] as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and
Revelation 12:7-9 speaks of a war in Heaven between Yoga oer subtle dierences in the concept of Brahman,
Michael the Archangel and his angels against Satan and his obvious Universe, its genesis and regular destruction, Jiangels, after which Satan and his angels arethrown down vatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining
to the earth.
perfect bliss or moksha.
In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14:2, those who in the
afterlife see the Saviour are in dierent mansions, some
dwelling in the Heavens, others in paradise and others in
"the city".* [19]
In the Vaishnava traditions the highest Heaven is Vaikuntha,

which exists above the six heavenly lokas and outside of the
mahat-tattva or mundane world. It's where eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty with Lakshmi and Narayana (a manifestation
While the word used in all these writings, in particular the of Vishnu).
New Testament Greek word (ouranos), applies In the Nasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is menprimarily to the sky, it is also used metaphorically of the tioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys
dwelling place of God and the blessed.* [20]* [21] Similarly, what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta ques-
43.9. JAINISM
tions the omniscience of this overseer.
117
43.8.1
Ahmadiyya
According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery

presented in the Qur'an regarding Heaven, but also hell, is
in fact metaphorical. They propound the verse which de43.7.1 Brahma kumaris
scribes, according to them how the life to come after death
is very dierent from the life here on earth. The Quran says:
After Kalyug, there will be the heaven(created by Shiv)
From bringing in your place others like you, and from dein Bharat, in which Lakshmi and Narayana are King and
veloping you into a form which at present you know not.
Queen.
*
[Quran 56:62] According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the
founder of Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth
to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth
in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship
to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human
43.8 Islam
existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous
life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become
Main article: Jannah
attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an embyonic soulbegins to take
The Qur'an contains many references to an afterlife in Eden shape. Dierent tastes are said to be born which a person
for those who do good deeds. Regarding the concept of given to carnal passions nds no enjoyment. For example,
Heaven (Jannah) in the Qu'ran, verse 35 of Surah Al-Ra sacrice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes
d says, The parable of the Garden which the righteous enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In
are promised! Beneath it ow rivers. Perpetual is the fruits such a state a person nds contentment and Peace at heart
thereof and the shade therein. Such is the End of the Righ- and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be
teous; and the end of the unbelievers is the Fire.* [Quran said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.* [22]
13:35] Islam rejects the concept of original sin, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children
automatically go to Heaven when they die, regardless of the 43.9 Jainism
religion of their parents.
The concept of Heaven in Islam diers in many respects Main article: Jain cosmology
to the concept in Judaism and Christianity. Heaven is de- The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown
scribed primarily in physical terms as a place where every
wish is immediately fullled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Heaven as happy, without negative
emotions. Those who dwell in Heaven are said to wear
costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline
on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants
will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and
children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins
then one may gain entrance to Heaven. Conversely, if one's
sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The
more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of
Heaven one is directed to. It has been said that the lowest
level of Heaven, the rst one, is already over one-hundred
times better than the greatest life on Earth. The highest
level is the seventh Heaven. Houses are built by angels for
the occupants using solid gold.
Structure of Universe per the Jain Scriptures.
Verses which describe Heaven include: Quran 13:35,
Quran 18:31, Quran 38:4954, Quran 35:3335, Quran alongside. Unlike the current convention of using North
52:1727, Quran 78:3134.
direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The
Islamic texts refer to several levels of Heaven: Firdaus shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.
or Paradise, 'Adn, Na'iim, Ma'wa, Darussalaam, Daarul The Deva Loka (heavens) are at the symbolic chest,
Muaqaamah, Al-Muqqamul, Amin & Khuldi.
where all souls enjoying the positive karmic eects reside.
118
CHAPTER 43. HEAVEN
The heavenly beings are referred to as devas (masculine

form) and devis (feminine form). According to Jainism,
there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmit
merits. Similarly, beneath thewaistare the Narka Loka
(Hell). Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life
forms reside on the middle.
teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been
expressed as follows: For the future is inscrutable, and
the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or
reason, or revelation, oer no clear guidance about what is
to come. The only certainty is that each man must die beyond that we can only guess.* [23]
The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the According to Tracey R. Rich of the websiteJudaism 101
very south end (top) of the Universe. They are referred to , Judaism, unlike other world-religions, is not focused on
in Tamil literature as (Kural 43).
the quest of getting into Heaven but on life and how to live
it.* [26]
43.10 Judaism
Main article: Heaven (Judaism)
43.10.1
Rabbinical Judaism
Main article: Olam Haba

While the concept of Heaven (malkuth hashamaim
, the Kingdom of Heaven) is much discussed within
the Christian and Islamic religions, the Jewish concept of
the afterlife, sometimes known as olam haba, the Worldto-come, is not discussed so often. The Torah has little to
say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of
the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one,
which is probably derived from Greek thought,* [23] is that
of the immortal soul which returns to its creator after death;
the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin,* [23] is
that of resurrection of the dead.
Jewish writings refer to a new earthas the abode of
mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally,
the two ideas of immortality and resurrection were dierent but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul
departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the
resurrection. This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately
or at the subsequent resurrection.* [23] Around 1 CE, the
Pharisees are said to have maintained belief in resurrection
but the Sadducees are said to have denied it (Matt. 22:23).
The Mishnah has many sayings about the World to Come,
for example,Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby
before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so
that you may enter the banquet hall.* [24]
Judaism holds that the righteous of all nations have a share
in the World-to-come.* [25]
According to Nicholas de Lange, Judaism oers no clear
43.10.2
Kabbalah Jewish mysticism
In order from lowest to highest, the seven Heavens,

Shamayim (), according to the Talmud, are listed
alongside the angels who govern them:* [27]* [28]
1. Vilon ( )or Araphel ( )The rst Heaven,
governed by Archangel Gabriel, is the closest of heavenly realms to the Earth; it is also considered the abode
of Adam and Eve.
2. Raqia (): The second Heaven is dually controlled
by Zachariel and Raphael. It was in this Heaven that
Moses, during his visit to Paradise, encountered the
angel Nuriel who stood 300 parasangs high, with a
retinue of 50 myriads of angels all fashioned out of
water and re. Also, Raqia is considered the realm
where the fallen angels are imprisoned and the planets
fastened.* [29]
3. Shehaqim (, Shechaqim): The third Heaven,
under the leadership of Anahel, serves as the home of
the Garden of Eden and the Tree of Life; it is also the
realm where manna, the holy food of angels, is produced.* [30] The Second Book of Enoch, meanwhile,
states that both Paradise and Hell are accommodated
in Shehaqim with Hell being located simply on the
northern side.
4. Maon (): The fourth Heaven is ruled by the
Archangel Michael, and according to Talmud Hagiga
12, it contains the heavenly Jerusalem, the Temple,
and the Altar.
5. Makon (, Makhon): The fth Heaven is under the
administration of Samael. It is also where the Ishim
and the Song-Uttering Choirs reside.
6. Zebul (): The sixth Heaven falls under the jurisdiction of Sachiel.
7. Araboth (, Aravoth): The seventh Heaven, under the leadership of Cassiel, is the holiest of the
43.13. THEOSOPHY
seven Heavens because it houses the Throne of Glory
attended by the Seven Archangels and serves as the
realm in which God dwells; underneath the throne itself lies the abode of all unborn human souls. It is also
considered the home of the Seraphim, the Cherubim,
and the Hayyoth.* [31]
119
5. Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods
6. Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero Tawhaki
7. Autoia, where human souls are created
8. Aukumea, where spirits live
9. Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those
in
43.11 Mesoamerican religions
10. Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live

presided over by Rehua
Main article: Aztec mythology

The Mori believe these heavens are supported by pillars.
Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods
The Nahua people such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs and the
(as in Hawaii). In one Tahitian legend, heaven is supported
Toltecs believed that the heavens were constructed and sepby an octopus.
arated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to many
Lords living in and ruling these heavens. Most important of
these heavens was Omeyocan (Place of Two). The Thirteen 43.12.2 Paumotu, Tuamotus
Heavens were ruled by Ometeotl, the dual Lord, creator
of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl
(Two Lady).
43.12 Polynesia
Main article: Polynesian mythology
In the creation myths of Polynesian mythology are found
various concepts of the heavens and the underworld. These
dier from one island to another. What they share is the
view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided
between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of
heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of Dante's Divine Comedy, An 1869 illustration by a Tuomatuan chief portraying nine heavens.
but the number of divisions and their names diers from
one Polynesian culture to another.* [32]
The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by a
Tuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are fur43.12.1 Mori
ther divided into left and right, and each stage is associated
with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed
In Mori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number below. The lowest division represents a period when the
of realms. Dierent tribes number the heaven dierently, heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by
with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third
the more common versions divides heaven thus:
division is shown the rst murder, the rst burials, and the
rst canoes, built by Rata. In the fourth division, the rst
1. Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau
coconut tree and other signicant plants are born.* [33]
2. Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain
3. Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god Maru
rules
43.13
Theosophy
4. Hauora, where the spirits of newborn children origi- Main article: Theosophy
nate
120
CHAPTER 43. HEAVEN
It is believed in Theosophy of Helena Blavatsky that

each religion (including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upper astral plane that
ts the description of that heaven that is given in each religion, which a soul that has been good in their previous
life on Earth will go to. The area of the upper astral plane
of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the various heavens are located is called Summerland (Theosophists believe
Hell is located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface of the earth down to its
center). However, Theosophists believe that the soul is recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years
by the Lords of Karma to incarnate again. The nal heaven The Assumption of the Virgin by Francesco Botticini at the National
that souls go to billions of years in the future after they nish Gallery London, shows three hierarchies and nine orders of angels,
each with dierent characteristics.
their cycle of incarnations is called Devachan.* [34]
43.14 Criticism of the belief in

heaven
Anarchist Emma Goldman expressed this view when she
wrote, Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in
gods and devils, heaven and hell; reward and punishment, a
whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment.* [35]
Many people consider George Orwell's use of Sugarcandy
Mountain in his novel Animal Farm to be a literary expression of this view. In the book, the animals were told that after their miserable lives were over they would go to a place
in which it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was in
season all the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake
grew on the hedges.* [36]* [37]
planation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations

and subjective percepts during particular altered states of
consciousness.
Many people who come close to death and have near death
experiences report meeting relatives or enteringthe Light
in an otherworldly dimension, which share similarities with
the religious concept of heaven. Even though there are also
reports of distressing experiences and negative life-reviews,
which share some similarities with the concept of Hell, the
positive experiences of meeting or entering the Lightis
reported as an immensely intense feeling state of love, peace
and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this
intensely positive-feeling state, people who have near death
experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened
state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of experiencing a taste of heaven.* [41]
Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is

poor motivation for moral behavior while alive.* [38]* [39] 43.16 Postmodern views
Sam Harris wrote, It is rather more noble to help people
purely out of concern for their suering than it is to help
Omega Point (Tipler)
them because you think the Creator of the Universe wants
you to do it, or will reward you for doing it, or will punish
you for not doing it. The problem with this linkage between
43.17 Representations in
religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to
help other human beings when good reasons are available.
*
43.17.1 Literature
[40]
43.15 Neuroscience
In Inside the Neolithic Mind, Lewis-Williams and Pearce
argue that a tiered structure of heaven, along with similarly
structured circles of hell, is neurally perceived by members of many cultures around the world and through history. The reports are so similar across time and space that
Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a neuroscientic ex-
arts
Works of ction have included numerous dierent

conceptions of heaven and hell. The two most famous
descriptions of heaven are given in Dante Alighieri's
Paradiso (of the Divine Comedy) and John Milton's
Paradise Lost.
The Chronicles of Narnia, a series by C. S. Lewis offers a description of heaven at the end of the sequence
in the 'Last Battle', depicted as a lush green land surrounded by mountains under the rule of a lion Aslan.
43.18. SEE ALSO

Elric and Eternal Champion, two series by Michael
Moorcock, are two of many that oer Chaos-Evil(Hell) and Uniformity-Good(-Heaven) as equally unacceptable extremes that must be held in balance.
In The Discovery of Heaven, a 1992 novel by Harry
Mulisch, heaven is locatedat the end of the Big Bang
in negative space".
43.17.2
Film
In the 1941 lm Here Comes Mr. Jordan, heaven is

shown as an aireld and Mr. Jordan is possibly God in
disguise.
In the 1943 American war lm A Guy Named Joe,
heaven is shown as an military air base.
In the 1946 British war lm A Matter of Life and
Death, heaven is shown in black and white.
121
In the American Dad! episode "The Most Adequate
Christmas Ever", heaven is featured. Anyone who has
done good in their life is own from Limbo to the
Gates of Heaven by a large grin (which might be
Ziz). There was a reference that Jim Henson tried to
sneak into heaven only for him and Kermit the Frog
to end up in a at rectangle prison (similar to General
Zod in Superman II) as Jim Henson begs for them to
be released Kermit states you will bow down before
me son of God.
In The Simpsons episode "The Father, the Son, and
the Holy Guest Star" when Bart and Homer became
Catholic, Marge imagines herself in heaven, which is
split into two parts. First there is Catholic heaven, full
of Irish, Italian, and Mexican people where everyone
is partying, including Bart, Homer and Jesus. Then
there is Protestant heaven, where people play croquet
or tennis.
In the 1957 lm The Story of Mankind heaven is shown 43.17.4 Documentaries

as an courtroom.
Heaven: Beyond the Grave. A&E Network. (IMDB)
Made in Heaven, a 1987 lm concerning two souls who
cross paths in heaven and then attempt to reconnect
Mysteries of the Bible: Heaven and Hell. A&E
once they are reborn on Earth.
Network.
Field of Dreams, a 1989 lm in which heaven is symbolized by a baseball eld. Several players ask Ray if
they are in heaven, but he assures them that they are
just in Iowa. At the end, Ray asks his father if there is
a heaven, to which his father replies that it is the place
where dreams come true.
What Dreams May Come, a 1998 movie that won an
Academy Award for its depiction of heaven and hell
as the subjective creations of the individual, was an
essentially mystical interpretation of heaven, hell and
reincarnation. It was based on the eponymous novel
by Richard Matheson.
Heaven, a 2002 lm that implies heaven can be
reached the higher up one goes (in the lm's case, in a
helicopter).
43.18
See also
Baptism
Beatication
Death
God
Hell
Indulgence
Paradise
Penance
43.17.3
Television
In The Twilight Zone episode The Hunt, heaven is

shown as a forest.
In the South Park episodes "Do the Handicapped Go
to Hell?" and "Probably", it is revealed that Mormons
go to heaven while everyone else lives in hell. Due to
a war between heaven and hell in "Best Friends Forever", God allows more people in.
Purgatory
Redemption
Saint
Salvation
Servant of God
Venerable
122
43.19 References
CHAPTER 43. HEAVEN
[20]Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon,^".
[1] The Anglo-Saxons knew the concept of Paradise, which they

expressed with words such as neorxnawang.
[21] G3772 - Strong's Greek Lexicon.
[2] Barnhart (1995:357).
[22] Mirza Tahir Ahmad. An Elementary Study of Islam. Islam

International Publications. p. 50. ISBN 1-85372-562-5.
[3] Attridge, Harold. W., and R. A. Oden, Jr. (1981), Philo of

Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text,
Translation, Notes, CBQMS 9 (Washington: D. C.: The
Catholic Biblical Association of America).
[4] Harry A. Honer, Gary M. Beckman - 1990
[23] Nicholas de Lange, Judaism, Oxford University Press, 1986

[24] Pirkei Avot, 4:21
[25] Judaism 101: Olam Ha-Ba: The Afterlife.
[26]Some people look at these teachings and deduce that Jews

try toearn our way into Heavenby performing the mitzvot.
This is a gross mischaracterization of our religion. It is important to remember that unlike some religions, Judaism is
not focused on the question of how to get into Heaven. Judaism is focused on life and how to live it.Olam Ha-Ba:
The
World to Come Judaism 101; websource 02-11-2010.
[6] Moscatti, Sabatino (1968),The World of the Phoenicians
(Phoenix Giant)
[27] The Seven Heavens in the Talmud.(see Ps. lxviii. 5).
[7] The Phoenicians.
[28] ANGELOLOGY - JewishEncyclopedia.com.
[8] Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the
afterlife in world religions. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. [29] The Legends of the Jews I, 131, and II, 306.
ISBN 1-85168-074-8.
[30] The Legends of the Jews V, 374.
[5] Sabatino Moscati Face of the Ancient Orient 2001 Page 174
The rst, called 'Kingship in Heaven', tells how this kingship passes from Alalu to Anu, ... was king in Heaven, Alalu
was seated on the throne and the mighty Anu, rst among
the gods,
[9] Bah'u'llh (1976).

Gleanings from the Writings of
Bah'u'llh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bah' Publishing
Trust. p. 157. ISBN 0-87743-187-6. Retrieved 2016-0328.
[10] Bah'u'llh (1976).
Gleanings from the Writings of
Bah'u'llh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bah' Publishing
Trust. p. 162. ISBN 0-87743-187-6. Retrieved 2016-0328.
[11] (but no soul actually goes through rebirth; see anatta)
[12] The Jivamala - Salvation Versus Liberation, The Limitations of the Paradise or Heavenly Worlds.
[13] Herrlee Creel The Origin of the Deity T'ien(1970:493506)
[14] Joseph Shih, The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese
Religion,Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp 99-138, Brill: 1969
[31] Ginzberg, Louis. Henrietta Szold (trans.). The Legends of

the Jews. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of
America, 190938. ISBN 0-8018-5890-9.
[32] Craig, Robert D. Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology.
Greenwood Press: New York, 1989. ISBN 0-313-258902. Page 57.
[33] Young, J.L.The Paumotu Conception of the Heavens and
of Creation, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 28 (1919),
209211.
[34] Leadbeater, C.W. Outline of Theosophy Wheaton, Illinois,
USA:1915 Theosophical Publishing House
[35] Goldman, Emma. The Philosophy of Atheism. Mother
Earth, February 1916.
[36] Opinions: Essays: Orwell's Political Messages by Rhodri
Williams.
[15] Homer Dubs, Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese

Philosophy,Philosophy of East and West, Vol 9, No 3/4,
pp 163-172, University of Hawaii Press: 1960.
[37] Background information for George Orwell's Animal Farm

at Charles' George Orwell Links.
[16] Audience Talk, 21 July 1999
[38] The Atheist Philosophy Archived January 13, 2007, at the

Wayback Machine.
[17] Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University
Press, USA. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530013-0
[39] Quote by Albert Einstein at Quote DB.
[18] The Gospel of Matthew by R.T. France (21 Aug 2007) ISBN
080282501X pages 101-103
[19] Irenaeus, Adversus haereses, book V, chapter XXXVI, 1-2
[40] Sam Harris at the 2006 Beyond Belief conference (watch

here Archived May 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.).
[41] Jorgensen, Rene. Awakening After Life BookSurge, 2007
ISBN 1-4196-6347-X

Smith, Gary Scott, Heaven in the American Imagination (Oxford University Press; 2011) 339 pages; draws
on art, music, folklore, sermons, literature, psychology, and other realms in a study of how Americans
since the Puritans have imagined heaven.
43.21 External links
Heaven on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Catechism of the Catholic Church I believe in Life
Everlasting Explanation of Catholic teaching about
Heaven, Hell & Purgatory
Catholic Encyclopedia: Heaven
Jewish Encyclopedia: Heaven
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven
and Hell
In Films, Heavens No Paradise New York Times,
Wed. July 22, 2009
Heaven: A fool's paradise, The Independent, April 21,
2010
Swedenborg, E. Heaven and its Wonders and Hell.
From Things Heard and Seen (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946)
Maps of heaven at the Hell and Heavensubject,
the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection,
Cornell University Library
123
Chapter 44
Heaven and Hell (Swedenborg)

perienced are that there are Jews, Muslims and people of
pre-Christian times ("pagans" such as Romans and Greeks)
in Heaven. He says he spoke to married angel couples from
the Golden Age who had been happy in heaven for thousands of years.* [3] The fundamental issue of life, he says,
is that love of self or of the world drives one towards Hell,
and love of God and of fellow beings drives one towards
Heaven.
Portrait of Swedenborg by Carl Frederik von Breda
Heaven and Hell is the common English title of a book

written by Emanuel Swedenborg in Latin, published in
1758. The full title is Heaven and its Wonders and Hell
From Things Heard and Seen, or, in Latin: De Caelo et
Eius Mirabilibus et de inferno, ex Auditis et Visis. It gives
a detailed description of the afterlife, how people live after
the death of the physical body. The book owes its appeal to
that subject matter.* [1]
The work proved to be inuential. It has been translated

into a number of languages, including Danish, French,
English, Hindi, Russian, Spanish, Icelandic, Swedish and
Zulu. A variety of important cultural gures, both writers and artists, were inuenced by Swedenborg, including Johnny Appleseed, William Blake, Jorge Luis Borges,
Daniel Burnham, Arthur Conan Doyle,* [4] Ralph Waldo
Emerson,* [5] John Flaxman, George Inness, Henry James,
Sr., Carl Jung,* [6] Immanuel Kant, Honor de Balzac,
Helen Keller, Czesaw Miosz, August Strindberg, D. T.
Suzuki, and W. B. Yeats. Edgar Allan Poe mentions this
book in his work The Fall of the House of Usher.* [7] It
also plays an important role in Honor de Balzac's novel
Louis Lambert.* [8] William Blake referred to and criticized
Heaven and Hell and Swedenborg by name several times in
his poetical/theological essay The Marriage of Heaven and
Hell.
Swedenborg wrote about Heaven and Hell based on what he

said was revelation from God.* [9] According to Swedenborg, God is love itself* [10] and intends everyone to go to
heaven. That was His purpose for creation.* [11] Thus, God
is never angry, Swedenborg says, and does not cast anyone
into Hell. The appearance of Him being angry at evil-doers
was permitted due to the primitive level of understanding of
people in Biblical times. Specically, holy fear was needed
to keep the people of those times from sinking irretrievably
into the consequences of their evils. The holy fear idea was
44.1 Introduction
in keeping with the fundamental truth that even they could
understand, that everything comes from Jehovah.* [12] In
An article about Swedenborg* [2] includes a list of biogra- the internal, spiritual sense of the Word, however, revealed
phies about him, with a brief analysis of each biographer's in Swedenborgs works, God can be clearly seen for the
*
point of view. Some of the things he claims to have ex- loving Person He actually is. [13]
124
44.2. SOME BASIC TEACHINGS
44.2 Some basic teachings
125
44.2.3
Men and women
Angels are men and women in every detail just as they were
here on earth, only they are spiritual and thus more perfect. See Chapter onMarriage in Heavenin Heaven and
Heaven and Hell opens with an armation* [14] of the Hell* [29] and Swedenborgs book on the topic, Marriage
many statements in the Old and New Testaments (e.g. Love (Conjugial Love in older translations).* [30]
Deuteronomy 6:4, Isaiah 44:6, 45: 14, 21, Mark 12: 29,32,
John 1:18, Revelation 11:17) and Swedenborgs revelation The spiritual conjunction of husband and wife that is the
(e.g.,* [15]* [16]) that there is a God and He is one. If God is basis of true marriage in this world and the next is explained
all-powerful, He must be one. It is self-contradictory to say in Heaven and Hell # 366. and Marriage Love #156.
that there is more than one being who is all-powerful.* [17]
The states of [true marriage love] are innocence, peace, tranquility, intimate friendship,
full trust and a desire shared by the disposition
44.2.2 Angels
and heart of each to do the other all the good they
can. All these things give rise to blessedness,
Swedenborg details a life after death that consists of real exbliss, joy and pleasure, and by their everlasting
periences in a world in many basic ways quite similar to the
heavenly happiness.
natural world. According to Swedenborg, angels in heaven
Marriage Love #180
do not have an ethereal or ephemeral existence but enjoy an
active life of service to others. They sleep and wake, love,
breathe, eat, talk, read, work, play, and worship. They live
Swedenborg says that this true married love was known in
a genuine life in a real spiritual body and world.* [18]
antiquity but largely lost since then, mainly due to loss in
According to Swedenborg, we in the natural world can only
belief that this love is eternal and that there is life after
see angels here when our spiritual eyes are opened. This
death.* [31]
corresponds to many instances in the Old Testament * [19]
and New Testament (Matthew 18, Luke 2:14, Matthew 17,
Luke 24, Revelation 1:10). Swedenborg received his reve- 44.2.4 The Christian marriage ideal
lation by the same process of his spiritual eyes being opened
by God.* [20]* [21]
According to Swedenborg, married life continues after
44.2.1
God is One
death as before, agreeing with the instinctive conviction of

poets and lovers whose inward assurances tell them their
love will surmount death and that they will live again and
love again in human form.* [32] In other words, there is no
till death do us partof happily married couples. (See
The
Lord God Jesus Christ on marriage in heaven* [33])
Swedenborg writes that angels have no power of their own.
God's power works through the Angel's to restrain evil spir- Swedenborg also says that Christian marriage love of one
its, one angel being able to restrain a thousand such spirits man and one woman is the highest of all loves, the source
all at once. Angels exercise God's power chiey in defend- of the greatest bliss.* [34]For in themselves Christian maring people against hell. Swedenborg is explicitly clear that riages are so holy that there is nothing more holy. They are
Angel's have no power whatsoever of their own, they neither the seminaries of the human race, and the human race is
take nor like to receive thanks or accept any credit.* [23]
the seminary of the heavens.* [35]* [36]
An angels whole environment clothes, houses, towns,
plants, etc. are what Swedenborg terms correspondences.
In other words, their environment spiritually reects, and
thus correspondsto, the mental state of the angel and
changes as the angel's state changes.* [22]
In the Christian world it is believed that in the beginning

angels and devils were created in heaven, also that the devil
or Satan was an angel of light, but having rebelled he was
cast down with his crew, and thus hell was formed. Swedenborg states that, on the contrary, every angel or devil
began life as an inhabitant of the human race.* [24] In other
words, there are no angels or demons who were not people
on Earth rst.* [25]* [26]
The spiritual conjunction of husband and wife that is the

basis of Christian marriage in this world and the next, is
explained in Heaven and Hell # 366. and Marriage Love
(Conjugial Love in older translations) #156. Evidence of
this conjunction is found in the fact that husband and wife
together are called [one]manorone eshin Genesis
1:27, 2:22-24, 5:2, and Mark 10:8.
In heavenly marriages neither partner tries to dominate the

Children who die go directly to heaven, where they are other since love of dominion of one partner eliminates the
raised by angel mothers.* [27]* [28]
delight of that marriage.* [37]
126
CHAPTER 44. HEAVEN AND HELL (SWEDENBORG)
The ancients believed in a fountain of perpetual youth. In

heaven their dream is realized, for those who leave this
world old, decrepit, diseased in body or deformed, renew
their youth, and maintain their lives in the full vigor of early
manhood and womanhood.* [38]
Swedenborg says that couples who lived in a chaste love
of Christian marriage are more than all others in the order
and form of heaven, and therefore in all beauty, and continue unceasingly in the ower of youth. The delights of
their love are ineable, and increase to eternity. What their
outward delights are it is impossible to describe in human
words.* [39]
44.2.5
Polygamy
traditional Christian idea was of resurrection on Judgment

Day at the end of history. Swedenborg says judgment takes
place in the World of Spirits immediately after each individuals death.* [52] After we die, we wake up in the intermediate region of the spiritual world, neither in Heaven
nor Hell, but in a neutralno man's landthat Swedenborg
terms theWorld of Spirits.* [53] Here we gradually lose
the ability to pretend and the spiritual real uscomes
out.* [54] The resulting stripping of one's self bare, even
to one's most secret thoughts and intentions, is the judgment.* [55] There is nothing concealed that shall not be
uncovered, and nothing secret that shall not be known
(Luke 12:2, 3; Matthew 10:26, Heaven and Hell, #498).
Following this judgment the new spirit goes on to Heaven
or Hell of his or her own free will. God does not force
them. Spirits gather with those that are alike to themselves,
whether in Heaven or Hell. Each Spirit is granted Angels
and good Spirits, though evil spirits cannot endure their
presence and so depart.* [56]
Polygamyis used here to describe any marital relationship

between men and women other than one husband with one
wife.* [40] A further variant isMultiple Partners, but One
at a Time* [41] (i.e. serial monogamy). If done for evil
reasons, such as lust, it constitutes successive polygamy.
44.2.8
*
[42]
Swedenborg said in his revelation that true Christian marriage love between one husband and several wives is impossible for its spiritual origin, which is the formation of one
mind out of two, is thus destroyed.* [43] He says that love
that is divided among a number of Christian partners is not
true marriage love, but lasciviousness.* [44] According to
Swedenborg, a Christian who marries more than one wife
commits not only natural adultery but also spiritual adultery.* [45] In the highest sense to commit adultery means to
deny the divinity of Jesus Christ and to profane the Word.
Adultery is so great an evil, Swedenborg says, that it may
be called diabolism itself.* [46] After death the damnation
of Christian polygamists is more severe than the damnation of those who committed only natural adultery.* [47]
In the other life adulterers love lth and live in lthy hells
*
[48]* [49]* [50]
44.2.6
Time and space in the spiritual world
There are neither time nor space as we understand them in

the other world. Both are replaced by a sense of state. See
Chapter 18,Time in Heavenand Chapter 22,Space in
Heaven,in Swedenborg E. Heaven and Hell, Swedenborg
Foundation 1946, # 70, 191* [51]
Equilibrium and spiritual free will
According to Swedenborg, people are kept in spiritual freedom by means of the equilibrium between Heaven and
Hell.* [57]* [58]
So who sends people to Heaven or Hell? Nobody but themselves. There is no inquiry as to their faith or former church
aliations, or whether they were baptized, or even what
kind of life they lived on Earth. They migrate toward a
heavenly or hellish state because they are drawn to its way
of life, and for no other reason.* [59]
Anyone can enter heaven. However, as soon as an evil person inhales the air there they have excruciating torment so
they quickly shun it and escape to a state/place in keeping
with their true state.* [60] As the old saying goes, Where
the tree falls, there it lies.* [61] The basic spiritual orientation of a person toward good or evil cannot be changed
after death. Thus, an evil spirit could leave hell, but never
wants to.* [62]
44.3
Inuence on Joseph Smith and

Mormon theology
D. Michael Quinn suggests in his book Early Mormonism

and the Magic World View that Heaven and Hell inuenced
Joseph Smith in the creation of the Latter Day Saint view
44.2.7 World of Spirits
of the afterlife detailed in Doctrine and Covenants Section
The World of Spiritsis not to be confused with the 76.
spiritual world,which is a general term referring to the However, many of the similarities are rooted in Biblical lanwhole extent of Heaven, Hell and the World of Spirits. The guage and by interpreting Biblical texts. For example, the
44.5. REFERENCES
general view of three Heavens in the resurrection appears
to have its root from the writings attributed to the apostle
Paul found in the New Testament, 1 Cor 15:4042:
There are also celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial: but the glory of the celestial is one, and
the glory of the terrestrial is another. There is one
glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon,
and another glory of the stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory. So also is the
resurrection of the dead.
127
[4] http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/scottish-authors/
arthur-conan-doyle/the-history-of-spiritualism-vol-i/
ebook-page-02.asp
[5] https://books.google.com/books?id=Ondb2uKhq_YC&
printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#
v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] Corbett, Sara. Carl Gustav Jung News - The New York
Times. The New York Times.
[7] Perry, B. Little Masterpieces. Poe, E.A. The Fall of the
House of Usher, Garden City, MY, Doubleday 1921
[8] Louis Lambert at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2009-
07-19.
Allegorically, Swedenborg likens both the nature of each
heaven as well as the illumination in the sky of each heaven [9] Swedenborg, E Heaven and its Wonders and Hell. From
to the sun, moon, and stars.* [63] He states that the sun of
Things Heard and Seen (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946).
the celestial heaven and the moon of the spiritual kingdom
is the Lord.* [64] In Mormonism's view of I Cor 15:4042, [10] Swedenborg, Heaven and Hell 545.)
the resurrected bodies of those in three degrees of glory [11] Swedenborg, E Angelic Wisdom concerning The Divine Prov(celestial, terrestrial, and telestial heavens) are likened to
idence (Swedenborg Foundation, 1954, #234:6,7)
the Sun, Moon, and stars.
Others who acknowledge parallels, including Mormon historian Richard Bushman, propose that the similarities between the revelations of Smith and Swedenborg are due to
the inuence of Paul's writing on both of them.* [65]
It should be noted, however, that Corinthians is not included in the list of books that, according to Swedenborg,
constitute the divinely inspired Biblical canon listed in Arcana Coelestia 10,325,* [66] White Horse 16,* [67] and New
Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine 266.* [68] From Swedenborgs perspective the teachings of Corinthians are thus
not authoritative and he would not have been inuenced by
them.* [69]* [70]
[12] Swedenborg, E Arcana Coelestia. The heavenly arcana contained in the Holy Scripture or Word of the Lord unfolded,
beginning with the book of Genesis together with wonderful
things seen in the World of Spirits and in the heaven of angels.
Swedenborg Foundation, 1956 #6997:2, 7632)
[13] Heaven and Hell, #546.
[14] Swedenborg, E.Heaven and Hell Swedenborg Foundation
1946, #2
[15] Swedenborg E. The True Christian Religion Swedenborg
Foundation, 1946 # 5-7
[16] Swedenborg E. The Divine Love and Wisdom Swedenborg
Foundation 1946, # 23)
[17] Kingslake, p. 20
44.4 Print versions
[18] Synnestvedt, S. The Essential Swedenborg, Swedenborg

Foundation 1977, p. 104
Swedenborg, E.Heaven and its wonders and Hell from [19] http://www.ccel.org/contrib/exec_outlines/angel/angel_02.
things heard and seen. Swedenborg Foundation, Dehtm
cember 1, 2001. Translator: George F. Dole, Lan[20] True Christian Religion, #779
guage: English. ISBN 0-87785-476-9
A 1958 translation: ISBN 0-85448-054-4
[21] From things heard and seen,part of Heaven and Hell'

book title.
44.5 References
[23] E. Swedenborg: The Arcana Coelestia, Swedenborg Foundation 1946, #6344
[1] http://www.swedenborgdigitallibrary.org/ES/epic30.htm
[2] Who Was Emanuel Swedenborg (16881772)?", accessed

May 2012.
[25] Benz , E. Emanuel Swedenborg. Visionary Savant in the Age

of Reason, Swedenborg Foundation, 2002, p. 403; Originally published as Emanuel Swedenborg. Naturforscher und
Sehr, Zurich; Swedenborg Verlag 1948
[3] Marriage Love #7 at smallcanonsearch.com
128
CHAPTER 44. HEAVEN AND HELL (SWEDENBORG)
[26] Heaven and Hell #311-317, 544
[56] Heaven and Hell, #545
[27] See Chapter on Children in Heavenin Heaven and Hell

#332.
[57] See Chapter on The Equilibrium Between Heaven and

Hellin Heaven and Hell, #589.
[28] Kingslake, p. 49
[58] Arcna Coelestia, #597
[29] Marriage Love Swedenborg Foundation 1946, Chapter 40, #

366.
[59] Kingslake, B. Inner Light. Swedenborg Explores the Spiritual

Dimension, J. Appleseed, 2001, p. 6
[30] E. Swedenborg Marriage (Conjugial) Love Swedenborg

Society 1953, # 27.
[60] Spalding, JH. Introduction to Swedenborgs Religious

Thought, Swedenborg Publishing Association 1966, p. 27
[31] Marriage Love# 58
[61] Ecclesiastes 11:3, Divine Providence, #277
[33] http://swedenborgproject.org/2011/08/22/
the-lord-god-jesus-christ-on-marriage-in-heaven/
[34] Trobridge, p. 193

[35] Arcana Coelestia# 9961
[38] Trobridge, p. 194
[39] Heaven and Hell # 489
[40] Marriage Love #332.
[41] The Gingrich Question: Cheating vs. Open Marriage.
The New York Times. May 21, 2013.
[42] Marriage Love #317.
[43] Marriage Love, # 379

[65] Bushman, Richard: Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling,
2005, p. 199.
[66] http://smallcanonsearch.com/read.php?book=ac&section=
10325
[67] http://smallcanonsearch.com/read.php?book=wh&
section=16
[68] http://smallcanonsearch.com/read.php?book=njhd&
section=266
[69] Sigstedt, C. The Swedenborg Epic (Bookman Associates
1952, p. 324)
[70] Kingslake, B.[ Lawrence, J., ed.] Inner Light. Swedenborg
Explores the Spiritual Dimension (J. Appleseed & Co., p.
112)
[44] Arcana Coelestia # 1907.

[45] Marriage Love, #339.
44.6
External links
[46] Swedenborg, E. Doctrine of Life (Swedenborg Foundation

1946, #74)
Works related to Heaven and Hell at Wikisource
[47] Marriage Love, #339.
Online version of Heaven and Hell
[48] Arcana Coelestia, # 5394, 5722
Searchable copy of Heaven and Hell
[49] Synnestvedt, p. 74.

[50] Sigstedt, p. 356.
[51] http://swedenborgdigitallibrary.org/contets/HH.html
[52] Benz, p. 390
[53] See Chapter on World of Spiritsin Heaven and Hell.
Swedenborg Foundation, 1946, pp. 421.
Dimension, J. Appleseed & Co., 2001, p. 44
Dimension, J. Appleseed & Co., 2001, p. 44
Miller, C. Did Emanuel Swedenborg Inuence

LDS Doctrine?" In an unusual review, Miller lists
both similarities and dierences between Swedenborg and LDS teachings. (self published at craigwmiller.tripod.com)
Top, Brent L.; and Top, Wendy C. (1993). Beyond Death's Door: Understanding Near-Death Experiences in Light of the Restored Gospel. Salt Lake City:
Bookcraft. ISBN 978-0-88494-895-7.
Online version of Toksvig, S. Emanuel Swedenborg:
Scientist and Mystic. Yale University Press, 1948
Chapter 45
Heaven in Judaism
45.2
Description
The Biblical authors pictured the earth as a at disk oating in water, with the heavens above and the underworld
below.* [2] The raqiya (rmament), a solid inverted bowl
above the earth, coloured blue by the cosmic ocean, kept the
waters above the earth from ooding the world.* [3] From
about 300 BCE a newer Greek model largely replaced the
idea of a three-tiered cosmos; the newer view saw the earth
as a sphere at the centre of a set of seven concentric heavens,
one for each visible planet plus the sun and moon, with the
realm of God in an eighth and highest heaven, but although
several Jewish works from this period have multiple heavens, as do some New Testament works, none has exactly the
formal Greek system.* [4]
In the course of the 1st millennium CE Jewish scholars developed an elaborate system of Seven Heavens, named:* [5]
Flammarion engraving, Paris 1888
Shamayim (), the Hebrew word for "heaven" (literally heavens, plural), denotes one component of the threepart cosmos, the other elements being erets (the earth) and
sheol (the underworld). Shamayim is the dwelling place of
God and other heavenly beings, erets is the home of the living, and sheol is the realm of the dead, including, in postHebrew Bible literature (including the Christian New Testament), the abode of the righteous dead.* [1]
Vilon ( )or Araphel ()

Raqia ()
Shehaqim ()
Zebul ()
Maon ()
Makon ()
Araboth (), the location of the ophanim, the
seraphim, the hayyoth and the throne of the Lord
45.1 Etymology
The Hebrew word shamayim is constructed of two parts:
sham ( )derived from Akkadian samu meaningskyor
lofty, and Hebrew mayim ( )meaning water. In
Genesis 1:6 Elohim separated the water from the water
. The area above the earth was lled by sky-water (shammayim) and the earth below was covered by sea-water (yammayim). The Hebrew word for the sun is shemesh. It follows
the same construction, whereshemorsham(Akkadian:
samu) meansskyand esh (Akkadian: ish) meansre
, i.e. sky-re.
Medieval Jewish Merkavah and Heichalot literature focussed on discussing the details of these heavens, sometimes in connection with traditions relating to Enoch, such
as the Third Book of Enoch.* [6]
45.3
129
See also
Biblical cosmology
130
Celestial spheres
Garden of Eden
Gehenna
Jannah
Religious cosmology
45.4 References
[1] Fretheim 2003, p. 201
[2] Aune 2003, p. 119
[3] Pennington 2007, p. 42
[4] Aune 2003, p. 119
[5] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=
1521&letter=A#4364
[6] Scholem, Gershom. Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1965.
45.5 Bibliography
Aune, David E. (2003). Cosmology. Westminster
Dictionary of the New Testament and Early Christian
Literature. Westminster John Knox Press.
Fretheim, Terence E. (2003).Heaven(s)". In Gowan,
Donald E. The Westminster theological wordbook of
the Bible. Westminster University Press.
Pennington, Jonathan T. (2007). Heaven and earth in
the Gospel of Matthew. Brill.
45.6 External links

Jewish Encyclopedia: Heaven
CHAPTER 45. HEAVEN IN JUDAISM
Chapter 46
Heavenly host
Blessed Be the Host of the King of Heaven, a Russian icon from

the 1550s
Heavenly host (Hebrew: sabaoth,armies) refers

to the army (Luke 2:13) of angels mentioned both in the
Hebrew and Christian Bibles, as well as other Jewish and
Christian texts.
Several descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in
military terms, such as encampment (Genesis 32:1-2), command structure (Psalms 91:11-12; Matt.13:41; Rev.7:2),
and combat (Jdg.5:20; Job 19:12; Rev.12:7). The heavenly host participate in the War in Heaven and, according
to some interpretations, will battle Satan and Satan's own
army at the End of Days and be victorious.
46.1 Biblical accounts

46.1.1
Depiction of the Commander of the Lord's Army in Joshua 5, by

Ferdinand Bol, 1642.
Book of Joshua
In the Book of Joshua 5:13-15, Joshua encounters a captain of the host of the Lordin the early days of his campaigns in the Promised Land. This unnamed heavenly messenger is sent by God to encourage Joshua in the upcoming
claiming of the Promised Land:
Once when Joshua was near Jericho, he
looked up and saw a man standing before him
with a drawn sword in his hand. Joshua went to
him and said to him, Are you one of us, or
one of our adversaries?He replied, Neither;
but as commander of the army of the Lord I
131
have now come.And Joshua fell on his face

to the earth and worshiped, and he said to him,
What do you command your servant, my Lord?
The commander of the army of the Lord said to
Joshua, Remove the sandals from your feet,
for the place where you stand is holy.And
Joshua did so.
Joshua 5:13-15 (NRSV)
132
CHAPTER 46. HEAVENLY HOST
46.2 Organization
46.2.2
Archangels
Main article: Archangel

This designation might be given to angels of various ranks.
An example would be Raphael who is ranked variously as a
Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel.* [3] This is usually a result
of conicting schemes of hierarchies of angels.
46.2.3
Angels
Main article: Angel

In Revelation 5:11 a gure of ten thousand times ten thousand (100 million) is given for the number ofmany angels
in a circle around the throne, as well as the living creatures
and the elders.
46.3
Angelic combat
Visions of John the Evangelist, as depicted in the Trs Riches

Heures du Duc de Berry. Four cherubim surround the throne and
twenty-four elders sit to the left and right.
46.2.1
Cherubim
Main article: Cherub

Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariotthrone (Ps.80:1). Exodus 25:18-22 refers to statues of two
cherubim placed on top of the Ark of the Covenant. J. A.
Motyer writes: 'the cherbim overshadowing the ark were a
pedestal for the invisible throne of the invisible God'.* [1]
Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations
such as the gates of Eden (Gen.3:24). Cherubim were
mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of
Guido Reni's archangel Michael.
ancient Near Eastern traditions.* [2]
46.8. REFERENCES
In the Book of Revelation, the rebellious forces of Satan
are defeated by the Heavenly Host led by Michael the
Archangel during the War in Heaven (Rev.12:7-9).
46.4 In the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)
133
Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 0-8028-2400-5, ISBN 978-08028-2400-4), s.v. Cherubim
[3] Davidson, Gustav (1994) [1967]. A Dictionary of Fallen Angels, Including the Fallen Angels. New York, NY: Macmillan, Inc. ISBN 978-0-02-907052-9.
[4] Jewish Encyclopedia: Host of Heaven New York, May 1,
In the Hebrew Bible, the name Yahweh and the title Elohim
1901
frequently occur with the word tzevaot or sabaoth (hosts
orarmies, Hebrew: )as YHWH Elohe Tzevaot ( [5] The Summons of the Lord of Hosts Bah' Reference Library
YHWH God of Hosts), Elohe Tzevaot (God of Hosts
), Adonai YHWH Tzevaot (Lord YHWH of Hosts) or, [6] The Summons of the Lord of Hosts, Page 1 Bah' Reference
most frequently, YHWH Tzevaot (YHWH of Hosts).
Library
This name is traditionally transliterated in Latin as Sabaoth,
a form that will be more familiar to many English readers, [7] John Milton, Paradise Lost 1674 Book VI line 320
as it was used in the King James Version of the Bible.* [4]
46.5 Bah'
The term Lord of Hostsis also used in the Bah' Faith
as a title of God.* [5] Bah'u'llh, claiming to be the Manifestation of God, wrote tablets to many of the kings and
rulers of the world inviting them to recognize Him as the
Promised One of all ages and faiths, some of which were
compiled and published in English as The Summons of the
Lord of Hosts.* [6]
46.6 In literature
In the English epic poem Paradise Lost by John Milton,
the Archangel Michael commands the army of angels loyal
to God against the rebel forces of Satan. Armed with a
sword from God's armory, he bests Satan in personal combat, wounding his side.* [7]
46.7 See also

Astrolatry
Divine Council
Hierarchy of Angels
46.8 References
[1] IVP New Bible Commentary p538
[2] Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, by David Noel Freedman,
Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck; contributors: David Noel
Chapter 47
Hyperuranion
Hyperuranion* [1] or topos hyperuranios* [2] (Ancient
Greek:
,* [3] accusative of
, place beyond heaven) is
alternately a concept used by Plato to mean a perfect realm
of archetypal ideas,* [3] or a later medieval concept that
claims God within the empyrean exists outside of heaven
and controls it as the rst mover from there for heaven even
to be a part of the moved.* [1]
47.1 References
[1] Katherine Murphy, Richard Todd, A Man Very Well
Studyed": New Contexts for Thomas Browne, BRILL, 2008,
p. 260.
[2] Egidius Schmalzriedt, Platon Der Schriftsteller und die
Wahrheit, R. Piper, 1969, pp. 317, 319, 329.
[3] Plato, Phaedrus, 247bc
134
Chapter 48
Jade Emperor
Tian gongredirects here. For other uses, see Tiangong attained Golden Immortality. After another one hundred
(disambiguation).
million years of cultivation, he nally became the Jade Emperor (using the given gures, this period before his becoming the Jade Emperor lasted for a total of about 226,800,000
The Jade Emperor (Chinese: ; pinyin: Y Hung or
, Y D) in Chinese culture, traditional religions and years.)
myth is one of the representations of the rst god (
ti d). In Taoist theology he is Yuanshi Tianzun, one of
the Three Pure Ones, the three primordial emanations of 48.1.2 Vanquishing evil
the Tao. He is also the Cao i (Highest Power) of
One of the myths describes how the Jade Emperor became
Caodaism.
The Jade Emperor is known by many names, including the monarch of all the deities in heaven. It is one of the few
Heavenly Grandfather (, Tin Gng), which originally myths in which the Jade Emperor really shows his might.
meantHeavenly Duke, which is used by commoners; the In the beginning of time, the earth was a very dicult place
Jade Lord the Highest Emperor, Great Emperor of Jade ( to live, much harsher than it is now. People had to deal with
, Yu Huang Shangdi or , Yu Huang Dadi). a variety of monstrous beings, and they didnt have many
gods to protect them; in addition, many powerful demons
were defying the immortals of heaven. The Jade Emperor
was an ordinary immortal who roamed the earth helping
48.1 Chinese mythology
as many people as he could. He was saddened because his
powers could only ease the suering of humans. He reThere are many stories in Chinese mythology involving the treated to a mountain cave to cultivate his Tao. He passed
Jade Emperor.
3,200 trials, each trial lasting about 3 million years.
48.1.1
Origin
It was said that the Jade Emperor was originally the crown
prince of the kingdom of Pure Felicity and Majestic Heavenly Lights and Ornaments. At birth, he emitted a wondrous light that lled the entire kingdom. When he was
young, he was kind, intelligent and wise. He devoted his
entire childhood to helping the needy (the poor and suffering, the deserted and single, the hungry and disabled).
Furthermore, he showed respect and benevolence to both
men and creatures. After his father died, he ascended the
throne. He made sure that everyone in his kingdom found
peace and contentment. After that, he told his ministers
that he wished to cultivate Tao on the Bright and Fragrant
Cli.
On earth at this time, a powerful, evil entity had the ambition to conquer the immortals and gods in heaven and proclaim sovereignty over the entire universe. This evil entity
also went into retreat and meditation to expand its power,
though later than the Jade Emperor did. He passed through
3,000 trials, each trial lasting about 3 million years. After
its nal trial, it felt condent that no one could defeat it. It
re-entered the world and recruited an army of demons with
the purpose of attacking heaven.
The immortals, being aware of the threat, gathered themselves and prepared for war. The gods were unable to stop
the powerful demon and it defeated them all.
The Jade Emperor nished his cultivation during this war.

When he was changing the land to make it more liveable for
men and repelling a variety of monsters, he saw an evil glow
emitting from heaven and knew something was amiss. He
After 1,750 kalpas, each kalpa lasting for 129,600 years, he ascended and saw that the evil entity was too powerful to
135
136
CHAPTER 48. JADE EMPEROR
be stopped by the gods. He challenged it, and they fought.

Mountains shook and rivers and seas toppled. Due to his
deeper and wiser cultivation, his benevolence instead of his
might, the Jade Emperor won the battle. After defeating
the evil entity, its army was scattered by the gods and immortals.
Every day Zhin descended to earth with the aid of a magical robe to bathe. One day, a lowly cowherd named Niu
Lang (Chinese: ; pinyin: ni lng) spotted Zhin as
she bathed in a stream. Niu Lang fell instantly in love with
her and stole her magic robe which she had left on the bank
of the stream, leaving her unable to escape back to Heaven.
Because of his noble and benevolent deeds, the gods, im- When Zhin emerged from the water, Niu Lang grabbed
mortals and humans proclaimed the Jade Emperor the her and carried her back to his home.
When the Jade Emperor heard of this matter, he was furious
supreme sovereign of all.
but unable to intercede, since in the meantime his daughter
had fallen in love and married the cowherd. As time passed,
Zhin grew homesick and began to miss her father. One
48.1.3 Creation
day, she came across a box containing her magic robe which
The world started with wuji (, nothingness) according her husband had hidden. She decided to visit her father
to the Chinese creation myth. The Jade Emperor was the back in Heaven, but once she returned, the Jade Emperor
summoned a river to ow across the sky (the Milky Way),
head of the pantheon, but not responsible for creation.
which Zhin was unable to cross to return to her husband.
In another creation myth, the Jade Emperor fashioned the
The Emperor took pity on the young lovers, and so once a
rst humans from clay and left them to harden in the sun.
year on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar
Rain deformed some of the gures, which gave rise to hucalendar, he allows them to meet on a bridge over the river.
man sickness and physical abnormalities. (The most common alternative Chinese creation myth states that human The story refers to constellations in the night sky. Zhin is
the star Vega in the constellation of Lyra east of the Milky
beings were once eas on the body of Pangu.)
Way, and Niu Lang is the star Altair in the constellation of
In another myth, Nwa fashions men out of the mud from
Aquila west of the Milky Way. Under the rst quarter moon
the Yellow River by hand. Those she made became the
(7th day) of the seventh lunar month (around August), the
richer people of the earth. After getting lazy, she dipped
lighting condition in the sky causes the Milky Way to appear
her scarf into the mud and swung it around. The drops that
dimmer, hence the story that the two lovers are no longer
fell from the scarf became the poorer humans.
separated on that one particular day each year.
The seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar
is a holiday in China called Qixi Festival, which is a day
48.1.4 In The Journey to the West
for young lovers much like Valentine's Day in the West. In
In the popular novel by Wu Cheng'en, the Jade Emperor is Japan, it is called Tanabata (star day). In Korea, it is called
Chilseok. In Vietnam, it is called Tht Tch and if it rains
featured many times in the story.
on that day, it is said to be Zhin crying tears of happiness
Main article: Journey to the West
for being reunited with her husband.
48.1.5 The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd

Main article: The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd
In another story, popular throughout Asia and with many
diering versions, the Jade Emperor has a daughter named
Zhin (simplied Chinese: ; traditional Chinese:
; pinyin: zh n or Chih'n, literally: weaver girl). She
is most often represented as responsible for weaving colorful clouds in the heaven. In some versions she is the Goddess Weaver, daughter of the Jade Emperor and the Celestial Queen Mother, who weaves the Silver River (known in
the West as the Milky Way), which gives light to heaven and
earth. In other versions, she is a seamstress who works for
the Jade Emperor.
48.1.6
The zodiac
There are several stories as to how the twelve animals of

the Chinese zodiac were chosen. In one, the Jade Emperor,
although having ruled Heaven and Earth justly and wisely
for many years, had never had the time to actually visit the
Earth personally. He grew curious as to what the creatures
looked like. Thus, he asked all the animals to visit him in
heaven. The cat, being the most handsome of all animals,
asked his friend the Rat to wake him on the day they were to
go to Heaven so he wouldn't oversleep. The Rat, however,
was worried that he would seem ugly compared to the cat,
so he didn't wake the cat. Consequently, the cat missed the
meeting with the Jade Emperor and was replaced by the
Pig. The Jade Emperor was delighted with the animals and
so decided to divide the years up amongst them. When the
48.3. TOPONYMS
137
cat learned of what had happened, he was furious with the cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel, all decRat and that, according to the story, is why cats and Rats orated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (containing
are enemies to this day.
the ve sacrices and wines) to honor the deities below the
*
The cat however, does have a place in the Vietnamese zo- Jade Emperor. [7] The household then kneels three times
and kowtows nine times to pay homage and wish him a long
diac, replacing the Rabbit.
life.* [7]
48.1.7
His predecessor and successor
The Jade Emperor was originally the assistant of the Divine

Master of the Heavenly Origin, Yuanshi Tianzun. Yuanshi
Tianzun is said to be the supreme beginning, the limitless
and eternal creator of Heaven and Earth, who picked Yuhuang, or the Jade Emperor, as his personal successor. The
Jade Emperor will eventually be succeeded by the Heavenly
Master of the Dawn of Jade of the Golden Door (
).* [1] The characters for both are stamped on the front
of the arms of his throne. In two folk automatic writing
texts in 1925 and 1972, Guan Yu became the 18th Jade Emperor in about 1840 AD;* [2]* [3]* [4] however, some have
disagreed that Guan Yu has succeeded, and thus the Jade
Emperor and Guan Yu are often worshiped separately.* [5] Yuk Wong Po Tin in A Kung Ngam, Hong Kong.
In Tienti teachings, the current jade emperor has 55 predeYuk Wong Kung Tin () a.k.a. Yuk Wong Po
cessors.* [6]
Tin () is a temple in A Kung Ngam, Hong Kong,
dedicated to the Jade Emperor. In the mid 19th century,
people from Huizhou and Chaozhou mined stones in the
48.2 Worship and festivals
hill for the development of the central urban area. They set
up a shrine to worship Yuk Wong. At the beginning of the
20th century, the shrine was developed into a small temple
and was renovated many times. The latest renovation was
in 1992.* [8]
48.3
Toponyms
A crater on Saturn's moon Rhea, discovered by Voyager 2

spacecraft, is named after him.
48.4
The Jade Emperor Ritual at Yuzun Temple in Sanxing, Yilan of
Taiwan on the Emperor's Birthday.
The Jade Emperor's Birthday () is said to be the

ninth day of the rst lunar month.* [7] On this day Taoist
temples hold a Jade Emperor ritual (, bi Tin Gng,
literally heaven worship) at which priests and laymen
prostrate themselves, burn incense and make food oerings.
In the morning of this birthday, Chinese and Taiwanese
households set up an altar table with 3 layers: one top (containing oertories of six vegetables (), noodles, fruits,
See also
Chinese mythology in popular culture

Jade
akra, the Jade Emperor's Buddhist counterpart
Jade Emperor Pagoda
48.5
References
[1]
138
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7] Lin Meirong (2011).Jade Emperor. Encyclopedia of Taiwan. Council for Cultural Aairs. Retrieved 12 September
2012.
[8] Chinese Temples Committee: Yuk Wong Kung Din, A
Kung Ngam
48.6 External links

Media related to Jade Emperor at Wikimedia Commons
CHAPTER 48. JADE EMPEROR
Chapter 49
Third Heaven
The Third Heaven is a division of Heaven in religious cosmology. In some traditions it is considered the abode of
God,* [1] and in others a lower level of Paradise, commonly
one of seven.* [2]
49.1 Judaism
The early books of the Tanakh reference Heaven (Heb.
Shamayim), but not a Third Heaven or a specic number of
heavens.* [1] Heaven is mentioned several times in the rst
chapter of Genesis. It appears in the rst verse as a creation
of God. His dividing the light from the darkness in verses 4
and 5 this has been interpreted as the separation of heaven
into two sections: day (God's throne) and night (where our
universe is contained). In verse 8 heaven refers to the atmosphere over the earth in which birds y, and in verse 14
it's the setting for the celestial lights, later identied (verse
16) as the sun, moon and stars.* [3]
against nature,including sodomites, sorcerers, enchanters,

witches, the proud, thieves, liars and those guilty of various
other transgressions. (chapter 10)
In the Slavonic version of the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch,
also known as 3 Baruch, the author is shown a phoenix, and
a dragon residing there is said to eat the bodies of those
that have spent their lives in evil.* [5]
In The Legends of the Jews by Louis Ginzberg, this third
division of Paradise is said to be, like the other six,twelve
myriads of miles in width and twelve myriads of miles in
length,built of silver and gold, and containing the best
of everything there is in heaven.* [2]
49.1.1
Residents
Aside from the redeemed, the transgressors and various angels mentioned in the Bible and other Hebrew literature, a
number of specic gures and spirits are mentioned as residing in the Third Heaven. These include, by source, The
A third concept of Heaven, also called shamayi h'shamayim Legends of The Jews by Louis Ginzberg:* [2]
( or Heaven of Heavens), is mentioned in
such passages as Genesis 28:12, Deuteronomy 10:14 and
Abraham
1 Kings 8:27 as a distinctly spiritual realm containing (or
*
being traveled by) angels and God. [4]
Isaac
The ambiguity of the term shamayim in the Hebrew Bible,
and the fact that it's a plural word, give heavensvarious
interpretations regarding its nature, notably the ascension of
the prophet Elijah.
In the non-canonical Second Book of Enoch, Third Heaven
is described as a location between corruptibility and incorruptibilitycontaining the Tree of Life, whereon the
Lord rests, when he goes up into paradise.(chapter 8) Two
springs in the Third Heaven, one of milk and the other of
honey, along with two others of wine and oil, ow down
into the Garden of Eden. (verse 6) In contrast with the
common concept of Paradise, the Second Book of Enoch
also describes a Third Heaven, a very terrible place
withall manner of torturesin which merciless angels tormentthose who dishonour God, who on earth practice sin
Jacob
Moses
Aaron
the Israelites of the Exodus
the kings of Judah (notably David, but with the exception of Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, who presides in the second division, over the penitents)
49.2
139
Christianity
140
49.2.1
CHAPTER 49. THIRD HEAVEN
New Testament
ing to the deeds done in the body, the term Heaven,as

intended for the Saints' eternal home, must include more
An epistle of the Apostle Paul, included in the New Testa- kingdoms than one.* [17]
ment, contains an explicit reference to the Third Heaven. In
a letter to the Corinthian church he writes, I know a man
in Christ(usually interpreted as: himself)who fourteen 49.3 Islam
years ago was caught up to the third heaven. Whether it was
in the body or out of the body I do not knowGod knows.
And I know that this manwhether in the body or apart According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad's Mi'raj (asfrom the body I do not know, but God knowswas caught cension through the heavens) included an admission to
in which he met
up to paradise. He heard inexpressible things, things that the Third Heaven by the angel Gabriel,
*
Joseph,
who
received
him
warmly.
[18]
Islamic tradiman is not permitted to tell.(2 Corinthians 12:24) The
tion
also
places
Azrael,
the
angel
of
death,
in the Third
Greek says caught away, not caught uppossibly re*
Heaven.
[16]
The
third
heaven
is
depicted
as
being conecting Jewish beliefs that Paradise was somewhere other
structed
of
pearl
and/or
other
luminous
metals.
*
than the uppermost heaven. [6]
to Shi'ite sources, the Third Heaven is named
The apparent parallelism of the passage equates the Third According
*
Marum.
[19]
*
Heaven withParadise [1] the traditional destination of
redeemed humans and the general connotation of the term
Heavenin mainstream Christianity.* [7]
Four allusions to the Apocalypse of Moses occur in close
proximity in 2 Corinthians.* [8]* [9] The allusions are (i)
Satan as an angel of light,* [10] (ii) the distinction of
Satan and the serpent as two beings,* [11]* [12] (iii)Third
Heaven* [13] (iv)Paradise,* [14] The connection to this
Jewish material has led to discussion about whether Paul
accepted these traditions, or alternatively whether Paul's vision of Third Heaven is a continuation of his conict with
the Superapostles in the previous chapter, and that the material comes not from his own teaching, but in reply to material similar to Apocalypse of Moses being transmitted
by the Superapostles to the Corinthians. Whether this is
so partly depends on whether irony is detected in this section.* [15] The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism
is still widely disputed.
49.2.2
New Testament apocrypha

*
According to the Apocalypse of James: [16]

John the Baptist
49.2.3
Latter Day Saint movement
See also: Mormon cosmology and Latter Day Saint

movement
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that
Heaven contains three degrees of glory; the third or highest heaven is called the Celestial Kingdom. Joseph Smith
recorded revelations about this distinct teaching after meditating on the subject: If God rewarded every one accord-
49.4
See also
Empyrean
Seven Heavens
Vdblin
49.5
References
[1] Henry, Matthew, Commentary on the Whole Bible Volume

VI (Acts to Revelation): Second Corinthians Chap. XII,
Public domain, Library of Congress call no: BS490.H4, at
Christian Classics Ethereal Library
[2] Ginzberg, Louis (1909) The Legends of the Jews, Chapter 1,
at sacred-texts.com
[3] See a good Commentary on Youtube (Ruckman, Andrew
Gen. 1 part 1)
[4] van der Toorn, Becking, van der Horst (1999), Dictionary
of Deities and Demons in The Bible, Second Extensively Revised Edition, Entry: Heaven, pp. 388390, William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8028-2491-9
[5] Baruch, Apocalypse of at jewishencyclopedia.com
[6] E. W. Bullinger A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the
English and Greek 2, 14, To this Third heavenand
" Paradise " Paul was caught away, 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4, (not "
up,see under " catch,) in " visions and revelations of the
Lord,2 Cor. xii. 1. One catching away with a double
revelation of the New heaven and the ...
[7] Is heaven located
christiananswers.net
in
the
northern
sky?"
at
[8] Lee Martin McDonald The Biblical Canon: Its Origin,

Transmission, and Authority 1441241647 2006 "; death
as the separation of soul and body (2 Cor 5:15; Apocalypse of Moses 31); Satan as an angel of light (2 Cor 11:14;
Life ofAdam and Eve 9:1; Apocalypse of Moses 17:1); paradise located in the third heaven (2 Cor 12:2; ...
[9] William R. Baker - Second Corinthians 1999 - Page 392
11:14 And no wonder, for Satan himself masquerades as an
angel of light. Paul's assigning of a role for ... Their modus
operandi is deception just like the one for 51 Adam and Eve
9:1; Apocalypse of Moses 17:1-2. For summaries, see Furnish ...
[10] David E. Garland Second Corinthians 0805401296 1999 p
485Paul's uses a Hebraic idiom,an angel of light,to refer
to Satan as a shining angel.264 The story in Genesis 3, ... ...
does not explicitly mention Satan as an angel of light. Paul
may allude to popular Jewish tradition. In the Apocalypse of
Moses, Eve recalls her seduction: Satan appeared in the
form of an angel and sang hymns like the angels
[11] William R. Baker 2 Corinthians 1999 p 392 Footnote:
Adam and Eve 9:1; Apocalypse of Moses 17:12
[12] Gary A. Anderson, Michael E. Stone, Johannes Tromp Literature on Adam and Eve: collected essays 2000 p 54 In
Apocalypse of Moses 16:3 Satan talks to the serpent and encourages him to serve as the instrument of Eve's deception
... Satan deceives the serpent by the lying promise that if
they (Satan and the serpent) expel Adam from the Garden,
[13] Frank J. Matera II Corinthians: a commentary 2003 p 280
"... and the third heaven are identied in the Greek edition of
The Life of Adam and Eve (=Apocalypse of Moses) 37:5
[14] Christopher Rowland, Christopher R. A. Morray-Jones The
mystery of God: early Jewish mysticism and the New Testament 2009 pp 394395
[15] cf. discussion of irony and possible use of Apoc. Moses. in
Martin, Ralph P. 2 Corinthians Word Biblical Commentary
40, Thomas Nelson 1st.Ed.1987, (2nd Ed. predicted 2010)
[16] Davidson, Gustav (1967), A Dictionary of Angels, Including The Fallen Angels, Entry: Third Heaven, Free Press, p.
288, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-19757,
ISBN 9780029070505
[17] Introduction to D&C 76
[18] Mi'raj at the Canadian Society of Muslims Website
[19] Al-Burhan Tafsir al-Qur'an. V. 5. p. 415.
49.6 External links

What is the third heaven, Douglas Ward, 2006 at
The Voice
2 Corinthians, Chapter 12 (KJV)
141
Chapter 50
Throne of God
of throne room or divine court.
50.1.1
Micaiah's throneroom vision
Micaiah's extended prophecy (1 Kings 22:19) is the rst detailed depiction of a heavenly throne room in Judaism.
50.1.2
Zechariah's throneroom vision
Zechariah 3 depicts a vision of the heavenly throne room

where Satan and the Angel of the Lord contend over Joshua
the High Priest in the time of his grandson Eliashib the
High Priest. Many Christians consider this a literal event,
others such as Goulder (1998) view the vision as symbolic
of crisis on earth, such as opposition from Sanballat the
Horonite.* [4]
The Throne of God from the rst Russian engraved Bible, 1696.
The Throne of God is the reigning centre of God in the

Abrahamic religions: primarily Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam. The throne is said by various holy books to reside beyond the Seventh Heaven and is called Araboth in
Judaism,* [1] and al-'Arsh in Islam. Many in the Christian religion consider the ceremonial chair as symbolic or
allegorical.
50.1.3
The concept of a heavenly throne occurs in three Dead Sea

Scroll texts. Later speculation on the throne of God became
a theme of Merkavah mysticism.* [5]
50.2
50.1 Judaism
Dead Sea Scrolls
Christianity
In the New Testament, the Throne of God is talked about in

several forms.* [6] Including Heaven as the Throne of God,
The Throne of David, The Throne of Glory, The Throne of
Grace and many more.* [6] The New Testament continues
Jewish identication of heaven itself as thethrone of God
,* [7] but also locates the throne of God asin heavenand
The heavenly throne room or throne room of God is a more having a second subordinate seat at the Right Hand of God
detailed presentation of the throne, into the representation for the Session of Christ.* [8]
Micaiah (1 Kings 22. 19), Isaiah (Isaiah 6), Ezekiel
(Ezekiel 1)* [2] and Daniel (Daniel 7. 9) all speak of God's
throne, although some philosophers such as Saadiah Gaon
and Maimonides, interpreted such mention of a throne
as allegory.* [3]
142
50.4. SEE ALSO
143
and praising his glory, similar to Old Testament images.
The Ayat al-Kursi (often glossed as Verse of the footstool), is a verse from Al-Baqara, the second sura of
the Qur'an, and is regarded as the book's greatest verse.
It references the Throne, and also God's greatest name,
Al-Hayy Al-Qayyoom (The Living, the Eternal).* [13]
Scholars of hadith have stated that the Prophet Muhammad
said the reward for reciting this verse after every prayer is
Paradise,* [14] and that reciting it is a protection from the
devil.* [15]
Prophetic hadith also establish that The Throne is above
the roof of Al-Firdaus Al-'Ala, the highest level of Paradise
where God's closest and most beloved servants in the hereafter shall dwell.* [16]
50.4
See also
Kolob
50.5
God the Father on a throne, Westphalia, Germany, late 15th century.
50.2.1
Revelation
The Book of Revelation describes the Seven Spirits of God

which surround the throne, and John wishes his readers in
the Seven Asian churches to be blessed with grace from
God, from the seven who are before God's throne, and from
Jesus Christ in Heaven. John states that in front of the
throne there appears to be a sea of glass, clear as crystal, and that the throne is surrounded by a lion, an ox, a
man, and a ying eagle; each with six wings and covered
with eyes, who constantly cryHoly, holy, holy is the Lord
God Almighty, who was, and is, and is to comerepeatedly.
It is also said that out of the throne proceeded lightnings
and thunderings and voices.* [9]
Bibliography
Notes
[1] In Seventh Heaven
[2] "Ezekiel 1.26" in the 1901 American Standard Bible.
[3] Bowker 2005, pp. Throne of God entry
[4] M. D. Goulder The Psalms of the return (book V, Psalms 107150) 1998 p.197 The vision of Joshua and the Accuser in
Zechariah 3 seems to be a reection of such a crisis.
[5] Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls: N-Z Lawrence H.
Schiman, James C. VanderKam - 2000 References to
heavenly thrones occur in three Dead Sea Scroll texts. In the
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrice ... Speculation on the throne
of God and its associated creatures becomes an important
aspect of Merkavah mysticism
[6] Kittel 1966, pp. 164166
50.3 Islam
In Islamic theology, The Throne (Arabic: Al-Arsh)
is the greatest thing ever created by God.* [10] Muslims believe God created the throne as a sign of his power and not
as place of dwelling.* [11]
[7] William Barclay The Gospel of Matthew: Chapters 11-28

p340 Matthew 23:22 And whoever swears by heaven
swears by the throne of God and by him who sits upon it.
The Qur'an mentions the throne some 25 times (33 times

as Al-'Arsh), such as in verse 23:116:
[8] Philip Edgecumbe Hughes A Commentary on the Epistle to

the Hebrews p401 1988 The theme of Christ's heavenly
session, announced here by the statement he sat down at the
right hand of God, .. Hebrews 8:1 we have such a high
priest, one who is seated at the right hand of the throne of
the Majesty in heaven)"
The Qur'an depicts the angels as carrying the throne of God
[9] "Revelations Chapter 4" in the New Testament.
144
CHAPTER 50. THRONE OF GOD
[10] Tafseer al-Qurtubi, 8/302, 303.

[11] The Creed of Imam Al-Tahawi.
[12] [al-Muminoon 23:116].
[13] Book 004, Number 1768: (Sahih Muslim).
[14] Sunnan Nasaii al Kubra, (6/30), At-Tabarani; Al-Kabeer
(8/114).
[15] Saheeh Al Bukhari - Volume 3, Book 38, Number 505.
[16] Saheeh al-Bukhaari (#2581).
References
Arnold, Edwin (1998). Pearls of the Faith (1998 ed.).
Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-0243-2. - Total
pages: 340
Bowker, John (2005). The concise Oxford dictionary

of world religions (2005 ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-861053-X. - Total pages: 702
Kittel, Gerhard (1966). Theological Dictionary of the
New Testament, Volumes 3-4 (1966 ed.). Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-2245-2. - Total
pages: 1116
O'Shaughnessy, Thomas J. (December 1973).

God's Throne and the Biblical Symbolism of the
Qur'n. Numen. BRILL. 20 (3): 202221.
doi:10.1163/156852773x00376. JSTOR 3269642.
Pickthalll, Marmaduke; Hanauer, James Edward
(1935). Folk-lore of the Holy Land: Moslem, Christian and Jewish (1935 ed.). Forgotten Books. ISBN
1-60506-065-8. - Total pages: 280
50.6 External links
Chapter 51
Tian
For other uses, see Tian (disambiguation).
Tin () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven
and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and
religion. During the Shang Dynasty (1711th centuries
BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as Shngd
(,Lord on High) or D (,"Lord). During the following Zhou Dynasty, Tin became synonymous with this
gure. Heaven worship was, before the 20th century, an
orthodox state religion of China.
In Taoism and Confucianism, Tin is often translated as
"Heaven" and is mentioned in relationship to its complementary aspect of D (), which is most often translated
as "Earth". These two aspects of Daoist cosmology are
representative of the dualistic nature of Taoism. They are
thought to maintain the two poles of the Three Realms (
) of reality, with the middle realm occupied by Humanity (, Rn),* [1] and the lower world occupied by Demons
(, M) and Ghosts (, Gu ).
Chinese Seal script for tin heaven
51.1 Characters
Daoist coinage (with qng blueand "q", i.e.,

blue sky).
The modern Chinese character and early seal script both

combine d great; largeand y one, but some of 51.2 Interpretation by Western Sithe original characters in Shng oracle bone script and Zhu
nologists
bronzeware script anthropomorphically portray a large head
on a great person. The ancient oracle and bronze ideograms
for d depict a stick gure person with arms stretched out The sinologist Herrlee Creel, who wrote a comprehensive
denotinggreat; large. The oracle and bronze characters study onThe Origin of the Deity T'ien(1970:493506),
for tin emphasize the cranium of thisgreat (person)", gives this overview.
either with a square or round head, or head marked with one
or two lines. Schuessler (2007:495) notes the bronze graphs
For three thousand years it has been believed
for tin, showing a person with a round head, resemble those
that from time immemorial all Chinese revered
for dng 4th Celestial stem", and suggestsThe anthroT'ien , Heaven,as the highest deity, and
pomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original
that this same deity was also known as Ti or
meaning was 'deity', rather than 'sky'.
Shang Ti . But the new materials that have
Two variant Chinese characters for tin heavenare
become available in the present century, and es (written with wngkingand b8) and the
pecially the Shang inscriptions, make it evident
145
146
CHAPTER 51. TIAN

cles recording sacrices yu tian to/at Tian(which
could meanto Heaven/Godorat a place called Tian
.)
The Shu Jing chapter "Tang Shi" (Tang's Speech
) illustrates how early Zhou texts used tian heaven; god
in contexts with shangdi god. According to tradition,
Tang of Shang assembled his subjects to overthrow King Jie
of Xia, the infamous last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, but they
were reluctant to attack.
Chinese Oracle script for tin heaven
that this was not the case. It appears rather that

T'ien is not named at all in the Shang inscriptions,
which instead refer with great frequency to Ti or
Shang Ti. T'ien appears only with the Chou, and
was apparently a Chou deity. After the conquest
the Chou considered T'ien to be identical with the
Shang deity Ti (or Shang Ti), much as the Romans identied the Greek Zeus with their Jupiter.
(1970:493)
Creel refers to the historical shift in ancient Chinese names
for god"; from Shang oracles that frequently used di and
shangdi and rarely used tian to Zhou bronzes and texts that
used tian more frequently than its synonym shangdi.
First, Creel analyzes all the tian and di occurrences meaninggod; godsin Western Zhou era Chinese classic texts
and bronze inscriptions. The Yi JingClassic of Changes
has 2 tian and 1 di; the Shi Jing Classic of Poetryhas
140 tian and 43 di or shangdi; and the authentic portions
of the Shu Jing Classic of Documentshave 116 tian
and 25 di or shangdi. His corpus of authenticated Western
Zhou bronzes (1970:46475) mention tian 91 times and di
or shangdi only 4 times. Second, Creel contrasts the disparity between 175 occurrences of di or shangdi on Shang
era oracle inscriptions with at least26 occurrences of
tian. Upon examining these 26 oracle scripts that scholars
(like Guo Moruo) have identied as tian heaven; god
(1970:4945), he rules out 8 cases in fragments where the
contextual meaning is unclear. Of the remaining 18, Creel
interprets 11 cases as graphic variants for da great; large;
big(e.g., tian i shang for da i shang great
settlement Shang), 3 as a place name, and 4 cases of ora-
The king said, Come, ye multitudes of the

people, listen all to my words. It is not I, the little child [a humble name used by kings], who
dare to undertake what may seem to be a rebellious enterprise; but for the many crimes of the
sovereign of Hsi [Xia] Heaven has given the
charge [tianming, see Compounds below] to destroy him. Now, ye multitudes, you are saying,
'Our prince does not compassionate us, but (is
calling us) away from our husbandry to attack and
punish the ruler of Hsi.' I have indeed heard
these words of you all; but the sovereign of Hsi
is an oender, and, as I fear God [shangdi], I
dare not but punish him. Now you are saying,
'What are the crimes of Hsi to us?' The king
of Hsi does nothing but exhaust the strength of
his people, and exercise oppression in the cities
of Hsi. His people have all become idle in his
service, and will not assist him. They are saying,
'When will this sun expire? We will all perish
with thee.' Such is the course of the sovereign of
Hsi, and now I must go and punish him. Assist, I
pray you, me, the one man, to carry out the punishment appointed by Heaven [tian]. I will greatly
reward you. On no account disbelieve me; I
will not eat my words. If you do not obey the
words which I have spoken to you, I will put your
children with you to death; you shall nd no
forgiveness.(tr. James Legge 1865:1735)
Having established that Tian was not a deity of the Shang
people, Creel (1970:5016) proposes a hypothesis for how
it originated. Both the Shang and Zhou peoples pictographically represented da as a large or great man. The
Zhou subsequently added a head on him to denote tian
meaningking, kings(cf. wang king; ruler, which
had oracle graphs picturing a line under a great person
and bronze graphs that added the top line). From kings
, tian was semantically extended to mean dead kings; ancestral kings, who controlled fate; providence, and
ultimately a single omnipotent deity Tian Heaven. In
addition, tian named both the heavens(where ancestral
kings and gods supposedly lived) and the visible sky.
51.3. CHINESE INTERPRETATIONS

Another possibility is that Tian may be related to Tengri
and possibly was a loan word from a prehistoric Central
Asian language (Mller 1870).
51.3 Chinese interpretations

51.3.1
147
for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing
what was right.(II, iv, tr. Legge 1893:146)
He believed that Heaven knew what he was doing and approved of him, even though none of the rulers on earth
might want him as a guide:
Confucius
The concept of Heaven (Tian, ) is pervasive in

Confucianism. Confucius had a deep trust in Heaven and
believed that Heaven overruled human eorts. He also believed that he was carrying out the will of Heaven, and that
Heaven would not allow its servant, Confucius, to be killed
until his work was done.* [2] Many attributes of Heaven
were delineated in his Analects.
The Master said, Alas! there is no one that

knows me.Zi Gong said,What do you mean by
thus saying - that no one knows you?" The Master replied, I do not murmur against Heaven.
I do not grumble against men. My studies lie
low, and my penetration rises high. But there is
Heaven - that knows me!" (XIV, xxxv, tr. Legge
1893:288-9)
Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodPerhaps the most remarkable saying, recorded twice, is one
ness:
in which Confucius expresses complete trust in the overruling providence of Heaven:
The Master said, Great indeed was Yao as
a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only
Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded
to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could
nd no name for it. How majestic was he in
the works which he accomplished! How glorious
in the elegant regulations which he instituted!"
(VIII, xix, tr. Legge 1893:214)
Confucius felt himself personally dependent upon Heaven
(VI, xxviii, tr. Legge 1893:193):Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!"
Confucius believed that Heaven cannot be deceived:
The Master being very ill, Zi Lu wished the
disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, Long has the
conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending
to have ministers when I have them not, whom
should I impose upon? Should I impose upon
Heaven? Moreover, than that I should die in the
hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die
in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I
may not get a great burial, shall I die upon the
road?" (IX, xi, tr. Legge 1893:220-221)
Confucius believed that Heaven gives people tasks to perform to teach them of virtues and morality:
The Master said,At fteen, I had my mind
bent on learning. At thirty, I stood rm. At forty,
I had no doubts. At fty, I knew the decrees of
Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ
The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said,

After the death of King Wen, was not the cause
of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished
to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future
mortal, should not have got such a relation to that
cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of
truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to
me?" (IX, v and VII, xxii, tr. Legge 1893:217-8)
51.3.2
Mozi
For Mozi, Heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of

Heaven is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and
minor demons and spirits exist or at least rituals should be
performed as if they did for social reasons, but their function is to carry out the will of Heaven, watching for evildoers and punishing them. Mozi taught that Heaven loves
all people equally and that each person should similarly
love all human beings without distinguishing between his
own relatives and those of others (Dubs, 1959-1960:163172). Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for
not following the teachings of Confucius. In Mozi's Will of
Heaven (), he writes:
Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly
not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the
moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them.
Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them.
Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to
grow the ve grains and ax and silk that so the
148
CHAPTER 51. TIAN

people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys,
and arranged many things to minister to man's
good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes
and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the
wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and
beasts, and to engage in cultivating the ve grains
and ax and silk to provide for the people's food
and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to
the present.(tr. Mei 1929:145)
51.4
Meanings
The semantics of tian developed diachronically. The Hanyu

dazidian, an historical dictionary of Chinese characters,
lists 17 meanings of tian , translated below.
1. Human forehead; head, cranium. ; .
2. Anciently, to tattoo/brand the forehead as a kind of
punishment. .
3. The heavens, the sky, the rmament. .
51.3.3
Schools of cosmology
There are three major schools on cosmology. Most other

hypothesis were developed from them.
Gatian shuo ()Canopy-Heavens hypothesisoriginated from the text Zhou Bi Suan Jing. The earth is covered
by a material tian.
Huntian shuo ()Egg-like hypothesis. The earth
surrounded by a tian sphere rotating over it. The celestial
bodies are attached to the tian sphere. A summary is in
Zhang Heng's article Armillary sphere.
Xuanye shuo ()Firmament hypothesis. The tian
is an innite space. The celestial bodies were light matters
oating on it moved by Qi. A summary by Ji Meng ()
is in the astronomical chapters of the Book of Jin.
Sometimes the sky is divided into Jiutian ()the nine
sky divisions, the middle sky and the eight directions.
51.3.4
Buddhism
The Tian are the heaven worlds and pure lands in Buddhist
cosmology. Some devas are also called Tian.
51.3.5
Taoism
The number of vertical heaven layers in Taoism is dierent, the most common saying is the 36 Tian developed from
Durenjing ().
51.3.6
I-Kuan Tao
In I-Kuan Tao, Tian are divided into 3 vertical worlds. Li

Tian ()heaven of truth, Qi Tian ()heaven
of spiritand Xiang Tian () heaven of matter.
4. Celestial bodies; celestial phenomena, meteorological

phenomena. ; .
5. Nature, natural. A general reference to objective inevitability beyond human will. .
.
6. Natural, innate; instinctive, inborn. ; .
7. Natural character/quality of a person or thing; natural
instinct, inborn nature, disposition.
; .
8. A reference to a particular sky/space. .
9. Season; seasons. Like: winter; the three hot 10-day
periods [following the summer solstice]. ; .
: ; .
10. Weather; climate. ; .
11. Day, time of one day and night, or especially the time
from sunrise to sunset. Like: today; yesterday; busy all
day; go shing for three days and dry the nets for two
[a xiehouyu simile forunable to nish anything"].
, . : ;
; ; , .
12. God, heaven, celestial spirit, of the natural world.
, , .
13. Heaven, heavenly, a superstitious person's reference
to the gods, Buddhas, or immortals; or to the worlds
where they live. Like: go to heaven ["die"]; heavenly troops and heavenly generals ["invincible army"];
heavenly goddesses scatter blossoms [a Vimalakirti
Sutra reference to Buddha's arrival"].
. : ;
; .
14. Anciently, the king, monarch, sovereign; also referring
to elders in human relationships. ;
.
15. Object upon which one depends or relies.
.
51.6. ETYMOLOGIES
149
16. Dialect. A measure of land [shang, about 15 acres]. Tin reconstructions in Middle Chinese (ca. 6th10th
. .
centuries CE) include t'ien (Bernhard Karlgren), t'in (Zhou
Fagao), tn > tian (Edwin G. Pulleyblank), and then
17. A family name, surname. .
(William H. Baxter, Baxter & Sagart). Reconstructions in
Old Chinese (ca. 6th3rd centuries BCE) include *t'ien
The Chinese philosopher Feng Youlan dierentiates ve (Karlgren), *t'en (Zhou), *hlin (Baxter), *thn (Schuessler),
and *lin (Baxter & Sagart).
dierent meanings of tian in early Chinese writings:
(1) A material or physical T'ien or sky, that
is, the T'ien often spoken of in apposition to
earth, as in the common phrase which refers
to the physical universe as 'Heaven and Earth'
(T'ien Ti ).
(2) A ruling or presiding T'ien, that is, one such
as is meant in the phrase, 'Imperial Heaven
Supreme Emperor' (Huang T'ien Shang Ti),
in which anthropomorphic T'ien and Ti are
signied.
(3) A fatalistic T'ien, equivalent to the concept
of Fate (ming ), a term applied to all those
events in human life over which man himself has
no control. This is the T'ien Mencius refers to
when he says: As to the accomplishment of
a great deed, that is with T'ien" ([Mencius], Ib,
14).
(4) A naturalistic T'ien, that is, one equivalent
to the English word Nature. This is the sort of
T'ien described in the 'Discussion on T'ien' in
the [Hsn Tz] (ch. 17).
(5) An ethical T'ien, that is, one having a
moral principle and which is the highest primordial principle of the universe. This is the sort of
T'ien which the [Chung Yung] (Doctrine of the
Mean) refers to in its opening sentence when it
says: What T'ien confers (on man) is called his
nature.(1952:31)
The Oxford English Dictionary enters the English loanword
t'ien (also tayn, tyen, tien, and tin) Chinese thought:
Heaven; the Deity.The earliest recorded usages for these
spelling variants are: 1613 Tayn, 1710 Tien, 1747 Tyen,
and 1878 T'ien.
51.5 Pronunciations
The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of sky,
heaven; heavenly deity, godis tin in level rst tone. The
character is read as Cantonese tin1; Taiwanese thiN1 or
thian1; Vietnamese yu or thin; Korean cheon or ch'n ( );
and Japanese ten in On'yomi (borrowed Chinese reading)
and ame or sora in Kun'yomi (native Japanese reading).
51.6
Etymologies
For the etymology of tin, Schuessler (2007:495) links it

with the Mongolian word tengrisky, heaven, heavenly deityor the Tibeto-Burman words tale (Adi) and t-lya
(Lepcha), both meaning sky. Schuessler (2007:211)
also suggests a likely connection between Chinese tin ,
din summit, mountaintop, and din summit,
top of the head, forehead, which have cognates such as
Naga ti sky.
51.7
Compounds
Tin is one of the components in hundreds of Chinese

compounds. Some signicant ones include:
tinmng ( "Mandate of Heaven") divine mandate, God's will; fate, destiny; one's lifespan
Tinwn (traditional Chinese: ; simplied Chinese: ; pinyin: Tinwn), the Heavenly Questions
section of the Ch C.
tinz ( "Son of Heaven"), an honoric designation for the Emperor; Chinese sovereign" (Tinz
accounts for 28 of the 140 tin occurrences in the Sh
Jng above.)
tinxi (, lit. "all under heaven") the world,
earth; China
tind (, lit heaven and earth) the world;
the universe.(These Hnz are pronounced Ten'chi
in Japanese.)
Xngtin ( ) An early mythological hero who
fought against Heaven, despite being decapitated.
Tinfng () Chinese name for Mecca, the Islamic
holy city. (Tin is used as translation of Allah)
51.8
See also
Amenominakanushi
150
Chinese folk religion
Chinese Rites controversy
Haneullim
Hongjun Laozu
Names of God
CHAPTER 51. TIAN

Legge, James, tr. 1893. The Chinese Classics, Vol. I,
The Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the
Doctrine of the Mean. Oxford University Press.
Mller, Friedrich Max. 1870. Lectures on the Science
of Religion.
Schuessler, Axel. 2007. ABC Etymological Dictionary
of Old Chinese. University of Hawaii Press.
Names of God in China

Religion in China
Shen
Taiyi Tianzun
Tao
Tiananmen
Tianzhu
Tianzhu jiaotu
51.9 Notes
[1] Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated
guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 212.
ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0.
[2] Analects 7.23
51.10 References
Baxter, William and Lauren Sagart. 2011. Baxter
Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction.
Chang, Ruth H. 2000. Understanding Di and Tian:
Deity and Heaven From Shang to Tang.Sino-Platonic
Papers 108:154.
Creel, Herrlee G., 1970. The Origins of Statecraft in
China. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-22612043-0
Dubs, Homer H. 1959-1960.Theism and Naturalism
in Ancient Chinese Philosophy,'Philosophy East and
West' 9.3-4:163-172.
Fung Yu-Lan. 1952. A History of Chinese Philosophy,
Vol. I. The Period of the Philosophers, tr. Derk Bodde.
Princeton University Press.
Legge, James., tr. 1865. The Chinese Classics, Vol.
III, The Shoo King. Oxford University Press.
51.11
External links
Oracle, Bronze, and Seal characters for , Richard

Sears
Chapter 52
War in Heaven
Fall of angelsredirects here. For the story by Leland Ex- 52.1 Revelation 12:713
ton Modesitt Jr., see L.E. Modesitt Jr. bibliography.
The Book of Revelation describes a war in heaven be- Further information: Revelation 12
Modern Bible commentators view the war in heavenin
Revelation 12:713 as an eschatological vision of the end of
time or as a reference to spiritual warfare within the church,
rather than (as in Milton's Paradise Lost) the story of the
origin of Satan/Lucifer as an angel who rebelled against
God in primeval times.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] Some Christian
commentators have seen the war in heaven asnot literal
but symbolic of events on earth.* [7]* [8]
In Milton's Paradise Lost (1674), the angel Lucifer leads a
rebellion against God before the Fall of Man. A third of the
angels are hurled from Heaven, including pagan gods such
as Moloch and Belial.* [9]
Jonathan Edwards said in his sermon Wisdom Displayed
in Salvation: Satan and his angels rebelled against God
in heaven, and proudly presumed to try their strength with
his. And when God, by his almighty power, overcame the
strength of Satan, and sent him like lightning from heaven
to hell with all his army; Satan still hoped to get the victory
by subtilty.* [10]
In the Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) articleSt. Michael the
Archangel, Frederick Holweck wrote: St. John speaks
of the great conict at the end of time, which reects also
the battle in heaven at the beginning of time.He added that
Michael's namewas the war-cry of the good angels in the
The Fall of the Rebel Angels; right hand panel of Hieronymus
battle fought in heaven against the enemy and his followers.
Bosch's The Haywain Triptych, c. 1500
*
[11]
tween angels led by the Archangel Michael against those led

bythe dragon, identied withthe devil and Satan", who
are defeated and thrown down to the earth.* [1]* [2] Revelation's war in heaven is related to the idea of fallen angels,
and possible parallels have been proposed in the Hebrew
Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS

Church) teaches that Revelation 12 concerns an actual event
in the pre-mortal existence of man. The Book of Moses,
included in the LDS standard works, references the War in
Heaven and Satan's origin as a fallen angel of light.* [12]
This image of a war in heaven at the end of time became
added to the story of a fall of Satan at the beginning of time,
including not only Satan but a third of all angels as well, referred to in the phrase the dragon and his angels.* [13]
151
152
CHAPTER 52. WAR IN HEAVEN
Anatole France in the 1914 novel La Revolte des Anges tives, all of which stem from his great pride. These motives
adapted the Christian myth to make a parable about revolts include:
and revolutionary movements.
52.2 Motif
A refusal to bow down to mankind on the occasion

of the creation of man as in the Armenian, Georgian,
and Latin versions of the Life of Adam and Eve.* [15]
A similar view is held in Islamic tradition, in which
Iblis refuses to bow down to Adam.* [16]
The culmination of a gradual distancing from God
through use of free will (an idea of Origen of Alexandria).* [17]
A declaration by God that all were to be subject to his
Son, the Messiah (as in Milton's Paradise Lost).* [18]
52.2.1
Hebrew Bible parallels
See also: Cherub in Eden
Michael casts out rebel angels. Illustration by Gustave Dor for

John Milton's Paradise Lost.
The motif of the fall of Satan and his angels can be found in
Christian angelology and Christian art, and the concept of
fallen angels (who, for rebelling against God, were degraded
and condemned to a life of mischief or shame on earth or in
a place of punishment) is widespread.* [14] The Christian
tradition has stories about angelic beings cast down from
heaven by God, often presenting the punishment as inicted
in particular on Satan. As a result of linking this motif with
the cited passage of the Book of Revelation, the casting of
Satan down from heaven, which other versions of the motif
present as an action of God himself, has become attributed
to the archangel Michael at the conclusion of a war between
two groups of angels, of whom, because of the mention of
the dragon's tail casting a third of the stars of heaven to the
earth, one third are supposed to have been on the side of
Satan, in spite of the fact that the casting down of the stars
(Revelation 12:4) is recounted as occurring before the start
of the war in heaven(Revelation 12:7).
Lucifer's rebellion has been attributed to a number of mo-
Parallels are drawn to the passage in Isaiah 14:4-17 that

mentions the son of the morningthat had fallen from
heavenand wascast down to the earth. In verse 12 of
this passage, the Hebrew word that referred to the morning
star was translated into Latin as Lucifer. With the application to the Devil of the morning star story, Lucifer
was then applied to him as a proper name. The name Lucifer, the Latin name (literallyLight-BearerorLightBringer) for the morning star (the planet Venus in its
morning appearances), is often given to the Devil in these
stories. The brilliancy of the morning starwhich eclipses
all other stars, but is not seen during the nightmay be
what gave rise to myths such as the Babylonian story of
Ethana and Zu, who was led by his pride to strive for the
highest seat among the star-gods on the northern mountain
of the gods (an image present also in Ezekiel 28:14), but
was hurled down by the supreme ruler of the Babylonian
Olympus.* [19] Stars were then regarded as living celestial
beings.* [19]* [20] The Jewish Encyclopedia states that the
myth concerning the Morning star was transferred to Satan by the rst century before the Common Era, citing in
support of this view the Life of Adam and Eve and the
Slavonic Book of Enoch 29:4, 31:4, where Satan-Sataniel
is described as having been one of the archangels. Because
he contrived to make his throne higher than the clouds
over the earth and resemble 'My power' on high, SatanSataniel was hurled down, with his angels, and since then he
has been ying in the air continually above the abyss. According to Jewish thought, the passage in Isaiah was used to
prophesy the fate of the King of Babylon, who is described
as aiming to rival God.* [19]
52.3. GALLERY
153
52.3
Gallery
War in Heaven
The Fall of the Rebel Angels, by Pieter Bruegel the Elder
52.2.2
Dead Sea Scrolls
War in Heaven by Pieter

Paul Rubens, 1619
Some scholars discern the concept of a war in heaven in

certain Dead Sea Scrolls, namely, the War of the Sons of
Light Against the Sons of Darkness, also known as the War
Scroll (1QM and 4Q491-497), the Songs of the Sabbath
Sacrice, Song 5 (4Q402), and the Melchizedek document
(11Q13).
In the War Scroll, according to Menahem Mansoor, the angels of light, who are identied with Michael, the prince of
light, will ght in heaven against the angels of darkness, who
are identied with Belial, while the Sons of Light ght the
Sons of Darkness on earth, and during the last of the seven
battles described in the scroll will come and help the Sons
of Light win the nal victory.* [21]
James R. Davila speaks of Song 5 of the Songs of the
Sabbath Sacrice as describing an eschatological war in
heaven similar to that found in 11Q13 and to traditions
about the archangel Michael in the War Rule and the book
of Revelation.* [22] He suggests that Melchizedek, who
is mentioned both in the Melchizedek document and the
fth of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrice, may be a divine
warrior who is involved in the conict with the archangel
Michael in the futurist sense.
That the Melchizedek document (11Q13) concerns a war
in heaven is denied by Fred L. Horton, who remarks
that there is no hint in the extant portion of the 11Q
Melchizedek of a revolt of heavenly beings against the heavenly council, and the only dissenting spirit is the traditional
Belial";* [23] the view of Davila, however, is that the document originally was about an eschatological war in heaven,
with Melchizedek as angelic high priest and military redeemer.* [24]
Michael ghts
angels, by Johann Georg Unruhe 1793
rebel
Detail of preceding
154
CHAPTER 52. WAR IN HEAVEN
Michael ghts rebel

angels, by Sebastiano Ricci, c. 1720
Michael and Satan,
by
The fall of the rebel

angels, by Charles Le Brun, after 1680
Michael and
the Dragon. Die Bibel in Bildern (Revelation)
engraving by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, 1860.
52.4
References
Guido Reni, c. 1636

[1] Revelation 12:7-9
[2] Joan Young Gregg (1997). Devils, Women, and Jews: Reections of the Other in Medieval Sermon Stories. State University of New York. p. 28. ISBN 0-7914-3417-6.
[3] M. Eugene Boring; Fred B. Craddock (2004). The People's New Testament Commentary. Westminster: John Knox
Press. p. 800. ISBN 0-664-22754-6.
[4]
[5]
[6] Revelation 12 Matthew Henry's Commentary.
Mhc.biblecommenter.com. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
St Michael's Victory over the Devil,

by Jacob Epstein
[7] One hundred and seventy three sermons on several subjects:

Volume 1, Page 137 Samuel Clarke, John Clarke, J. Leathley
((Dublin)), 1751 7. that X. there was War in Heaven ;
Michael and his Angels *- fought against the Dragon, and
the Dragon fought and his Angels ... But the Meaning of
this Passage is not literal, as if the Devil had Power to ght
against the Angels or Ministers of God's government
[8] Charles Edward Smith (1890). The world lighted: a study

of the Apocalypse. Of course not literal war, nor literally
in heaven; not the actual clash of arms between Michael and
his angels, and Satan and his wicked cohorts. But something
on earth worthy to be represented by such a Titanic contest.
[9]
[10] Jonathan Edwards; Sereno Edwards Dwight; David Brainerd. The Works of President Edwards: With a Memoir of His
Life ... Books.google.com. p. 87. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
[11] Holweck, Frederick (1911). St. Michael the Archangel
. New York: The Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved January
28, 2010.
[12] Top, Brent L. (1992),War in Heaven, in Ludlow, Daniel
H, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan
Publishing, pp. 15461547, ISBN 0-02-879602-0, OCLC
24502140
[13] The phrase the devil and his angelsin Matthew 25:41
shows that the idea of angels associated with the devil preceded the writing of Revelation.
[14] Fall Of Angels. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved
2016-12-01.
[15] Sections 14-15 of the Armenian,Georgian, and Latin versions of the Life of Adam and Eve
[16] Quran 7:11-12
[17] Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Origen
[18]
[19] Lucifer. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2016-1201.
[20] Job 38:7
[21]
[22] James R. Davila (2003). The Dead Sea scrolls as background
to postbiblical Judaism and early Christianity: papers from
an international conference at St. Andrews in 2001. Leiden:
Brill Publishers. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-12678-7.
[23] Fred L. Horton (2005).
The Melchizedek Tradition.
Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-52101871-5.
[24] Joseph L. Angel (2010). Otherworldly and Eschatological
Priesthood in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Brill. pp. 153154.
ISBN 978-90-04-18145-8.
155
52.5
Further reading
Christoph Auarth, Loren T. Stuckenbruck (Eds.):

The Fall of the Angels. Brill, Leiden 2004 (Themes
in Biblical Narrative, 6), ISBN 90-04-12668-6.
Mareike Hartmann: Hllen-Szenarien. Eine Analyse
des Hllenverstndnisses verschiedener Epochen anhand von Hllendarstellungen. Lit, Mnster 2005 (sthetik Theologie Liturgik, 32), ISBN 3-82587681-0.
Neil Forsyth, The Old Enemy: Satan & the Combat
Myth (Princeton University Press) 1987.
52.6
External links
The Fall of Satan, beliefnet.com

The Fall of Angels, cfdevotionals.org
A Rebellion in Heaven, christiancourier.com
Lucifer, Jewish Encyclopedia
Fall of Angels, Jewish Encyclopedia
War in Heaven, warinheaven.com
Chapter 53
Aegilips
Aegilips (Greek: ) is an Ancient Greek name
of an island in the Ionian Sea, near Ithaca. In Homer's
Iliad, book II, Aegilips is part of Odysseus's kingdom.
Some researchers, including Wilhelm Drpfeld estimate
that Aegilips is present day island of Meganisi.
156
Chapter 54
Antillia
This article is about the legendary island. For the residence
of Mukesh Ambani, see Antilia (building). For the plant
genus, see Antillia (plant). For the Italian town, see
Montano Antilia.
der and Ptolemy, testied to the existence of the Canary

Islands. The names of some real islands re-emerged as distinct mythical islands with associated legends, e.g. capraria
(the island of goats) and canaria (the island of dogs) are often found on maps separately from the Canary Islands (e.g.
Antillia (or Antilia) is a phantom island that was reputed, Pizzigani brothers, 1367)
during the 15th-century age of exploration, to lie in the The Middle Ages saw the emergence of Christian versions
Atlantic Ocean, far to the west of Portugal and Spain. The of these tales. Notable among these are the Irish immrama,
island also went by the name of Isle of Seven Cities (Ilha such as the immram of U Corra, or the sea voyages of
das Sete Cidades in Portuguese, Isla de las Siete Ciudades in the 6th-century Irish missionaries Saint Brendan and Saint
Spanish).
Malo. These are the source for several legendary Atlantic
such as Saint Brendan's Island and the Island of
It originates from an old Iberian legend, set during the islands
*
Ima.
[2]
The sagas of Norse seafarers to Greenland and
Muslim conquest of Hispania c. 714. Seeking to ee from
Vinland,
notably the Grnlendinga saga and the saga of
the Muslim conquerors, seven Christian Visigothic bishops
Erik
the
Red,
have also been inuential. Norse encounembarked with their ocks on ships and set sail westwards
ters
with
North
American indigenous peoples seem to have
into the Atlantic Ocean, eventually landing on an island
ltered
into
Irish
immrama.* [3]
(Antilha) where they founded seven settlements.
The island makes its rst explicit appearance as a large
rectangular island in the 1424 portolan chart of Zuane
Pizzigano. Thereafter, it routinely appeared in most nautical charts of the 15th century. After 1492, when the north
Atlantic Ocean began to be routinely sailed, and became
more accurately mapped, depictions of Antillia gradually
disappeared. It nonetheless lent its name to the Spanish
Antilles.
The peoples of the Iberian peninsula, who were closest

to the real Atlantic islands of the Canaries, Madeira and
Azores, and whose seafarers and shermen may have seen
and even visited them,* [4] articulated their own tales. Medieval Andalusian Arabs related stories of Atlantic island
encounters in the legend (told by al-Masudi) of the 9thcentury navigator Khashkhash of Cordoba * [5] and the
12th-century story (told by al-Idrisi) of the eight Maghurin
(Wanderers) of Lisbon.* [6]
The routine appearance of such a largeAntilliain 15thcentury nautical charts has led to speculation that it might Given the tendency of the legends of dierent seafarers
and Iberian to cross-fertilize
represent the American landmass, and has fueled many the- Greek, Norse, Irish, Arab
*
and
inuence
each
other,
[7]
the exact source of some legories of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact.
endary Atlantic islands such as the mythical islands of
Brasil* [8] and the Isle of Mam* [9] are impossible to disentangle.
54.1 Legend
Stories of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, legendary and otherwise, have been reported since classical antiquity.* [1]
Utopian tales of the Fortunate Islands (or Isles of the Blest)
were sung by poets like Homer and Horace. Plato articulated the dystopian legend of Atlantis. Ancient writers
like Plutarch, Strabo, and, more explicitly, Pliny the El-
It is from Christian Iberia that the legend of Antillia

emerged. According to the legend, in c. 714, during the
Muslim conquest of Hispania, seven Christian bishops of
Visigothic Hispania, led by the Bishop of Porto, embarked
with their parishioners on ships and set sail westward into
the Atlantic Ocean to escape the Arab conquerors. They
stumbled upon an island and decided to settle there, burning
157
158
CHAPTER 54. ANTILLIA
their ships to permanently sever their link* [10] to their now

cities. The people live here in the most Christian
Muslim-dominated former homeland. The bishops erected
manner, replete with all the riches of this censeven settlements (the Seven Cities) on the island. In
tury.* [13]
one reading (from Grazioso Benincasa), the seven cities are
named Aira, Antuab, Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli Ruysch's inscription is reproduced almost verbatim in the
and Con.* [11]
Libro of Spanish historian Pedro de Medina (1548).* [14]
The legend, in this form, is told in various places. The Medina gives the island's dimensions as 87 leagues in length
principal source is an inscription on Martin Behaim's 1492 and 28 in width, with many good ports and rivers, and
says it is situated on the latitude of the Straits of GibralNuremberg globe which reads (in English translation):
tar, that sailors have seen it from a distance, but disappears
when they approach it.* [15]
In the year 734 after the birth of Christ, when
all Spain was overrun by the miscreants of Africa,
this Island of Antillia, called also the Isle of the
Seven Cities, was peopled by the Archbishop of
Porto with six other bishops, and certain companions, male and female, who ed from Spain with
their cattle and property. In the year 1414 a Spanish ship approached very near this Island.* [12]
The adjustment to the 714 date and the burning of the ships
is due to Ferdinand Columbus (1539), who also reports an
alleged encounter with the islanders by a Portuguese ship
in the time of Henry the Navigator (c. 1430s-1440s).* [16]
Antnio Galvo (1563) reports that a 1447 Portuguese ship
stumbled on the island, and met its (Portuguese-speaking)
inhabitants, who reported they had ed there in the time
of Roderic" and asked whether the Moors still dominated
Hispania.* [17] More elaborate versions of this story have
been told in more modern times.* [18]
Yet another variant of the tale is told in Manuel de Faria e
Sousa (1628), of Sacaru, a Visigothic governor of Mrida.
Besieged by the Muslim armies and nding his situation
hopeless, Sacaru negotiated capitulation, and proceeded,
with all who wished to follow him, to embark on a eet for
exile in the Canary islands. Faria e Sousa notes they may
not have reached their destination, but may have ended up
instead on an Atlantic Ocean island populated by Portuguese, that has seven cities...which some imagine to be
that one which can be seen from Madeira, but when they
wish to reach it, disappears.* [19]
The island is mentioned in a royal letter of King Afonso

V of Portugal (dated 10 November 1475), where he grants
the knight Ferno Teles the Seven Cities and any other
populated islandshe might nd in the western Atlantic
Ocean.* [20] It is mentioned again in a royal letter (dated
24 July 1486), issued by King John II of Portugal at the reInscription of Johannes Ruysch, 1508. The Isle of Demons further quest of Ferno Dulmo authorizing him to search for and
north may be Antillia's old companion, Satanazes
discover the island of Seven Cities.* [21]
The legend is also found inscribed in the 1507/08 map of Already by the 1490s, there* are rumors that silver can be
found in the island's sands. [22] In the 16th century, the
Johannes Ruysch, which reads (in English):
legend gave rise to the independent Spanish legends of the
Seven Cities of Gold, reputed by mercenary conquistadors
This island Antilia was once found by the
to be fabulously wealthy and located somewhere on the
Portuguese, but now when it is searched, cannot
mainland of America.
be found. People found here speak the Hispanic
language, and are believed to have ed here in
face of a barbarian invasion of Hispania, in the
54.2 Etymology
time of King Roderic, the last to govern Hispania
in the era of the Goths. There is 1 archbishop
The term Antillia is probably derived from the Portuguese
here and 6 other bishops, each of whom has his
Ante-Ilha(Fore-Island, Island of the Other, or
own city; and so it is called the island of seven
54.3. CARTOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION
159
speculative. Ireland (Hibernia) was well-known and appears distinctly on all 15th-century maps.
In a fresh work on the subject, the author Demetrio Charalambous notes that in medieval maps, the name of the island is written Antylia, which is inconsistent with the interpretation commonly accepted that the name means anteilhain Portuguese. No medieval map records the name
Antilha, by which the author dismisses the name as being
Portuguese. Instead, he noted that the rst cartographers to
mention the island (although they did not represent it) were
Francesco and Domenico Pizigano in 1367, who called it
Antullia. From this follows that the name means AntiTullia, i.e. Anti-Thule, later transformed into Antyllia,
and nally Antillia.* [31] According to his interpretation,
the name denotes the island opposite to Tyle, but this does
not mean it is before Iceland, but beyond it, as represented
in the maps. The name means the island opposite to Tyle
by sailing southwest, and therefore refers to America.
1455 map of Bartholomeo Pareto. Antilia is the large island on the

western edge.
54.3
Cartographic representation
Opposite Island).* [23] It may be a reference to the belief

that the island lay directlyoppositefrom mainland Portugal (as it is usually charted), consistent with the Seven Cities
story. Its size and rectangular shape is a near-mirror image
of the Kingdom of Portugal itself. Some suggest the anteilha etymology might be older, possibly related in meaning
to theAprositus
( the Inaccessible), the name reported
by Ptolemy for one of the Fortunate Isles.* [24]
The rediscovery of the Canary Islands by Europeans in the

14th century revived an interest in Atlantic island myths.
With the existence of lands out in the Atlantic Ocean conrmed, 14th-century European geographers began plumbing the old legends and plotting and naming many of these
mythical islands on their nautical charts, alongside the new
discoveries. Mythical Atlantic islands litter the early 14thcentury portolan charts of Pietro Vesconte and Angelino
Others regard the ante-ilhaetymology as unsatisfac- Dulcert.
tory, on the basis that ante, in geographical usage, sug- Some historians believe the legend of Antillia was rst ingests it sits opposite another island, not a continent.* [25] sinuated cartographically in the 1367 portolan of the VeneAs a result, alternative etymological theories of Antillia tian brothers Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano. This was
abound. One theory was thatAntilliais merely a poorly- insinuated by an inscription (albeit with no island) on the
transcribed reference to Plato's "Atlantis".* [26] Another is western edge of the map, which was read by some 19ththat it is a corruption of Getulia, an ancient Roman name for century historians as referring to statues on the shores of
a geographical location in northwestern Africa.* [27] An- Atullia" (ante ripas Atulliae) beyond which sailors should
other theory, famously forwarded by Alexander von Hum- not pass.* [32] However, later readings have suggested it
boldt is that it comes from the Arabic al-Tin or al-Tennyn, should be read as the statues of Arcules (Hercules), and that
for "dragon", a reference to the old Arab legends about sea the inscription's reference is probably to the Pillars of Herdragons on the edge of the ocean (frequently depicted in cules, the non plus ultra (outer limits) of ancient navigation,
Arab maritime charts), and that the island may have been and not Antillia.* [33]
known as Jezirat al Tennyn, orDragon's Isle, in Andalu- Antillia makes its rst unambiguous appearance in the 1424
sian Arab legend.* [28]
portolan chart of Venetian cartographer Zuane Pizzigano,
One more recent hypothesis (although not nding wide

acceptance), is that Antillia may mean in front of
Thule".* [29] Sometimes written Tile, Thule was a semimythical reference to Iceland, already spoken of in classical
sources. If so, then ante Tile, the island before Thule
, might very well be Ireland, which might have had seven
citiesat the time.* [30] This theory, however, seems highly
as part of a group of four islands, lying far in the Atlantic Ocean some 250 leagues west of Portugal, and 200
leagues west of the Azores archipelago (which also usually depicted in contemporary charts). Pizzigano drew
Antillia as a large, red, rectangular island, indented with
bays and dotted with seven settlements, with the inscription ista ixola dixemo antilia (this island is called antillia
160
). Some sixty leagues north of it is the comparable large 20. 1492 Nuremberg globe of Martin Behaim - omits Sablue Satanazes island (ista ixolla dixemo satanazes, called
tanazes, rst with inscription relating legend.* [36]
Satanagio/Satanaxio/Salvagio in later maps), capped by a
small umbrella-shaped Saya (called 'Tanmar' or 'Danmar' 21. 1493 anonymous Laon globe
in later maps). Some twenty leagues west of Antilia is the
small blue companion island of Ymana (the 'Royllo' of later 22. c. 1500 Paris map (Columbus map) of anonymous
Portuguese/Genoese (?) cartographer.* [37]
maps). These four islands will be collectively drawn together in many later 15th-century maps, with the same relative size, position and shape Pizzigano gave them in 1424. 23. 1507-08 map of Johannes Ruysch - relocates Satanazes to Isle of Demons(?), relates legend.
They are commonly referred to collectively as the Antillia groupor (to use Beccario's label) the insulae de novo
rep(er)te (islands newly reported).
As is evident, on some maps (e.g. Pareto, Soligo, Behaim),
*
Cartographic appearances of Antillia (in chronological or- Antillia appears without Satanazes. [38]
*
der): [34]
Signicantly, although included in his map of 1436, the An1. 1424 map of Zuane Pizzigano of Venice as ista ixolla
dixemo antilia
2. 1435 map of Battista Beccario of Genoa
3. 1436 map of Andrea Bianco of Venice
tillia group is omitted in the later Andrea Bianco map of

1448, although some authors believe that two rectangular
islands depicted by Bianco much further south (in the environs of Cape Verde), and labelled merely dos ermanos
(two brothers) may be a reference to Antilia and Satanazes.
The controversial (possibly fake) Vinland map, dated by its

4. 1455 map of Bartolomeo Pareto of Genoa - omits Sasupporters around 1440, shows the outlines of Antillia and
tanazes
Satanazes islands (but not the two smaller ones) under the
general label Magnae insulae Beati Brandani (great islands
5. 1463 map of Grazioso Benincasa of Ancona
of St. Brendan).
6. 1463 map of Pedro Roselli of Majorca.
Antillia (and all its companions) are conspicuously omitted in the map of Gabriel de Vallseca (1439), the Genoese
7. 1466 map of Pedro Roselli
map (1457), the Fra Mauro map (1459) and the maps
8. 1468 map of Pedro Roselli
of Henricus Martellus Germanus (1484, 1489) and Pedro
9. 1460s anonymous Weimar map (attrib. to Conte di Reinel (c. 1485). With a few exceptions (e.g. Ruysch),
Ottomano Freducci of Ancona) - labelled as septe Antillia disappears from almost all known maps composed
after Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in
civit * [35]
the 1490s (e.g. it is absent on the 1500 map of Juan de la
10. 1470 map of Grazioso Benincasa
Cosa, the Cantino planisphere of 1502, etc.)
11. c. 1475 map of Cristoforo Soligo of Venice - omits It appears in virtually all of the known surviving Portolan
charts of the Atlantic notably those of the Genoese B.
Satanazes, Antillia labelled as y de sete zitade* [35]
Beccario or Beccaria (1435), the Venetian Andrea Bianco
12. 1474 mapof Paolo Toscanelli - map missing, but (1436), and Grazioso Benincasa (1476 and 1482).* [39] It is
Antilia referenced in letter.
usually accompanied by the smaller and equally legendary
islands of Royllo, St Atanagio, and Tanmar, the whole
13. 1476 map of Andrea Benincasa of Ancona (son of
group often classied as insulae de novo repertae, newly disGrazioso) - omits Satanazes
covered islands.
14. 1480 map of Albino de Canepa of Venice
On these maps, Antillia was typically depicted on a similar scale to that of Portugal, lying around 200 miles west
of the Azores. It was drawn as an almost perfect rectanc. 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa (dierent from gle, its long axis running north-south, but with seven trefoil
bays shared between the east and west coasts. Each city
above)
lay on a bay. The form of the island occasionally becomes
1482 map of Jacme Bertran of Majorca
more gurative than the semi-abstract representations of
Bartolomeo de Pareto, Benincasa and others: Bianco, for
1487 map of anonymous Majorcan cartographer
instance, shifts its orientation to northwest-southeast, trans1489 map of Albino de Canepa
mutes generic bays into river mouths (including a large one
15. 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa

16.
17.
18.
19.
54.5. LATER INFLUENCE
161
on the northeastern coast), and elongates a southern tail into posedly gained charts and descriptions from a Spanish nava cape with a small cluster of islets oshore.
igator, who had sojourned... and died alsoat ColumAround the time of Spain's discovery of South America, bus's *home in Madeira, after having made landfall on AnAntillia dwindles substantially in size on Behaim's globe and tillia. [46]
later charts. Contrary to the earlier descriptions of the two
island groups as distinct entities, a 16th-century notion relegates Antillia to the island of So Miguel, the largest of the 54.5 Later inuence
Azores, where a national park centering on two lakes still
bears the name Sete Cidades.
Others following d'Anghiera suggested contenders in the
West Indies for Antillia's heritage (most often either Puerto
Rico or Trinidad), and as a result the Caribbean islands became known as the Antilles. As European explorations con54.4 Medieval beliefs and the Age of tinued in the Americas, maps reduced the scale of the island
Antillia, tending to place it mid-Atlantic, whereas the Seven
Discovery
Cities were attributed to mainland Central or North America, as the various European powers vied for territory in the
A Portuguese legend tells how the island was settled in the
New World.
early 8th century in the face of the Moorish conquest of
Iberia by the Archbishop of Porto, six other bishops and
their parishioners to avoid the ensuing Moorish invasion.
Each congregation founded a city, namely, Aira, Anhuib, 54.6 See also
Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli and Con,* [40] and once
Great Ireland (Hvtrmannaland)
established, burnt their caravel ships as a symbol of their
autonomy. The reporting of this settlement comes courtesy
Vinland
of a young couple who eloped back to Europe on a rare
*
trading ship [41] and reported the seven cities as a model
of agricultural, economic and cultural harmony. Centuries
later, the island became known as a proto-utopian common- 54.7 References
wealth, free from the disorders of less favoured states.
Since these events predated the Kingdom of Portugal and
the clergy's heritage marked a claim to signicant strategical gains, Spain counterclaimed that the expedition was,
in fact, theirs.* [42] One of the chief early descriptions of
the heritage of Antillia is inscribed on the globe which the
geographer Martin Behaim made at Nuremberg in 1492.
Behaim relates the Catholic escape from the barbarians,
though his date of 734 is probably a mistake for 714. The
inscription adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in
1414, while a Portuguese crew claimed to have landed on
Antillia in the 1430s.
In a later version of the legend, the bishops ed from
Mrida, Spain, when Moors attacked it around the year
1150.
[1] Beazley (1897-1906, 1899:p.lxxii)

[2] O'Curry (1861: p.289); Beazley (1897, vol.1, p.230);
Babcock (1922: Ch. 3)
[3] Fridtjof Nansen (1911: vol.2, p.9)
[4] Both Plutarch (Life of Sertorius) and Pliny the Elder reported
that shermen from Gades (Cadiz) routinely visited Atlantic
islands to the southwest.
[5] Beazley (1897: vol.1, p.465)
[6] Beazley (1906: vol. 3, p.532). Corteso (1970: p.8)
[7] Nansen (1911: vol. 2, p.54)
[8] Alexander von Humboldt (1837) Examen critique, Vol. 2,
p.216.; See also Babckock (1922: Ch.4)
With this legend underpinning the growing reports of

a bountiful civilisation midway between Europe and [9] Babcock (1922: Ch.6)
Cipangu, or Japan,* [43] the quest to discover the Seven
Cities attracted signicant attention. However, by the last [10] For this often-emulated trope, see Aeneid V, inuenced by
the tradition that Alexander the Great burned his ships on
decade of the 15th century, the Portuguese state's ocial
the Aegean shore and inuencing the reference made by
*
sponsorship of such exploratory voyages had ended, [44]
Francisco Cervantes de Salazar in 1546 to Hernn Corts
and in 1492, under the Spanish ag of Ferdinand and Isburning his ships on the Mexican coast. The Moorish comabella, Christopher Columbus set out on his historic jourmander Tariq ibn Ziyad also ordered his ships to be burned.
ney to Asia, citing the island as the perfect halfway house
by the authority of Paul Toscanelli.* [45] Columbus had sup- [11] Corteso (1954 (1975): p.140)
162
[12] Beazley (1897: vol. 1, p.234). See also Babcock (1922:

p.72)
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[27] This was rst forwarded by Crone (1938) and initially favored by Morison (1940). See Die and Winius (1977:
p.441). Although commonly associated with the North
Corteso (1954 (1975): p.127)
African hinterlands, Crone asserts that Getuliais identied by some Medieval geographers as the ancient name
Pedro de Medina (1548 (1595 ed.), p.119). Curiously, Peof the location of where Hercules was alleged to have set
dro de Medina says the inscription comes from avery old
up his pillars (Pillars of Hercules). However, later, Morison
nautical map made byTolomeoat the direction ofPapa
(1955: p.469) embraces the 'ante-ilha' hypothesis, stating its
Urbano.Presumably he means a map based on (rather than
fairly obviousthatthe name means nothing more or less
by) Ptolemy. The last pope by that name was Pope Urban
than opposite island or island over against. Crone (1955)
VI (r.1378-1389). If Medina has not mistaken his popes,
published a note acknowledging the alternative reading of
and if there was such a map, then that map would contain
the 1367 inscription he believed was Getulia as Arcules
the oldest reference to Antillia on record.
(Hercules), stating it deserves consideration, although it
Medina (p.119)
remains unclear whether he had abandoned his own Getulia
reading.
Ferdinand Columbus, Historia del Almirante (1539: ch. 8
p.45).
[28] Alexander von Humboldt (1837) Examen critique, Vol. 2,
p.211. This hypothesis was in fact rst proposed by Buache
Antnio Galvo (1563: p.72)
(1806: p.27-28). See also d'Avezac (1845: p.27).
A rather fancied version of the tale is told in Higginson
(1883:p.93), who relates that news of the island's existence [29] Barreto (1992: p.163) published this hypothesis.
was rst brought to Europe by an eloping pair of lovers who
[30] According to Barreto (1992: p.163), Ireland had seven cities
ed the island.
at the time, which he lists as Cork, Limerick, Waterford,
Faria e Sousa, 1628 (1677 ed., https://books.google.com/
Wexford, Dublin, Dundalk and Belfast, all of which happen
books?id=b3S-505H8JsC&pg=PA136#v=onepage&q&f=
to be situated on the coast, at or not too far from bays. Howfalse p.129-30)
ever, the author of this article could not nd corroboration
for Barreto's statement. On a side note, J. Godkin (1867, IreCorteso (1954 (1975) p. p.124-5. A similar grant might
land
and her Churches, p.23) notes that in old Irish churches,
have been made earlier in 1473 to Infanta D. Brites, of an
a
diocese
typically had not one, but seven bishops.
island, that appeared beyond the island of Santiago, but
was not found when it was sought.ibid.
[21] Corteso (1954 (1975) p. 125)

[22] In the Paris map (Columbus Map) of c. 1500 (La
Ronciere, 1924), the inscription by Antillia reads: Hec
Septem Civitatum insula vocatur, nunc Portugallensium colonia efecta, ut Gromite citantur Hispanorum, in qua reperiri inter arenas argentum perhibetur. (Here is the island called
of the Seven Cities, a colony inhabited by Portuguese, according to some Spanish sailors, in the sands of which silver
can be found.)
[23] Corteso (1954 (1975): p.107).
[24] Gaarel (1882:p.204)
[25] This objection was already articulated by Vicenzio Formaleoni (1783: p.27-28), one of the rst to draw scholarly attention to Antillia.
[26] Babcock (1922: p.148). D'Avezac (1845: p.27) briey entertained this theory. The Atlantis etymology was also considered, and discarded, by Humboldt (1837: p.192). See
Corteso (1954 (1975): p.118). It has however, remained
extant among some modern Atlantistheorists. Lewis
Spence (1925) suggested that Antilla is the remnant of Atlantis, which had broken up following a natural disaster.
Spence (p.87) cites Brasseur de Bourgbourg, Bancroft and
Le Plongeon as supporters of this theory, none of them
authorities of any great weight, I fear, and all inclined to
rashness.
[31] Charalambous, Demetrio, Descubrimiento en el mar de

papel, Buenos Aires, 1995. See also The enigma of the
isle of gold, in Revista de Historia de Amrica, number
118, JulyDecember 1994.
[32] Jean-Nicholas Buache (1806: ), Konrad Kretschmer (1892:
195-7), A.E. Nordenskild (1897: p.164).
[33] This was rst proposed by Hennig (1945) and supported by
Armando Corteso (1954 (1975) p.106). Corteso (p.74)
notes that an inscription about Hercules'sstatuesto mark
the edge of safe navigation was common practice in Arab
charts. Crone (1938) rst proposed to read it as Getulliae
(Getulia), but later (Crone, 1947) acknowledged the Hercules reading.
[34] List from Armando Corteso (1954 (1975 ed.): p.156)
[35] Corteso, p.125
[36] Corteso, p.125-6
[37] The Columbus Map, held by the Bibliothque nationale de France in Paris and dated tentatively between
1490 and 1500, was attributed by La Ronciere (1924) to
Christopher Columbus himself, possibly under the supervision of Bartholomew Columbus. Although this is now
doubted, it is still sometimes called the Columbus map.
Corteso (1954) identies the author as Portuguese, others
as a Genoese living in Portugal.
54.8. SOURCES
[38] Corteso (1954 (1975): p.134)

[39] See also- Bartolomeo de Pareto, 1455; Petrus Roselli, 1468,
held by the Hispanic Society of America; attr. Toscanelli,
1474: original is lost, but a copy survives in Columbus's
notes
[40] Pizzigano map, 1424
[41] For a modern recantation of the various early sources, see
Tales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic, Thomas
Wentworth-Higginson, 1899.
[42] Tales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic, Thomas
Wentworth-Higginson, 1989.
[43] Paul Toscanelli's 1474 letter to the Spanish Court,
'Toscanelli and Columbus', H. Vignaud, 1902
[44] RA Skelton, Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discoveryhttp://www.
questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=61480298
[45] Paul Toscanelli's 1474 letter to the Spanish Court, RA Skelton,Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record
of Geographical Discovery
[46] Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, De Orbe Novo, 1511-25 https://
www.gutenberg.org/etext/12425
54.8 Sources
Babcock, W.H. (1920) Antillia and the Antilles,
Geographical Review, vol. 9 (2), p. 109-24.
Babcock, W.H. (1922) Legendary islands of the Atlantic: a study in medieval geography New York:
American Geographical Society. online
Barreto, M. (1988) O portugus Cristvo Colombo,
1992 trans. as The Portuguese Columbus: secret agent
of King John II. New York: Macmillan.
Beazley, C.R. (18971906) The Dawn of Modern Geography. London. vol. 1 (900), vol.2 (900-1260)
vol. 3 (12601420)
Beazley, C. (1899) RaymondIntroductionin C.R.
Beazley and E. Prestage, 189899, The Chronicle of
the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, London: Halyut. v.2
Buache, Jean-Nicholas (1806) Recherches sur
l'le Antillia et sur l'poque de la dcouverte de
l'AmriqueMmoires de l'Institut des Sciences, Lettres
et Arts, Vol. 6, Paris: Baudoin, p.1-29
163
Columbus, Ferdinand (c. 1539) Historia del Almirante Don Cristobal Colon, en la cual se da particular
y verdadera relacion de su vida y de sus hechos, y del
descubrimiento de las Indias Occidentales, llamadas
Nuevo-Mundo (1892 Madrid edition, 5 volumes)
Corteso, Armando (1953)The North Atlantic Nautical Chart of 1424Imago Mundi, Vol. 10. JSTOR
Corteso, Armando (1954) The Nautical Chart of
1424 and the Early Discovery and Cartographical Representation of America. Coimbra and Minneapolis.
(Portuguese trans. A Carta Nautica de 1424, published in 1975, Esparsos, Coimbra. vol. 3)
Corteso, Armando (1970) Pizzigano's Chart of
1424, Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 24
(oprint),
Crone, G. R. (1938) The Origin of the Name Antillia, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 91, No. 3
(Mar.), pp. 260262
Crone, G.R. (1947) The Pizigano Chart and the
'Pillars of Hercules'", The Geographical Journal, AprJun, Vol.100, p. 278-9.
D'Avezac, M.A.P. Marquis (1845) Les les fantastiques de l'ocan occidental au moyen ge: fragment
indit d'une histoire des les de l'Afrique. Paris: Fain &
Thunot. online
Dickson, Donald R.The Tessera of Antilia: Utopian
Brotherhoods & Secret Societies in the Early Seventeenth Century.Leiden, New York, and Kln: E. J.
Brill, 1998
de Faria e Sousa, Manuel (1628) Eptome de las historias portuguesas: dividido en quatro partes 1677 edition, Brussels: Foppens. online
Formaleoni, Vicenzio (1783) Saggio sulla Nautica
antica de' Veneziani, con una illustrazione d'alcune
carte idrograche antich della Biblioteca di S. Marco,
che dimonstrano l'isole Antille prima della scoperta di
Cristoforo Colombo. Venice. online
Gaarel, Paul (1882)L'le des Sept Cits et l'le Antilia, Congresso Internacional de Americanistas, Actas
de la Cuara Reunin, Madrid, Madrid: Fortanet, vol.
1, p.198
Galvo, Antnio (1563) Tratado que comps o nobre & notauel capito Antonio Galuo, dos diuersos &
desuayrados caminhos, por onde nos tempos passados
a pimenta & especearia veyo da India s nossas partes,
& assi de todos os descobrimentos antigos & modernos,
164

que so feitos at a era de 1550, Lisbon (trans. R. Hakluyt, 1601, as The Discoveries of the World from Their
First Original Unto the Year of Our Lord 1555. 1862
edition, London: Hakluyt online)
Hassel, George (1822) America - Einleitungin

Caspari, et al. editors, Vollstndiges Handbuch der
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Hennig, R. (1945) Eine altes Rtsel der PiziganoKarte gelstin Mitteilungen der geographischen
Gesellschaft Wien, vol. 88, p. 53-56.
* Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (1899) Tales of the
Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic. New York: Macmillan.online
von Humboldt, Alexander (1837) Examen critique de
l'histoire de la gographie du nouveau continent et des
progrs de l'astronomie nautique aux quinzime et seizime sicles, Paris: Gide, vol. II.
Kretschmer, Konrad (1892) Die Entdeckung
Amerika's in ihrer Bedeutung fr die Geschichte
des Weltbildes. Berlin: Khl. online
de Medina, Pedro (1548) Libro de las grandezas y
cosas memorables de Espaa. Seville. (1595 edition,
Alcala de Henares: Iuan Gracian, online
Morison, S.E. (1940) Portuguese voyages to America
in the fteenth century Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
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Morison, S.E. (1955)Review of Corteso's 'Nautical
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Nansen, Fridtjof (1911) In Northern Mists; Arctic exploration in early times. New York: F.A. Stokes. vol.
1, vol. 2
Nordenskild, Adolf Erik (1897) Periplus: An Essay
on the Early History of Charts and Sailing Directions,
tr. Frances A. Bather, Stockholm: Norstedt.
O'Curry, Eugene (1861) Lectures on the Manuscript
Materials of Ancient Irish History, delivered at the
Catholic University of Ireland, during the sessions of
1855 and 1856. Dublin: Duy. p.289).
La Ronciere, Charles de (1924) La carte de Cristophe
Colomb, Paris: Champion
Spence, Lewis (1925) The Problem of Atlantis. London: Rider.
Vignaud, H. (1902) Toscanelli and Columbus: The letter and chart of Toscanelli on the route to the Indies by
way of the west, sent in 1474 to the Portuguese, Ferman Martins, and later on to Christopher Columbus; a
critical study on the authenticity and value of these documents and the sources of the cosmographical ideas of
Columbus, followed by the various texts of the letter.
London: Sands. online
Vignaud, H. (June, 1902) Did Columbus Discover
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This article incorporates text from a publication

now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
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54.8. SOURCES
165
Andea Bianco, 1436. Antillia at left
Toscanelli's notions of the geography of the Atlantic Ocean. Antillia

at the middle-right.
1424 map of Zuane Pizzigano, rst clear depiction of Antillia(large

red rectangle), Ymana (future Royllo, small blue island to the
west), Satanazes (large blue rectangle to the north) and Saya (future
Damnar, umbrella-shaped red isle far north)
Chapter 55
Argadnel
In Celtic mythology, Argadnel is one of the Islands of the
Earthly Paradise that were visited by Bran the Blessed.* [1]
In 2003, the International Astronomical Union adopted the
name for a regio of Europa.* [1]
55.1 References
[1] USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature Feature Information Europa Argadnel Regio. Accessed 7 November
2007.
166
Chapter 56
Avalon
Latvian bele, et al.* [7]* [8]
For other uses, see Avalon (disambiguation).

Avalon (/vln/; Latin: Insula Avallonis, Old French
Avalon, Welsh: Ynys Afallon, Ynys Afallach; literally meaning the isle of fruit [or apple] trees) is a legendary island featured in the Arthurian legend. It rst appears in
Georey of Monmouth's 1136 pseudo-historical account
Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of
Britain) as the place where King Arthur's sword Excalibur
was forged and later where Arthur was taken to recover
from his wounds after the Battle of Camlann. Avalon was
associated from an early date with mystical practices and
people such as Morgan le Fay.
56.2
In Arthurian legend
56.1 Etymology
Georey of Monmouth referred to it in Latin as Insula Avallonis in the Historia. In the later Vita Merlini he called it
Insula Pomorum the isle of fruit trees(from Latin pmus fruit tree). The name is generally considered to
be of Welsh origin (though an Old Cornish or Old Breton
origin is also possible), derived from Old Welsh, Old Cornish, or Old Breton aball or avallen(n), apple tree, fruit
tree(cf. afall in Modern Welsh, derived from Common
Celtic *abaln).* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5] It is also possible that
the tradition of an appleisland among the British was
inuenced by Irish legends concerning the otherworld island home of Manannn mac Lir and Lugh, Emain Ablach
(also the Old Irish poetic name for the Isle of Man),* [2]
where Ablach means Having Apple Trees* [6] derived from Old Irish aball (apple)and is similar to
the Middle Welsh name Afallach, which was used to replace the name Avalon in medieval Welsh translations of
French and Latin Arthurian tales. All are etymologically
related to the Gaulish root *aballo- (as found in the place
name Aballo/Aballone, now Avallon in Burgundy or in the
Italian surname Avallone) and are derived from a Common
Celtic *abal- apple, which is related at the Proto-IndoEuropean level to English apple, Russian (jabloko),
La Mort d'Arthur (The Death of King Arthur) by James Archer

(1860)
According to Georey in the Historia and much subsequent literature which he inspired, Avalon is the place where
King Arthur is taken after ghting Mordred at the Battle of
Camlann to recover from his wounds. Welsh, Cornish and
Breton tradition claimed that Arthur had never really died,
but would inexorably return to lead his people against their
enemies. The Historia also states that Avalon is where his
sword Excalibur was forged. Georey dealt with Avalon
in more detail in Vita Merlini, in which he describes for
the rst time in Arthurian legend the enchantress Morgan
le Fay as the chief of nine sisters (Moronoe, Mazoe, Gliten,
Glitonea, Gliton, Tyronoe, Thiten and Thiton)* [9] who live
on Avalon. Georey's description of the island indicates
a sea voyage was needed to get there. His description of
Avalon here, which is heavily indebted to the early medieval Spanish scholar Isidore of Seville (being mostly de-
167
168
CHAPTER 56. AVALON
rived from the section on famous islands in Isidore's famous

work Etymologiae, XIV.6.8 "Fortunatae Insulae"), shows
the magical nature of the island:
The island of apples which men call The
Fortunate Isle(Insula Pomorum quae Fortunata
uocatur) gets its name from the fact that it produces all things of itself; the elds there have no
need of the ploughs of the farmers and all cultivation is lacking except what nature provides. Of its
own accord it produces grain and grapes, and apple trees grow in its woods from the close-clipped
grass. The ground of its own accord produces everything instead of merely grass, and people live
there a hundred years or more. There nine sisters
rule by a pleasing set of laws those who come to
them from our country.* [10]
Camlann, a noblewoman called Morgan, later the

ruler and patroness of these parts as well as being a close blood-relation of King Arthur, carried
him o to the island, now known as Glastonbury,
so that his wounds could be cared for. Years ago
the district had also been called Ynys Gutrin in
Welsh, that is the Island of Glass, and from these
words the invading Saxons later coined the placename 'Glastingebury'.* [13]
Though no longer an island in the twelfth century, the

high conical bulk of Glastonbury Tor had been surrounded
by marsh before the surrounding fenland in the Somerset
Levels was drained. In ancient times, Ponter's Ball Dyke
would have guarded the only entrance to the island. The
Romans eventually built another road to the island.* [14]
Gerald wrote that Glastonbury's earliest name in Welsh was
Ineswitrin (or Ynys Witrin), the Isle of glass, a name noted
By comparison, Isidore's description of the Fortunate Isles by earlier historians which suggests that the location was at
reads:
one point seen as an island. The discovery of the burial is
described by chroniclers, notably Gerald of Wales, as being just after King Henry II's reign when the new abbot
The name of the Isles of the Fortunate signies
of Glastonbury, Henry de Sully, commissioned a search of
that they bear all good things, as if happy and
the abbey grounds. At a depth of 5 m (16 feet) the monks
blessed in the abundance of their fruits. Servicewere said to have discovered a massive treetrunk con and
able by nature, they bring forth fruits of valuable
a leaden cross bearing the inscription:
forests (Sua enim aptae natura pretiosarum poma
silvarum parturiunt); their hilltops are clothed
with vines growing by chance; in place of grasses,
Hic jacet sepulthere is commonly vegetable and grain. Pagan ertus inclitus rex
ror and the songs of the secular poets have held
Arturius in insula
that these islands to be Paradise because of the
Avalonia.
fecundity of the soil. Situated in the Ocean to
(Here
lies
the left of Mauretania, very near the west, they
entombed
the
are separated by the sea owing between them.
renowned
King
*
[11]
Arthur in the
In medieval geographies, Isidore's Fortunate Islands were
identied with the Canaries.* [12]
island of Avalon
).
Accounts of the exact inscription vary, with ve dierent

versions existing. The earliest is by Gerald in "Liber de
56.3 Connection to Glastonbury
Principis instructione" c. 1193, who wrote that he viewed
the cross in person and traced the lettering. His transcript
Around 1190, Avalon became associated with Glastonbury, reads:Here lies buried the famous King Arthur (Arthuwhen monks at Glastonbury Abbey claimed to have dis- rus) with Guinevere (Wenneveria) his second wife
covered the bones of Arthur and his queen. The works of in the isle of Avalon. Inside the con were two bodies,
Gerald of Wales make the rst known connection:
who Giraldus refers to as Arthur and "his queen"; the bones
of the male body were described as being gigantic. The acWhat is now known as Glastonbury was, in ancount of the burial by the chronicle of Margam Abbey says
cient times, called the Isle of Avalon. It is virtuthree bodies were found, the other being of Mordred.* [15]
In 1278, the remains were reburied with great ceremony,
ally an island, for it is completely surrounded by
attended by King Edward I and his queen, before the High
marshlands. In Welsh it is called Ynys Afallach,
Altar at Glastonbury Abbey, where they were the focus of
which means the Island of Apples and this fruit
pilgrimages until the Reformation.
once grew in great abundance. After the Battle of
56.3. CONNECTION TO GLASTONBURY
169
return.* [17] As William wrote a comprehensive history
of Glastonbury De antiquitae Glatoniensis ecclesie around
1130 which discussed many pious legends connected to
the Abbey, but made no mention of either Arthur's grave
or a connection of Glastonbury to the name Avalon, stating
rmly it was previously known as Ineswitrin, this raises
further suspicions concerning the burial. It is known for
certain the monks later added forged passages to William's
history discussing Arthurian connections.* [18] The fact
that the search for the body is connected to Henry II and
Edward I, both kings who fought major Welsh wars, has
had scholars suggest that propaganda may have played a
part as well.* [19] Gerald, a constant supporter of royal
authority, in his account of the discovery clearly aims
to destroy the idea of the possibility of King's Arthur's
messianic return: Many tales are told and many legends
have been invented about King Arthur and his mysterious
ending. In their stupidity the British [i.e. Welsh, Cornish
and Bretons] people maintain that he is still alive. Now that
the truth is known, I have taken the trouble to add a few
more details in this present chapter. The fairy-tales have
been snued out, and the true and indubitable facts are
made known, so that what really happened must be made
crystal clear to all and separated from the myths which
have accumulated on the subject.* [20]
Leaden cross inscribed with Arthur's epitaph. from Camden, Britannia (1607)
The story is today seen as an example of

pseudoarchaeology.
Historians today generally dismiss the authenticity of the nd, attributing it to a publicity
stunt performed to raise funds to repair the Abbey, which
was mostly burned in 1184.* [16] Long before this William
of Malmesbury, a historian interested in Arthur, said in
his history of England But Arthurs grave is nowhere
seen, whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will
The burial discovery ensured that in later romances, histories based on them and in the popular imagination Glastonbury became increasingly identied with Avalon, an identication that continues strongly today. The later development of the legends of the Holy Grail and Joseph of Arimathea by Robert de Boron interconnected these legends
with Glastonbury and with Avalon, an identication which
also seems to be made in Perlesvaus. The popularity of
Arthurian Romance has meant this area of the Somerset
Levels has today become popularly described as The Vale
of Avalon.* [21] In more recent times writers such as Dion
Fortune, John Michell, Nicholas Mann and Georey Ashe
have formed theories based on perceived connections between Glastonbury and Celtic legends of the otherworld and
Annwn in attempts to link the location rmly with Avalon,
drawing on the various legends based on Glastonbury Tor as
well as drawing on ideas like Earth mysteries, Ley lines and
even the myth of Atlantis. Arthurian literature also continues to use Glastonbury as an important location as in The
Mists of Avalon, A Glastonbury Romance and The Bones of
Avalon. Even the fact that Somerset has many apple orchards has been drawn in to support the connection. Glastonbury's connection to Avalon continues to make it a site
of tourism and the area has great religious signicance for
Neopagans, Neo-druids and as a New Age community, as
well as Christians. Hippy identication of Glastonbury with
Avalon seen in the work of Michell and in Gandalf's Garden
also helped inspire the Glastonbury Festival.* [22]
170
56.3.1
CHAPTER 56. AVALON
Other locations for Avalon
In medieval times suggestions for the location of Avalon

ranged far beyond Glastonbury. They included on the other
side of the Earth at the antipodes, Sicily, and other unnamed
locations in the Mediterranean.* [23]
In more recent times, just like in the quest for Arthur's
mythical capital Camelot, a large number of locations have
been put forward as being the realAvalon. Georey Ashe
suggests an association of Avalon with the town of Avallon
in Burgundy, as part of a theory connecting King Arthur to
the Romano-British leader Riothamus who campaigned in
that area.* [24]
56.4 See also

Agharta
Atlantis
Baltia
Brittia
Hyperborea
Lady of the Lake
Shambhala
Shangri-La
Thule
Tr na ng
56.5 References
Citations
[1] Matasovi, Ranko, Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic,
Brill, 2008, p. 23
[6] Marstrander, Carl Johan Sverdrup (ed.), Dictionary of the

Irish Language, Royal Irish Academy, 1976, letter A, column 11, line 026.
[7] Hamp, Eric P. The north European word for apple,
Zeitschrift fr Celtische Philologie, 37, 1979, pp. 158166.
[8] Adams, Douglas Q. The Indo-European Word for 'apple'
Again. Indogermanische Forschungen, 90, 1985, pp. 79
82.
[9] Berthelot, Anne,Apprivoiser la merveille, in: Mlanges
en lhonneur de Francis Dubost, Paris: Champion, 2005,
pp. 4966.
[10] Vita Merlini Index. sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 1 April
2016.
[11] Priscilla Throop, Isidore of Seville's Etymologies,
Lulu.com, 2005, XIV.6.8
[12] Priscilla Throop, Isidore of Seville's Etymologies,
Lulu.com, 2005, XIV.6.8, n. 50
[13]Two Accounts of the Exhumation of Arthur's Body: Gerald
of Wales. britannia.com. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
[14] Allcroft, Arthur Hadrian (1908), Earthwork of England:
Prehistoric, Roman, Saxon, Danish, Norman and Medival, Nabu Press, pp. 6970, ISBN 978-1-178-13643-2, retrieved 12 April 2011
[15] Carley, James P. (2001), Glastonbury Abbey and the
Arthurian tradition, D.S. Brewer, p. 316, ISBN 978-085991-572-4
[16] Modern scholarship views the Glastonbury cross as the result
of a probably late 12th-century fraud. See Rahtz 1993 and
Carey 1999.
[17] O. J. Padel,The Nature of Arthurin Cambrian Medieval
Celtic Studies 27 (1994), pp. 131 at p.10
[18] Glastonbury in Norris J. Lacy, Editor, The Arthurian Encyclopedia (1986 Peter Bedrick Books, New York).
[19] Rahtz 1993
[2] Koch, John. Celtic Culture:a historical encyclopedia, ABCCLIO 2006, p. 146.
[3] Savage, John J. H. Insula Avallonia, Transactions and
Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol.
73, (1942), pp. 405415.
[4] Nitze, William Albert, Jenkins, Thomas Atkinson. Le Haut
Livre du Graal, Phaeton Press, 1972, p. 55.
[5] Zimmer, Heinrich. Bretonische Elemente in der Artursage
des Gottfried von Monmouth, Zeitschrift fr franzsische
Sprache und Literatur, Volume 12, 1890, pp. 246248.
[20]Two Accounts of the Exhumation of Arthur's Body: Gerald

of Wales. britannia.com. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
[21] John Ezard. Treadmill in the Vale of Avalon. the
Guardian. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
[22]Glastonbury: Alternative Histories, in Ronald Hutton,
Witches, Druids and King Arthur
[23] Avalon in Norris J. Lacy, Editor, The Arthurian Encyclopedia (1986 Peter Bedrick Books, New York).
56.5. REFERENCES
[24] Georey Ashe (1985), The Discovery of King Arthur, London: Guild Publishing, pp. 9596, (p95) In Welsh it is Ynys
Avallach. Georey's Latin equivalent is Insula Avallonis.
It has been inuenced by the spelling of a real place called
Avallon. Avallon is a Gaulish name with the same meaning,
and the real Avalon is in Burgundywhere Arthur's Gallic
career ends. Again, we glimpse an earlier and dierent passing of Arthur, on the Continent and not in Britain. (p. 96)
Riothamus too led an army of Britons into Gaul, and was the
only British King who did. He too advanced to the neighbourhood of Burgundy. He too was betrayed by a deputy
ruler who treated with barbarian enemies. He, too, is last located in Gaul among the pro-Roman Burgundians. He, too,
disappears after a fatal battle, without any recorded death.
The line of his retreat, prolonged on a map, shows that he
was going in the direction of the real Avalon. (p. 96)
Bibliography
Rahtz, Philip (1993), English Heritage Book of Glastonbury, London: Batsford, ISBN 978-0-7134-68656.
Carey, John (1999),The Finding of Arthur's Grave:
A Story from Clonmacnoise?", in Carey, John; Koch,
John T.; Lambert, Pierre-Yves, Ildnach Ildrech. A
Festschrift for Proinsias Mac Cana, Andover: Celtic
Studies Publications, pp. 114, ISBN 978-1-89127101-4.
171
Chapter 57
Brasil (mythical island)

Brazil(Brasil, in Portuguese) due to the exploitation of
native Brazilwood, at that time the only export of the land.
In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the
word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an
ember, formed from Latin brasa (ember) and the
sux -il (from -iculum or -ilium).* [4]* [5]* [6]
57.2
Brasil as shown in relation to Ireland on a map by Abraham Ortelius

(1572)
Brasil, also known as Hy-Brasil or several other variants,* [1] is a phantom island said to lie in the Atlantic
Ocean* [2] west of Ireland. Irish myths described it as
cloaked in mist except for one day every seven years, when
it became visible but still could not be reached.
57.1 Etymology of the name
Appearance on maps
Nautical charts identied an island called Bracilewest

of Ireland in the Atlantic Ocean as far back as 1325, in a
portolan chart by Angelino Dulcert. Later it appeared as
Insula de Brasil in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco
(1436), attached to one of the larger islands of a group of
islands in the Atlantic. This was identied for a time with
the modern island of Terceira in the Azores.
A Catalan chart of about 1480 labels two islands Illa de
brasil, one to the south west of Ireland (where the mythical
place was supposed to be) and one south ofIlla verdeor
Greenland.
On maps the island was shown as being circular, often with
a central strait or river running east-west across its diameter.
Despite the failure of attempts to nd it, this appeared regularly on maps lying south west of Galway Bay until 1865,
by which time it was called Brasil Rock.
The etymology of the names Brasil and Hy-Brasil is unknown, but in Irish tradition it is thought to come from
the Irish U Breasail (meaning descendants (i.e., clan)
of Breasal"), one of the ancient clans of northeastern Ireland. cf. Old Irish: : island; bres: beauty, worth, great,
mighty.* [3]
Despite the similarity, the name of the country Brazil has
no connection to the mythical islands. The South American country was at rst named Ilha de Vera Cruz (Island
of the True Cross) and later Terra de Santa Cruz (Land of
the Holy Cross) by the Portuguese navigators who discovered the land. After some decades, it started to be called
172
Catalan Atlas from 1375
Piri Reis map of Europe and

the Mediterranean Sea from 1513
173
and Queries* [11] and in various twentieth-century publications, one of the more recent being Graham Hancock's book
Underworld: The Mysterious Origins of Civilization.
57.4
In popular culture
Map of Europe from 1570

Frederick Delius wrote a song titled I-Brasil, (ca.
1913) with words attributed to Fiona McLeod,
pseudonym of the Celtic revival writer William
Sharp.* [12]
Abraham Ortelius Map of

Europe from 1595
Hy-Brasil was featured in the 1989 British comedyfantasy lm Erik the Viking starring Tim Robbins.
Peter Bishop mysteriously travels to Hy-Brasil in the
Beyond the Fringe comic book, a tie-in for the Fringe
television series.
Gerardus Mercator Map from

1595
57.3 Searches for the island

Expeditions left Bristol in 1480 and 1481 to search for the
island; and a letter written by Pedro de Ayala, shortly after
the return of John Cabot (from his expedition in 1497), reports that land found by Cabot had beendiscovered in the
past by the men from Bristol who found Brasil.* [7]
In 1674 a Captain John Nisbet claimed to have seen the
island when on a journey from France to Ireland, stating
that the island was inhabited by large black rabbits and a
magician who lived alone in a stone castle, yet the character and the story were a literary invention by Irish author Richard Head.* [8] Roderick O'Flaherty in A Chorographical Description of West or H-Iar Connaught (1684)
tells us There is now living, Morogh O'Ley (Murrough
Lao), who imagines he was personally on O'Brasil for
two days, and saw out of it the iles of Aran, Golamhead
[by Lettermullen], Irrosbeghill, and other places of the west
continent he was acquainted with.
Hy-Brasil has also been identied with Porcupine Bank, a
shoal in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 kilometres (120 mi)
west of Ireland* [9] and discovered in 1862. As early as
1870 a paper was read to the Geological Society of Ireland
suggesting this identication.* [10] The suggestion has since
appeared more than once, e.g., in an 1883 edition of Notes
In the PC Massively multiplayer online role-playing

game Dark Age of Camelot, Hybrasil was expansion
content for the Hibernia faction in the rst expansion
pack, Shrouded Isles, which depicted it as being occupied by attacking Fomorians.
The island of Hybras is the setting of Lyonesse trilogy
by Jack Vance, and was geographically located in the
Sea of Biscay, west of France and north of Spain, but
it sank into the sea, in a parallel to Atlantis.
Hy-Brasilis featured on signs axed on the faade
of the Embassy of Brazil to Bridgetown, Barbados,
something which may reference when Barbados was
claimed but later abandoned by the Portuguese.
A land called Hy Brasil featured in Alan Moore's
comic Promethea.
Margaret Elphinstone's 2002 novel has Hy-Brazil as its
title and setting.
Mary Burke's short story Hy-Brasilin The
Faber Book of Best New Irish Short Stories, 20045.* [13]* [14]
57.5
See also
Irish mythology in popular culture

Inisheer
174
CHAPTER 57. BRASIL (MYTHICAL ISLAND)
57.6 References
[1] Hy Brasil, Hy Breasil, Hy Breasail, Hy Breasal, Hy Brazil,
I-Brasil
[2] Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911).
"Brazil (island)".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University
Press.
[3]Hy BrasilA Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.
McKillop.University Press, 1998.
James
[4] CNRTL Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales (French)

[5] Michaelis Moderno Dicionrio da Lngua Portuguesa
(Portuguese)
[6] iDicionrio Aulete (Portuguese)
[7] Seaver, K.A. (1995) The Frozen Echo, Stanford University
Press, p. 212 ISBN 0-8047-3161-6
[8] Barbara Freitag Hy Brasil: The Metamorphosis of an Island, Rodopi, 2013
[9] Velasco, Francisco; Jorge Landa; Joaqun Barrado; Marian
Blanco (2008). Distribution, abundance, and growth of
anglersh (Lophius piscatorius) on the Porcupine Bank (west
of Ireland)". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 65 (7): 1316.
doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsn130. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
[10] Winsor, Justin (1889). Narrative and critical history of
America (Volume 01). Houghton, Miin and Company. p.
51.
[11] Frazer, W. (December 1883), O'Brazile or Hy Brazile,
Notes and Queries, s6-VIII: 475
[12] The score, published 1915, has a note in German, mentioning I-Brasil as a legendary Irish island
[13] "'Hy-Brasil,' The Faber Book of Best New Irish Short Stories, 2004-5, Faber & Faber, 2005, pp. 10105. www.
academia.edu. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
[14] Marcus, David, ed. (2005), The Faber Book of Best New
Irish Short Stories 200405, Faber, ISBN 978-0571224197

Freitag, Barbara (2013). Hy Brasil: the metamorphosis
of an island: from cartographic error to Celtic Elysium.
Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 9789042036413.
Sean Lynch (2010). Preliminary Sketches for the
Reappearance of HyBrazil. Utopian Studies. 21 (1):
515. doi:10.1353/utp.0.0003.
Chapter 58
Brittia
Brittia () according to Procopius* [1] was an island
country. Women that have crossed give their hushe considered to be known to the inhabitants of the Low
bands' names.
Countries under Frankish rule (viz. the North Sea coast
of Austrasia), corresponding both to a real island used for A garbled account, observed Loyn* [3]possibly an echo
burial and a mythological Isle of the Blessed, to which the of a report by a Frankish ambassador or an Angle in the
souls of the dead are transported.
ambassador's entourage.
Procopius's Brittia lies no farther than 200 stadia (25 miles)
from the mainland, opposite the mouth of the Rhine but
between the islands of Brettania and legendary Thule, and
three nations live in it, Angiloi, Phrissones and Brittones,
that is, Angles, Frisians and Britons. Procopius mentions
a wall in Brittia, which he distinguishes from Bretannia,
however, and fertile lands. It is perhaps only the apparently authentic combinations of names, Angles, Frisians and
Britons, which demands hard attention to this interlude in
serious Byzantine discussions of the Gothic wars,H. R.
Loyn warns.* [2]
Procopius relates that
They imagine that the souls of the dead are
transported to that island. On the coast of the
continent there dwell under Frankish sovereignty,
but hitherto exempt from all taxation, shers and
farmers, whose duty it is to ferry the souls over.
This duty they take in turn. Those to whom it
falls on any night, go to bed at dusk; at midnight
they hear a knocking at their door, and mued
voices calling. Immediately they rise, go to the
shore, and there see empty boats, not their own
but strange ones, they go on board and seize the
oars. When the boat is under way, they perceive
that she is laden choke-full, with her gunwales
hardly a nger's breadth above water. Yet they
see no one, and in an hour's time they touch land,
which one of their own craft would take a day and
a night to do. Arrived at Brittia, the boat speedily unloads, and becomes so light that she only
dips her keel in the wave. Neither on the voyage nor at landing do they see any one, but they
hear a voice loudly asking each one his name and
Pursuing geographical accuracy beyond the capacity of

Procopius himself, there have been suggestions as to at
which point exactly these boats left the Gallic coast,
Villemarqu placing it near Raz, Armorica, where there is a
toponym baie des mes/bo an anaon bay of souls.* [4]
Jacob Grimm* [5] reports that on the river Trguier in Brittany, in the commune Plouguel, it issaid to be the custom
to this day, to convey the dead to the churchyard in a boat,
over a small arm of the sea called passage de l'enfer, instead
of taking the shorter way by land.
Procopius's account is repeated by John Tzetzes* [6] in the
12th century; but long before that, Claudian at the beginning of the 5th* [7] had heard of those Gallic shores as a
trysting place of itting ghosts. and not far from that region
are Britain, the land of the Senones, and the Rhine. Grimm
compares this account to the airy wagon of the Bretons, and
to bardic traditions which make out that souls, to reach the
underworld, must sail over the pool of dread and of dead
bones, across the vale of death, into the sea on whose shore
stands open the mouth of hell's abyss.
The name survives in the Breton name of Brittany,
Breizh.* [8]
58.1
See also
Breton mythology
Britain (placename)
Doggerland
Fortunate Isles
Fositesland
175
176
Frankish mythology
Folklore of the Low Countries
Tol Eressa
58.2 Notes
[1] De bellis 8.20 [The Gothic War 4.20], written from Constantinople in the 540s.
[2] Loyn, Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest, 2nd
ed. 1991:28.
[3] Loyn 1991:28.
[4] The geographical issues are discussed in P. N. Ure, Justinian
and His Age, 1951:246-48; the legend, perfectly suited to the
Romantic view of Celts, is narrated for a popular audience
by Henri Martin, Histoire de France, depuis les temps les plus
reculs 1833:vol. 1:72f.
[5] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, ch. 26.Archived copy.
Archived from the original on 2008-04-21. Retrieved 200804-08.
[6] To Lycophron 1204.
[7] In Runum 1, 123-133.
[8] Koch, John T. (2006). Breizh. In John T. Koch. Celtic
culture: A historical encyclopedia. 1 (1st edition. ed.). Santa
Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 243.
58.3 References
Procopius, De Bellis tomus 4, ed. Migne, Patrologia
Graeca.[Tomus_4__MGR.pdf.html]
CHAPTER 58. BRITTIA
Chapter 59
Buyan
For the Albanian village, see Bujan.
dle placed inside an egg in the mystical oak-tree; other
In Slavic mythology, Buyan ( sometimes transliter- legends call the island the source of all weather, created
there and sent forth into the world by the god Perun. It
is also mentioned in The Tale of Tsar Saltan, of His Son the
Renowned and Mighty Bogatyr Prince Gvidon Saltanovich,
and of the Beautiful Princess-Swan (an opera by Nikolai
Rimsky-Korsakov) and many other Slavic folktales.
Some scholars interpret Buyan as a sort of Proto-IndoEuropean Otherworld (see Fortunate Islands). Others assert
that Buyan is actually a Slavic name for some real island,
most likely Rgen.* [2]
59.1
See also
Avalon
Kitezh
59.2
Notes
[1] Anton Dietrich, Russian Popular Tales, 1857 (Google

eBook) p.23
[2] http://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=
buyan+island+rugen&btnG=Search+Books
Buyan Island, by Ivan Bilibin.
ated as Bujan* [1]) is described as a mysterious island in the

ocean with the ability to appear and disappear using tides.
Three brothersNorthern, Western, and Eastern Winds
live there.
It gures prominently in many famous myths; Koschei the
Deathless keeps his soul hidden there, secreted inside a nee177
Chapter 60
Island of California
For actual islands that are part of this peninsula, see List of
coastal islands of the Californias.
The Island of California refers to a long-held Span-
Map of California, circa 1650; restored.
A satellite view of Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California
One of the most famous cartographic errors in history, it

was propagated on many maps during the 17th and 18th
centuries, despite contradictory evidence from various explorers. The legend was initially infused with the idea that
California was a terrestrial paradise, like the Garden of
Eden or Atlantis.
The Island of Californiais shown on a 1650 map by Nicolas
Sanson
ish misconception, dating from the 16th century, that 60.1 History
California was not part of mainland North America but
rather a large island separated from the continent by a strait The rst known mention of the legend of the Island of
Californiawas in the 1510 romance novel Las sergas de
now known as the Gulf of California.
178
60.1. HISTORY
179
Esplandin by Garci Rodrguez de Montalvothe sequel to inevitable. Indeed, the famed British explorer James Cook
Montalvo's more famous tales of Amadis de Gaula, father narrowly missed the Strait of Juan de Fuca in March 1778,
of Esplandian. He described the island in this passage:
almost 200 years later. Cook even named Cape Flattery
(at the northwest tip of modern Washington state) which is
at the mouth of the strait, and instead stopped in Nootka
Know, that on the right hand of the Indies
Sound just o the west coast of Vancouver Island at about
there is an island called California very close
49 N. His account states we saw nothing like [the Strait
to the side of the Terrestrial Paradise; and it
of Juan de Fuca]; nor is there the least probability that
is peopled by black women, without any man
ever any such thing existed.* [5] However, Cook describes
among them, for they live in the manner of
*
some bad weather in his account around this time, and did
Amazons. [1]
continue on to map most of the outer Pacic coastline of
It is probable that this description prompted early explorers North America from modern-day northern California to the
to misidentify the Baja California Peninsula as the island in Bering Strait in Alaska on the same voyage.
these legends.
A key role in changing ideas about California seems to have
In 1533, Fortn Ximnez, a mutineer on an exploring expedition sent by Hernn Corts, discovered the southern
portion of Baja California, around present-day La Paz. He
was killed by natives but his men returned to New Spain
and gave report of their nd. In 1535 Corts arrived in the
bay there and named the area Santa Cruz; he attempted to
start a colony but abandoned his eorts after several years
due to logistical problems. Corts' limited information on
southern Baja California apparently led to the naming of the
region after the legendary California and to an initial but
short-lived assumption that it was a large island.* [2]* [3]
been played by an overland expedition led by the founding

governor of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mxico, Juan de Oate. The
expedition descended the Colorado River in 1604 and 1605,
and its participants believed that they saw the Gulf of California continuing o to the northwest (presumably behind
in the Sierra Cucap into the Laguna Macuata Basin).
Reports from Oate's expedition reached Antonio de la Ascencin, a Carmelite friar who had participated in Sebastin
Vizcano's explorations of the west coast of California in
1602 and 1603. Ascencin was a tireless propagandist in
favor of Spanish settlement in California, and his later writings referred to the region as an island. As older maps conrm, Spanish authorities and local residents were well aware
where the actual northern terminus of the Gulf of California
lay, but by extending the coastline north past Cape Mendocino and eventually even into Puget Sound, Sir Francis
Drake's claim of Nova Albion for England (1579) could be
invalidated by the priority of Cortes' claim (1533).
In 1539, Corts sent the navigator Francisco de Ulloa northward along the Gulf and Pacic coasts of Baja California. Ulloa reached the mouth of the Colorado River at
the head of the Gulf, which seemed to prove that the region was a peninsula rather than an island.* [4] An expedition under Hernando de Alarcn ascended the lower Colorado River and conrmed Ulloa's nding. Maps published
subsequently in Europe during the 16th century, including The rst known reappearance of the Island of California on
those by Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, cor- a map dates to 1622 in a map by Michiel Colijn of Amsterrectly showed Baja California as a peninsula.
dam. The image became the standard for many later maps
Despite this evidence, however, the depiction of California throughout the 17th century and intermittently into the 18th
as an island revived in the early 17th century. One con- century. Previous maps show the Gulf terminating in its
tributing factor may have been the second voyage of Juan correct location. On the stretch of the Gulf between its acde Fuca in 1592. Fuca claimed to have explored the western tual terminus and Juan de Fuca's strait was written Mare
coast of North America and to have found a large opening Vermexo (Red Sea) on later maps drawn from Spanish
that possibly connected to the Atlantic Ocean the leg- sources.
endary Northwest Passage. Fuca's claim remains controver- The Jesuit missionary and cartographer Eusebio Francisco
sial because there is only one surviving written account of Kino revived the fact that Baja California was a peninsula.
it found, his account as related to an Englishman, Michael While studying in Europe, Kino had accepted the insularLocke. Nonetheless, this account claims Fuca found a large ity of California, but when he reached Mexico he began to
strait, with a large island at its mouth, at around 47 north have doubts. He made a series of overland expeditions from
latitude. The Strait of Juan de Fuca is in fact at around northern Sonora to areas within or near the Colorado River's
48 N, as is the southern tip of the large island now called delta in 16981706, in part to provide a practical route beVancouver Island, while the northern reach of the Gulf of tween the Jesuits' missions in Sonoran and Baja California
California terminates much farther south, at about 31 N. It but also to resolve the geographical question. Kino satisis possible that explorers and mapmakers in the 17th cen- ed himself that a land connection must exist, and the 18th
tury could have confused the two (if in fact they were aware century Jesuits generally followed his example. The rst
of Fuca's voyage), and in any case further exploration was
180
report of Kino's discovery and his map from 1701 showing
California as a peninsula were sent to Europe by Marcus
Antonius Kappus, a Jesuit missionary from Kamna Gorica (Duchy of Carniola, now Slovenia). In a June 1701
letter, he wrote about that to his friend Philippus Alberth
in Vienna and thus acted as an important intermediary in
the dissemination of this knowledge. However, Juan Mateo
Manje, a military companion on several of Kino's treks, expressed scepticism; European cartographers remained divided on the question.
Jesuit missionary-explorers in Baja California who attempted to lay the issue nally to rest included Juan de
Ugarte (1721), Ferdinand Konak (1746), and Wenceslaus
Linck (1766). The matter was settled beyond all dispute
when the expeditions of Juan Bautista de Anza traveled between Sonora and the west coast of California in the period
17741776.
60.2 See also

Etymology of California
60.3 Notes
[1] Rodrguez de Montalvo, Garci (1526) [1496]. Las sergas
de Esplandin [The Adventures of Esplandin] (in Spanish).
Sabed que ala diestra mano de las Indias ouo una Isla llamada California mucho llegada ala parte del paraiso terrenal la qual sue poblada de mugeres negras sin que algun uaro
entre ellas ouiesse: que casi como las amazonas (The rst
mention of Californiaoccurs on the unnumbered page
after page CVIII, in the right column.)
[2] Polk, Dora Beale (1995-10-01). The Island of California:
A History of the Myth. Spain in the West. University of
Nebraska Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8032-8741-9. Corts
Believes Baja California to be an Island
[3] Portillo, lvaro del (1982) [1944]. Descubrimientos y exploraciones en las costas de California, 15321650 [Discoveries and explorations along the coast of California, 1532
1650] (in Spanish) (2nd ed.). Madrid: Ediciones Rialp. p.
140. ISBN 9788432121890. Sin embargo, es indudable que
Corts, el envidiado, habl de una isla de riqueza fantstica.
["However, it is clear that Corts, with envy, spoke of a fantastic island of wealth."] (The 1944 edition was the author's
doctoral thesis.)
[4] Wood, Mark (2014-03-11). The Island of California
. Pomona College Magazine. Pomona College. Retrieved
2014-07-10.
[5] Cook, James; Clerke, Charles; Gore, John; King, James
(1784). A Voyage to the Pacic Ocean: Undertaken by
CHAPTER 60. ISLAND OF CALIFORNIA
the Command of His Majesty, for Making Discoveries in the

Northern Hemisphere, to Determine the Position and Extent
of the West Side of North America, its Distance from Asia,
and the Practicability of a Northern Passage to Europe,... 2.
London: W. and A. Strahan. p. 263. Retrieved 2014-07-08.
60.4
References
Laylander, Don, 2004. Geographies of Fact and

Fantasy: Oate on the Lower Colorado River, 1604
1605. Southern California Quarterly 86:309324.
Len-Portilla, Miguel. 1989. Cartografa y crnicas de la antigua California. Universidad Nacional
Autnoma de Mxico, Mexico City.
McLaughlin, Glen, with Nancy H. Mayo. The Mapping of California as an Island: An Illustrated Checklist. Saratoga, CA: California Map Society, 1995 .
Tooley, R. V. 1964. California as an Island: A Geographical Misconception Illustrated by 100 Examples
from 16251770. Map Collectors' Circle, London.
Chapter 61
Chryse (island)
Coordinates: 395500N 253300E / 39.916667N
25.550000E
with his accident from the water-snake. But the

waves utterly overwhelmed it, and Chryse sank
and disappeared in the depths... So temporary
and utterly weak are the fortunes of men.
Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.33.4
An amateur underwater archaeologist claimed to have rediscovered the island in 1960, identifying it witha sunken
land mass known as Kharos Bank, a 10-sq.-mi. area near
the island of Lemnos", listed on British naval charts and located about 40 feet (12 m) below the surface. White building blocks (presumably from Apollo's temple) were said to
be visible on the sea oor.* [5] The Kharos Bank is mentioned by others as a possible site, but there does not appear
to have been further work on it.* [6]
61.1
Location of Lemnos
Chryse (Greek: , Khrs, Golden) was a small

island in the Aegean Sea mentioned by Homer, Sophocles
and Pausanias.
The island's main feature was said to be its temple to Apollo,
and its patron deity a goddess named Chryse. The Greek
archer Philoctetes stopped there on his way to Troy and was
fatally bitten by a viper. Lucullus captured three men there
in an ambush during the Third Mithridatic War.* [1] The
island seems to have disappeared by the 2nd century AD;
it is mentioned by Pausanias * [2] and Appian.* [3] An ancient oracle (written by Onomacritus) may have predicted
this end.* [4]
The Description of Greece says:
References
[1] Gillies, John (1820). XXVII: From Alexander to Augustus. The history of ancient Greece: its colonies and conquests; from the earliest accounts till the division of the Macedonian empire in the East. Including the history of literature,
philosophy, and the ne arts, Volume 4, Part 2. 4. T. Cadell
and W. Davies. p. 249.
[2] 8.33.4
[3] Mithridat. c. 72 et seq.
[4] Javier Martnez, Onomacritus the Forger, Hipparchus'
Scapegoat?", in Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature,
Madrid, 2011, ISBN 84-7882-725-0, p. 225.
[5] Philoctetes Was Here. TIME magazine. December 19,
1960.
[6] Harrison, S. J. (1 January 1989). Sophocles and the Cult
of Philoctetes. The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 109: 173
175. doi:10.2307/632045. JSTOR
The following incident proves the might

of Fortune to be greater and more marvellous
than is shown by the disasters and prosperity of
cities. No long sail from Lemnos was once an
island Chryse, where, it is said, Philoctetes met
181
Chapter 62
Elaea (island)
Elaea or Elaia (Greek: ) was the ancient name of
an island in the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), in Bithynia,
mentioned by Pliny (v. 32); but it is not certain which of the
several small islands he means. It was one of the Demonisi
group.
62.1 References
Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Elaea, London, (1854)
Hazlitt, Classical Gazzetteer, Elaea
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain: Smith, William, ed. (18541857).Elaea
. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London:
John Murray.
182
Chapter 63
Emain Ablach
Emain Ablach (also Emne; Middle Irish Emhain Abhlach or Eamhna; meaning Emhain of the Apples) is
a mythical island paradise in Irish mythology. It is often
regarded as the realm of the sea god Manannn Mac Lir
and identied with either the Isle of Man or the Isle of Arran. According to the medieval Irish poem Baile Suthain
Sith Eamhna, the god Lug Lamfada was reared in Emain
Ablach.
Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 23, 1969, p.

128-42.
Koch, John (ed.), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 146-147; p. 677; p.
691; p. 959; p. 1244; p. 1471; p. 1671.
MacNeill, Mire, The festival of Lughnasa Comhair
de Bhaloideas ireann, University College, 1982, p.
6.
Maier, Bernhard (ed.), Dictionary of Celtic religion
and culture, Boydell & Brewer, 1997, p. 3; p. 156;, p.
186.
63.1 Etymology
Emain/Emne is of uncertain etymology (though it may
be compared with the place name Emain Macha in Ireland, recorded as Isamnion in Ptolemy's 2nd century AD
Geography, which Celticist Heinrich Wagner would translate as what is moving by itself rapidly, the stream,
derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *eis-to move
rapidly* [1]). Ablach meansof the apples/fruitsin Old
Irish.
hgin, Dith, Myth, legend & romance: an encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition, Prentice Hall
Press, 1991, p. 247.
Skene, William Forbes, Celtic Scotland: a history
of ancient Alban, Volume 3, Edmonston & Douglas,
1880, p. 410.
Wagner, Heinrich, The archaic Dind Rg poem and
related problems, riu, Vol. 28, 1977, p. 1-16.
63.2 Inuence
In medieval Arthurian literature, Georey of Monmouth's
island paradise Insula Avallonis (Avalon), where the sword
Caliburnus (Excalibur) was forged, and where King Arthur
was taken to be healed by the sorceress Morgen and her
eight sisters after the Battle of Camlann, could have been
inuenced by Irish legends of Emain Ablach. The medieval Welsh equivalent of Avalon, Ynys Afallach (Isle of
Afallach), may also be related to - if not derived from Emain Ablach.
63.4
63.3 References
[1] Wagner, p. 13.
Bullock-Davies, Constance, Lanval and Avalon,

183
External links
Chapter 64
Fortunate Isles
The Fortunate Isles or Isles of the Blessed* [1] (Greek:
, makrn nsoi) were semi-legendary islands in the Atlantic Ocean, variously treated as a simple
geographical location and as a winterless earthly paradise
inhabited by the heroes of Greek mythology. The related
idea of Brasil and other islands in Celtic mythology are
sometimes conated with the Greek sense of islands in
the western Mediterranean: Sicily, the Aeolian Islands, the
Aegadian Islands or other smaller islands of Sicily. Later
on the islands were said to lie in the Western Ocean near
the encircling River Oceanus; Madeira, the Canary Islands,
the Azores, Cape Verde, Bermuda, and the Lesser Antilles
have sometimes been cited as possible matches.
Plutarch, who refers to thefortunate islesseveral times in

his writings, locates them rmly in the Atlantic in his vita
of Sertorius. Sertorius, when struggling against a chaotic
civil war in the closing years of the Roman Republic, had
tidings from mariners of certain islands a few days' sail from
Hispania:
...where the air was never extreme, which for
rain had a little silver dew, which of itself and
without labour, bore all pleasant fruits to their
happy dwellers, till it seemed to him that these
could be no other than the Fortunate Islands, the
Elysian Fields.* [2]
It was from these men that Sertorius learned facts so beguiling that he made it his life's ambition to nd the islands and
retire there.
64.1 Legend
According to Greek mythology, the islands were reserved
for those who had chosen to be reincarnated thrice, and
managed to be judged as especially pure enough to gain entrance to the Elysian Fields all three times. A feature of the
fortunate islands is the connection with the god Cronus; the
cult of Cronus had spread and connected to Sicily, in particular in the area near Agrigento where it was revered and in
some areas associated with the cult of the Phoenician god
Baal.
64.2 Accounts
The islands are said to be two in number

separated by a very narrow strait and lie 10,000
furlongs ( 2,000 kilometers / 1,250 miles ) from
Africa. They are called the Isles of the Blessed.
[...]
Moreover an air that is salubrious, owing to
the climate and the moderate changes in the seasons, prevails on the islands. The North and
East winds which blow out from our part of the
world plunge into fathomless space and, owing to
the distance, dissipate themselves and lose their
power before they reach the islands, while the
South and West winds that envelop the islands
sometimes bring in their train soft and intermittent showers, but for the most part cool them with
moist breezes and gently nourish the soil. Therefore a rm belief has made its way, even to the
barbarians, that here are the Elysian Fields and
the abode of the Blessed of which Homer sang.
Flavius Philostratus' Life of Apollonius of Tyana (v.2) says,

And they also say that the Islands of the Blessed are to
be xed by the limits of Libya where they rise towards the
uninhabited promontory.In this geography Libya was considered to extend westwards through Mauretaniaas far as
the mouth of the river Salex, some nine hundred stadia, and
beyond that point a further distance which no one can com- Pliny the Elder's Natural History adds to the obligate depute, because when you have passed this river Libya is a scriptionthat they abound in fruit and birds of every
desert which no longer supports a population.
kindthe unexpected detail These islands, however,
184
64.4. NOTES
are greatly annoyed by the putrefying bodies of monsters,
which are constantly thrown up by the sea.
The Isles are mentioned in Book II of True History by the
Greek satirist Lucian of Samosata. The author makes fun
of the heroes residing there by giving an account of their
petty squabbles as presented to the court of the magistrate,
Rhadamanthus. He goes on to describe other observations
of how the residents occupy their time, using every opportunity to satirise both contemporary life and Greek mythology.
Ptolemy used these islands as the reference for the measurement of geographical longitude and they continued to
play the role of dening the prime meridian through the
Middle Ages.* [3] Modern geography names these islands
as Macaronesia.
Lucio Russo in L'America dimenticata* [4] puts forward the
bold hypothesis (supported by means of statistical methods)
that the Fortunate Isles were actually the Lesser Antilles and
that Hipparchus knew their longitude with remarkable precision.
For fantasy author J.R.R. Tolkien, those islands and other
mythical islands such as Avallon, Atlantis, etc. used to exist
as a separate continent in the West, Valinor, but drifted out
into space as the Earth became spherical (from at), in order
to prevent mortals from reaching it. They were inhabited by
the Valar and several elvish nations.
64.3 See also

Greek mythology in popular culture
Hesperides
Snake Island (Black Sea), Isle of the Blessedin
Greek legend.
Annwn
Brittia
Elysium
Mag Mell
Tr na ng
Avalon, The Isle of the Blessed
Aman, the blessed realmof Tolkien's works.
Buyan
Macaronesia
Vinland
185
Great Ireland
Saint Brendan's Island
64.4
Notes
[1] Variously also rendered as theFortunate Islands, theIslands of the Blessed, the Isles of the Blest, and the
Islands of the Blest.
[2] Plutarch, Life of Sertorius, ch. viii.
[3] Wright, John Kirtland (1923).Notes on the Knowledge of
Latitudes and Longitudes in the Middle Ages. Isis. 5 (1):
7598. doi:10.1086/358121. JSTOR 223599.
[4] Lucio Russo, L'America dimenticata. I rapporti tra le civilt
e un errore di Tolomeo (2013)
Chapter 65
Hawaiki
Not to be confused with Hawaii.
sauali'i (spiritsin Smoan) and hou'eiki (chiefsin

Tongan). This has led some scholars to hypothesize that
the word Hawaiki, and, by extension, Savai'i and Hawaii,
In Polynesian mythology, Hawaiki (also rendered as
Avaiki(Society Islands),Savai'i, (Samoa),Havaiki may not, in fact, have originally referred to a geographical
(Reo Tahiti)) is the original home of the Polynesian peoples, place, but rather to chiey ancestors and the chief-based sobefore dispersal across Polynesia.* [1] It also features as the cial structure that pre-colonial Polynesia typically exhibited
(Taumoefolau 1996).
underworld in many Mori stories.
On Easter Island, the name of the mythical home country
appears as Hiva. According to Thor Heyerdahl Hiva allegedly lay east of the island. Sebastian Englert records:
65.1 Etymology
He-k Hau Maka: He kaiga iroto i te ra,

iruga! Ka-oho korua, ka-'i i te kaiga mo noho
o te Ariki O'Hotu Matu'a! [Translation:] The
island towards the sun, above! Go, see the island
where King Hotu Matu'a will go and live!"
Linguists have reconstructed the term to Proto-Nuclear

Polynesian *sawaiki.* [2]
The Mori word Hawaiki gures in legends about the arrival
of the Mori in Aotearoa (New Zealand). The same concept
appears in other Polynesian cultures, the name appearing
variously as Havaiki, Havai'i, or 'Avaiki in other Polynesian
languages, though Hawaiki or the misspelling Hawaiiki
appear to have become the most common variants used
in English. Even though the Smoans have preserved no
traditions of having originated elsewhere, the name of the
largest Smoan island Savaii preserves a cognate with the
word Hawaiki, as does the name of the Polynesian islands
of Hawaii (the okina denoting a glottal stop that replaces
the kin some Polynesian languages).
On several island groups including New Zealand and the
Marquesas the term has been recorded as associated with
the underworld and death.* [2] William Wyatt Gill discusses
at length the legends about 'Avaiki as the underworld or
Hades of Mangaia in the Cook Islands.* [3] Gill (1876:155)
records a proverb: Ua po Avaiki, ua ao nunga nei 'Tis night
now in spirit-land, for 'tis light in this upper world.Tregear
(1891:392) also records the term Avaiki as meaning underworldat Mangaia, probably sourced from Gill.* [4]
There is of course no real contradiction in Hawaiki being
the ancestral homeland (that is, the dwelling place of the
ancestors) and the underworld, which is also the dwelling
place of the ancestors and the spirits.
Englert puts forward the claim that Hiva lies to the West of
the island.* [5] The nameHivais found in the Marquesas
Islands, in the names of several islands: Nuku Hiva, Hiva
Oa and Fatu Hiva (although in Fatu Hiva thehivaelement
may be a dierent word, iva). It is also notable that in the
Hawaiian Islands, the ancestral homeland is called Kahiki
(a cognate of Tahiti, where at least part of the Hawaiian
population came from).
65.2
Legends
According to various oral traditions, the Polynesians migrated from Hawaiki to the islands of the Pacic Ocean in
open canoes, little dierent from the traditional craft found
in Polynesia today. The Mori people of New Zealand trace
their ancestry to groups of people who reportedly travelled
from Hawaiki in about 40 named canoes (waka) (compare
the discredited Great Fleet theory of the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand).
Polynesian oral traditions say that the spirits of Polynesian

people return to Hawaiki after death. In the New Zealand
Other possible cognates of the word Hawaiki include context, such return-journeys take place via Spirits Bay,
186
65.4. SEE ALSO
187
Cape Reinga and the Three Kings Islands at the extreme is no evidence of Polynesian settlement. This evidence innorth of the North Island of New Zealand giving a pos- dicates that at least some of the migration occurred using
sible pointer as to the direction in which Hawaiki may lie. the prevailing winds. Austronesian and Polynesian navigators may have deduced the existence of uninhabited islands
by observing migratory patterns of birds.
65.3 Modern science and practical

testing of theories
Before
3000 BC
65.4
AD 900
HAWAI'I
TAIWAN
2500 BC
In recent decades, boatbuilders (see Polynesian Voyaging

Society) have constructed ocean-going craft using traditional materials and techniques, and have sailed them over
presumed traditional routes using ancient navigation methods, showing the feasibility of such deliberate migration.
See also
200 BC
Hawaiiloa
PHILIPPINES
1500 BC
MELANESIAN
ISLANDS
1300 BC
FIJI
900 BC
1200 BC
SAMOA
800 BC
NIUE
TONGA
MARQUESAS
COOK
ISLANDS
Hklea
AD 700
TAHITI
TUAMOTU
ARCHIPELAGO
AUSTRALIA
PITCAIRN
Kupe
AD 900
AOTEAROA
(NEW ZEALAND)
AD 1200
RAPA NUI
(EASTER ISLAND)
Percy Smith
65.5
Possible migration routes of the Polynesians
Until recently, many anthropologists had doubts that the

canoe-legends described a deliberate migration, tending to
believe that the migration occurred accidentally when seafarers became lost and drifted to uninhabited shores. In
1947 Thor Heyerdahl sailed the Kon-Tiki, a balsa-wood
raft, from South America into the Pacic in an attempt
to show that humans could have settled Polynesia from the
eastern shores of the Pacic Ocean, with sailors using the
prevailing winds and simple construction techniques.
However, DNA, linguistic, botanical, and archaeological
evidence indicates that the Austronesian-speaking peoples
(including the Polynesians) probably originated from islands in eastern Asia, possibly from Taiwan,* [6]* [7] and
moved southwards and eastwards through the South Pacic
Ocean. The common ancestry of all the Austronesian languages, of which the Polynesian languages form a major
subgroup, as well as all Austronesian language families but
Malayo-Polynesian existing only in Taiwan, support this
theory. The sweet potato, which is of South American origin, is widely cultivated in Polynesia, indicating that some
interaction between the Polynesians and the Amerindians of
South America must have taken place. However, no Polynesian crops were introduced into the Americas, and there
Footnotes
[1] Hiroa, Te Rangi (1964). Vikings of the Sunrise. New

Zealand: Whitecombe and Tombs Ltd. p. 69. ISBN 0313-24522-3. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
[2] Polynesian Lexicon Project Online
[3] Gill, William Wyatt, 1876. Myths and Songs from the South
Pacic. Henry S. King, London, pp 152174.
[4] This meaning may be archaic or forgotten in the Cook Islands today. Buse (1996:90) in his dictionary Cook Islands
Maori Dictionary with English Finderlist (edited by Bruce
Biggs and Rangi Moeka) has this entry: Avaiki, prop. n.
Hawaiki, the legendary homeland of the Polynesians. I tere
t mai rtou mei 'Avaiki. They voyaged direct from Hawaiki.
[5] Englert notes that the phrase The island towards the sun,
aboveseems to mean that, seen from Hiva, it lay towards
the rising sun. Sourced from http://www.rongorongo.org/
leyendas/008.htm
[6]Mitochondrial DNA Provides a Link between Polynesians
and Indigenous Taiwanese,synopsis. Public Library of Science, July 5, 2005
[7] The origin of the Polynesians. The Economist, July 7th,
2005.
188
65.6 References
Buse, J., Taringa, R., Cook Islands Maori Dictionary With English Finderlist, edited by Biggs, B. and
Moeka'a R. (1996), 90. Canberra: The Australian National University.
M. Taumoefolau, From *Sau 'Ariki to Hawaiki.
The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 105(4), (1996),
385410.
E. R. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (Lyon and Blair: Lambton Quay), 1891.
65.7 External links

Hawaiki in Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
CHAPTER 65. HAWAIKI
Chapter 66
Hufaidh
Hufaidh is a mythical island in the marshes of southern
Iraq, believed to exist by the Ma'dan or Marsh Arabs.
66.1
References
[1] The Marsh Arabs, Wilfrid Thesiger, Penguin 1967, pp84-85
The Ma'dan informants of the traveller Wilfred Thesiger

asserted that:
[2] Maitland, Alexander. Wilfred Thesiger: The Life of the

Great Explorer, pg 310, HarperPress, 2006
[3] Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. Penguin, 2007. pp
84-85
on it are palaces, and palm trees and gardens

of pomegranates, and the bualoes are bigger
than ours. But no one knows exactly where it is...
anyone who sees Hufaidh is bewitched, and afterwards no one can understand his words...They
say the Jinns can hide the island from anyone who
comes near it.* [1]
66.2
External links
Biography of Wilfred Thesiger, including quotes from

The Marsh Arabs
R.S.M. Sturges (Political Ocer at Qurnah in 1920) shared

with Thesiger a possible connection between Hufaidh and
the biblical Garden of Eden. Sturges wrote about the local
legend ofa lost island in the marshes bearing luscious fruits
and guarded . . . On certain nights it shone with a radiance
visible for many miles. It seemed to move like some outsize will-o'-the-wisp and eluded all attempts to track it down
. . . I saw it myself once a strong diused glow as of the
full moon just below the horizon.* [2]
Thesiger's host, Sadam, earlier related that One of the
Fartus saw it, years ago, when I was a child. He was looking for bualo and when he came back his speech was all
muddled up, and we knew he had seen Hufaidh.
He further said, Saihut, the great AIbu Muhammad
sheikh, searched for Hufaidh with a eet of canoes in the
days of the Turks, but he found nothing.
When Thesiger made some skeptical comment Sadam emphatically said, No, Sahib, Hufaidh is there all right. Ask
anyone, the sheikhs or the Government. Everyone knows
about Hufaidh.* [3]
The island is, perhaps, analogous to the Irish mythical island
of Hy-Brazil.
189
Chapter 67
Isle of the Dead (mythology)

For other uses, see Isle of the Dead (disambiguation).
The Isle of the Dead is associated with pre-Christian Celtic
mythology and occurs as a theme in a number of European
countries. In Britain, it is thought to be either a translation
of the Welsh word "Annwn" for the underworld or an extant
geographical feature of Britain.
190
Chapter 68
Kibu
In the mythology of the Mabuiag people of the Torres Strait,
Kibu mythology is the mythical land of the dead, believed
to exist over the horizon far to the west. The correct full
term is Kibukuth Horizons End. The basic meaning of the
word kibu is midpoint of an upright broad object, such as
small of back, mid-slope of a hill, and horizon, which is the
midpoint of the universe, between the bottom part which
is the earth (apagwa lower-ground, or arkath pit), and the
top half, which is the sky (dapar). The reference to Kibu,
the land of the markai (the spirits of people who have travelled to Kibu after death) is a specialised, religious use of
the word. Traditional Torres Strait religion can be characterised as totemic and ancestor worship, and as such the
markai are the ancestors, and are specially revered. The
ancestors are with the augadh totem, and the augadh generates the buwai clan/moiety, and the markai ultimately has
a direct relationship to the augadh, though not necessarily
being seen as being the augadh.
In the traditional mythology, the world (arkath hole, apagoewa underfurrow/ditch/garden) is at the bottom of a
sphere, with the sky (dapar) above and around it. The
markai live in Kibu, the main gateway of which is in the
west (Kibukuth Horizons End). However, the markai often come back to visit. The land of the markai actually
surrounds the world, so markai can be seen passing from
east to west as well as west to east, coming down from the
sky, and sometimes even coming up from under the ground
via Apangab Netherway, Underway, the mythical pathway
under the earth used by markai and others, such as dhogai
long-eared witch women, maidhalaig magic-men, and others to travel under the earth and the sea from place to place.
In the passage over to the other side, at the sandbanks west

of Boigu, the mari, which is black (kubikub) just as in life,
becomes white (gamulnga) (this is a belief common to many
Pacic and Australian peoples). Therefore, when Asians
and Europeans visited Torres Strait, they were at rst believed to be markai returning. In the modern language,
markai is still often used to refer to Europeans, though no
longer to Asians. However, this is considered to be impolite, and the correct term is either Yurupau Moebaig European or Gamulmoebaig (Light) Coloured Person. One
favourite means of transport of the markai is the markaigub
spirit wind, that is to say, waterspouts, which appear in
the North-West Monsoon season, the favorite time for the
markai to come to Torres Strait. As this was the season
the Makkasarese and similar Indonesian shermen came to
Northern Australia, they were associated with the markai.
68.1
References
68.2
Further reading
Before becoming markai, the spirit of the dead person is

called mari. Mari are the spirits of the dead who have not
yet passed to the other side. The passage to the other side
is made on the sand banks just west of Boigu, in north-west
Torres Strait. At Boigu, the mari either leave a sign or otherwise talk to the mariumulaimoebaig spirit talker, to let
people know how he or she died, and if he or she was murdered (and if so, who killed them). This is done where the
cemetery is at Boigu, just west of the village.
191
Turner, Patricia; Charles Russell Coulter (2001).

Kibu. Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. p. 271. ISBN 0-19-5145046.
Frazer, James George (2008) [1913]. The island
home of the dead. The Belief in Immortality and the
Worship of the Dead, Volume I: The Belief Among the
Aborigines of Australia, the Torres Straits Islands, New
Guinea and Melanesia. BiblioBazaar. p. 227. ISBN
1-4375-3316-7.
Chapter 69
Krocylea
Krocylea (Greek: ) is an Ancient Greek name
of an island in the Ionian Sea, near Ithaca. In Homer's Iliad,
book II, Krocylea is part of Odysseus's kingdom. Some researchers, including Wilhelm Drpfeld estimate that Krocylea is present day island of Atokos or Meganisi.
69.1 See also

Same
192
Chapter 70
Lanka
This article is about the city. For the modern country, see brothers ruled for years and invaded the heavens. After
Sri Lanka. For other uses, see Lanka (disambiguation).
suering a humiliating and disastrous defeat at the hands
Lanka /lk/ is the name given in Hindu mythology of Lord Vishnu, the brothers were too ashamed to return to
Lanka. Kubera seized control of Lanka and established the
Yaksha Kingdom and his capital was guarded by rakshasas.
His half-brother Ravana, son of the sage Vishravaya and
Sumali's daughter, fought with Kubera and took Lanka
from him. Ravana ruled Lanka as king of the Rakshasa
Kingdom. The battle in Lanka is depicted in a famous relief
in the 12th-century Khmer temple of Angkor Wat.
The golden abode of King Ravana
to the island fortress capital of the legendary demon king

Ravana in the epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known as the Trikuta Mountains. The ancient
city of Lankapura is thought to have been burnt down by
Hanuman. After its king, Ravana, was killed by Rama with
the help of his brother Vibhishana, the latter was crowned
king of Lankapura. The mythological site of Lank is identied with Sri Lanka. His descendants were said to still
rule the kingdom during the period of the Pandavas. According to the Mahabharata, the Pandava Sahadeva visited
this kingdom during his southern military campaign for the
rajasuya of Yudhishthira.
70.1 Rulers of Lanka

Hanuman Watches Lanka Burn
According to both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,

Lanka was originally ruled by a rakshasa named Sumali.
According to Uttara Kanda, Lanka was originally built by
the divine architect Vishwakarma for the gods, but was After Ravana's death, he was succeeded by his brother, Vibseized by the brothers, Malyavan, Sumali and Mali. The hishana.
193
194
CHAPTER 70. LANKA
70.2 Lanka, Sri Lanka, and possible 70.4.1 Sahadeva's expedition to South
locations
The son of Pandu, viz. Sahadeva, conquered the
town
of Sanjayanti and the country of the Pashandas and the
Karanatakas by means of his messengers alone, and made
all of them pay tributes to him. The hero brought under
his subjection and exacted tributes from the Paundrayas
(Pandyas?) and the Dravidas along with the Udrakeralas
and the Andhras and the Talavanas, the Kalingas and the
Ushtrakarnikas, and also the delightful city of Atavi and
that of the Yavanas. And, He having arrived at the seashore,
then dispatched with great assurance messengers unto the illustrious Vibhishana, the grandson of Pulastya and the ruler
of Lanka (2:30).
The Lanka referred to in the still-extant Hindu Texts and the

Ramayana (referred to as Ravana's Lanka), is considered to
be a large island-country, situated in the Indian Ocean. The
Ramayana clearly state that Ravana's Lanka was situated
100 Yojanas (roughly 1,300 km or 800 miles) away from
mainland India.* [1]* [2] Some scholars have interpreted the
content of these texts to determine that Lanka was located
at the point where the Prime-Meridian of India passes the
Equator.* [3]* [4] This island would therefore lie more than
a hundred miles South-west of present-day country of Sri
Lanka. The most original of all the existing versions of
Valmiki's Ramayana also suggest the location of Ravana's
Lanka to be in the western Indian Ocean. In fact it indi- 70.4.2 Presence of the King of Lanka in
cates that Lanka was in the midst of a series of large islandYudhishthira's Rajasuya
nations, submerged mountains, and sunken plateaus in the
western part of the Indian Ocean.Valmiki's Ramayana* [5] Lanka king is listed as present in the conclave of kings present
There has been a lot of speculation by several scholars, in Pandava king Yudhishthira's Rajasuya sacrice.
that Ravana's Lanka might have been in the Indian Ocean .. The Vangas and Angas and Paundras and Odras and
around where the Maldives once stood as a high mountain, Cholas and Dravidas and Cheras and Pandyas and Mushika
before getting submerged in the Indian Ocean.* [6]* [7]* [8] and Andhakas, and the chiefs of many islands and countries on the seaboard as also of frontier states, including the
rulers of the Sinhalas, the barbarous mlecchas, the natives
of Lanka, and all the kings of the West by hundreds, and
all the chiefs of the seacoast, and the kings of the Pahlavas
70.3 Description
and the Daradas and the various tribes of the Kiratas and
Yavanas and Sakras and the Harahunas and Chinas and
Ravana's Lanka, and its capital Lankapuri, are described in Tukharas and the Sindhavas and the Jagudas and the Raa manner that seems superhuman even by modern-day stan- mathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdards. Ravana's central palace-complex (main citadel) was dom of women and the Tanganas and the Kekayas and the
a massive collection of several edices that reached over one Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira ... (3:51).
yojana (8 miles or 12.88 kilometres) in height, one yojana
in length, and half a yojana in breadth. The island had a
large mountain range known as the Trikuta Mountain, atop 70.4.3 Other fragmentary references
which was situated Ravana's capital of Lanka, at the center
of which in turn stood his citadel. * [9]* [10]* [11]
Lanka, with its warriors, and horses, elephants and
chariots (3:149).
Lanka with its towers and ramparts and gates (3:147)
70.4 References to Lanka in the Mahabharata

Many of the references to Lanka in the Mahabharata are
found in sage Markandeya's narration of the story of Rama
and Sita to king Yudhishthira, which narration amounts to
a truncated version of the Ramayana. The references in the
following summary are to the Mahabharata, and adhere to
the following form: (book:section). Markandeya's narration of the story begins at Book III (Varna Parva), Section
271 of the Mahabharata.
The walls of Lanka (3:282).
70.5
See also
Sri Lanka
Kingdoms of Ancient India
Ancient clans of Sri Lanka
Naga people (Lanka)

Sinhala Kingdom
Vishwakarma
70.6 References
[1] Valmiki Ramayana 4.58.20
[2] Valmiki Ramayana 4.58.24
[3] The Indian calendar, with tables for ... Google Books. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
[4] Bharath Gyan. Bharath Gyan. Retrieved 26 January
2011.
[5] Vlmki; Venkatesananda, Swami (1988-01-01). The
Concise R_m_ya_a of V_lm_ki. SUNY Press. ISBN
9780887068621.
[6] The Hindu Pantheon - Edward Moor - Google Books.
Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[7] Excerpta Mldiviana - H.C.P. Bell, Harry Charles Purvis Bell
- Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[8] Ravana - The Great King of Lanka - M.S. Purnalingam Pillai
- Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[9] Valmiki Ramayana - Sundara Kanda - Sarga 9. Sanskritdocuments.org. 2008-12-07. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[10] The Society of the Rmyaa - Ananda W. P. Guruge Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[11] Srimad Valmiki-Ramayana - Vlmki - Google Books.
Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
70.7 External links

Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated from Sanskrit into English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Sri Lanka Reference Country Information, History
and Maps
Etymology of Lanka from Tamilnet
195
Chapter 71
Mag Mell
In Irish mythology, Mag Mell (modern spelling: Magh
Meall, meaning plain of joy) was a mythical realm
achievable through death and/or glory.
Unlike the
underworld in some mythologies, Mag Mell was a pleasurable paradise, identied as either an island far to the west
of Ireland or a kingdom beneath the ocean. However, Mag
Mell was similar to the elds of Elysium in Greek mythology, and like the elds of Elysium, was accessible only to
a select few. Furthermore, Mag Mell, like the numerous
other mystical islands said to be o the coast of Ireland,
was never explicitly stated in any surviving mythological account to be an afterlife. Rather, it is usually portrayed as a
paradisal location populated by deities, which is occasionally visited by some adventurous mortals. In its island guise
it was visited by various Irish heroes and monks forming
the basis of the Adventure Myth or "echtrae" as dened by
Myles Dillon in his book Early Irish Literature. This otherworld is a place where sickness and death do not exist. It is
a place of eternal youth and beauty. Here, music, strength,
life and all pleasurable pursuits come together in a single
place. Here happiness lasts forever, no one wants for food
or drink. It is the Irish equivalent of the Greek Elysium or
the Valhalla of the Norse.
71.1
In popular media
'Mag Mell' is a location in Final Fantasy Crystal

Chronicles, which is home to Carbuncles.
'Mag Mell' is the title of an album by Japanese artist
Mili.
The German Metal band SuidAkrA's album Book of
Dowth includes a song titled 'Mag Mell'.
'Mag Mell' is a location in Kersten Hamilton's urban
fantasy series Goblin Wars.
'Mag Mell' is the setting for the epic fantasy series The
Harmatia Cycle by M.E. Vaughan.
'Mag Mell' is the name of a village in Dark Age of
Camelot.
71.2
Legends say its ruler is the Fomorian King Tethra, or more

frequently Manannan mac Lir. Mag Mell's allure extended
from the pagan era to Christian times. In later stories, the
realm is less an afterlife destination than an Earthly Paradise which adventurers could reach by traveling west from
Ireland, often blown o course by providential tempests
while on an inspired mission. They typically explore many
other fantastic islands before reaching their destination and
returning home (or sailing on). Among these voyagers are
St. Brendan, Bran mac Febal (see The Voyage of Bran),
and Mael Din.
Irish monks, being celebrated sailors, doubtless inspired
such stories and were inspired by them. They reached and
colonized any number of faraway islands, and St. Brendan
is even speculated to have reached the New World a thousand years before Columbus.
See also
Tr na ng
Fortunate Isles
Valhalla
Avalon
Aaru
Heaven
Aericura
Aillen
Sdhe
Hy-Brasil
196
71.3. REFERENCES
71.3 References
James MacKillop, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, Oxford: 1998. ISBN 0-19-860967-1
197
Chapter 72
Neritum
Neritum (Greek: ) is an Ancient Greek name of
an island in the Ionian Sea, near Ithaca and Cephalonia. In
Homer's Iliad, book II, Neritum is part of Odysseus's kingdom.
72.1 References
198
Chapter 73
Ogygia
This article is about the island. For the orchid genus, see
Acianthera.
Ogygia (/oddi/; Ancient Greek: gyg
was singing with a sweet voice as she went to

and fro before the loom, weaving with a golden
shuttle. Round about the cave grew a luxuriant wood, alder and poplar and sweet-smelling
cypress, wherein birds long of wing were wont to
nest, owls and falcons and sea-crows with chattering tongues, who ply their business on the sea.
And right there about the hollow cave ran trailing
a garden vine, in pride of its prime, richly laden
with clusters. And fountains four in a row were
owing with bright water hard by one another,
turned one this way, one that. And round about
soft meadows of violets and parsley were blooming...* [2]
73.1
Location
Odysseus and Calypso in the caves of Ogygia. Painting by Jan

Brueghel the Elder (15681625)
[y], or gygia [ya]) is an island mentioned in Homer's Odyssey, Book V, as the home of the
nymph Calypso, the daughter of the Titan Atlas, also known
as Atlantis (* [1]) in ancient Greek. In Homer's
Odyssey Calypso detained Odysseus on Ogygia for 7 years
and kept him from returning to his home of Ithaca, wanting to marry him. Athena complained about Calypso's actions to Zeus, who sent the messenger Hermes to Ogygia to
order Calypso to release Odysseus. Hermes is Odysseus's
great grandfather on his mother's side, through Autolycos.
Calypso nally, though reluctantly, instructed Odysseus to
build a small raft, gave him food and wine, and let him depart the island.
The Odyssey describes Ogygia as follows:
...and he (Hermes) found her within. A great
re was burning in the hearth, and from afar
over the isle there was a fragrance of cleft cedar
and juniper as they burned. But she within
Calypso Cave in Xagra, Gozo. According to Maltese tradition this

was the cave of Calypso and Odysseus.
Ogygia or Phaeacia have been associated with the putative sunken Atlantis. A long-standing tradition begun by
Euhemerus in the late 4th century BC and supported by
Callimachus,* [3] endorsed by modern Maltese tradition,
199
200
CHAPTER 73. OGYGIA
identies Ogygia with the island of Gozo, the second largest

island in the Maltese archipelago. Aeschylus calls the Nile
Ogygian, and Eustathius the Byzantine grammarian said
that Ogygia was the earliest name for Egypt, while other
locations for Ogygia include the Ionian Sea.
for one sailing in a rowing-galley; for the sea is

dicult of passage and muddy through the great
number of currents, and these currents issue out
of the great land, and shoals are formed by them,
and the sea becomes clogged and full of earth, by
which it has the appearance of being solid.* [8]
Many modern scholars are reluctant to place Ogygia or indeed any of the locations Homer describes in any existing
geography, and the literary tale is acknowledged as a work The passage of Plutarch has created some controversy. W.
Hamilton indicated the similarities of Plutarch's account
of ctional mythical intent.
on the great continentand Plato's location of Atlantis
in Timaeus 24E 25A.* [9] Kepler * [10] in his Kepleri Astronomi
Opera Omnia estimated that the great continent
73.2 Geographical
account
by was America
and attempted to locate Ogygia and the surStrabo
rounding islands. Ruaidhr Flaithbheartaigh used Ogygia as a synonym for Ireland in the title of his Irish his(
Approximately seven centuries after Homer, the Alexan- tory, Ogygia: Seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia Ogygia:
Or
a
Chronological
Account
of
Irish
Events),
1685.
drian geographer Strabo criticized Polybius on the
Wilhelm
von
Christ
was
convinced
that
the
continent
was
geography of the Odyssey. Strabo proposed that Scheria
America
and
states
that
in
the
1st
century
sailors
travelling
and Ogygia were located in the middle of the Atlantic
through Iceland, Greenland, and the Ban Region reached
Ocean.
the North American coast.
At another instance he Polybius suppresses
statements. For Homer says also, 'Now after the
ship had left the river-stream of Oceanus',* [4]
73.4 Primeval Ogygia
and, 'In the island of Ogygia, where is the navel
of the sea',* [5] where the daughter of Atlas lives;
Ogygia is associated with the Ogygian deluge and with the
and again, regarding the Phaiakians, 'Far apart
mythological gure Ogyges, in the sense that the word Ogywe live in the wash of the waves, the farthergian means "primeval", "primal", and at earliest dawn
most of men, and no other mortals are conver,* [11] which would suggest that Homer's Ogygia was a
sant with us.'* [6] All these clearly suggest that
primeval island. However, Ogyges as a primeval, aboriginal
he composed them to take place in the Atlantic
ruler was usually sited in Boeotia,* [12] where he founded
Ocean.* [7]
Thebes there, naming it Ogygia at the time.* [13] In another
73.3 Geographical
Plutarch
account
by
Plutarch also gives an account of the location of Ogygia:

First I will tell you the author of the piece, if
there is no objection, who begins after Homers
fashion with, an isle Ogygian lies far out at sea,
distant ve dayssail from Britain, going westwards, and three others equally distant from it,
and from each other, are more opposite to the
summer visits of the sun; in one of which the barbarians fable that Cronus is imprisoned by Zeus,
whilst his son lies by his side, as though keeping guard over those islands and the sea, which
they call the Sea of Cronus. The great continent by which the great sea is surrounded on
all sides, they say, lies less distant from the others, but about ve thousand stadia from Ogygia,
account of Ogyges, he brought his people to the area rst

known as Acte. That land was subsequently called Ogygia
in his honor but ultimately known as Attica.
Ogygia is used by Roderick O'Flaherty as an allegory for
Ireland in his book published in 1685 as Ogygia: seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia & etc., in 1793 translated
into English by Rev. James Hely, asOgygia, or a Chronological account of Irish Events (collected from Very Ancient Documents faithfully compared with each other &
supported by the Genealogical & Chronological Aid of the
Sacred and Profane Writings of the Globe.
73.5
Notes
[1]Atlantismeans the daughter of Atlas. See entry

in Liddell & Scott. See also Hesiod, Theogony, 938.
[2] Odyssey V.58-74
[3] Strabo 7.3.6, referencing Callimachus' account in relation to
Euhemerus. Also, Ernle Bradford (1963), Ulysses Found'.'
[4] Odyssey, XII, 1

[5] Odyssey, I, 50
[6] Odyssey, VI, 204
[7] The original text of this passage by Strabo is:

.
[8] Plutarch, Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of
the Moon, chap. 26.
[9] W. Hamilton, The Myth in Plutarch's De Facie (940F
945D)" Classical Quarterly 28.1 (January 1934:24-30).
[10] Introductory notes at the Loeb Classical Library on pages
21, 22 and 23.
[11] Entry at Liddell & Scott
[12] EntryOgygusin N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard,
The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford
University Press: 1970.
[13] EntryOgygesin E. H. Blakeney, ed., Smith's Smaller Classical Dictionary, Everyman's Library, London: J. M. Dent
and Sons Ltd., 1937.
73.6 External links

Plutarch - Concerning the Face Which Appears in the
Orb of the Moon
201
Chapter 74
Onogoro Island
Onogoro Island, Onokoro Island, Onogoroshima, or
Onokoroshima (, OJ: Ono2 go2 ro2 -sima or
Ongr-sima) is a mythical island in Japanese mythology.
[2] Philippi's translation, p. 49, p. 57, and p. 306.
74.5
74.1 Mythological account
References
Donald L.Philippi tr. Kojiki, Princeton University

Press, Tokyo University Press,1969
According to the mythical account of the Kojiki, Onogoro

Island was created (kuniumi) when the divine couple Izanagi
and Izanami churned the sea with a jewelled spear from
their vantage point on the oating bridge of heaven.* [1]
When they raised the spear from the ocean, drops fell from
the spear, forming the island. They built a palace on top
with a great column in the middle. The couple walked
around this pillar in opposite directions, and when they encountered each other, they were wed. This island is where
Hiruko was conceived.
The island is mentioned only thrice in the Kojiki, at ch.3:3,
ch:7:25, and ch.111:32.* [2]
74.2 Etymology
The name probably signied self-curdling island.
74.3 Real-world placement

In his Kojiki-den, a ground-breaking commentary on the
Kojiki, the great Kokugaku scholar Motoori Norinaga asserted that it referred to one of the small islands near
Awajishima (e.g. Nushima or Tomogashima). However, attempts to identify places in mythical cosmology with known
sites in a real country's topography remain unconvincing.
74.4 Notes
[1] Kurano, Kojiki, page 53
202
Kurano, Kenji; Ykichi Takeda (1958). Kojiki, Norito.

Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei (in Japanese). Tky:
Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-060001-X.
Chapter 75
Panchaea
Panchaea (Greek: ) is an island, rst mentioned
by ancient Greek philosopher Euhemerus in the late 4th
century BC. Euhemerus describes this place as home to a
society made up of a number of dierent ethnic tribes and
his trip there in his major work Sacred History, only fragments of which survive.
Fragments preserved by followers such as the later Greek
historian Diodorus Siculus and 4th century AD Christian
writer Eusebius of Caesarea describe Panchaea as a rational island paradise located in the Indian Ocean. Euhemerus
came there by traveling through the Red Sea and around
the Arabian Peninsula; in the island's temple of Zeus Triphylius he discovered a register of the births and deaths of
the gods, proving they were merely historical gures. The
island is also mentioned by Lygdamus (Tib. 3.2.23), one of
the Tibullan elegists, as a rich place from which he'll hope
for gifts to his grave.* [1]
Several islands may be probable locations, including
Socotra or Bahrain. The place may resemble the Failaka
Island, although it is unlikely Panchaea was a real place, but
rather a literary device invented by the author. In many
parts its description is similar to Plato's Atlantis.
75.1 References
[1] Lygdami Elegiae. The Latin Library. Retrieved 27 May
2016. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
Brown, Truesdell S. (1946).Euhemerus and the Historians. Harvard Theological Review. 39 (4): 259
274. doi:10.1017/S0017816000023245.
Pinheiro, Marilia P. Futre (2006). Utopia and
Utopias: a Study on a Literary Genre in Antiquity
(PDF). Authors, Authority and Interpreters in the Ancient Novel. Groningen: Barkhuis. pp. 147171.
ISBN 907792213X.
203
Chapter 76
Mount Penglai
Horairedirects here. For the town in Aichi, see Hrai, vant sent to nd the island, found Japan instead, and named
Mount Fuji as Penglai.
Aichi. For the ancient Greek goddesses, see Horae.
Penglai is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is
known in Japanese mythology as Hrai.* [1]
76.1 Location
According to the Classic of Mountains and Seas, the mountain is said to be on an island in the eastern end of Bohai Sea,
along with four other islands where the immortals lived,
called Fngzhng (), Yngzhu (), Diy (),
and Yunjio ().
76.3
In Japanese mythology
The presentation of Mt. Hrai in Lafcadio Hearn's

Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, is somewhat dierent from the earlier idyllic Chinese myth. This
version, which does not truly represent the Japanese views
of Horai in the Meiji and preceding Tokugawa periods, rejects much of the fantastic and magical properties of Hrai.
In this version of the myth, Hrai is not free from sorrow
or death, and the winters are bitterly cold. Hearn's conception of Hrai holds that there are no magical fruits that cure
disease, grant eternal youth or raise the dead, and no rice
bowls or wine glasses that never become empty.
Various theories have been oered over the years as to

thereallocation of these places, including Japan, Jejudo
south of the Korean Peninsula, and Taiwan. Penglai, ShanHearn's incarnation of the myth of Hrai focuses more on
dong exists, but its claimed connection is as the site of dethe atmosphere of the place, which is said to be made up not
partures for those leaving for the island rather than the isof air but ofquintillions of quintillionsof souls. Breathing
land itself.
in these souls is said to grant one all of the perceptions and
knowledge of these ancient souls. The Japanese version also
holds that the people of Hrai are small fairies, and they
76.2 In Chinese mythology
have no knowledge of great evil, and so their hearts never
grow old.
In Chinese mythology, the mountain is often said to be the In the Kwaidan, there is some indication that the Japanese
base for the Eight Immortals, or at least where they travel to hold such a place to be merely a fantasy. It is pointed out
have a banquet, as well as the magician Anqi Sheng. Sup- that Hrai is also called Shinkiro, which signies Mirage
posedly, everything on the mountain seems white, while the Vision of the Intangible.
its palaces are made from gold and platinum, and jewelry
Yet uses of Mount Hrai in Japanese literature and art of
grows on trees.
the Tokugawa period (16151868) reveal a very dierent
There is no pain and no winter; there are rice bowls and view than Hearn's Victorian-inuenced interpretation.
wine glasses that never become empty no matter how much
people eat or drink from them; and there are magical fruits
growing in Penglai that can heal any disease, grant eternal
76.4 See also
youth, and even raise the dead.
Historically, Qin Shi Huang, in search of the elixir of life,
made several attempts to nd the island where the mountain
is located, to no avail. Legends tell that Xu Fu, one ser204
Avalon
Luggnagg, the island of the immortal struldbrugs in
76.5. REFERENCES
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels
Shangri-La
Dilmun, paradise-island in the Epic of Gilgamesh
76.5 References
[1] McCullough, Helen. Classical Japanese Prose, p. 570. Stanford Univ. Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8047-1960-8.
Horai. Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange

Things (digital version @ sacred-texts.com). Retrieved
February 22, 2006.
205
Chapter 77
Planctae
In Greek mythology, the Planctae /plkti/ (Greek:
, Planktai,Wanderers) or Wandering Rocks
were a group of rocks, between which the sea was mercilessly violent. The Argo (led by Jason) was the only ship
to navigate them successfully (with divine help from Hera,
Thetis, and the Nereids). Jason chose to brave the Planctae
instead of braving Scylla and Charybdis.
In the Odyssey of Homer, the sorceress Circe tells Odysseus
of theWandering RocksorRoving Rocksthat have
only been successfully passed by the Argo when homeward
bound. These rocks smash ships and the remaining timbers
are scattered by the sea or destroyed by ames. The rocks
lie on one of two potential routes to Ithaca; the alternative,
which is taken by Odysseus, leads to Scylla and Charybdis.
Furthermore, in the Odyssey of Homer, it was Hera, for her
love of Jason, who sped the Argo through the Symplegades
safely.* [1]
and the Wandering Rocks, all mentioned in the stories of

both Jason and Odysseus, in northwest Greece. Tim Severin noted that the island of Sesola o the coast of Levkas
looked very similar to the rocks from the Argo story, and
also that the area is near a geological fault; he hypothesises
that, due to both its similarity with the legends of the Symplegades and the stories of the Argo sailing home via the
Adriatic and Ionian Seas, the original legend was copied to
the area. Severin also supports his theory with locations
for Scylla and Charybdis being located on the other side of
Levkas, noting that the name "Cape Skilla" is still used for
a nearby headland on the mainland.
77.1
The rocks also appear on the journey in the Argonautica by

Apollonius of Rhodes, who also locates them near Scylla
and Charybdis, but beyond them rather than as an alternative route.* [2] Apollonius distinguishes between two sets of
dangerous rocks. Namely, the Symplegades and the Planctae. The Symplegades were encountered on the way to
the Golden Fleece and the Planctae were encountered on
the return voyage. Which god or goddess helped the Argonauts safely sail through the Clashing Rocks is unclear in
the text. Athena helped in the former task, while Thetis and
the Nereids helped in the latter one. However, the plans
to help Jason pass these obstacles were ultimately orchestrated by Hera according to Apollonius, thus agreeing with
Homer.* [3]
The similarities and dierences between the Wandering
Rocks and the Symplegades has been much debated by
scholars, as have potential locations for them. (See also
Geography of the Odyssey.) As Scylla and Charybdis have
often been located in the Straits of Messina, this has led
some (like E. V. Rieu) to suggest the Wandering Rocks were
located around Sicily, with their ames and smoke coming
from Mount Etna. An alternative theory of the geography
of the Odyssey places Circe, the Sirens, Scylla & Charybdis
206
References
[1] Homer, The Odyssey, XII, 7880.

[2] Apollonius, The Argonautica, 4.782-788
[3] Apollonius of Rhodes, Jason and the Golden Fleece,
Trans. Richard Hunter, Oxford University Press, Great
Clarendon Street, Oxford, 1993, p. 158, note 117. Book
II, 597598 and Book IV, 859958.
Chapter 78
Royllo
Albino de Canepa, 1489. Showing Roilloright west of Antillia
Royllo (also Roillo), is a legendary phantom island that was

once thought to be located in the Atlantic Ocean. Probably
identical with the island originally called Ymana in a 1424
nautical chart of Zuane Pizzigano. The island is usually depicted in many 15th-century maps as a small island located
slightly to the west (20 leagues or so) of the much larger
Antillia island.* [1] It is often found in the group insulae de
novo repertae, or newly discovered islandsalong with
other legendary islands.
78.1 References
[1] University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, "Armando Corteso
and Island Names"
207
Chapter 79
Saint Brendan's Island

79.1.1
Middle Ages
This island is named after Saint Brendan, who claimed to

have landed on it in 512 together with 14 monks, with whom
he held a mass. The monastic party reported its stay as 15
days, while the ships expecting their return complained that
they had been kept waiting a year, during which period the
island remained concealed behind a thick curtain of mist.
In his Navigatio Sancti Brendan Abbatis, the monk Barino
mentioned having visited this same Paradisein the Atlantic, a thickly wooded mountainous island where the sun
never set and it was always day: the ora were abundant,
the trees bore rich fruit, the rivers ran with fresh water, and
the birds sang sweetly in the trees.
1707 map of north-west Africa, showing the fabledisland of
San Borondn west of the Canaries
Saint Brendans Isle, also spelled St Brendans Isle, is a

phantom island, or mythical island, supposedly situated in
the North Atlantic somewhere west of Northern Africa. It
is named after the Saint Brendan who founded the Clonfert
monastery and monastic school. It is said to have been discovered by the saint and his followers while they were traveling across the ocean, evangelizing islands. It appeared on
numerous maps in Christopher Columbus's time, most notably Martin Behaim's Erdapfel of 1492. It is referred to as
La isla de San Borondn or isla de Samborombn in Spanish.* [1]
In Planiferio de Ebstorf (1234), Marcos Martinez referred

tothe lost island discovered by St Brendan but nobody has
found it sinceand in Mapamundi de Hereford (1275) the
whole archipelago is described asThe Isles of the Blessed
and the Island of St Brendan.
79.1.2
Early Modern Age
The Portuguese writer Lus Perdigo recorded the interest

of the King of Portugal after a sea captain informed Henry
the Navigator (13941460) that he had found the island but
was driven o by tumultuous sea conditions. Henry ordered
him back: he sailed o but never returned. Christopher
Columbus is said to have believed in its existence.
In 1566 Hernn Prez de Grado, First Regent of the Royal

The rst mention of the island was in the ninth-century
Canary Islands Court, ordered the justices at La Palma, El
Latin text Navigatio Sancti Brendani Abatis (Voyage of Saint
Hierro and La Gomera to investigate the phenomenon. In
Brendan the Abbot), placing the island into Irish and Eurohis history, Abreu y Galindo reports a conversation with a
pean folklore.
French adventurer claiming to have visited San Borondon,
departing thence when a storm set in and making the voyage to La Palma for shelter within a day. In another report, Alonso de Espinosa, governor of El Hierro, described
sighting San Borondon island north west of El Hierro and
79.1 History
"leeward" of La Palma. He listed 100 witnesses to the apparition.
208
79.2. SEE ALSO
209
Juan de Abru Galindo reported in Historia de la Conquista of San Borondon became less frequent.
de las siete Islas Canarias that the island of Saint Brendan (San Borondon), which is the eighth and last, whose
existence may be inferred from sightings of its apparitions, 79.2 See also
seems to be located at 20 degrees 30 minutes of latitude and
eight leagues (40 kilometres) due west of La Gomera.(The
Fata Morgana (mirage)
longitude given in the coordinates is based on the old measurement before the introduction of the Greenwich meridian).
79.3
79.1.3
Modern Age
In 1719, the Scottish monk Sigbert de Gembloux reported

seeing the island, as did Don Matea Dacesta, mayor of
Valverde, El Hierro in 1721. As a result of these sightings,
that same year Juan de Mur y Aguerre, military governor of
the Canary Islands, appointed a new commission of inquiry
under Gaspar Dominguez, a sea captain; no fresh evidence
was uncovered and subsequently interest waned. According
to the Canary historian Ramirez, in 1723 a priest performed
the rite of exorcism towards the island during one of its apparitions behind low cloud. This was witnessed by a large
number of persons and sworn to on adavit.
In 1759 a Franciscan monk mentioned, but not identied
by name, by Viera y Clavijo wrote to a friend: I was most
desirous to see the island of San Borondon and, nding myself in Alexero, La Palma, on 3 May at six of the morning,
I saw, and can swear to it on oath, that while having in plain
view at the same time the island of El Hierro, I saw another island of the same colour and appearance, and I made
out through a telescope, much wooded terrain in its central
area. Then I sent for the priest Antonio Jose Manrique, who
had seen it twice previously, and upon arrival he saw only
a portion of it, for when he was watching, a cloud obscured
the mountain. It was subsequently visible for another 90
minutes. being seen by about forty spectators, but in the
afternoon when we returned to the same point we could see
nothing on account of the heavy rain.
In his Noticias, Vol I, 1772, chronicler Viera y Clavijo
wrote: A few years ago while returning from the Americas, the captain of a ship of the Canary Fleet believed he
saw La Palma appear and, having set his course for Tenerife based on his sighting, was astonished to nd the real La
Palma materialize in the distance next morning.Viera adds
that a similar entry is made in the diaries of Colonel don
Roberto de Rivas, who made the observation that his ship
having been close to the island of La Palma in the afternoon, and not arriving there until late the next day, the ofcer was forced to conclude thatthe wind and current must
have been extraordinarily unfavourable during the night.
Further expeditions were organised in the search for the island, but from the 19th century onwards, reported sightings
Notes
[1] Haase, Wolfgang; & Reinhold, Meyer (1993). The Classical

Tradition and the Americas: European Images of the Americas and the Classical Tradition v. 1. Walter de Gruyter. p.
200. ISBN 978-3-11-011572-7.
Chapter 80
Same (ancient Greece)

Not to be confused with Samos
Same (Greek: ), also Samos () is an Ancient
Greek name of a Homeric island in the Ionian Sea, near
Ithaca and Cephalonia. In Homer's Odyssey Same is described as part of Odysseus's kingdom together with Ithaca,
Dulichium, and Zacynthus.* [1] The Iliad, book II, in the
Catalogue of Ships, contains a dierent list of islands comprising Odysseus's kingdom. Same is included together
with Ithaca, Neritum, Krocylea, Aegilips and Zacynthus,
indicating that the Catalogue of Shipscould be a later
addition to the Iliad.
In Homer's Odyssey, there is an interesting geographical
description:
Now there is a rocky islet called Asteris, of
no great size, in mid channel between Ithaca and
Same, and there is a harbor on either side of it
where a ship can lie, with an entrance on either
side. Here then the Achaeans [the suitors] placed
themselves in ambush [against Telemakhos]".* [2]
From the above passage, it is obvious that Homer's Same
is not the Greek island Samos in the Eastern Aegean Sea,
Same should be located in the Ionian Sea, near Homer's
Ithaca and there should be at least one rocky island between
the two islands. Also, this rocky island should be located
South of Homer's Ithaca where Telemakhos would arrive
from South-West Peloponnese. Based on the above information, Wilhelm Drpfeld in his essay Alt-Ithaka: Ein
Beitrag zur Homer-Frageproposed that Same was present
day Ithaca. Other authors make extensive description of
Drpfeld's theory. C.H. Goekoop corresponds Sameto
"Thiaki", the islet Asteristo Arkoudi and the bay of
Phorkysto Syvota Bayat Lefkada.* [3] Today, Arkoudi remains an uninhabited, rocky islet of no great size,
just like Asteris was described by Homer, while small boats
and yachts can still harbour on both the East and the West
coast of it.
Map of Homer's Ithaca according to Drpfeld's theory
Odysseus's younger sister, Ctimene came to Same to marry

Eurylochus for a massive bride-price.* [4]
One of the Suitors, Ctesippus of Same is described as a
man who had no sense of right and wrongand attempts to
throw an ox's hoof from the meat-basket of the dinner table
at Odysseus.* [5]
210
80.1 Notes
[1] Hom. Od. 1.230
[2] Homer's Odyssey, Hom. Od. 4.8437
[3] Where on Earth is Ithaca? A Quest for the Homeland of
Odysseus. (ISBN 978-90-5972-344-3)
80.2 External links

Map of Homer's Ithaka, Same and Asteris according
to Wilhelm Drpfeld. Digital library of Heidelberg
University.
Photo of Asteris (Arkoudi) by Wilhelm Drpfeld.
Digital library of Heidelberg University.
Coordinates of the islet Arkoudi: 383312N
204239E / 38.55333N 20.71083E
211
Chapter 81
Satanazes
The island of Satanazes (also called the island of Devils, or
of the Hand of Satan or of St. Athanasius) is a legendary
island once thought to be located in the Atlantic Ocean, and
depicted on many 15th-century maps.
1436 map of Andrea Bianco of Venice as Ya de la man

satanaxio
1463, 1470 and 1482 maps of Grazioso Benincasa of
Ancona as Saluaga/Salvaga (u and v are equivalent)
1460s anonymous Weimar map (attrib. to Conte di
Ottomano Freducci of Ancona) as Salvagio.* [3]
81.1 Cartographic depiction

In 15th-century portolan charts, the island of Satanazes is
depicted as lying out in the north Atlantic Ocean, due west
of the Azores and Portugal, and just north of the legendary
island of Antillia.
1480 and 1489 maps of Pedro Roselli of Majorca as

Salvatga
1480 and 1489 maps of Albino de Canepa of Venice
as Salvagia
1487 map of anonymous Majorcan cartographer as

The island was rst depicted in the 1424 portolan chart of
Salvaja
Venetian cartographer Zuane Pizzigano. It is drawn as a
large, blue rectangular island, indented with bays and ve
1493 Laon globe as Salirosa
or six settlements, with the inscription ista ixolla dixemo
satanazes, which has been translated as this is the island
Signicantly, the island of Satanazes is omitted on the maps
called of the devils.
of Bartolomeo Pareto (1455), Cristoforo Soligo (c. 1475)
In his 1424 chart, Pizzigano placed Satanazes some sixty
Grazioso's son Andrea Benincasa (1476) and the Nuremleagues north of the large Antillia island. Pizzigano capped
berg globe of Martin Behaim (1492), even though they all
Satanazes with a little umbrella-shaped island he labels Saya
include Antillia and some retain Saya/Tanmar.* [4]
(which later cartographers will call Tanmar or Danmar).
These three islands, plus Ymana (later called Royllo, a little Satanazes disappears on practically all maps after
companion west of Antillia), would be collectively drawn Christopher Columbus's voyages of the 1490s. It was
together in many later 15th-century maps, with the same possibly transplanted (in smaller form) to the Isle of
relative size, position and shape Pizzigano originally gave Demons, between Newfoundland and Greenland, e.g. the
them, and known collectively as theAntillia groupor (to 1508 map of Johannes Ruysch.
use Bianco's label) the insulae de novo rep(er)te (islands
newly reported).
In Grazioso Benincasa's 1463 atlas, the settlements on 81.2 Etymology and legend
Satanazes island are named Araialis, Cansillia, Duchal,
Jmada, Nam and Saluaga.* [1]
According to Corteso, Pizzigano's 'Satanazes' is
Portuguese for satansor devils, Beccaria's
Cartographic appearances of Satanazes:* [2]
'Satanagio' is the same word in Ligurian dialect and
Bianco's 'Satanaxio' the same in Venetian.* [5] The island
1424 map of Zuane Pizzigano of Venice as ista ixolla disappears from maps after 1436, and reappears only in
dixemo satanazes
1462 when Benincasa switches it to Salvaga, meaning
'savage' possibly a misreading, more probably a deliber 1435 map of Battista Beccario of Genoa as Satanagio ate adjustment by Benincasa to avoid using the profanity
212
81.3. REFERENCES
213
of devil. The Laon globe's 'Salirosa' is an apparent tually referencing two separate islands, Satanazes and Demis-transcription of 'Salvaga'.
laman, probably the nearby Danmar or Tanmar of other
Historians have conjectured the Devilsof Satanazes maps, believed to be a reference to the legendary Isle of
might be a reference to the Skraelings (indigenous peoples Mam (Babcock proposed an alternate reading of Delaas I la Mar, or Island of the Sea
of Greenland and Vinland) reported in the Norse sagas, no- man/Danmar/Tanmar
*
.)
[16]
tably the Grnlendinga saga and the saga of Erik the Red,
which began to lter south around this time. Pizzigano may The discovery of the 1424 Pizzigano map in the 20th cenhave constructed Satanazes island to capture their rough ge- tury, with its Satanazes clearly indicated, has allowed modographic location.* [6]
ern historians to set aside the old Hand of Satan/St. Athana*
The possible connection between the Satanazes and the sius theories, and embrace the Isle of Devils reading. [17]
Skraelings was rst proposed by Nordenskild (1889), his
attention drawn by an inscription on some islands between
Newfoundland and Greenland in the 1508 map of Johannes
Ruysch, which notes how 'devils' located there attacked
sailors (See Isle of Demons).* [7] The connection need not
require direct knowledge of the Norse sagas themselves,
e.g. Fridtjof Nansen has drawn attention to how Norse
encounters with North American 'demons' were adopted
in Irish immrama,.* [8] Given the tendency of the legends
of Atlantic seafarers Norse, Irish, Arab and Iberian to
move quickly and cross-fertilize each other,* [9] the news of
an Isle of Devils out in the North Atlantic may have arrived
to Italian cartographers via several channels.
Georg Hassel conjectured that, by their size and shape,
the large islands of Satanazes and Antillia may represent
the coasts of North America and South America respectively,* [10] thus making it a possible testament of preColumbian trans-oceanic contact. Babcock conjectures the
representation might be of the Caribbean, that Satanazes
represents Florida (and Antillia Cuba, Roylla Jamaica and
Tanmar the Bahamas)* [11]
Andrea Bianco's 1436 long label Ya de la man santanaxio
provoked Vicenzo Formaleoni (1783) to read it as the isle of
the Hand of Satan, an alternative name for Satanazes still
found in some sources.* [12] Formaleoni proposed it might
be connected to a legend from India, about a giant hand that
arose each day from the sea and carried o the inhabitants
into the ocean. This legend is told in the Perigrinaggio di
tre giovani (The Three Princes of Serendip) rst published
in Venice in 1557 by Michele Tramezzino (alleged to be
a translation from the Persian of a certain Christopher of
Armenia, Christoforo Armeno). The story might have been
circulating earlier among Atlantic Ocean seafarers, traced
in Irish immrama and Arab tales, about a giant hand in the
Sea of Darkness that plucked sailors and sometimes entire
boats, and dragged them to the bottom of the ocean.* [13]
Gaarel suggests this might be a reference to the icebergs
of the North Atlantic Ocean.* [14]
Despite all these conjectures, there is little agreement. Unlike its southern counterpart Antillia (which seems rather
solidly connected to the Iberian legend of the Seven Cities),
Satanazes has been characterized as a legendary island in
need of a legend.* [18]
81.3
References
[1] Corteso (1954 (1975), p.140)

[2] List from Corteso (1954 (1975): p.134)
[3] The use of Beinincasa's Salvagarather than the older
Satanaxioin the Weimar map is one of the critical factors
in adjusting the estimate of the Weimar map's composition
date from 1424 (Humboldt's original estimate) to sometime
in the 1460s or after.
[4] Corteso (1954 (1975): p.134)
[5] Corteso (1954 (1975): p.135)
[6] Corteso (1954 (1975), p.137).
[7] Nordenskild (1889: p.65).
[8] Fridtjof Nansen (1911: vol.2, p.9)
[9] Nansen (1911: vol. 2, p.54).
[10] Hassel (1822: p.6)
[11] Babckock, (1922: p.155; p.188)
[12] Formaleoni (1783: p.48. Buache (1806: p.17) and Humboldt (1837: p.179) read it the same way.
[13] A fanciful version of the tale of the Hand of Satan is related
in Higginson (1883: p.134).
[14] This is proposed by Paul Gaarel (1882: p.211)
[15] D'Avezac (1845: p.31). Oddly, this reading was pursued by
Nordenskild (1897: p.164), who sought to connect it to St.
Anastasius, even though he had earlier (1889) proposed the
Satanazes = Skraelings connection.
The Marquis d'Avezac (1845) launched yet another the- [16] Babcock (1922: p.155)
ory, reading 'satanaxio' as S. Atanaxio, i.e. the island of
St. Athanasius.* [15] D'Avezac also makes the credible ar- [17] Corteso (1953, 1954, 1970)
gument that the de la man satanaxio in Bianco's label is ac- [18] e.g. Morison, 1971 p.101
214
81.4 Sources
Christoforo Armeno (1557) Perigrinaggio di tre giovani gliuoli del re di Serendippo as translated into
Italian and published by Michele Tramezzino, Venice.
(Eng. trans. as The Three Princes of Serendip)
Babcock, W.H. (1922) Legendary islands of the Atlantic: a study in medieval geography New York:
American Geographical Society. online
Buache, Jean-Nicholas (1806) Recherches sur
l'le Antillia et sur l'poque de la dcouverte de
l'AmriqueMmoires de l'Institut des Sciences, Lettres
et Arts, Vol. 6, Paris: Baudoin, p.1-29
Corteso, Armando (1953)The North Atlantic Nautical Chart of 1424Imago Mundi, Vol. 10. JSTOR
Corteso, Armando (1954) The Nautical Chart of
1424 and the Early Discovery and Cartographical Representation of America. Coimbra and Minneapolis.
(Portuguese trans. A Carta Nautica de 1424, published in 1975, Esparsos, Coimbra. vol. 3)
Corteso, Armando (1970) Pizzigano's Chart of
1424, Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 24
(oprint),
D'Avezac, M.A.P. Marquis (1845) Les les fantastiques de l'ocan occidental au moyen ge: fragment
indit d'une histoire des les de l'Afrique. Paris: Fain &
Thunot. online
Formaleoni, Vicenzio (1783) Saggio sulla Nautica
antica de' Veneziani, con una illustrazione d'alcune
carte idrograche antich della Biblioteca di S. Marco,
che dimonstrano l'isole Antille prima della scoperta di
Cristoforo Colombo. Venice. online
Gaarel, Paul (1882)L'le des Sept Cits et l'le Antilia, Congresso Internacional de Americanistas, Actas
de la Cuara Reunin, Madrid, Madrid: Fortanet, vol.
1, p.198
Georg Hassel (1822) America Einleitungin
Caspari, et al. editors, Vollstndiges Handbuch der
neuesten Erdbeschreibung, Weimar: Geographischen
Instituts. vol. 1 p.6
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (1899) Tales of the
Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic. New York: Macmillan.online
Alexander von Humboldt (1837) Examen critique de
l'histoire de la gographie du nouveau continent et des
progrs de l'astronomie nautique aux quinzime et seizime sicles, Paris: Gide, vol. II.
CHAPTER 81. SATANAZES

Morison, S.E. (1971) The European Discovery of
America: The northern voyages, A.D. 5001600. Oxford University Press.
Fridtjof Nansen (1911) In Northern Mists; Arctic exploration in early times. New York: F.A. Stokes. vol.
1, vol. 2
Nordenskild, Adolf Erik (1889) Facsimile Atlas to the
Early History of Cartography: with reproductions of
the most important maps printed in the XV and XVI
centuries, Stockholm: Norstedt.
Nordenskild, Adolf Erik (1897) Periplus: An Essay
on the Early History of Charts and Sailing Directions,
tr. Frances A. Bather, Stockholm: Norstedt.
81.4. SOURCES
215
The Hand of Satan, emerging from the sea to snatch a boat
1424 map of Zuane Pizzigano, the rst depiction of the island of

Satanazes as a large blue rectangular isle north of Antillia.
Chapter 82
Scheria
Scheria (/skri/; Ancient Greek: or ) 82.2 Odysseus meets Nausicaa
also known as Scherie or Phaeaciawas a region in Greek
mythology, rst mentioned in Homer's Odyssey as the home Meanwhile, the goddess Athena, who sneaks into the
of the Phaeacians and the last destination of Odysseus in his palace, disguises herself as a sea-captain's daughter and in10-year journey before returning home to Ithaca.
structs princess Nausicaa, the daughter of King Alkinos in
her sleep to go to the seashore to wash her clothes. The next
morning, Nausicaa and her maids go to the seashore, and,
after washing the clothes, they start to play a game on the
beach, with laughs, giggles and shouts. Odysseus, who was
exhausted from his adventure and was sleeping nearby, is
82.1 From Ogygia to Scheria
awakened by the shouts. He covers his nakedness with thick
leaves and goes to ask for help from the team. Upon seeing
the unkempt Odysseus in this state, the maids run away,
but, Nausicaa, encouraged by Athena, stands her ground
and talks to him. To excuse the maids, she admits that the
Phaeacians arethe farthermost of men, and no other mortals are conversant with them,* [2] so they run away since
they have never seen a stranger before. Nausicaa, being hospitable, provides clothes, food and drink to Odysseus, then
she directs him to the palace of King Alcinous.
82.3
The palace of King Alcinous
Odysseus before Nausicaa. A 1619 painting by Pieter Lastman.
Before leaving Ogygia, Odysseus builds a raft and sails eastwards, instructed by Calypso to navigate using the stars as a
celestial reference point.* [1] On the eighteenth day appear
the shadowy mountains of the land of the Phaeacians, that
looked like a shield in the misty deep. But Poseidon spots
his raft and seeking vengeance for his son Polyphemus who
was blinded by Odysseus, produces a storm that torments
Odysseus. After three days of struggle with the waves, he Odysseus at the palace of Alcinous. Painting by Francesco Hayez
is nally washed up on Scheria.
216
82.5. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF SCHERIA
217
Euboea,which is the furthest of any placeand came back
on the same day.* [4] He also explains to Odysseus what sort
of information the Phaeacian ships require in order to take
him home to Ithaca.* [5]
Odysseus departs from the Land of the Pheacians. Painting by

Claude Lorrain
Tell me also your country, nation, and city,

that our ships may shape their purpose accordingly and take you there. For the Phaeacians have
no pilots; their vessels have no rudders as those of
other nations have, but the ships themselves understand what it is that we are thinking about and
want; they know all the cities and countries in the
whole world, and can traverse the sea just as well
even when it is covered with mist and cloud, so
that there is no danger of being wrecked or coming to any harm.
Following Nausicaa's orders, Odysseus sought to enter the Homer describes the Phaeacian ships as fast as a falcon and
palace of King Alcinous and plead for mercy from the gives a vivid description of the ship's departure.
queen, Arete, so he could marry her daughter. On his way
to the palace, Odysseus meets Athena disguised as a loThe ship bounded forward on her way as a
cal girl. In her disguised state, Athena advises him about
four in hand chariot ies over the course when
how to enter the palace. Athena, knowledgeable that the
the horses feel the whip. Her prow curvetted as
Phaeacians were hostile towards men from the outlands,
it were the neck of a stallion, and a great wave
cloaked Odysseus in a mist that hid him from the Phaeaof dark blue water seethed in her wake. She
cians' gaze.* [3] Under Athena's protection, Odysseus passes
held steadily on her course, and even a falcon,
through all of the protection systems of the palace and enswiftest of all birds, could not have kept pace with
ters the chamber of King Alcinous. Odysseus throws his
her.* [6]
arms around the queen's legs and supplicates her. Naturally, Alcinous and his court are surprised to see a stranger
walking into their secured palace. It was only after Echlocation
of
eneus, a Phaeacian elder, urged King Alcinous to welcome 82.5 Geographical
the stranger that they oered Odysseus hospitality
Scheria
The front doors of the palace are anked with two dogs
made of silver and gold, constructed by Hephaestus. The
walls of the palace are made of bronze that shines like
the sunand is secured with gates made of gold. Within
the walls, there is a magnicent garden with apple, pear,
and pomegranate trees that grow year-round. The palace
is even equipped with a lighting system comprising golden
statues of young men bearing torches.
Main article: Geography of the Odyssey
Many ancient and modern interpreters favour identication

of Scheria with the island of Corfu, which is within 110 km
(68 miles) of Ithaca. Thucydides, in his Peloponnesian War,
identies Scheria as Corfu/Corcyra. In I.25.4, he records
the Corinthians' resentment of the Corcyraeans, whocould
After Odysseus tells Alcinous and his court the story of his not repress a pride in the high naval position of an island
adventures after the Trojan War, the Phaeacians take him whose nautical renown dated from the days of its old inhabto Ithaca on one of their ships.
itants, the Phaeacians.Locals on Corfu had long claimed
this, based on the rock outside Corfu harbour, which is supposedly the ship that carried Odysseus back to Ithaca, but
was turned to stone by Poseidon, to punish the Phaiakians
82.4 The Phaeacian ships
for helping his enemy:
The Phaeacians possessed remarkable ships. They were
quite dierent from the penteconters, the ships used during
the Trojan War, and they were steered by thought. King
Alcinous says that Phaeacians carried Rhadamanthus to
with one blow from the at of his hand turned

her [the ship] into stone and rooted her to the sea
bottom* [6]
218
CHAPTER 82. SCHERIA
The Phaeacians did not participate in the Trojan War. The

Greek name is derived from phaios ()* [7]
meaning gray. The Phaeacians in the Odyssey did not
know Odysseus (although they knew of him, as evidenced by the tales of Demodocus), so they called him a
stranger. Odysseus however was the king of the majority of the Ionian Islands,* [8] not only of Ithaca, but also
of Cephallenia, Neritum, Crocylea, Aegilips, Same and
Zacynthus"* [9] so if Scheria was Corfu, it would be surprising that the citizens of one of the Ionian Islands did not
know Odysseus. Furthermore, when Odysseus reveals his
identity, he says to the nobles: "... if I outlive this time of
sorrow, I may be counted as your friend, though I live so far
away from all of you* [10] indicating that Scheria was far
away from Ithaca. Many characteristics of the Phaeacians,
including their seafaring and relaxed lifestyle are suggestive of Minoan Crete. Aside from the seafaring prowess,
the palace walls that shone like the Sun are read to be covered not by bronze but orichalcum. The latter similarities
make Scheria also suggestive of Atlantis. Helena Blavatsky
proposed in her Secret Doctrine (1888) that it was Homer
before Plato who rst wrote of Atlantis.* [11] From the ancient times, some scholars having examined the work and
the geography of Homer have suggested that Scheria was
located in the Atlantic Ocean. Among them were Strabo
and Plutarch.
[3] Lattimore, Richard (1967). Homer's The Odyssey, Book 6,

Line 160. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
p. 112. ISBN 0-06-093195-7.
[4] Homer, Odyssey, 7.320
[5] Homer, Odyssey, Book VIII 555563
[6] Odyssey, Book XIII 8488
[7] Entry: at Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon.
[8] Map of Ionian Islands
[9] Iliad, Book II
[10] Odyssey, Book IX, 17
[11]It was not he [Plato] who invented it [the story of Atlantis],
since Homer, who preceded him by many centuries, also
speaks of the Atlantes and of their island in his Odyssey.
Secret Doctrine, vol 2. pt3, ch6.
[12] Odyssey, XII, 1
[13] Odyssey, I, 50
[14] The original text of this passage by Strabo is .
82.7
82.5.1
External links
Geographical account by Strabo
Approximately eight centuries after Homer, Strabo, the

geographer criticized Polybius on the geography of the
Odyssey. Strabo proposed that Scheria and Ogygia were located in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
Odyssey by Homer
Homer's Odyssey resources on the Web
Strabo: The Geography
Atlantis, Poseidonis, Ogygia and Scheria (on page 8)
At another instance he (Polybius) suppresses

statements. For Homer says alsoNow after the
ship had left the river-stream of Oceanus* [12]
andIn the island of Ogygia, where is the navel of
the sea,* [13] where the daughter of Atlas lives;
and again, regarding the Phaeacians, Far apart
we live in the wash of the waves, the farthermost
of men, and no other mortals are conversant with
us.* [2] All these (incidents) clearly suggest that
he (Homer) composed them to take place in the
Atlantic Ocean.* [14] (Strabo, 1.2.18)
82.6 Notes
[1] Homer, Odyssey, 5, 270
[2] Homer, Odyssey, 6.204
Chapter 83
Las sergas de Esplandin

Las Sergas de Esplandin (The Adventures of Esplandin)
is the fth book in a series of Spanish chivalric romance
novels by Garci Rodrguez de Montalvo, which began with
Amads de Gaula. The rst known edition of this work was
published in Seville in July 1510. But there was another
edition published prior, possibly in Seville in 1496, as the
sixth book of the series, Florisando, appeared four months
earlier, in April 1510. This work is cited by Miguel de Cervantes in Don Quixote, in particular it is included in the list
of books ofn the The library of Don Quixote.
Ruth Putnam argues that Montalvo nished his novel sometime after 1492* [1] but before Queen Isabella died in
1504.* [2]
Sovereigns in a way to show that they were both still in life,

and Isabella died in 1504.
[3] Rodrguez de Montalvo, Garci (1526) [1496]. Las sergas
de Esplandin [The Adventures of Esplandin] (in Spanish).
Sabed que ala diestra mano de las Indias ouo una Isla llamada California mucho llegada ala parte del paraiso terrenal la qual sue poblada de mugeres negras sin que algun uaro
entre ellas ouiesse: que casi como las amazonas ... (The rst
mention of Californiaoccurs on the unnumbered page
after page CVIII, in the right column.)
83.2
Las Sergas mentions a ctional island named California,* [3]

inhabited only by black women, and ruled by Queen Calaa.
When Spanish explorers (including Francisco de Ulloa)
learned of an island (actually a peninsula) o western Mexico rumored to be ruled by Amazon women, they named it
California.
83.1 Notes
[1] Putnam, Ruth (1917-12-19). Stephens, Henry Morse;
Bolton, Herbert Eugene, eds. Herbert I. Priestley. California: The Name. University of California Publications
in History. University of California Press. 4 (4): 313314.
Retrieved 2014-07-14. It seems a fair inference that Montalvo did not complete his own story of Esplandian's victories
until after Columbus came back from his rst voyage. Even
if it appeared originally in 1496, the author would have had
time to incorporate a fresh incident into his nearly nished
'copy.'
[2] Putnam, Ruth (1917-12-19). Stephens, Henry Morse;
Bolton, Herbert Eugene, eds. Herbert I. Priestley. California: The Name. University of California Publications
in History. University of California Press. 4 (4): 305. Retrieved 2014-07-14. The date [of Las sergas de Esplandin]
is not xed, but it was certainly before 1504 that it was completed. In his prologue, the author refers to the Catholic
219
External links
Las Sergas de Esplandin (1526) (Spanish) Original

from Library of Catalonia, digitized 2009.
Edward Everett Hale (1885) The Queen of California in His Level Best: And Other Stories. (Google
eBook) Translation from the Sergas of Esplandian of
every passage relating to the imagined island of California. Reprinted in part from an unsigned article in
the Atlantic Monthly for March 1864.
More Books from the Sixteenth Century Printed in
Seville by the Cromberger Dynasty.
Chapter 84
Symplegades
The Symplegades (/smpldiz/; Greek: , Symplgdes) or Clashing Rocks, also known as the
Cyanean Rocks, were, according to Greek mythology, a
pair of rocks at the Bosphorus that clashed together when
somebody went through. They were defeated by Jason and
the Argonauts, who would have been lost and killed by the
rocks except for Phineus' advice. Jason let a dove y between the rocks; it lost only its tail feathers. The Argonauts
rowed mightily to get through and lost only part of the stern
ornament. After that, the Symplegades stopped moving
permanently.
84.1
Names
The Romans called them cyaneae insulae 'blue islands' and

in Turkish they are called reke Ta 'Dista Rock' or 'Midwife's Stool'.
84.2
In literature
Lord Byron refers to the Symplegades in the concluding

stanzas of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage:
The European rock is usually identied with an islet, about

20 metres (66 ft) wide and 200 metres (660 ft) long, which
And from the Alban Mount we now behold
stands about 100 metres (330 ft) o the shore of a village called Rumeli Feneri ('Lighthouse of Rumeli), and is
Our friend of youth, that ocean, which when we
connected to it by a modern concrete jetty. At its highest
Beheld it last by Calp's rock unfold
point, there is an ancient altar known as the Pillar of PomThose waves, we follow on till the dark Euxine
pey, though it has nothing to do with Pompey. Dionysius
roll'd
of Byzantium mentions a Roman shrine to Apollo on one
of the Cyanean Rocks, and the 16th-century French travUpon the blue Symplegades
eller Petrus Gyllius thought the altar was a remnant of that
shrine.* [1]
The New Critic I. A. Richards refers to 'Symplegades' in
The Asian rock is probably a reef o the Yum Burnu (north his work Practical Criticism. In Chapter 2, 'Figurative Lanof Anadolu Feneri 'Lighthouse of Anatolia'), described by guage', he refers to dangers of misinterpretation in reading
poems: These twin dangers - careless, 'intuitive' reading
Gyllius:
and prosaic, 'over-literal' reading - are the Symplegades, the
'justling rocks', between which too many ventures into poetry are wrecked.
The reef is divided into four rocks above water which, however, are joined below; it is separated from the continent by a narrow channel
lled with many stones, by which as by a staircase
one can cross the channel with dry feet when the
sea is calm; but when the sea is rough, waves surround the four rocks into which I said the reef is
divided. Three of these are low and more or less
submerged, but the middle one is higher than the
European rock, sloping up to an acute point and
roundish right up to its summit; it is splashed by
the waves but not submerged and is everywhere
precipitous and straight.* [2]
In his 1961 novel Jason, Henry Treece depicts the Symplegades as icebergs that drifted downriver into the Black Sea.
84.3
The Wandering Rocks
Main article: Planctae

The Symplegades are sometimes identied with (or confused with) the Planctae () or Wandering Rocks,
which are mentioned in the Odyssey and Apollonius of
220

Rhodes' Argonautica. In Apollonius's telling, the Symplegades were encountered on the way to the Golden Fleece
and the Planktai were encountered on the return voyage.
The similarities and dierences between the Wandering
Rocks and the Symplegades has been much debated by
scholars, as have potential locations for them. (See also
Geography of the Odyssey.)
84.4 References
[1] Hilary Sumner-Boyd and John Freely, Strolling through Istanbul, 2010 ISBN 978-1-84885-154-2. p. 447
[2] As quoted by Freely, p. 448
84.5 Bibliography
Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautica II, 317-340, 549610; IV 795-979
Homer. Odyssey XII, 55-72.
E. V. Rieu. Glossaryin The Voyage of Argo - The
Argonautica - A new translation by E.V. Rieu (London;
Penguin Books, 1959)
Tim Severin The Ulysses Voyage: The search for the
Odyssey (London; Arrow Books, 1987) pages 200-214
84.6 External links

http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/
symplegades.html
http://livingheritage.org/symplegades.htm
http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/Places/symplegades.
htm
http://www.flickr.com/photos/zedstar/sets/
72157626285690691/detail/
221
Chapter 85
Thule
Ultima Thuleredirects here. For other uses, see Ultima discoveries have survived in the works of later, often scepThule (disambiguation) and Thule (disambiguation).
tical, authors. Polybius in his Histories (c. 140 BC), Book
Thule (/(j)ul(i)/; Greek: , Thol; Latin: ule, XXXIV, cites Pytheas as one:
who has led many people into error by saying that he traversed the whole of Britain on foot,
giving the island a circumference of forty thousand stadia, and telling us also about Thule, those
regions in which there was no longer any proper
land nor sea nor air, but a sort of mixture of all
three of the consistency of a jellysh in which
one can neither walk nor sail, holding everything
together, so to speak.* [10]
A local stamp of Greenland 1936, inscribed Thule.
Strabo in his Geography (c. 30), Book I, Chapter 4, mentions Thule in describing Eratosthenes' calculation of the
breadth of the inhabited worldand notes that Pytheas says
itis a six days' sail north of Britain, and is near the frozen
sea.But he then doubts this claim, writing that Pytheas has
been found, upon scrutiny, to be an arch falsier, but the
men who have seen Britain and Ierne (Ireland) do not mention Thule, though they speak of other islands, small ones,
about Britain.Strabo adds the following in Book 5:
Tile)* [1] was a far-northern location in classical European

literature and cartography. Though often considered to be
an island in antiquity, modern interpretations of what was
meant by Thule often identify it as Norway,* [2]* [3] an identication supported by modern calculations.* [4] Other interpretations include Orkney, Shetland, and Scandinavia.
In the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance, Thule was often identied as Iceland or Greenland. Another suggested
location is Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea.* [5]* [6]* [7] The term
ultima Thule in medieval geographies denotes any distant
place located beyond the borders of the known world
. Sometimes it is used as a proper noun (Ultima Thule) as
the Latin name for Greenland when Thule is used for Iceland.* [8]
85.1 Ancient geography
Now Pytheas of Massilia tells us that Thule,

the most northerly of the Britannic Islands, is farthest north, and that there the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle. But
from the other writers I learn nothing on the subject neither that there exists a certain island by
the name of Thule, nor whether the northern regions are inhabitable up to the point where the
summer tropic becomes the Arctic Circle.* [11]
Strabo ultimately concludes, in Book IV, Chapter 5,Concerning

Thule, our historical information is still more unThe Greek explorer Pytheas is the rst to have written of
certain,
on
account of its outside position; for Thule, of all
Thule, doing so in his now lost work, On the Ocean, afthe
countries
that are named, is set farthest north.
ter his travels between 330-20 BC. He supposedly was sent
out by the Greek city of Massalia to see where their trade- Nearly a half century later, in 77, Pliny the Elder published
goods were coming from.* [9] Descriptions of some of his his Natural History in which he also cites Pytheas' claim (in
222
85.2. ANCIENT LITERATURE

Book II, Chapter 75) that Thule is a six-day sail north of
Britain. Then, when discussing the islands around Britain
in Book IV, Chapter 16, he writes: The farthest of all,
which are known and spoke of, is Thule; in which there be
no nights at all, as we have declared, about mid-summer,
namely when the Sun passes through the sign Cancer; and
contrariwise no days in mid-winter: and each of these times
they suppose, do last six months, all day, or all night.Finally, in rening the island's location, he places it along
the most northerly parallel of those he describes, writing in
Book VI, Chapter 34,: Last of all is the Scythian parallel,
from the Rhiphean hills into Thule: wherein (as we said) it
is day and night continually by turns (for six months).
The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela placed Thule
north of Scythia.* [12]
223
two hours, a clear reference to the midnight sun.* [17]
Cleomedes referenced Pytheas' journey to Thule, but added
no new information.* [18]
A novel in Greek by Antonius Diogenes entitled The Wonders Beyond Thule appeared c. AD 150 or earlier. Gerald
N. Sandy, in the introduction to his translation of Photius'
ninth-century summary of the work,* [19] surmises that
Thule was probably Iceland.
The Latin grammarian Gaius Julius Solinus in the 3rd century AD, wrote in his Polyhistor that Thule was a 5 days sail
from Orkney:
... Ab Orcadibus Thylen usque quinque
dierum ac noctium navigatio est; sed Thyle larga
et diutina Pomona copiosa est.* [20]
When scientists of the Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation Science of the Technical University of Berlin were
... Thyle, which was distant from Orkney by
testing the antique maps of Ptolemy, they recognized a pata
voyage
of ve days and nights, was fruitful and
tern of calculation mistakes which occurred if one tried to
abundant
in the lasting yield of its crops.* [20]
convert the old coordinates from Ptolemy into modern geographical coordinates. After correcting for the mistakes,
the scientists mapped Ptolemy's Thule to the Norwegian is- The 4th century Virgilian commentator Servius also believed that Thule sat close to Orkney:
land of Smla.* [4]
Other late classical writers and post-classical writers such
... Thule; insula est Oceani inter septemtrias Orosius (384-420) and the Irish monk Dicuil (late eighth
onalem et occidentalem plagam, ultra Britanniam,
and early ninth century), describe Thule as being North and
iuxta Orcades et Hiberniam; in hac Thule cum sol
West of both Ireland and Britain. Dicuil described Thule
in Cancro est, perpetui dies sine noctibus dicuntur
as being beyond islands that seem to be the Faroe Islands,
...* [21]
strongly suggesting Iceland. In the writings of the historian
Procopius, from the rst half of the sixth century, Thule is
... Thule; an island in the Ocean between the
a large island in the north inhabited by twenty-ve tribes.
northern and western zone, beyond Britain, near
It is believed that Procopius is really talking about a part
Orkney and Ireland; in this Thule, when the sun is
of Scandinavia, since several tribes are easily identied, inin Cancer, it is said that there are perpetual days
cluding the Geats (Gautoi) in present-day Sweden and the
without nights ...* [21]
Sami people (Scrithiphini). He also writes that when the
Herules returned, they passed the Warini and the Danes and
then crossed the sea to Thule, where they settled beside the Early in the fth century AD Claudian, in his poem, On
the Fourth Consulship of the Emperor Honorius, Book VIII,
Geats.
rhapsodizes on the conquests of the emperor Theodosius
I, declaring that the Orcades ran red with Saxon slaughter; Thule was warm with the blood of Picts; ice-bound
85.2 Ancient literature
Hibernia [Ireland] wept for the heaps of slain Scots.This
implies that Thule was Scotland. But in Against Runias,
Virgil coined the term Ultima Thule (Georgics, 1. 30) the Second Poem, Claudian writes of Thule lying icemeaning furthest land as a symbolic reference to denote a bound beneath the pole-star.Jordanes in his Getica also
wrote that Thule sat under the pole-star.* [22]
far-o land or an unattainable goal.* [13]
The 1st century BC Greek astronomer Geminus of Rhodes
claimed that the name Thule went back to an archaic word
for the polar night phenomenon the place where the
sun goes to rest.* [14] Dionysius Periegetes in his De
situ habitabilis orbis also touched upon this subject* [15] as
did Martianus Capella.* [16] Avienus in his 'Ora Maritima'
added that during the summer on Thule night lasted only
Over time the known world came to be viewed as bounded

in the east by India and in the west by Thule, as expressed
in the Consolation of Philosophy (III, 203 = metrus V, v. 7)
by Boethius.
For though the earth, as far as India's shore, tremble before the laws you give, though Thule bow to
224
CHAPTER 85. THULE

your service on earth's farthest bounds, yet if thou
canst not drive away black cares, if thou canst
not put to ight complaints, then is no true power
thine.* [23]
war with a tribe whose members dwarf-like, only 20 ngers

in height.* [32] The American classical scholar Charles Anthon believed this legend may have been rooted in history
(although exaggerated), if the dwarf or pygmy tribe were
interpreted as being a smaller aboriginal tribe of Britain the
*
The Roman historian Tacitus, in his book chronicling the people on Thule had encountered. [33]
life of his father-in-law, Agricola, describes how the Romans knew that Britain (which Agricola was commander
of) was an island. He writes of a Roman ship that circum- 85.4 Middle Ages to nineteenth cennavigated Britain, and discovered the Orkney islands and
tury
says the ship's crew even sighted Thule. However their or*
ders were not to explore there, as winter was at hand. [24]
During the Middle Ages, the name Thule was used rst
Seneca the Younger writes of a day when new lands will be
of all to denote Iceland, such as by Dicuil, by the Anglodiscovered past Thule.* [25] This was later quoted widely in
Saxon monk Venerable Bede in De ratione temporum, by
the context of Christopher Columbus' voyages.
the Landnmabk, by the anonymous Historia Norwegie,
and by the German cleric Adam of Bremen in his Deeds of
Bishops of the Hamburg Church, where they cite both an85.3 Inhabitants of Thule
cient writers' use of Thule as well as new knowledge since
the end of antiquity. All these authors also understood that
The inhabitants or people of Thule are described in most other islands were situated to the north of Britain.
detail by Strabo in his Geographica, having preserved frag- Petrarch, in the 14th century, wrote in his Epistolae familments of the account of Pytheas, who was an alleged eye- iares (Familiar Letters"") that Thule lay in the unknown
witness in the 4th century BC:
regions of the far north-west.* [34]
... the people (of Thule) live on millet and
other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where
there are grain and honey, the people get their
beverage, also, from them. As for the grain,
he says, since they have no pure sunshine, they
pound it out in large storehouses, after rst gathering in the ears thither; for the threshing oors
become useless because of this lack of sunshine
and because of the rains.* [26]
A madrigal by Thomas Weelkes, entitled Thule (1600), describes it thusly:

Thule, the period of cosmography,
Doth vaunt of Hecla, whose sulphureous re
Doth melt the frozen clime and thaw the sky;
Trinacrian Etna's ames ascend not higher
...* [35]
Solinus, in his Polyhistor, repeated these descriptions, not- Note: Hekla is an Icelandic volcano.
ing that the people of Thule had a fertile land where they Thule is referred to in Goethe's poem "Der Knig in Thule"
grew a good production of crop and fruits.* [27]
(1774), famously set to music by Franz Schubert (D 367,
Claudian believed the inhabitants of Thule were Picts.* [28] 1816), and in the collection Ultima Thule (1880) by Henry
This is supported by a physical description of the inhabitants Wadsworth Longfellow.
of Thule by the Roman poet Silius Italicus, who wrote that In 1775, during his second voyage, Captain Cook named an
the people of Thule were painted blue:
island in the high southern latitudes Southern Thule.
... the blue-painted native of Thule, when he
ghts, drives around the close-packed ranks in his
scythe-bearing chariot.* [29]
Edgar Allan Poe's poem "Dream-Land" (1844) begins with

the following stanza:
By a route obscure and lonely,
The Picts are often said to have derived their name from
Latin pingere (to paint) and pictus (painted). Martial
talks about blueand painted Britons,* [30] just like
Julius Caesar.* [31]
Haunted by ill angels only,
Eustathius of Thessalonica, in his 12th century commentary on the Iliad, wrote that the inhabitants of Thule were at
I have reached these lands but newly
Where an Eidolon, named Night,

On a black throne reigns upright.
From an ultimate dim Thule

From a wild weird clime, that lieth, sublime,
Out of Space out of Time.
What is the minds ultima Thule? What substance must be regarded as rst, and therefore
as the seed of the universe? What is the eternal
Something, of which the temporal is but a manifestation? Matter? Spirit? Matter and Spirit?
Something behind both and from which they have
sprung, neither Matter nor Spirit, but their Creator? Or is there in reality neither Matter nor
Spirit, but only an agnostic Cause of the phenomena erroneously assigned by us to body and mind?
After spending many years in profoundly investigating this problem, I have at last struck bottom. Unhesitatingly and unconditionally I adopt
materialism, and declare it to be the sole and allsucient explanation of the universe. This affords the only thoroughly scientic system; and
nowhere but in its legitimate conclusions can
thought nd suitable resting-place, the heart complete satisfaction, and life a perfect basis. Unless it accepts this system, philosophy will be
but drift-wood, instead of the stream of thought
whose current bears all truth. Materialism, thorough, consistent, and fearless, not the timid, reserved, and half-hearted kind, is the hope of the
world. - The Final Science: or Spiritual Materialism (1885) by John Henry Wilbrandt Stuckenberg (1835-1903), p. 6* [36]
85.5 Modern use

A municipality in northern Greenland (Avannaa) was
formerly named Thule after the mythical place. The Thule
People, the predecessor of modern Inuit Greenlanders,
were named after the Thule region. In 1953, Thule became Thule Air Base, operated by United States Air Force.
The population was forced to resettle to Qaanaaq, 67
miles to the north* [37] (763150.21N 684236.13W
/ 76.5306139N 68.7100361W only 840 NM from the
North Pole).
Southern Thule (in Spanish Islas Tule del Sur) is a collection of the three southernmost islands in the South Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, one of which is
called Thule Island. The island group is a part of the British
overseas territory of the United Kingdom and claimed by
Argentina. Southern Thule islands were occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War. Currently the three islands are uninhabited.
The Scottish Gaelic for Iceland isInnis Tile, which means
literally the Isle of Thule.* [38] Ultima Thule was the
225
title of the 1929 novel by Henry Handel Richardson, set in
colonial Australia.
Additionally, Thule lends its name to the 69th element in
the periodic table, Thulium.
Ultima Thule is also the name of a location in the Mammoth
Cave system in Kentucky, USA. It was formerly the terminus of the known-explorable southeastern (upstream) end
of the passage called Main Cave,before discoveries
made in 1908 by Ed Bishop and Max Kaemper showed an
area accessible beyond it, now the location of the Violet
City Entrance. The Violet City Lantern tour oered at the
cave passes through Ultima Thule near the conclusion of the
route.
85.6
In popular culture
85.6.1
Fictional characters
Davian Thule is one of the characters in the videogame

Dawn of War
85.6.2
Fictional places and civilizations
Thule is one of the Ayewards (i.e., magic-oriented)

worlds in Diana Wynne Jones's adult fantasy novel
Deep Secret
Thule is used in Hal Foster's work, Prince Valiant, as
the homeland of the eponymous character
Thule is the frozen world passed in episode 5 of the sci television series Space 1999; the moon was inhabited
by human survivors of lost Uranus expedition
In the video game Wolfenstein (2009), the SS initiates
a dig on the site of the ruins of the vanished Thule
civilization in North-Rhine Westphalia
Thule Station, in the movie The Thing (2012), is the
Norweigian camp in the Antarctic, where the story
takes place
Ultima Thule, in the Fables comics spin-o Cinderella:
From Fabletown With Love, is featured as one of the
mythical homelands; it is a frozen realm of six-monthlong days and nights, inhabited both by humans and
intelligent polar bears, and was ruled by a king who
would change between the two forms every six months
226
85.6.3
CHAPTER 85. THULE
Literature
Ultima Thuleis a short story written by author

Vladimir Nabokov and published in New Yorker magazine April 7, 1973 * [39]
85.8
See also
Agharta
Aristeas
Atlantis
85.6.4
Music
Thulean perspectiveis the YouTube channel of the

Norwegian black metal musician Varg Vikernes
Ultima Thuleis the debut album of the French black
metal band Blut Aus Nord
Avalon
Baltia
Brittia
El Dorado
Hyperborea
85.7 Nazi AryanThule

Nazi occultists believed in a historical Thule/Hyperborea
as the ancient origin of the Aryan race. Much of this fascination was due to rumours surrounding the Oera Linda
Book, falsely claimed to have been found by Cornelis Over
de Linden during the 19th century. The Oera Linda Book
was translated into German in 1933 and was favoured by
Heinrich Himmler, though the book has since been thoroughly discredited. Professor of Frisian Language and Literature Goe Jensma wrote that the three authors of the
translation intended itto be a temporary hoax to fool some
nationalist Frisians and orthodox Christians and as an experiential exemplary exercise in reading the Holy Bible in
a non-fundamentalist, symbolical way.* [40]
Iram of the Pillars

Magerya
Mythical place
Phantom island
Shambhala
Southern Thule
Thule people
Thule Society
Utopia
The Traditionalist School expositor Rene Guenon believed

in the existence of ancient Thule on initiatic grounds
85.9 References
alone. According to its emblem, the Thule Society was
founded on August 18, 1918.* [41] It had close links to the
Deutsche Arbeiter Partei (DAP), later the Nationalsozial- [1] Uncommon variant spellings include Thula, Tile, Thila, and
Thylea.
istische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP, the Nazi party).
One of its three founding members was Lanz von Liebenfels [2] http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_
(18741954). In his biography of Liebenfels (Der Mann,
gb0862120#m_en_gb0862120
der Hitler die Ideen gab, Munich 1985 - The Man who
Gave Hitler the Ideas), the Viennese psychologist and au- [3] Bostock & Riley (1893) page 352 (on Chapter 30 (16)
Britannia) assert: Opinions as to the identity of anthor Wilhelm Dahm wrote:The Thule Gesellschaft name
cient Thule have been numerous in the extreme.The notes
originated from mythical Thule, a Nordic equivalent of the
on Book IV of Pliny in an 1829 translation into French by
vanished culture of Atlantis. A race of giant supermen lived
Ajasson de Grandsagne mention six, which are taken wordin Thule, linked into the Cosmos through magical powers.
for-word in translation by Bostock & Riley (their words in
They had psychic and technological energies far exceeding
quotes):
the technical achievements of the 20th century. This knowlThat Thule is the island of Iceland.Burton (1875)
edge was to be put to use to save the Fatherland and create
pages 1, 25.
a new race of Nordic Aryan Atlanteans. A new Messiah
That
it is either the Ferroe Group, or one of those
would come forward to lead the people to this goal.In his
islands.Burton
pages 2223.
history of the SA (Mit ruhig festem Schritt, 1998 - With Firm
and Steady Step), Wilfred von Oven, Joseph Goebbels' press
The notion of Ortelius, Farnaby, and Schnning, that
adjutant from 1943 to 1945, conrmed that Pytheas' Thule
it is identical with Thylemark in Norway.Burton page
25.
was the historical Thule for the Thule Gesellschaft.
85.9. REFERENCES
The opinion of Malte Brun, that the continental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which is to
the present day called Thy or Thyland.Fotheringham
(1862) page 497.
The opinion of Rudbeck and of Calstron, borrowed
originally from Procopius, that this is a general name
for the whole of Scandinavia.Grandsagne (1829)
page 338: L'ide de Rudbeck ... et de Calstron ...
due originairement Procope, qui ... a prononc nettement que sous ce nom tait comprise toute la Scandinavie.The reference is to Procopius Book III No.
4.
That of Gosselin, who thinks that under this name
Mainland, the principal of the Shetland Islands, is
meant. The reference to Gosselinor elsewhere
M. Gosselinand his monumental work dating from
the time of the French Revolution is much copied
even though miscited. No such geographer existed;
the M.must stand for Monsieur. The Library of
Congress catalog cites the work as: Gossellin, Pascal
Franois Joseph ([1798]1813.). Recherches sur la
gographie systmatique et positive anciens; pour servir
de base l'histoire de la gographie ancienne. Paris:
L'imprimerie de la rpublique [etc.] an VI. Check
date values in: |date= (help) This four-volume work
is rare and inaccessible today. The opinion is said to
come from Volume I page 162 under the title Thul.
Bostock and Riley continue: It is by no means impossible
that under the name of Thule two or more of these localities
may have been meant, by dierent authors writing at distant
periods and under dierent states of geographical knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as Parisot
remarks, that the Thule mentioned by Ptolemy is identical
with Thylemark in Norway.
[4] Andreas Kleineberg, Christian Marx, Eberhard Knobloch
und Dieter Lelgemann: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die
Entschlsselung von Ptolemaios'Atlas der Oikumene. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2010.
[5] Lennart Meri (1976). Hbevalge [Silver White] (in Estonian). Tallinn: Eesti Raamat.
[6] Siim Veski, Atko Heinsalu, Anneli Poska, Leili Saarse, Jri
Vassiljev (2007). Peter T. Bobrowsky, Hans Rickman, eds.
Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society (PDF).
Springer: 265275. |chapter= ignored (help)
[7]
Talvik, Raul (2015). Teekond Maailma reni [Journey to the Edge of the World]. Tallinn, Estonia: Director Meedia.
[8] {{url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%
3DThule|date=July 2015}}
[9] L. Sprague de Camp (1954). Lost Continents, p. 57.
[10] Polybius. Book XXXIV, 5, 3
227
[11] Book II, Chapter 5

[12] De Situ Orbis, III, 57.
[13] http://quotes.dictionary.com/furthermost_thule_ultima_
thule
[14] Introduction to the Phenomena, VI. 9
[15] Geographici Graeci Minores, 2. 106
[16] The Problem of Pytheas' Thule, Ian Whitaker, The Classical
Journal Vol. 77, No. 2 (Dec., 1981 Jan., 1982), pp. 5567
[17] Whitaker, pp. 5658.
[18] Whitaker, p. 56.
[19] B. P. Reardon, ed. (1989). Collected Ancient Greek Novels. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04306-5.
[20] http://www.orkneyjar.com/placenames/pomona.htm
[21] http://fjor.net/etome/grecoroman/servius-bi.html
[22] Getica, Book I, Chapter 9.
[23] Irwin Edman, ed. (1943). The Consolation of Philosophy.
W. V. Cooper (trans.). New York: The Modern Library,
Random House.
[24] Tacitus, Agricola, 10.
[25] Seneca: Medea, v. 379. Translated by Frank Justus Miller
:There will come an age in the far-o years when Ocean shall
unloose the bonds of things, when the whole broad earth shall
be revealed, when Tethys shall disclose new worlds and Thule
not be the limit of the lands. (Original text : venient annis
saecula seris, quibus Oceanus vincula rerum laxet et ingens
pateat tellus Tethysque novos detegat orbes nec sit terris ultima Thule).
[26] Strabo & Jones, H.L. (Translator) (1917). Geographica, 4.
5. 5. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[27] Solinus. Polyhistor. Ch. XXXIV
[28] Claudian. On the Fourth Consulship of the Emperor Honorius. Book VIII
[29] Italicus, Silius. Punica, 17. 416.
[30] Martial. De Bello Gallico, XI, 53; XIV, 99.
[31] Martial. De Bello Gallico, V, 14.
[32] Eustathius of Thessalonica. Eustath. ad Hom.. Theoi.
com/phylos/Pygmaioi. p. 372.
[33] Anthon, Charles (1888). A Classical Dictionary, Vol. II. p.
1146.
[34] Petrarch (14 century). Epistolae Familiares, III. 1.
228
[35] Weelkes, Thomas. RPO -Thomas Weelkes : Thule, the Period of Cosmography.
[36] Stuckenberg, John Henry Wilbrandt (1885). The Final Science: or Spiritual Materialism. p. 6.
[37] Gilberg (1976) page 86. Hunting activities here are described in the January 2006 National Geographic.
[38] Rannsaich an Str-dta Briathrachais Gidhlig
[39]
[40] Jensma, Goe (November 2007), How to Deal with Holy
Books in an Age of Emerging Science. The Oera Linda
Book as a New Age Bible, Fabula, 48 (34): 229249,
doi:10.1515/FABL.2007.017.
[41] ^ a b Goodrick-Clarke 1985, p. 144
85.10 Bibliography
Burton, Richard F. (1875). Ultima Thule: Or, A Summer in Iceland. London, Edinburgh: W.P. Nimmo.
Downloadable Google Books.
Fotheringham, W.H. (Sessions 185758 185960,
published in 1862). On the Thule of the Ancients
(pdf). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland. Neill and Company for the Society, online
by the Archaeological Data Service. III: 491503.
Retrieved 2008-11-01. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
Gilberg, Rolf (June 1976). Thule (pfd). Arctic.
Arctic Institute of North America. 29 (2): 8386.
doi:10.14430/arctic2793. Retrieved 2008-10-30.
Joanna Kavenna, The Ice Museum: In Search of the
Lost Land of Thule, London, Penguin, 2006. ISBN
978-0-14-101198-1
Pliny (1829). Histoire naturelle de Pline: Traduction
Nouvelle: Vol III (in French). Ajasson de Grandsagne
(trans.). Paris: C.L.F. Panckoucke. pp. 337338,
notes on Book IV.
Pliny; John Bostock; Henry Thomas Riley (translators) (1893). The Natural History of Pliny: Volume I.
London, New York: George Bell & Sons. pp. 352,
notes on Book IV. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors= (help)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thule". Encyclopdia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
CHAPTER 85. THULE
85.11
External links
Site with detailed notes on the classical and Renaissance sources for Thule
Chapter 86
Tr na ng
For other uses, see Tr na ng (disambiguation).
In Irish mythology and folklore, Tr na ng ([ti n
no]; Land of the Young) or Tr na hige (Land
of Youth) is one of the names for the Otherworld, or
perhaps for a part of it. It is depicted as a supernatural
realm of everlasting youth, beauty, health, abundance and
joy.* [1] Its inhabitants are the Tuatha D Danann, the gods
of pre-Christian Ireland.* [1] In the echtrae (adventure) and
immram (voyage) tales, various Irish mythical heroes visit
Tr na ng after a voyage or an invitation from one of its
residents. They reach it by entering ancient burial mounds
or caves, or by going under water or across the sea.* [1]
Other Old Irish names for the Otherworld include Tr Tairngire (Land of Promise/Promised Land),* [1]* [2] Tr fo
Thuinn
( Land under the Wave),* [1] Mag Mell
( Plain of
Delight/Delightful Plain),* [1] Ildathach (Multicoloured
place),* [3] and Emain Ablach (the Isle of Apple Trees).
86.1 Tradition
Tr na ng is best known from the tale of Oisn and
Niamh.* [4] In the tale, Oisn (a human hero) and Niamh
(a woman of the Otherworld) fall in love. She brings him
to Tr na ng on a magical horse that can travel over water.
After spending what seems to be three years there, Oisn
becomes homesick and wants to return to Ireland. Niamh
reluctantly lets him return on the magical horse, but warns
him never to touch the ground. When he returns, he nds
that 300 years have passed in Ireland. Oisn falls from the
horse. He instantly becomes elderly, as the years catch up
with him, and he quickly dies of old age.* [3]
Oisn and Niamh travelling to Tr na ng, illustration by Stephen

Reid in T. W. Rolleston's The High Deeds of Finn (1910)
Tar.* [5] Francis Hindes Groome recorded another such

tale in his Gypsy Folk Tales.* [6] Another version concerns
King Herla, a legendary king of the ancient Britons, who
visited to the Otherworld, only to return some two hundred
years later after the lands had been settled by the Anglo86.2 Similar tales
Saxons. The "Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, a group of
Christian youths who hid inside a cave outside the city of
This story of Oisn and Niamh bears a striking similarity to Ephesus around 250 AD, purportedly awoke approximately
many other tales, including the Japanese tale of Urashima 180 years later during the reign of Theodosius II.
229
230
86.3 Related concepts

Heaven
Valhalla
Nirvana
86.4 See also

Irish mythology in popular culture: Tr na ng
Annwn
Avalon
Fairyland
Fortunate Isles
Hy Brasil (mythical land)
Tir Na Nog (video game)
Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog TV series
86.5 References
[1] Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia.
ABC-CLIO, 2006. pp.1671
[2] James MacKillop (1998). A dictionary of Celtic mythology
Oxford University Press.
[3] Monaghan, Patricia. The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology
and Folklore. Infobase Publishing, 2004. pp.358, 368
[4] T.A. Rolleston (1990). Celtic Myths and Legends Courier
Dover Publications.
[5] Shah, Idries (1991). World tales : the extraordinary coincidence of stories told in all times, in all places. London: Octagon. p. 359. ISBN 978-0863040368.
[6] http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/roma/gft/gft074.htm

W. B. Yeats, Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry
86.7 External links

Tir na nOg Poetry Community
CHAPTER 86. TR NA NG
Chapter 87
World mountain
Navel of the Worldredirects here. For other uses, see descend to lower ones and be disseminated to all.* [2] The
Navel of the World (disambiguation).
spot functions as the omphalos (navel), the world's point of
The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pil- beginning.* [3]* [4]* [5]
The image is mostly viewed as feminine, as it relates to
the center of the earth (perhaps like an umbilical providing nourishment). It may have the form of a natural object
(a mountain, a tree, a vine, a stalk, a column of smoke or
re) or a product of human manufacture (a sta, a tower, a
ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross, a steeple, a rope, a
totem pole, a pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may
carry implications that are chiey religious (pagoda, temple
mount, minaret, church) or secular (obelisk, lighthouse,
rocket, skyscraper). The image appears in religious and
secular contexts.* [6] The axis mundi symbol may be found
in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist belief
systems, in major world religions, and in technologically
advanced urban centers. In Mircea Eliade's opinion,
Every Microcosm, every inhabited region, has a Centre;
that is to say, a place that is sacred above all.* [7] The axis
mundi is often associated with mandalas.
87.1
Background
Mount Kailash, depicting the holy family: Shiva and Parvati,

cradling Skanda with Ganesha by Shiva's side
lar, center of the world, world tree), in certain beliefs and

philosophies, is the world center, or the connection between
Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic
pole, it expresses a point of connection between sky and
earth where the four compass directions meet. At this
point travel and correspondence is made between higher and Mount Fuji, Japan
lower realms.* [1] Communication from lower realms may
ascend to higher ones and blessings from higher realms may The symbol originates in a natural and universal psychologi231
232
cal perception: that the spot one occupies stands atthe center of the world. This space serves as a microcosm of order
because it is known and settled. Outside the boundaries of
the microcosm lie foreign realms that, because they are unfamiliar or not ordered, represent chaos, death or night.* [8]
From the center one may still venture in any of the four cardinal directions, make discoveries, and establish new centers as new realms become known and settled. The name of
China, meaningMiddle Nation( pinyin: Zhnggu),
is often interpreted as an expression of an ancient perception that the Chinese polity (or group of polities) occupied
the center of the world, with other lands lying in various
directions relative to it.* [6]
Within the central known universe a specic locale-often a
mountain or other elevated place, a spot where earth and sky
come closest gains status as center of the center, the axis
mundi. High mountains are typically regarded as sacred
by peoples living near them. Shrines are often erected at
the summit or base.* [9] Mount Kunlun lls a similar role in
China.* [10] For the ancient Hebrews Mount Zion expressed
the symbol. Sioux beliefs take the Black Hills as the axis
mundi. Mount Kailash is holy to Hinduism and several religions in Tibet. The Pitjantjatjara people in central Australia
consider Uluru to be central to both their world and culture.
In ancient Mesopotamia the cultures of ancient Sumer and
Babylon erected articial mountains, or ziggurats, on the
at river plain. These supported staircases leading to temples at the top. The Hindu temples in India are often situated on high mountains. E.g. Amarnath, Tirupati, Vaishno
Devi etc. The pre-Columbian residents of Teotihuacn in
Mexico erected huge pyramids featuring staircases leading
to heaven. Jacob's Ladder is an axis mundi image, as is the
Temple Mount. For Christians the Cross on Mount Calvary
expresses the symbol.* [11] The Middle Kingdom, China,
had a central mountain, Kunlun, known in Taoist literature
as the mountain at the middle of the world.To go
into the mountainsmeant to dedicate oneself to a spiritual life.* [12] Monasteries of all faiths tend, like shrines,
to be placed at elevated spots. Wise religious teachers are
typically depicted in literature and art as bringing their revelations at world centers: mountains, trees, temples.
Because the axis mundi is an idea that unites a number of
concrete images, no contradiction exists in regarding multiple spots as the center of the world. The symbol
can operate in a number of locales at once.* [7] Mount Hermon was regarded as the axis mundi in Caananite tradition,
from where the sons of God are introduced descending in
1 Enoch (1En6:6).* [13] The ancient Greeks regarded several sites as places of earth's omphalos (navel) stone, notably the oracle at Delphi, while still maintaining a belief
in a cosmic world tree and in Mount Olympus as the abode
of the gods. Judaism has the Temple Mount and Mount
Sinai, Christianity has the Mount of Olives and Calvary,

Islam has Ka'aba, said to be the rst building on earth,
and the Temple Mount (Dome of the Rock). In Hinduism,
Mount Kailash is identied with the mythical Mount Meru
and regarded as the home of Shiva; in Vajrayana Buddhism,
Mount Kailash is recognized as the most sacred place where
all the dragon currents converge and is regarded as the gateway to Shambhala. In Shinto, the Ise Shrine is the omphalos. In addition to the Kunlun Mountains, where it is believed the peach tree of immortality is located, the Chinese
folk religion recognizes four other specic mountains as pillars of the world.
Sacred places constitute world centers (omphalos) with the
altar or place of prayer as the axis. Altars, incense sticks,
candles and torches form the axis by sending a column of
smoke, and prayer, toward heaven. The architecture of sacred places often reects this role.Every temple or palace-and by extension, every sacred city or royal residence--is a
Sacred Mountain, thus becoming a Centre.* [14] The stupa
of Hinduism, and later Buddhism, reects Mount Meru.
Cathedrals are laid out in the form of a cross, with the
vertical bar representing the union of earth and heaven as
the horizontal bars represent union of people to one another, with the altar at the intersection. Pagoda structures
in Asian temples take the form of a stairway linking earth
and heaven. A steeple in a church or a minaret in a mosque
also serve as connections of earth and heaven. Structures
such as the maypole, derived from the Saxons' Irminsul, and
the totem pole among indigenous peoples of the Americas
also represent world axes. The calumet, or sacred pipe, represents a column of smoke (the soul) rising form a world
center.* [15] A mandala creates a world center within the
boundaries of its two-dimensional space analogous to that
created in three-dimensional space by a shrine.* [16]
87.1.1
Plants
Plants often serve as images of the axis mundi. The image of the Cosmic Tree provides an axis symbol that unites
three planes: sky (branches), earth (trunk) and underworld
(roots).* [17] In some Pacic island cultures the banyan tree,
of which the Bodhi tree is of the Sacred Fig variety, is the
abode of ancestor spirits. In Hindu religion, the banyan
tree is considered sacred and is called ashwath vriksha (
I am banyan tree among trees- Bhagavad Gita). It represents eternal life because of its seemingly ever-expanding
branches. The Bodhi tree is also the name given to the tree
under which Gautama Siddhartha, the historical Buddha,
sat on the night he attained enlightenment. The Yggdrasil,
or World Ash, functions in much the same way in Norse
mythology; it is the site where Odin found enlightenment.
Other examples include Jievaras in Lithuanian mythology
and Thor's Oak in the myths of the pre-Christian Germanic
peoples. The Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge
87.1. BACKGROUND
233
Yggdrasil, the World Ash in Norse myths
of Good and Evil in Genesis present two aspects of the

same image. Each is said to stand at the center of the
Paradise garden from which four rivers ow to nourish the
whole world. Each tree confers a boon. Bamboo, the plant
from which Asian calligraphy pens are made, represents
knowledge and is regularly found on Asian college campuses. The Christmas tree, which can be traced in its origins back to pre-Christian European beliefs, represents an
axis mundi.* [18] Entheogens (psychoactive substances) are
often regarded as world axes, such as the Fly Agaric mushroom among the Evenks of Russia. In China, traditional
cosmography sometimes depicts the world center marked
with the Jian tree (). Two more trees are placed at the
East and West, corresponding to the points of sunrise and
sunset, as described in the Huainanzi. The Mesoamerican
world tree connects the planes of the Underworld and the
sky with that of the terrestrial realm.* [19]
87.1.2
Human gure
The human body can express the symbol of world axis.* [20]
Some of the more abstract Tree of Life representations,
such as the serot in Kabbalism and in the chakra system
recognized by Hinduism and Buddhism, merge with the
concept of the human body as a pillar between heaven and
earth. Disciplines such as yoga and tai chi begin from the
premise of the human body as axis mundi. The Buddha rep-
Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1492)
resents a world centre in human form.* [21] Large statues of

a meditating gure unite the human gure with the symbolism of temple and tower. Astrology in all its forms assumes
a connection between human health and aairs and the orientation of these with celestial bodies. World religions regard the body itself as a temple and prayer as a column
uniting earth to heaven. The ancient Colossus of Rhodes
combined the role of human gure with those of portal and
skyscraper. The image of a human being suspended on a
tree or a cross locates the gure at the axis where heaven and
earth meet. The Renaissance image known as the Vitruvian
Man represented a symbolic and mathematical exploration
of the human form as world axis.* [18]
87.1.3
Homes
Homes can represent world centers. The symbolism for

their residents is the same as for inhabitants of palaces and
other sacred mountains.* [14] The hearth participates in the
symbolism of the altar and a central garden participates in
the symbolism of primordial paradise. In Asian cultures
houses were traditionally laid out in the form of a square
oriented toward the four compass directions. A traditional
Asian home was oriented toward the sky through feng shui,
a system of geomancy, just as a palace would be. Tradi-
234
tional Arab houses are also laid out as a square surrounding

a central fountain that evokes a primordial garden paradise.
Mircea Eliade noted that the symbolism of the pillar in
[European] peasant houses likewise derives from the 'symbolic eld' of the axis mundi. In many archaic dwellings the
central pillar does in fact serve as a means of communication with the heavens, with the sky.* [22] The nomadic
peoples of Mongolia and the Americas more often lived in
circular structures. The central pole of the tent still operated as an axis but a xed reference to the four compass
points was avoided.* [23]
victim of crucixion or hanging, a rod, a fruit, mistletoe.

Derivations of this idea nd form in the Rod of Asclepius, an emblem of the medical profession, and in the
caduceus, an emblem of correspondence and commercial
professions. The sta in these emblems represents the axis
mundi while the serpents act as guardians of, or guides to,
knowledge.* [25]
87.2
Traditional expressions
87.2.1
Asia
Wuji
Bodhi tree, especially where Gautama Buddha found
Enlightenment
Pagoda
Stupa (Buddhism, Hinduism)
Mount Meru in Hinduism
Mount Kailash regarded by Hinduism and several religions in Tibet, e.g. Bn
Jambudvipa in Hinduism and Jainism which is regarded as the actual navel of the universe (which is
human in form)
Kailasa (India), the abode of Shiva
The caduceus
Mandara (India)
Shiva Lingam (India)
87.1.4
Shamanic function
A common shamanic concept, and a universally told story,

is that of the healer traversing the axis mundi to bring back
knowledge from the other world. It may be seen in the
stories from Odin and the World Ash Tree to the Garden
of Eden and Jacob's Ladder to Jack and the Beanstalk and
Rapunzel. It is the essence of the journey described in The
Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. The epic poem relates
its hero's descent and ascent through a series of spiral structures that take him from through the core of the earth, from
the depths of Hell to celestial Paradise. It is also a central
tenet in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex.* [24]
Anyone or anything suspended on the axis between heaven
and earth becomes a repository of potential knowledge. A
special status accrues to the thing suspended: a serpent, a
Kunlun Mountain (China), residence of the Immortals

and the site of a peach tree oering immortality
Human gure (yoga, tai chi, Buddha in meditation, sacred images)
Ise Shrine (Shinto)
Central courtyard in traditional home
Bamboo stalk, associated with knowledge and learning
Mago Stronghold (Old Korea) also known as Magoseong, Mago San-seong, Go-Seong, Halmi-seong.
Primoridial Home of the Great Goddess and HER primoridal descendants* [26]
87.2. TRADITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
87.2.2
Middle East
Garden of Eden with four rivers

Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil
Mt. Ararat landing place of Noah's ark
Ziggurat, or Tower of Babel
Jacob's Ladder
Jerusalem, specically, the Holy Temple; focus of
Jewish prayer where Abraham bound Isaac
235
87.2.4
Europe
Yggdrasil (the world ash-tree in Norse cosmology)

Irminsul (the great pillar in Germanic paganism)
Hill of Uisneach (the navel and center of Ireland in
Irish mythology)* [27]
Mount Olympus in Greece, court of the gods (Greek
mythology)
Sampo or Sammas (Baltic-Finnic mythology)
Delphi, home of the Oracle of Delphi (Greek mythology)
Cross of the Crucixion
Colossus of Rhodes (Greek mythology)
Steeple
Maypole (East Europe and Germanic paganism)
Ka'aba in Mecca; focus of Muslim prayer and the rst

building built by Adam
Jack's Beanstalk (English fairy tale)
Qutb, In Susm, an intermediary gure between God

and mankind
Hearth
Dome of the Rock where Muhammad ascended to

heaven
Minaret
Dilmun
Garizim (Samaria)
Rapunzel's Tower (German fairy tale)
Central pillar of peasant homes

Altar
Vitruvian Man
Hagia Sophia
St. Peter's Basilica
Hara Berezaiti (Persia)
Umbilicus urbis Romae, a structure in the Roman Forum from where all the Roman roads parted.
Zaphon
Isle of Man (Emain Ablach, the gate to the Otherworld

in Irish Mythology)
87.2.3
Africa
87.2.5
The Americas
Meskel bonre
Teotihuacn Pyramids
Stelae of the Aksumite Empire
Totem Pole
Pyramids of Egypt
Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove of Nigeria
Jebel Barkal of Sudan
Idafe Rock of prehispanic La Palma
Tent
Black Hills (Sioux)
Calumet (sacred pipe)
Sipapu (Hopi)
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Mt Kenya of Kenya
Medicine wheels of the northern Great Plains
Mount Kilimanjaro
Temple Lot (Mormonism)
236
Cuzco (Incas), meaning navelin Quechua

Chakana
Mesoamerican world tree
Lanzon
Turtle Island
87.2.6
Australia
Uluru
Rainbow Snake
87.3 Modern expressions
ideals.* [28] The rst skyscraper of modern times, the Eiel

Tower, exemplies this role. The structure was erected in
1889 in Paris, France, to serve as the centerpiece for the
Exposition Universelle, making it a symbolic world center
from the planning stages. It has served as an iconic image for the city and the nation ever since.* [29] Landmark
skyscrapers often take names that clearly identify them as
centers.* [30]
Designers of skyscrapers today routinely evoke the axis
mundi symbolism inherent in ancient precedents. Taipei
101 in Taiwan, completed in 2004, evokes the staircase,
bamboo stalk, pagoda, pillar and torch. The design of the
Burj Khalifa (United Arab Emirates) evokes both desert
plants and traditional Arab spires. William F. Baker, one
of the designers, states that the goal of the Burj Dubai
[subsequently renamed Burj Khalifa] is not simply to be the
world's tallest building--it is to embody the world's highest aspirations.* [31] Twin towers, such as the Petronas
Towers (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) and the former World
Trade Center (Manhattan), maintain the axis symbolism
even as they more obviously assume the role of pillars.
Some structures pierce the sky, implying movement or ight
(Chicago Spire, CN Tower in Toronto, the Space Needle in Seattle). Some structures highlight the more lateral elements of the symbol in implying portals (Tuntex
Sky Tower in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, The Gateway Arch in St.
Louis).* [32]* [33]
The places with economic importance and where skyscrapers are founded are recognised as Financial centres. Examples of nancial centres are London, New York City, Rome,
Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Chicago, Seoul, Shanghai,
Toronto, Montreal, So Paulo, Frankfurt, and Amsterdam.
A geodesic place is another modern symbolism. Braslia,
capital of Brazil, is known as a Geodesic place, where it
is positioned at the middle of the country, on a drainage
divide.
Taipei 101 (Taiwan)
Axis mundi symbolism continues to be evoked even in modern societies. The idea has proven especially consequential
in the realm of architecture. Capitol buildings, as the direct
descendents of palaces, ll this role, as do commemorative
structures such as the Washington Monument in the United
States. A skyscraper, as the term itself suggests, suggests
the connection of earth and sky, as do spire structures of all
sorts. Such buildings come to be regarded ascentersof
an inhabited area, or even the world, and serve as icons of its
Ancient traditions continue in modern structures. The

Peace Pagodas built since the 1947 unite religious and secular purposes in one symbol drawn from Buddhism. The
inuence of the pagoda tradition may be seen in modern
Asian skyscrapers (Taipei 101, Petronas Towers). The ancient ziggurat has likewise reappeared in modern form, including the headquarters of the National Geographic Society in Washington, DC and The Ziggurat housing the
California Department of General Services. Architect
Frank Lloyd Wright conceived the Guggenheim Museum in
New York as an inverted ziggurat. The Washington Monument is a modern obelisk.* [34]
Artistic representations of the world axis abound. Prominent among these is the Colonne sans n (The Endless Column, 1938) an abstract sculpture by Romanian Constantin
Brncui. The column takes the form of asky pillar(co-
87.5. REFERENCES
237
lumna cerului) upholding the heavens even as its rhythmically repeating segments invite climb and suggest the possibility of ascension.* [35]
Phurba
The association of the cosmic pillar with knowledge gives

it a prominent role in the world of scholarship. University
campuses typically assign a prominent axis role to a campus
structure, such as a clock tower, library tower or bell tower.
The building serves as the symbolic center of the settlement
represented by the campus and serves as an emblem of its
ideals. This symbolism of the center is closely tied to the
widespread symbolism of the world axis.* [36] The image
of theivory tower, a colloquial metaphor for academia,
sustains the metaphor.* [33]
Vorticism
The image still takes natural forms as well, as in the American tradition of the Liberty Tree located at town centers.
Individual homes continue to act as world axes, especially
where Feng shui and other geomantic practices continue to
be observed.
The corner of Haight and Ashbury Streets in San Francisco,
California is regarded as the axis mundi in the hippie subculture. Christopher Street in Manhattan in New York City
is the axis mundi in the gay subculture. Folsom Street, also
in San Francisco, is the axis mundi in the leather subculture.
Axis mundi symbolism may be seen in much of the romance surrounding space travel. A rocket on the pad takes
on all the symbolism of a tower and the astronaut enacts a
mythic story.* [37] Each embarks on a perilous journey into
the heavens and, if successful, returns with a boon for dissemination. The Apollo 13 insignia stated it succinctly: Ex
luna scientia (From the Moon, knowledge).* [38]
In ction, Stephen King's 'The Dark Tower' series, and
much of his other connected ction, revolves around a tower
that serves as the axis of all realities.
87.4 See also

Alchemy
Celestial sphere
Crucix
Fleur de lis
Herma
Hyperborea
North pole
Optical axis
Palmette
Taiji (philosophy)
87.5
References

069102068X. p.48-51
069102068X. p.40
[3] J. C. Cooper. An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional
Symbols. Thames and Hudson: New York, 1978. ISBN
0500271259.
ISBN 0691017778. p.16
[5] Winther, Rasmus Grnfeldt (2014) World Navels. Cartouche 89: 15-21 http://philpapers.org/archive/WINWN.
pdf
0140512543. pp.61-63, 173-175
069102068X. p.39
069102068X. p.37-39
069102068X. p.41-43
[10] Wang, Chong. Lunheng Part I: Philosophical Essays of Wang
Ch'ung. Trans. Alfred Forke. London: Luzac & Co., 1907.
p.337.
0140512543. pp.680-685
0140512543. pp.681
[13] Kelley Coblentz Bautch (25 September 2003). A Study of
the Geography of 1 Enoch 17-19: no One Has Seen what I
Have Seen. BRILL. pp. 62. ISBN 978-90-04-13103-3.
238
ISBN 0691017778. p.12

1998/2008. pp. 45, 69, 81, 91, 97,135, 136, 143

0140512543. pp.148-149
[31] Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. CTBUH

2008 Dubai Congress - William F. Baker, Engineering
the World's Tallest"" YouTube. YouTube, 17 May 2013.
Web. 02 July 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
1uaGND8vUhE>.

069102068X. p.52-54
069102068X. p.42-45
[18] Chevalier, Jean and Gheerbrandt, Alain. A Dictionary
0140512543. pp.1025-1033
[19] Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of
Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 186. ISBN 0500050686.
069102068X. p.54
[21] Mircea Eliade (tr. Philip Mairet). 'Indian Symbolisms of
Time and Eternity' in Images and Symbols. Princeton, 1991.
ISBN 069102068X. p.76
p. 100
0140512543. pp.529-531
[24] Townsend, Richard F. (2004). Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand.
Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10601-7.
0140512543. pp.142-145
[26] Hwang, Helen Hye-Sook (2015). The Mago Way: Rediscovering Mago, the Great Goddess from East Asia. Mago
Books. pp. 136142. ISBN 9781516907922.
[27] Alwyn and Brinley Rees. Celtic Heritage. Thames and Hudson: New York, 1961. ISBN 0500270392. pp. 159-161.
1998/2008. p.137
1998/2008. p. 19

1998/2008
0140512543. pp.1020-1022
1998/2008. p.15
p.99-100
[36] Mircea Eliade (1954). The Myth of the Eternal Return. New
York: Princeton University Press 1991, ISBN 0691017778.
p.12-17: The Symbolism of the Center
0140512543. pp. 18, 1020-1022
[38] Nasa Apollo Mission: Apollo 13. 2007-08-25
Chapter 88
Mount Ararat
This article is about the highest mountain in the Armenian
Highlands and Turkey. For the biblical toponym, see
Mountains of Ararat. For the mountain located in Pennsylvania, see Mount Ararat (Pennsylvania). For the large
country house at Richmond Hill in London, see Mount
Ararat, Richmond.
Mount Ararat (/rrt/ ar-UH-rat;* [8] Turkish:
Ar Da; traditional Armenian: , Masis) is a snowcapped and dormant compound volcano in the eastern extremity of Turkey.* [9] It consists of two major volcanic
cones: Greater Ararat, the highest peak in Turkey and the
Armenian plateau with an elevation of 5,137 m (16,854 ft);
and Little Ararat, with an elevation of 3,896 m (12,782
ft).* [10] The Ararat massif is about 40 km (25 mi) in diameter.
Scholars agree the biblical "mountains of Ararat" do not
refer to specically Mt. Ararat. Nevertheless, it has been
perceived as the traditional resting place of Noah's Ark
since the 11th century. It is the principal national symbol
of Armenia and has been considered a sacred mountain by
Armenians. It is featured prominently in Armenian literature and art and is an icon for Armenian irredentism. Along
with Noah's Ark, it is depicted on the coat of arms of Armenia.
The rst eorts to reach Ararat's summit were made in
the Middle Ages. However, it was not until 1829 when
Friedrich Parrot and Khachatur Abovian, accompanied
with four others, made the rst recorded ascent.* [11]
Azerbaijani tripoints are some 8 km apart, separated by

a narrow strip of Turkish territory containing the E99
road which enters Nakhchivan at 393919N 444812E
/ 39.6553N 44.8034E.
From the 16th century until 1828 Great Ararat's summit
and the northern slopes, along with the eastern slopes of
Little Ararat were part of Persia, while the range was part
of the Ottoman-Persian border. Following the 182628
Russo-Persian War and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the
Persian controlled territory was ceded to the Russian Empire. Little Ararat became the point where the Turkish, Persian, and Russian imperial frontiers converged.* [12] The
current international boundaries were formed throughout
the 20th century. The mountain came under Turkish control during the 1920 TurkishArmenian War.* [13] It formally became part of Turkey according to the 1921 Treaty
of Moscow and Treaty of Kars.* [14] In the late 1920s,
Turkey crossed the Iranian border and occupied the eastern ank of Lesser Ararat as part of its eort to quash the
Kurdish Ararat rebellion.* [15] The Kurdish rebels were using the areaas a haven against the state in their uprising.
*
[16] Iran eventually agreed to cede the area to Turkey in a
territorial exchange.* [15]* [17] The Iran-Turkey boundary
skirts east of Lesser Ararat, the lower peak of the Ararat
massif.
88.2
Names and etymology
Ararat (Hebrew: [ *;18] Armenian: ) is

the Hebrew spelling of Urartu,* [19]* [lower-alpha 2] a kingdom that existed in the Armenian plateau in the 9th-6th
centuries BC. The mountain is known as Ararat in Eu88.1 Political borders
ropean languages.* [21]* [22] However, none of the native
have traditionally referred to the mountain by that
Mount Ararat forms a near-quadripoint between Turkey, peoples
*
[23]
name.
Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran. Its summit is located
some 16 km (10 mi) west of both the Iranian border The traditional Armenian name is Masis (
and the border of the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbai- [masis]), which is sometimes transliterated as Masjan, and 32 km (20 mi) south of the Armenian border. sis.* [24]* [23] However, nowadays, the terms Masis and
The TurkishArmenianAzerbaijani and TurkishIranian Ararat are both widely, often interchangeably, used in
239
240
CHAPTER 88. MOUNT ARARAT
View from within Turkey

View from Yerevan, Armenia
nian patriarch Hayk, who is said to have called the mountain

Masis after himself.* [29]* [30] While according to Sebeos
it comes from the personal name Marseak.* [29] According
to Russian orientalist Anatoly Novoseltsev the word Masis
derives from Middle Persian masist, the largest.* [31]
According to Armenian historian Sargis Petrosyan the mas
root in Masis meansmountain, cf. Indo-European *ms.* [30]
In classical antiquity, particularly in Strabo's Geographica,
the peaks of Ararat were known in Greek as (Abos)
and (Nibaros).* [lower-alpha 3]
Closeup of Greater Ararat
The Turkish name is

Ar Da [r d.],
Ottoman Turkish: Ar Da), i.e. Mountain
of Ar". Ar literally translates to painor sorrow
.* [21]* [31]* [36]* [37] This name has been known since the
late Middle Ages.* [31]
The traditional Persian name is , [kuhe nuh], Kh-e
N,* [12] literally the mountain of Noah.* [21]* [24]
The Kurdish name of the mountain is iyay
Agir* [38]* [39] [tjaje

agri], which translates to
ery mountain.* [40]
88.3
Geography
Mount Ararat is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region

of Turkey between Doubeyazt and Idr, near the border
with Iran, Armenia and Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan,
Closeup of Lesser Ararat
between the Aras and Murat rivers.* [5] Its summit is located some 16 km (10 mi) west of the Turkey-Iran border
Armenian.* [25] The peaks are referred to in plural as and 32 km (20 mi) south of the Turco-Armenian border.
Masisner.* [26] Greater Ararat is known as sim- The Ararat plain runs along its northwest to western side.
ply Masis or (Mets Masis,Great/Big Masis
). While Lesser Ararat is known as Sis ()* [27]* [28]
or (Pokr Masis, Little/Small Masis 88.3.1 Elevation
).* [21]* [26] The folk etymology expressed in Movses
Khorenatsi's History of Armenia derives the name from An elevation of 5,165 m (16,946 ft) for Mount Ararat is
king Amasya, the great-grandson of the legendary Arme- still given by some authorities. However, a number of other
88.4. GEOLOGY
sources, such as public domain and veriable Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission (STRM) data* [41] and a 2007 GPS
measurement* [42] show that the alternatively widespread
gure of 5,137 m (16,854 ft) is probably more accurate,
and that the current elevation may be even lower due to the
melting of its snow-covered ice cap. 5,137 m is also supported by numerous topographic maps.* [43]
241
bris load in the ice to form moraines, and their burial by
later eruptions. Years later, Birman* [46] observed on the
south-facing slopes a possible moraine that extends at least
300 meters (980 ft) in altitude below the base of the 1958
ice cap at an elevation of 4,200 meters (13,800 ft). He also
found two morainal deposits that were created by a Mount
Ararat valley glacier of Pleistocene, possibly Wisconsinan
(Last Glacial Maximum) age downvalley from Lake Balik
Golu. The higher moraine lies at an altitude of about 2,200
meters (7,200 ft) and the lower moraine lies at an altitude
of about 1,800 meters (5,900 ft). The lower moraine occurs about 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) downstream from Lake
Balik Golu. Both moraines are about 30 meters (98 ft)
high. It is suspected that Lake Balik Golu occupies a glacial
basin.* [46]
Mount Ararat 3D
88.3.2
Summit Ice Cap
Mount Ararat has an ice cap on its summit. Since at least

about 1957, it has been shrinking. In the late 1950s, Blumenthal* [44] observed that there existed 11 outlet glaciers
emerging from a summit snow mass that covered about 10
km2 (3.9 sq mi). At that time, it was found that the present
glaciers on the summit of Ararat to extend as low as an elevation of 3,900 meters (12,800 ft) on the north-facing slope,
and an elevation of 4,200 meters (13,800 ft) on its southfacing slope.* [44] Using pre-existing aerial imagery and
remote sensing data, Sarkaya* [38]* [45] and others studied
the extent of the ice cap on Mount Ararat between 1976
and 2011. They discovered that this ice cap had shrunk to
8.0 km2 (3.1 sq mi) by 1976 and to 5.7 km2 (2.2 sq mi) by
2011. They calculated that between 1976 and 2011, the ice
cap on top of Mount Ararat had lost 29% of its total area
at an average rate of ice loss of 0.07 km2 (0.027 sq mi)
per year over 35 years. This rate is consistent with the general rates of retreat of other Turkish summit glaciers and
ice caps that have been documented by other studies.* [45]
Blumenthal* [44] estimated that the snow line had been as
low as 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) in elevation during the Late
Pleistocene. Such a snow line would have created an ice cap
of 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in extent. However, he observed
a lack of any clear evidence of prehistoric moraines other
than those which were close to the 1958 glacier tongues.
Blumenthal explained the absence of such moraines by the
lack of conning ridges to control glaciers, insucient de-
88.4
Geology
Mount Ararat is a polygenic, compound stratovolcano.

Covering an area of 1,100 km2 (420 sq mi), it is the largest
volcanic edice within the region. Along its northwest
southeast trending long axis, Mount Ararat is about 45 kilometers (28 mi) long and is about 30 kilometers (19 mi) long
along its short axis. It consists of about 1,150 km3 (280 cu
mi) of dacitic and rhyolitic pyroclastic debris and dacitic,
rhyolitic, and basaltic lavas.* [10]
Mount Ararat consists of two distinct volcanic cones,
Greater Ararat and Lesser Ararat (Little Ararat). The western volcanic cone, Greater Ararat, is a steep-sided volcanic
cone that is larger and higher than the eastern volcanic cone.
Greater Ararat is about 25 kilometers (16 mi) wide at the
base and rises about 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) above the adjacent oors of the Idir and Doubeyazt basins. The eastern volcanic cone, Lesser Ararat, is 3,896 meters (12,782
ft) high and 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) across. These volcanic
cones, which lie 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) apart, are separated
242
by a wide northsouth-trending crack. This crack is the surface expression of an extensional fault. Numerous parasitic
cones and lava domes have been built by ank eruptions
along this fault and on the anks of both of the main volcanic cones.* [10]
Mount Ararat lies within a complex, sinistral pull-apart
basin that originally was a single, continuous depression.
The growth of Mount Ararat partitioned this depression
into two smaller basins, the Idir and Doubeyazt basins.
This pull-apart basin is the result of strike-slip movement
along two en-echelon fault segments, the Doubeyazt
Grbulak and Idir faults, of a sinistral strikeslip fault system. Tension between these faults, not only formed the
original pull-apart basin, but created a system of faults, exhibiting a horsetail splay pattern, that control the position
of the principal volcanic eruption centers of Mount Ararat
and associated linear belt of parasitic volcanic cones. The
strike-slip fault system within which Mount Ararat located
is the result of northsouth convergence and tectonic compression between the Arabian Platform and Laurasia that
continued after the Tethys Ocean closed during the Eocene
epoch along the BitlisZagros suture.* [10]* [47]* [48]
88.4.1
Geological history
lia.* [10]
In their detailed study and summary of the Quaternary volcanism of Anatolia, Yilmaz* [10] and others recognized
four phases to the construction of Mount Ararat from volcanic rocks exposed in glacial valleys deeply carved into
it anks. First, they recognized a ssure eruption phase
of Plinian-subPlinian ssure eruptions that deposited more
than 700 meters (2,300 ft) of pyroclastic rocks and a few
basaltic lava ows. These volcanic rocks were erupted from
approximately north northwestsouth southeast-trending
extensional faults and ssures prior to the development of
Mount Ararat. Second, a cone-building phase began when
the volcanic activity became localized at a point along a ssure. During this phase, the eruption of successive ows of
lava up to 150 meters (490 ft) thick and pyroclastic ows
of andesite and dacite composition and later eruption of
basaltic lava ows, formed the Greater Ararat cone with
a low conical prole. Third, during a climatic phase, copious ows of andesitic and basaltic lavas were erupted.
During this phase, the current cones of Greater and Lesser
Ararat were formed as eruptions along subsidiary ssures
and cracks and ank occurred. Finally, the volcanic eruptions at Mount Ararat transitioned into a ank eruption
phase during which a major northsouth-trending fault oset the two cones developed along with a number of subsidiary ssures and cracks on the volcano's anks. Along
this fault and the subsidiary ssures and cracks, a number
of parasitic cones and domes were built by minor eruptions.
One subsidiary cone erupted voluminous basalt and andesite lava ows. They owed across the Doubeyazt plain
and along the southerly owing Sarsu River. These lava
ows formed black a and phoehoe lava ows that contain well preserved lava tubes.* [10] The radiometric dating
of these lava ows yielded radiometric ages of 0.4, 0.48 and
0.81 Ma.* [50] Overall, radiometric ages obtained from the
volcanic rocks erupted by Mount Ararat range from 1.5 to
0.02 Ma.* [10]
During the early Eocene and early Miocene, the collision

of the Arabian platform with Laurasia closed and eliminated the Tethys Ocean from the area of what is now Anatolia. The closure of these masses of continental crust,
collapsed this ocean basin by middle Eocene and resulted
in a progressive shallowing of the remnant seas, until the
end of the early Miocene. Post-collisional tectonic convergence within the collision zone resulted in the total elimination of the remaining seas from East Anatolia, at the end
of early Miocene, crustal shortening and thickening across
the collision zone, and uplift of the East AnatolianIranian
plateau. Accompanying this uplift was extensive deformation by faulting and folding, which resulted in the creation 88.4.2 Recent volcanic and seismic activity
of numerous local basins. The northsouth compressional
deformation continues today as evidenced by ongoing fault- The chronology of Holocene volcanic activity associated
ing, volcanism, and seismicity.* [10]* [47]* [49]
with Mount Ararat is poorly documented. However, either
Within Anatolia, regional volcanism started middle-late archaeological excavations, oral history, historical records,
Miocene. During the late MiocenePliocene period, or combination of these data provide solid evidence that
widespread volcanism blanketed the entire East Anatolian volcanic eruptions of Mount Ararat occurred in 25002400
Iranian plateau under thick volcanic rocks. This volcanic BC, 550 BC, possibly in 1450 AD and 1783 AD, and
activity has continued uninterrupted until historical times. denitely in 1840 AD. Archaeological evidence demonApparently, it reached a climax during the latest Miocene strates that explosive eruptions and pyroclastic ows from
Pliocene, 6 to 3 Ma. During the Quaternary, the volcan- the northwest ank of Mount Ararat destroyed and buried at
ism became restricted to a few local volcanoes such as least one KouraArax culture settlement and caused numerMount Ararat. These volcanoes are typically associated ous fatalities in 25002400 BC. Oral histories indicated that
with northsouth tensional fractures formed by the con- a signicant eruption of uncertain magnitude occurred in
tinuing the northsouth shortening deformation of Anato- 550 BC and minor eruptions of uncertain nature might have
88.5. ASCENTS
243
occurred in 1450 AD and 1783 AD.* [6]* [48]* [49]* [51] 88.5.1
According to the interpretation of historical and archaeological data, strong earthquakes not associated with volcanic eruptions also occurred the area of Mount Ararat in
139, 368, 851893, and 1319 AD. During the 139 AD
earthquake, a large landslide that caused many casualties
and was similar to the 1840 AD landslide originated from
the summit of Mount Ararat.* [48]* [49]* [52]
First ascent
Friedrich Parrot
1840 eruption
Historical records and oral history document a phreatic

eruption and pyroclastic ow from radial ssures on the
upper north ank of Mount Ararat and a possibly associated earthquake of magnitude 7.4 that caused severe damage and numerous casualties in 1840 AD. Up to 10,000
people in the Mount Ararart region died in the earthquake,
including 1900 villagers in the village of Akhuri (modern
Yenidoan) who were killed by a gigantic landslide and subsequent debris ow. In addition, this combination of landslide and debris ow destroyed the town of Aralik, several
villages, and Russian military barracks. It also temporarily
dammed the Sevjour River.* [6]* [48]* [49]* [51]
88.5 Ascents
The 13th century missionary William of Rubruck wrote
thatMany have tried to climb it, but none has been able.
*
[53] In response to its rst ascent by Parrot and Abovian,
one high-ranking Armenian Apostolic Church clergyman
commented that to climb the sacred mountain was to
tie the womb of the mother of all mankind in a dragonish
mode.By contrast, in the 21st century to climb Ararat is
the most highly valued goal of some of the patriotic pilgrimages that are organized in growing number from Armenia and the Armenian diaspora.* [54]
Khachatur Abovian
The rst recorded ascent of the mountain in the modern times took place on 9 October [O.S. 27 September]
1829.* [11]* [55]* [56]* [57] The Baltic German naturalist
Friedrich Parrot of the University of Dorpat arrived at
Etchmiadzin in mid-September 1829, almost two years after Russian capture of Erivan, for the single purpose of exploring Ararat. The prominent Armenian writer Khachatur
Abovian, then a deacon and translator at Etchmiadzin, was
assigned by Catholicos Yeprem, the head of the Armenian
Church, as interpreter and guide.
Parrot and Abovian crossed the Aras River into the district of Surmali and headed to the Armenian village of
Akhuri situated on the northern slope of Ararat 1,220 metres (4,000 ft) above sea level. They set up a base camp
at the Armenian monastery of St. Hakob some 730 metres
(2,400 ft) higher, at an elevation of 1,943 metres (6,375 ft).
After two failed attempts, they reached the summit on their
third attempt at 3:15 p.m. on October 9, 1829.* [55]* [58]
The group included Parrot, Abovian, two Russian soldiers
Aleksei Zdorovenko and Matvei Chalpanov, and two Armenian Akhuri villagersHovhannes Aivazian and Murad
Poghosian.* [59] Parrot measured the elevation at 5,250 me-
244
tres (17,220 ft) using a mercury barometer. This was not

only the rst ascent of Ararat, but also the second highest
elevation climbed by man up to that date outside of Mount
Licancabur in the Chilean Andes. Abovian dug a hole in the
ice and erected a wooden cross facing north.* [60] Abovian
also picked up a chunk of ice from the summit and carried
it down with him in a bottle, considering the water holy. On
8 November [O.S. 27 October] 1829, Parrot and Abovian
together with the Akhuri hunter Sahaks brother Hako,
acting as a guide climbed up Lesser Ararat.* [61]
88.6.1
Origins of the tradition
According to the fourth verse of the eighth chapter of the

Book of Genesis (Genesis 8:4) following a ood, Noah's
Ark landed on the "mountains of Ararat".* [lower-alpha 4]
Most historians and Bible scholars agree that Araratis
the Hebrew name of Urartu, the geographic predecessor of
Armenia and referred to the wider region at the time and not
the mountain today known as Ararat.* [lower-alpha 5] The
phrase is translated as mountains of Armenia(montes
In 2011, a documentary lm on Parrot's expedition to Armeniae) in the *Vulgate, the fourth century Latin translaArarat was produced in Estonia by lmmaker Riho Vstrik. tion of the Bible. [75] Nevertheless, Mount Ararat is conIt was screened at the Golden Apricot International Film sidered the traditional site of the resting place of the Noah's
Ark and most Christians prefer this viewlargely because it
Festival in Yerevan in 2013.* [62]
would have been the rst peak to emerge from the receding
ood waters.* [76] It has therefore been called a biblical
mountain.* [77]* [78]
88.5.2
Later notable ascents
Other early notable climbers of Ararat included Russian climatologist and meteorologist Kozma Spassky-Avtonomov
(August 1834), Karl Behrens (1835), German mineralogist and geologist Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (29
July 1845),* [63] British politician Henry Danby Seymour
(1848).* [64] Later in the 19th century, two British scholars on ArmeniaJames Bryce (1876)* [65] and H. F. B.
Lynch (1893)* [66]* [67]climbed the mountain. The rst
winter climb was by Bozkurt Ergr, the former president of
the Turkish Mountaineering Federation, who climbed on 21
February 1970.* [68]
88.6 Resting place of Noah's Ark
According to Arnold, Mount Ararat has been associated with the Genesis ood story since the 11-12th centuries.* [73] Bailey suggested that the local Armenian population began to identify it as the ark's landing place in the
11-12th centuries.* [79] British orientalist F. C. Conybeare
in his 1901 review of Friedrich Murad's book on Ararat
wrote that the mountain was a center and focus of pagan
myths and cults [...] and it was only in the eleventh century, after these had vanished from the popular mind, that
the Armenian theologians ventured to locate on its eternal
snows the resting-place of Noah's ark.* [80] Fischer* [72]
and Drs. Lee Spencer and Jean Luc Lienard* [81] name the
13th century Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck as
the earliest reference for the tradition of Mount Ararat as
the landing place of the ark in European literature.* [53] The
14th century English traveler John Mandeville is another
early* [82] author who mentioned Mount Ararat, where
Noah's ship rested, and it is still there.* [83]
88.6.2
Prevalence of the legend
Most Christians identify Mount Ararat with the biblical

mountains of Ararat,despite the fact that six other landing
places have been proposed.* [76] Ararat is where the European tradition and most of Western Christianity place the
landing of Noah's Ark. According to Spencer and Lienard
the traditionseems to be well entrenched in the Christian
world.* [81]* [lower-alpha 6] During his visit to Armenia
in 2001 Pope John Paul II declared in his homily in Yerevan's St. Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral:We are close
to Mount Ararat, where tradition says that the Ark of Noah
*
Topography of Paradise by Jesuit scholar and polymath Athanasius came to rest. [89] Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, the head
Kircher as pictured in his book Arca No (1675). In the northeast, of the Russian Orthodox Church, also mentioned Mount
in the mountains above Armenia stands Mount Ararat, shown with Ararat as the resting place of Noah's Ark in his speech at
the Etchmiadzin Cathedral during his visit to Armenia in
a rectangular-shaped ark on the summit.* [69]
2010.* [90]
88.7. SIGNIFICANCE AMONG ARMENIANS
245
88.7.1
Symbolism
Descent of Noah from Ararat by Ivan Aivazovsky (1889, National

Gallery of Armenia) depicts Noah with his family, and a procession
of animals, crossing the Ararat plain, following their descent from
Mount Ararat, shown in the background.* [84]* [85]
James Bryce, while admitting that the biblical passage implies that the ark rested upon a mountain in the district
which the Hebrews knew as Ararat, or Armenia, wrote
in an 1878 article that the biblical writer must have had Mt.
Ararat in mind because it is so very much higher, more
conspicuous, and more majestic than any other summit in
Armenia.* [65] Those critical of this view point out that
Ararat was the name of the country, not the mountain, at the
time when Genesis was written. Arnold wrote in his 2008
Genesis commentary, The location 'on the mountains' of
Ararat indicates not a specic mountain by that name, but
rather the mountainous region of the land of Ararat.* [19]
88.6.3
The skyline of Armenia's capital Yerevan is dominated by Mount

Ararat,* [27]* [78]* [95] which is located some 65 km (40 mi) south
of the city.* [96]
Searches
Searches for Noah's Ark have traditionally concentrated on

Mount Ararat.* [76] Augustin Calmet wrote in his 1722 biblical dictionary,It is armed, but without proof, that there
are still remains of Noah's ark on the top of this mountain;
but M. de Tournefort, who visited this spot, has assured
us there was nothing like it; that the top of mount Ararat
is inaccessible, both by reason of its great height, and of
the snow which perpetually covers it.* [86] Despite numerous reports of ark sightings (e.g. Ararat anomaly) and
rumors, no scientic evidence of the ark has emerged.
*
[91] Searches for Noah's Ark are considered by scholars an
example of pseudoarchaeology.* [92]* [93] Kenneth Feder
writes, As the ood story itself is unsupported by any ar- Hayk, the legendary founding father of the Armenian people, as
chaeological evidence, it is not surprising that there is no depicted by Mkrtum Hovnatanian (1779-1846). Ararat is pictured
archaeological evidence for the existence of an impossibly in the background.
large boat dating to 5,000 years ago.* [94]
Mount Ararat has historically been associated with Armenia,* [97] and is widely considered the country's principal
national symbol.* [98] It is known as the "holy mountain" of
88.7 Signicance among Armenians the Armenian people,* [95]* [99] largely due to its association with the Biblical ood story.* [100] It was the home of
246
the gods in pre-Christian Armenian mythology.* [101] With eastern Turkey, was left with little to no Armenian popularise of Christianity, the mythology associated with pagan tion. Although Ararat was then part of the Russian Empire's
worship of the mountain was lost.* [102]
Erivan Governorate and was ceded to Turkey by the 1921
*
Ararat has been described as Armenia's calling card [103] Treaty of Kars, it came to represent the loss of Western ArTurkey) in the national consciousness of the
and the country's main brand.* [104] One scholar noted that menia (eastern
*
Armenians.
[lower-alpha
8]* [119]* [120] Ari L. Goldman
the image of Ararat is so ubiquitous in everyday material
culture [...] that it would prove quite a feat to spend a day in noted in 1988, In most Armenian homes in the modern
Yerevan without seeing its pictorial representations framed diaspora, there are pictures of Mount Ararat, a bittersweet
reminder of the homeland and national aspirations.* [121]
within a nationalizing discourse.* [105] Herbert Lottman
noted in 1976 that Mt. Ararat is almost a required back- Ararat has become a symbol of Armenian eorts to reclaim
its lost lands, i.e. the areas west of Ararat that are now
drop in paintings and printsand is the inevitable trade*
mark on local productsin Armenia. [106] Armenians have part of Turkey that* had signicant Armenian population before the genocide. [122] Adriaans wrote,In everyday baa sense of possession of Ararat in the sense of symbolic
*
cultural property,wrote one ethnographer. [107] The ti- nal irredentism we can see that mount Ararat, indeed, features as a sanctied territory for the Armenians, following
tles of at least two books describe Armenians as thepeople
in the footsteps of the Ark of Noah, its image providing an
*
of Ararat. [108]
imaginary link to a golden past.* [123] Stephanie Platz
It was the geographical center of ancient Armenian king- wrote, Omnipresent, the vision of Ararat rising above
doms,* [lower-alpha 7] </ref> and thus a critical piece of Yerevan and its outskirts constantly reminds Armenians of
the Armenian homeland.* [110] One scholar dened the their putative ethnogenesis and of their exile from Easthistoric Greater Armenia as the area about 200 miles ern Anatolia after the Armenian genocide of 1915.* [124]
in every direction from Mount Ararat.* [111] In 19thcentury era of romantic nationalism, when an Armenian
state did not exist, Mt. Ararat symbolized the historical 88.7.4 Coat of arms of Armenia
Armenian nation-state.* [112] The First Republic of Armenia, the rst modern Armenian state that existed between Mount Ararat has been depicted on the coat of arms of Ar1918 and 1920, was sometimes called the Araratian Re- menia consistently since 1918. The First Republic's coat of
public or the Republic of Ararat as it was centered in the arms was designed by architect Alexander Tamanian and
painter Hakob Kojoyan. This coat of arms was adopted
Ararat plain.* [113]
by the legislature of the Republic of Armenia on April 19,
1992, after Armenia regained independence. Ararat is depicted along with the ark on its peak on the shield on an
88.7.2 Myth of origin
orange background.* [125]
The Genesis ood narrative was linked to the Armenian
myth of origin by the early medieval historian Movses
Khorenatsi. In his History of Armenia, Khorenatsi wrote
that Hayk, the legendary founding father and the name giver
of the Armenian people is the son of Torgom, the greatgrandson of Japheth, one of Noah's sons.* [114] Hayk established the roots of the Armenian nation around Mount
Ararat.* [115]* [116] According to Razmik Panossian, this
myth of creationmakes Armenia the cradle of all civilisation since Noah's Ark landed on the 'Armenian' mountain
of Ararat. [] it connects Armenians to the biblical narrative of human development. [] it makes Mount Ararat the
national symbol of all Armenians, and the territory around
it the Armenian homeland from time immemorial.* [117]
The emblem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic

(Soviet Armenia) was created by the painters Martiros
Saryan and Hakob Kojoyan in 1921.* [126] Mount Ararat
is depicted in the center and makes up a large portion of
it.* [127]
88.7.5
Territorial claims
The nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) party claims eastern Turkey (Western Armenia) as part of what it considers United Armenia.* [129] The
Armenian government has not made ocial claims to any
Turkish territory,* [130]* [131] however the Armenian government has avoidedan explicit and formal recognition of
the existing Turkish-Armenian border.* [132] According
88.7.3 Symbol of genocide and Western Ar- to Turkish political scientist Bayram Balci, regular references to the Armenian Genocide and Mount Araratclearly
menia
indicatesthat the border with Turkey is contested in Ar*
In the aftermath of the Armenian Genocide of 1915, a large menia. [130]
portion of the Armenian homeland, particularly what is now In a 2010 interview with Der Spiegel, Armenian President
88.8. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS
247
The rst stamps issued by independent Armenia in 1992* [137]
Lebanese Armenians protesting Turkish Prime Minister Erdoan's

visit to Beirut in November 2010.* [128] The poster reads Ararat
is and remains Armenian.
Serzh Sargsyan was asked: You can see Mount Ararat,

Armenia's national symbol, from the windows of your residence. Today, the mountain is inaccessible, on the other
side of the Turkish border. Turkey fears demands for land
and compensation. Do you want Mount Ararat back?"
Sargsyan, in response, said:* [133]
No one can take Mount Ararat from us; we
keep it in our hearts. Wherever Armenians live
in the world today, you will nd a picture of
Mount Ararat in their homes. And I feel certain
that a time will come when Mount Ararat is
no longer a symbol of the separation between
our peoples, but an emblem of understanding.
But let me make this clear: Never has a representative of Armenia made territorial demands.
Turkey alleges thisperhaps out of its own bad
conscience?
tural representation.* [138] The rst three postage stamps

issued by Armenia in 1992 after achieving independence
from the Soviet Union depicted Mt. Ararat.* [137]
Mount Ararat has been depicted on various Armenian dram
banknotes issued in 1993-2001; on the reverse of the 10
dram banknotes issued in 1993, on the reverse of the 50
dram banknotes issued in 1998, on the obverse of the 100
and 500 dram banknotes issued in 1993, and on the reverse
of the 50,000 dram banknotes issued in 2001. It was also
depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes
of 1972-1986.* [lower-alpha 12]
Ararat is depicted on the logos of two of Armenia's leading universities the Yerevan State University and the
American University of Armenia. It is depicted on the
logos of Football Club Ararat Yerevan (since the Soviet
times) and the Football Federation of Armenia. The logo
of Armavia, Armenia's now defunct ag carrier, also depicted Ararat. The publications of the Social Democrat
Hunchakian Party in Lebanon (Ararad daily) and California, U.S. (Massis weekly) are both named for Ararat.
88.8.1
In various settings, several notable individuals such as
German historian Tessa Hofmann,* [lower-alpha 9] Slovak conservative politician Frantiek Mikloko,* [loweralpha 10] Lithuanian political scientist and Soviet dissident
Aleksandras tromas* [lower-alpha 11] have spoken in support of Armenian claims over Mt. Ararat.
In visual art
European
Ararat was depicted in the books of European, including
many British, and American travelers in the 18th-19th centuries who visited Armenia.
88.8 Cultural depictions

Ethnographer Levon Abrahamian noted that Ararat is visually present for Armenians in reality (it can be seen
from many houses in Yerevan and settlements in the Ararat
plain), symbolically (through many visual representations,
such as on Armenia's coats of arms), and culturallyin numerous and various nostalgic poetical, political, architec-
Joseph
Tournefort, 1718
Pitton
de
248
Robert Ker Porter, 1821
View of Ararat
and the Monastery of Echmiadzin", from the 1846
English translation of Friedrich Parrot's Journey to
Ararat
Ivan
zovsky, Valley of Mount Ararat, 1882
Aiva-
Yeghishe
Tadevosyan, Ararat from Ejmiatsin, 1895
James Bryce, 1877
Gevorg
Bashinjaghian, 1912
H. F. B. Lynch,
1901
Panos
Ter-
lemezian, 1929
Armenian
According to one source, the rst Armenian artist to
depict the mountain was Ivan Aivazovsky,* [139] who
created a painting of Ararat during his visit to Armenia in 1868.* [140] Other major Armenians artists who
painted Ararat include Yeghishe Tadevosyan, Gevorg Bashinjaghian, Martiros Saryan,* [141] and Panos Terlemezian.
88.8.2
In literature
Rouben Paul Adalian suggested thatthere is probably more

poetry written about Mount Ararat than any other mountain
on earth.* [102] Travel writer Rick Antonson described
Ararat as themost fabled mountain in the world.* [142]
88.8. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS
249
Armenian
Mt. Ararat is featured prominently in Armenian literature.
According to Melin Karakashian, Armenian poets attribute to it symbolic meanings of unity, freedom, and independence.* [148] According to Bardakjian, Araratepitomizes Armenia and Armenian suering and aspirations,
especially the consequences of the 1915 genocide: almost
total annihilation, loss of a unique culture and land [...] and
an implicit determination never to recognize the new political borders.* [149]
The last two lines of Yeghishe Charents's 1920 poem I
Love My Armenia( ) read:
And in the entire world you will not nd a mountaintop
like Ararat's. / Like an unreachable peak of glory I love my
Mount Masis.* [150]
In a 1926* [151] poem dedicated to the mountain Avetik
Isahakyan wrote: Ages as though in second came, /
Touched the grey crest of Ararat, / And passed by...! [...]
It's now your turn; you too, now, / Stare at its high and lordly
brow, / And pass by...!"* [152]
Mount Ararat is the most frequently cited symbol in the

poetry of Hovhannes Shiraz.* [149] In collection of poems,
The Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin wrote about Ararat in his Jour- Knar Hayastani (Lyre of Armenia) published in 1958, there
are many poemswith very strong nationalist overtones, esney to Arzrum.
pecially with respect to Mount Ararat (in Turkey) and the
irredentism it entailed.In one such poem, Ktak(BeNon-Armenian
quest), Shiraz bequeaths his son Mt. Ararat to keep it
forever, / As the language of us Armenians, as the pillar of
English Romantic poet William Wordsworth imagines see- your fathers home.* [153]
ing the ark* [143] in the poem Sky-Prospect": Lo! in
the burning west, the craggy nape/ Of a proud Ararat! and The rst lines of Paruyr Sevak's 1961 poem We Are
thereupon, / The Ark, her melancholy voyage done!* [144] Few...( , ) read: We are few, but
they say of us we are Armenians. / We do not think ourIn his Journey to Arzrum ( ; 1835 selves superior to anyone. / Clearly we shall have to accept
36), which is about his travels to the Caucasus and Arme- / That we, and only we, have an Ararat* [154]
nia at the time of the Russo-Turkish War (182829), the
prominent Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin wrote of Mt. In one short poem Silva Kaputikyan compares Armenia to
Ararat, Avidly I looked at the Biblical mountain, saw the anancient rock-carved fortress, the towers of which are
ark moored to its peak with the hope of regeneration and Ararat and Aragats.
life, saw both the raven and dove, ying forth, the symbols
of punishment and reconciliation...* [145]
88.8.3
In popular culture
Russian Symbolist poet Valery Bryusov often referred to

Ararat in his poetry and dedicated two poems to the moun- In music
tain,* [lower-alpha 13] which were published in 1917. For
Bryusov, Ararat is the embodiment of antiquity of the ArHoly Mountains, the 8th track of the album
menian people and their culture.* [146]
Hypnotize (2005) by System of a Down, an AmeriIn The Maximus Poems American poet Charles Olson, who
can rock band composed of four Armenian Amerigrew up near the Armenian neighborhood in Worcester,
cans, references Mount Ararat [...] and details that
Massachusetts, compares the Ararat Hill near his childhood
the souls lost to the Armenian Genocide have returned
home to the mountain andimagines he can capture an Arto rest here.* [155]
menian's immigrant perspective: the view of Ararat Hill as
Here's to You Araratis a song from the 2006 album
Mount Ararat.* [147]
250

How Much is Yours' of Arto Tunboyacyan's Armenian Navy Band.* [156]
In lm
The 2002 lm Ararat by Armenian-Canadian lmmaker Atom Egoyan features Mt. Ararat prominently
in its symbolism.* [157]
88.9 Places named for Ararat

In Armenia, there is a province, two cities (Ararat, Masis),
and two villages (Ararat, Masis) named Ararat or Masis.
The Turkish province of Ar was named for the mountain
(its Turkish name) in 1927, while the city of Karakse was
renamed to Ar in 1946.* [158]
In the United States, an unincorporated community in

North Carolina, a township and mountain in Pennsylvania, and a river in Virginia and North Carolina are named
Ararat.
In the Australian state of Victoria, there is a city and a rural
city named Ararat.
96205 Ararat is an asteroid named in the mountain's honor
View of Ararat
from Khor Virap, Armenia
88.10 Gallery
taken from the

International Space Station on 8 July 2011
View of Ararat from

Idr, Turkey
taken from the

Space Shuttle on 18 March 2001
from Doubeyazt
88.11. REFERENCES
251
the N. of Assyria. Mt. Masis, now called Mt. Ararat

(a peak 17,000 ft. high), is not meant here. view online
from Idr
from Nakhchivan
88.11 References
88.11.1
Notes
[1] The only permitted route to climb Mount Ararat begins in

Doubeyazt, optionally by automobile. Ministry of Culture
and Tourism (2005).* [5]
[2] Bodie Hodge writes,Ararat and Urartu are spelled the same
in Hebrew (no vowels in Hebrew, so it would be rrtfor
both with their Hebrew letters), but pronounced dierently.
*
[20]
*
[3] Strabo, Geographica, XI.14.2 and XI.14.14. [32] They are

also transliterated as Abus and Nibarus.* [33] Abos and Nibaros are the two peaks of Ararat according to scholars such
as Nicholas Adontz,* [32] Vladimir Minorsky,* [34] Julius
Frst.* [35]
[4] Biblical Hebrew: , hare ararat;* [70]
Septuagint: , ri t Arart * [71]
[5]
Richard James Fischer: The Genesis text, using the

plural mountains(or hills), identies no particular mountain, but points generally toward Armenia (
Araratbeing identical with the Assyrian Urartu
) which is broadly embraces that region.* [72]
Exell, Joseph S.; Spence-Jones, Henry Donald Maurice (eds.). Genesis. The Pulpit Commentary. It is
agreed by all that the term Ararat describes a region.
view online
Dummelow, John, ed. (1909). Genesis. John
Dummelow's Commentary on the Bible. Ararat is the
Assyrian 'Urardhu,' the country round Lake Van, in
what is now called Armenia [...] and perhaps it is a
general expression for the hilly country which lay to
Bill T. Arnold: Since the ancient kingdom of

Ararat/Urartu was much more extensive geographically than this isolated location in Armenia, modern
attempts to nd remaints of Noah's ark here are misguided.* [73]
Vahan Kurkjian: It has long been the notion among
many Christians that Noah's Ark came to rest as the
Flood subsided upon the great peak known as Mount
Ararat; this assumption is based upon an erroneous
reading of the 4th verse of the VIIIth chapter of Genesis. That verse does not say that the Ark landed upon
Mount Ararat, but upon the mountains of Ararat.
Now, Ararat was the Hebrew version of the name, not
of the mountain but of the country around it, the old
Armenian homeland, whose name at other times and
in other tongues appears variously as Erirath, Urartu,
etc.* [74]
[6] A 1722 biblical dictionary by Austin Calmet and the 1871
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary both point to
Mount Ararat as the place where tradition says the ark
rested.* [86]* [87] American Christian missionary H. G. O.
Dwight wrote in 1856 that the general opinion of the
learned in Europeis that Noah's Ark rested on Mount
Ararat.* [88]
[7] "...Mt. Ararat, which was the geographical center of the ancient Armenian kingdoms...* [109]
The sacred mountain stands in the center of historical
and traditional Armenia...* [106]
To the Armenians it is the ancient sanctuary of their faith, the centre of their once
famous kingdom, hallowed by a thousand traditions."<ref
name='FOOTNOTEBryce1877[https:
//archive.org/stream/transcaucasiaara00bryciala#
page/233/mode/1up 234]'>Bryce 1877, p. 234.
[8]The lands of Western Armenia which Mt. Ararat represent...* [112] mount Ararat is the symbol of banal irredentism for the territories of Western Armenia* [118]
[9] Hofmann suggested thatthe return of the ruins of Ani and
of Mount Ararat [by Turkey to Armenia], both in the immediate border area could be considered as a convincing gesture
of Turkey's apologies and will for reconciliation.* [134]
[10] Mikloko stated at a 2010 conference on Turkey's foreign
policy: Mount Ararat [represents the] Christian heritage
of Armenians. Does modern Turkey consider the possibility of giving the mount back to Armenians? The return of
Ararat would be an unprecedented step to signify Turkeys
willingness to build a peaceful future and promote its image
at the international scene.* [135]
[11] tromas wrote:The Armenians would also be right to claim
from Turkey the Ararat Valley, which is an indivisible part of
252
the Armenian homeland containing the main spiritual center and supreme symbol of Armenia's nationhood, the holy
Mountain of Ararat itself.* [136]
[16] Yildiz, Kerim; Taysi, Tanyel B. (2007). The Kurds in Iran:

The Past, Present and Future. London: Pluto Press. p. 71.
ISBN 978-0745326696.
[12] Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 6. Emission Group - One Hundred Turkish Lira I. Series, II. Series & III. Series.
[17] Tsutsiev, Arthur (2014). Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus. Translated by Nora Seligman Favorov.
New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 92. ISBN 9780300153088.
[13] " " (To Ararat) and " " (

Ararat from Erivan)
88.11.2
Citations
[1] 100 World Mountains ranked by primary factor. ii.uib.no.

Institutt for informatikk University of Bergen.
[2] Gardaneh-e-Kuhin - Key col for Mount Ararat peakbagger.com. Retrieved 30 January 2016
[18] Frymer, Tikva S.; Sperling, S. David (2008). Ararat, Armenia. Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed.). view online
[19] Arnold 2008, p. 104.
[20] Hodge, Bodie (2013). Tower of Babel: The Cultural History
of Our Ancestors. New Leaf Publishing Group. p. 114.
ISBN 9781614583189.
[3] 2007 GPS survey
[21] Hewsen, Robert H. (2001). Armenia: The Physical

Setting--Mt. Ararat. Armenia: A Historical Atlas. University of Chicago Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-226-33228-4.
[4] Ar Da'nn yzde 65'i Idr'da. internetigdir.com (in

Turkish). 22 December 2012. ...Ar Da'nn yzlm
olarak yzde 65'i Idr snrndadr.
[22] Smith, Eli (1832). Foreign Correspondence. The Biblical Repository and Classical Review: 203. ...called by the
Armenians, Masis, and by Europeans generally Ararat...
[5] Ar Mount Ararat. Republic of Turkey Ministry of

culture and tourism (kultur.gov.tr). 2005.
[23] Bryce 1877, p. 198.
[6] Siebert, L., T. Simkin, and P. Kimberly (2010) Volcanoes of

the world, 3rd ed. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 551 pp. ISBN 978-0-520-26877-7.
[7] Ar Da Milli Park [Ar Da National Park]". ormansu.gov.tr (in Turkish). Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Forest and Water Management.
[8] Ararat. Merriam-Webster. Ararat \a-r-rat\
Ararat. Reference.com. [ar-uh-rat]
[9] Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.).
Springeld, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2001. p.
63. ISBN 9780877795469.
[10] Yilmaz, Y.; Gner, Y.; Sarolu, F. (1998).Geology of the
quaternary volcanic centres of the east Anatolia. Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 85: 173210.
doi:10.1016/s0377-0273(98)00055-9.
[11] Parrot 2016, p. 139.
[12] de Planhol, X. (1986). Ararat. Encyclopdia Iranica.
[13] Hovannisian, Richard G. (1973). Armenia and the
Caucasus in the Genesis of the Soviet-Turkish Entente.
International Journal of Middle East Studies. 4 (2): 129.
doi:10.1017/s0020743800027409. JSTOR 162238. ...Nationalist Turkey annexed the Surmalu district, embracing
Mount Ararat, the historic symbol of the Armenian people.
[24] Jastrow, Jr., Morris; Kent, Charles Foster (1902). Ararat

. Jewish Encyclopedia Volume II. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co. p. 73. The mountain itself is known as Ararat
only among Occidental geographers. The Armenians call it
Massis, the Turks Aghri Dagh, and the Persians Koh i Nuh,
or the mountain of Noah.view online
[25] Avetisyan, Kamsar (1979).
[Armenian studies sketches] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Sovetakan grogh. p. 14.
...
" [History]" (in Armenian). Ministry of Foreign Aairs of the Republic of Armenia.
()
...
[26] " [Masisner]". encyclopedia.am (in Armenian).
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In
Hovannisian, Richard. The Armenian Genocide: Cultural
and Ethical Legacies. Transaction Publishers. p. 113. ISBN
9781412835923. ...the majestic duo of Sis and Masis (the
two peaks of Mount Ararat) that hover above the Erevan
landscape are constant reminders of the historical injustice.
[14] Parrot 2016, p. xxii.
[28] Delitzsch, Franz (2001). New Commentary on Genesis.

Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 274. The Armenians call
Little Ararat sis and Great Ararat masis, whence it seems
that great, the meaning of meds, is contained in ma.
[15] Parrot 2016, p. xxiii.
[29] Khorenatsi 1978, p. 91.
88.11. REFERENCES
[30] Petrossyan 2010, p. 221.

[31] Novoseltsev 1978.
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[33] Jones, Horace Leonard, ed. (1928). XI.14. The Geography of Strabo. Harvard University Press. view Book XI,
Chapter 14 online
[34] Minorsky, V. (1944).Roman and Byzantine Campaigns in
Atropatene. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London. 11 (2): 259. Although what
Strabo means by Abos seems to be the southern spurs of Mt.
Ararat...
[35] Julius Frst cited in Exell, Joseph; Jones, William; Barlow,
George; Scott, W. Frank; et al. (1892). The Preacher's Complete Homiletical Commentary. "...the present Aghri Dagh or
the great Ararat (Pers. Kuhi Nuch, i.e. Noah's mountain, in
the classics , Armen. massis)...(Furst.) view online
[36] Dalton, Robert H. (2004). Sacred Places of the World: A
Religious Journey Across the Globe. Abhishek. p. 133. ISBN
9788182470514. The Turkish name for Mt Ararat is Agri
Dagi (which means mountain of pain).
[37] McCarta, Robertson (1992). Turkey (2nd ed.). Nelles. p.
210. ISBN 9783886184019. (Turkish: Agri Dagi,Mount
of Sorrows)
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on Mount Ar (Ararat), Turkey, from 1976 to 2011 and its
climatic signicance. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 46:
190194. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.12.009.
[39] Xortek tirk dixwaze bi bsklt xwe ji iyay Agir berde
xwar" (in Kurdish). Rudaw Media Network. 19 June 2014.
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Ararat by Frank Westerman, translated by Sam Garrett.
The Spectator.
[41] SRTM data for Mount Ararat
[42] Mount Ararat Trip Report
[43] Detailed topographic maps of Mount Ararat
[44] Blumenthal, M. M. (1958). Vom Agrl Dag (Ararat) zum
Kagkar Dag. Bergfahrten in nordostanatolischen Grenzlande. Die Alpen. 34: 125137.
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Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World, 1253-55. W. W.
Rockhill (translator). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 269270. ISBN 9788120613386. [...] mountains
in which they say that Noah's ark rests; and there are two
mountains, the one greater than the other; and the Araxes
ows at their base [...] Many have tried to climb it, but none
has been able. [...] An old man gave me quite a good reason
why one ought not to try to climb it. They call the mountain
Massis [...] No one,he said,ought to climb up Massis;
it is the mother of the world.
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M'Phun & Son. p. 783. Great Ararat was ascended for the
rst time by Professor Parrot, October 9, 1829...
[58] Ketchian, Philip K. (December 24, 2005). Climbing
Ararat: Then and Now. The Armenian Weekly. 71 (52).
Archived from the original on September 8, 2009.
[59] Parrot 2016, p. 142.
[60] Parrot 2016, p. 141-142.
[61] Parrot 2016, p. 183.
[62] 'Journey to Ararat' Documentary Film, Golden Apricot International Film Festival, July 2013.
[63] Fairbairn, Patrick (1866). Ararat. The Imperial BibleDictionary: Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal - Volume I. p. 119.
[64] Polo, Marco; Yule, Henry (2010). The Book of Ser Marco
Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of
the East, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 49.
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Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London.
London: Royal Geographical Society. 22 (3): 169186.
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[66] Lynch, H. F. B. (1893). The ascent of Ararat. The
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and Co. p. 176.
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Genesis: From Adam to Abraham. University Press of
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Biblical mountain's glaciers shrinking. News24.
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17. The sacred biblical mountain prevailing over Yerevan
was the very visiting card by which foreigners came to know
our country.
[79] Bailey, Lloyd R. (1990). Ararat. In Mills, Watson
E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey. Mercer Dictionary of the Bible.
Mercer University Press. p. 54. ...the local (Armenian) population called Masis and which they began to identify as the
ark's landing place in the eleventh-twelfth centuries.
[80] Conybeare, F. C. (1901).Reviewed Work: Ararat und Masis. Studien zur armenischen Altertumskunde und Litteratur
by Friedrich Murad. The American Journal of Theology.
5 (2): 335337. doi:10.1086/477703. JSTOR 3152410.
Masis was anyhow a center and focus of pagan myths and
cults, which the author enumerates; and it was only in the
eleventh century, after these had vanished from the popular
mind, that the Armenian theologians ventured to locate on
its eternal snows the resting-place of Noah's ark.
[81] Spencer, Lee; Lienard, Jean Luc (2005). The Search
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[83] Mandeville, John (2012). The Book of Marvels and Travels.
Anthony Bale (translator). Oxford University Press. p. 70.
ISBN 9780199600601. ...there's another mountain called
Ararat; the Jews call this Thano, where Noah's ship rested,
and it is still there. One can glimpse it from afar in clear
weather, and the mountain is seven miles high.
[84] " (1889) [Descent of Noah from
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Dictionnaire historique,
critique,
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[87] Jamieson, Robert; Fausset, Andrew Robert; Brown, David
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Bible. view Genesis 8:4 commentary online "...mountain
which tradition points to as the one on which the ark rested.
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to ancient Armenian tradition, and the general opinion of the
learned in Europe, the ark of Noah rested after the deluge,
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The Commonwealth of Independent States 2014. Rowman
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Bunun nedeni, dan, Ermeni tarihine ve kimliine
dair anlatlarda merkez bir yere sahip olmas. Translation: Mount Ararat has an almost sacred meaning
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Taylor, Bron. Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature
Volume I: A-J. Continuum. p. 1458. ISBN 978-184371-138-4. The Armenian people regard Mount
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p. 317. ISBN 978-1-84162-490-7. ...of course Mount
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.
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York: Armenian General Benevolent Union. 15: 46. 1960.
Bruce; Yaln-Heckmann, Lale. Caucasus Paradigms: Anthropologies, Histories and the Making of a World Area. [151] Ter-Khachatryan, Yervand (11 December 2014).
" ". Azg (in Armenian).
Berlin: Lit Verlag. pp. 167188. ISBN 9783825899066.
Archived from the original on April 11, 2016.
[139] Sarkssian, M. S. (1963). "
[Hovhannes Ayvazovsky and Arme- [152] Chrysanthopoulos, Leonidas (2002). Caucasus Chronicles:
Nation-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993-1994.
nian Culture]".
Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in ArGomidas Institute. p. 21. ISBN 9781884630057.
menian).
Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences
(4): 28. 1860- .
[153] Panossian 2006, p. 335.

[154]We Are Few... by Barouyr Sevak. Ararat. New York:

Armenian General Benevolent Union. 21-22: 5. 1978.

[155] System of a Down - Holy Mountains Lyrics. genius.com.

[140] Khachatrian, Shahen. "" " ["The Sea Poet"]" (in [156]Arto Tuncboyaciyan - Ararat. Sharm Holding production.
Russian). Center of Spiritual Culture, Leading and National
Research Samara State Aerospace University. Archived [157] Hogikyan, Nellie (2007).Atom Egoyan's Post-exilic Imaginary: Representing Homeland, Imagining Family. In Burfrom the original on 19 March 2014.
well, Jennifer; Tschofen, Monique. Image and Territory: Es[141] Martiros Sarian (1880-1972) View of Mount Ararat from
says on Atom Egoyan. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p.
Yerevan. Christie's. 3 June 2013.
202. ISBN 9780889204874.
258
[158] Nianyan, Sevan (2010). Ar il - Merkez - Ar". Index

Anatolicus (in Turkish).
and the Middle Ages) (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka.

pp. 6166.
[159] Doyle, Rachel B. (5 October 2012). In Armenia, Art in

the Shadow of Ararat. The New York Times. ...whose national symbol, Mount Ararat, where many Christians believe
Noahs Ark landed...
Ketchian, Philip K. (24 December 2005). Climbing Ararat: Then and Now. The Armenian Weekly.
71 (52). Archived from the original on September 8,
2009.
88.12 Bibliography
88.12.1
General works cited in the article
Melkonyan, Ashot (2008). .

[Ararat: Symbol of Armenian Immortality] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Tigrant
Mets Publishing.
Movses Khorenatsi (1978). History of the Armenians.

Robert W. Thomson (translator). Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-39571-9.
Petrossyan, Sargis (2010). "

[About
the Ancient Names and Eponyms of the Ararat Mountains]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (3): 220227.
Panossian, Razmik (2006). The Armenians: From

Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars.
New York: Columbia University Press.
ISBN
9780231139267.
Antonson, Rick (2016). Full Moon over Noah's Ark:

An Odyssey to Mount Ararat and Beyond. Skyhorse
Publishing. ISBN 9781510705678.
Arnold, Bill T. (2008). Genesis. Cambridge Univer- 88.12.3

sity Press. ISBN 9780521000673.
Adriaans, Rik (2011). Sonorous Borders: National
Cosmology & the Mediation of Collective Memory in
Armenian Ethnopop Music. University of Amsterdam. pp. 2427. Archived from the original on March
5, 2016.
88.12.2
Specic works on Ararat
Parrot, Friedrich (2016) [1846]. Journey to Ararat.

Translated by William Desborough Cooley. Introduction by Pietro A. Shakarian. London: Gomidas Institute. ISBN 978-1909382244.
Dwight, H.G.O. (1856).Armenian Traditions about
Mt. Ararat. Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 5: 189.
doi:10.2307/592222. JSTOR 592222.
Bryce, James (1877). Transcaucasia and Ararat: Being Notes of a Vacation Tour in Autumn of 1876. London: Macmillan and Co.
Murad, Friedrich (1901). Ararat und Masis: Studien zur armenischen Altertumskunde und Litteratur
(in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universittsbuchhandlung.
Novoseltsev, Anatoly (1978). "
" " (On the location of
the biblical mountains of Ararat)".
(Europe in the antiquity
Books on Armenia with Ararat in

their titles
Gregory, S. M. (1920). The land of Ararat: twelve discourses on Armenia, her history and her church. London: Chiswick Press.
Elliott, Mabel Evelyn (1924). Beginning Again at
Ararat. Introduction by John H. Finley. New York:
Fleming H. Revell Company.
Yeghenian, Aghavnie Y. (2013) [1932]. The Red Flag
at Ararat. Introduction by Pietro A. Shakarian. London: Sterndale Classics (Gomidas Institute). ISBN
978-1909382022.
Burney, Charles; Lang, David Marshall (1971). The
Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus.
New York: Praeger.
Arlen, Michael J. (2006) [1975]. Passage to Ararat.
New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 9780374530129.
Suny, Ronald Grigor (1993). Looking Toward Ararat:
Armenia in Modern History. Indiana University Press.
ISBN 978-0253207739.
Walker, Christopher J., ed. (1997). Visions of
Ararat: Writings on Armenia. I.B. Tauris. ISBN
9781860641114.
Asher, Armen; Minasian Asher, Teryl (2009). The
Peoples of Ararat. BookSurge Publishing. ISBN 9781439225677.

NASA Earth Observatory page
259
Chapter 89
Debate between sheep and grain

The Debate between sheep and grain or Myth of cat- Langdon also translated further parts of the text and distle and grain is a Sumerian creation myth, written on clay cusses the myth saying,One of the most remarkable tablets
tablets in the mid to late 3rd millennium BCE.
in the Museum is number 14005, a didactic poem in 61
lines on the period of pre-culture and institution of paradise
by the earth god and the water god in Dilmun".* [5]* [6]* [7]
It was then increased to two hundred lines and the myth
89.1 Disputations
called cattle and grain by Samuel Noah Kramer in 1959; he
called it the second myth signicant for the Sumerian
Seven debatetopics are known from the Sumerian lit- concept of the creation of man.* [8]* [9] He added the
erature, falling in the category of 'disputations'; some ex- translation of a tablet by Hermann Hilprecht* [10] and inamples are: the Debate between Winter and Summer; the cluded translations of museum tablet numbers 7344, 7916,
Debate between bird and sh; the Tree and the Reed; and 15161 and 29.15.973. He also included translations from
The Dispute between Silver and Copper.* [1] These topics tablets in the Nippur collection of the Museum of the Ancame some centuries after writing was established in Sume- cient Orient in Istanbul, catalogue numbers 2308, 4036
rian Mesopotamia. The debates are philosophical and ad- and 4094.* [9] Other translations were taken from Edward
dress humanity's place in the world.
Chiera's Sumerian Epics and Mythsnumbers 38, 54,
55, 56 and 57.* [11] In total, seventeen pieces were found
by Kramer to belong to the myth. Later work has added
to this and modern translation has removed the deication
89.2 Compilation
of Lahar and Ashnan, naming them simply grainand
sheep(also known as cattle).* [12]
The rst sixty-one lines of the myth were discovered on the
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology catalogue of the Babylonian section, tablet
number 14,005 from their excavations at the temple library 89.3 Story
at Nippur. This was translated by George Aaron Barton
in 1918 and rst published as Sumerian religious texts The story opens with a location the hill of heaven and
in "Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions", number eight, earthwhich is discussed by Chiera asnot a poetical name
entitled A New Creation Myth.* [2] The tablet is 5 by for the earth, but the dwelling place of the gods, situated at
2.6 by 1.25 inches (12.7 by 6.6 by 3.2 cm) at its thickest the point where the heavens rest upon the earth. It is there
point. Barton describes the text as anelaborate statement that mankind had their rst habitat, and there the Babyloof the non-existence of many things once upon a timeand nian Garden of Eden is to be placed.* [3] The Sumerian
considered it a statement that mankind was brought into word Edin, means steppeor plain,* [13] so modern
existence through the physical union of a god and a god- scholarship has abandoned the use of the phrase Babydess.
lonian Garden of Edenas it has become clear the GarAnother tablet from the same collection, number 6893 (part
of which was destroyed) was translated by Edward Chiera
in 1924 increasing the text to seventy lines in Sumerian
religious texts.* [3] Chiera compiled his translation using
further tablets translated by Hugo Radau published inMiscellaneous Sumerian Textsin 1909.* [4] Stephen Herbert
den of Edenwas a later concept.* [13] Jeremy Black suggests this area was restricted for gods, noting that eld plans
from the Third dynasty of Ur use the term hursag ("hill")
to describe the hilly parts of elds that are hard to cultivate due to the presence of prehistoric tell mounds (ruined
habitations).* [14] Kramer discusses the story of the god
260
89.7. REFERENCES
An creating the cattle-goddess, Lahar, and the grain goddess, Ashnan, to feed and clothe the Annunaki, who in turn
made man.* [1] Lahar and Ashnan are created in theduku
or pure placeand the story further describes how the
Annunaki create a sheepfold with plants and herbs for Lahar and a house, plough and yoke for Ashnan, describing
the introduction of animal husbandry and agriculture.* [15]
The story continues with a quarrel between the two goddesses over their gifts which eventually resolves with Enki
and Enlil intervening to declare Ashnan the victor.* [15]
89.4 Discussion
Samuel Noah Kramer has noted the parallels and variations between the story and the later one of Cain and Abel
in the Bible Book of Genesis (Genesis 4:1-16).* [9] Ewa
Wasilewska mentions, this text is not very clear, allowing
for the interpretation that humankind was already present
before Lahar and Ashnan were created and it was them,
not the Anunnak, who were not able to provide for themselves and for the deities until they were given divine 'breath'
(Lyczkowska and Szarzynska 1981). However, it seems
that Kramer's translation is more appropriate concerning
the Sumerian realm in which each and every creation must
have had its clearly described purpose.* [16] Karen Rhea
Nemet-Nejat noted the use of measuring rods in the tale
as being linked to the history of writing, which developed
in order to keep count of animals and produce.* [17] Jeremy
Black suggests that the victory of grain perhaps implies that
man can live without domestic animals, but cannot survive
without bread. He goes on to point out that the debates on
both sides are roughly equal.* [18]
89.5 Quotes
The introduction to the myth reads:
The benets that grain and sheep bring to the habitation are
also described:
The nal merits of grain are emphasized in a proverb at the
end of the myth:
89.6 See also

Barton Cylinder
Debate between Winter and Summer
Debate between bird and sh
Enlil and Ninlil
261
Old Babylonian oracle
Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D)
Hymn to Enlil
Kesh temple hymn
Lament for Ur
Sumerian creation myth
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
89.7
References
[1] Samuel Noah Kramer (1964). The Sumerians: their history, culture and character. University of Chicago Press. pp.
218. ISBN 978-0-226-45238-8. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[2] George Aaron Barton (1918). Miscellaneous Babylonian inscriptions, p. 52. Yale University Press. Retrieved 23 May
2011.
[3] Edward Chiera; Constantinople. Muse imprial ottoman
(1924). Sumerian religious texts, pp. 26-. University. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[4] Hugo Radau (1909). Miscellaneous Sumerian texts from the
temple library of Nippur. n.p. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[5] Stephen Langdon (September 2010). Sumerian Liturgies
and Psalms, p. 235. General Books LLC. ISBN 978-1-15364654-3. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[6] Stephen Langdon; Ch Virolleaud (1919). Le pome sumrien
du Paradis: du dluge et de la chute de l'homme, 135-146.
ditions Ernest Leroux. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[7] Langdon, Stephen., Bablyoniaca, Volume 3, Librarie Orientaliste, 1908.
[8] Samuel Noah Kramer (1959). History begins at Sumer. Doubleday. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[9] Samuel Noah Kramer (1961). Sumerian mythology: a study
of spiritual and literary achievement in the third millennium
B.C. Forgotten Books. pp. 105. ISBN 978-1-60506-0491. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[10] Hermann Vollrat Hilprecht, The Babylonian Expedition of
the University of Pennsylvania: Researches and treatises,
Volume 31, Number 15, University of Pennsylvania
[11] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[12] Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of
Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998- .
262
[13] David C. Thomasma; David N. Weisstub (2004). The variables of moral capacity. Springer. pp. 110. ISBN 978-14020-2551-8. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
[14] Thorkild Jacobsen; I. Tzvi Abusch (2002). Riches hidden
in secret places: ancient Near Eastern studies in memory of
Thorkild Jacobsen. Eisenbrauns. pp. 45. ISBN 978-157506-061-3. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
[15] Gwendolyn Leick (1991). A dictionary of ancient Near Eastern mythology. Psychology Press. pp. 108. ISBN 978-0415-00762-7. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[16] Ewa Wasilewska (2000). Creation stories of the Middle East.
Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 146. ISBN 978-1-85302681-2. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[17] Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (30 September 1998). Daily life
in ancient Mesopotamia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.
[18] Jeremy A. Black; Jeremy Black; Graham Cunningham;
Eleanor Robson (13 April 2006). The Literature of Ancient
Sumer. Oxford University Press. pp. 230. ISBN 978-019-929633-0. Retrieved 24 May 2011.

Alster, Bendt, and Vanstiphout, Herman L.J.,Lahar
and Ashnan. Presentation and Analysis of a Sumerian Disputation, Acta Sumerologica 9 (1987), 1-43:
commentary, composite text, translation
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J., The Akkadian word for
grain and Lahar and Ashnan, NABU (1989) No. 98:
commentary
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J., The Mesopotamian Debate Poems. A General Presentation. Part II. The Subject, Acta Sumerologica 14 (1992), 339-367: commentary
89.9 External links

Barton, George Aaron., Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptons, Yale University Press, 1918. Online Version
Chirea, Edward., Sumerian Religious Texts, Constantinople. Muse imprial ottoman, 1924. Online
Version
Langdon, Stephen., Sumerian Liturgies and Psalms.
Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, 1919. Online Version
CHAPTER 89. DEBATE BETWEEN SHEEP AND GRAIN

The debate between sheep and grain., Black, J.A.,
Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
ETCSLtransliteration : c.5.3.2
Chapter 90

The Debate between Winter and Summer or Myth of (which forms a join with 8310), 29.16.232, 29.16.417,
Emesh and Enten is a Sumerian creation myth, written on 29.16.427, 29.16.446 and 29.16.448. He also included
clay tablets in the mid to late 3rd millennium BC.* [1]
translations from tablets in the Nippur collection of the
Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul, catalogue numbers 2705, 3167 and 4004.* [6]* [7] Further tablets from
Nippur were added by Jane Heimerdinger.* [8] Other tablets
90.1 Disputations
were added from theUr excavations textsin 1928 along
with several others to bring it to its present form.* [9] A
Sevendebatetopics are known from the Sumerian literlater edition of the text were published by Miguel Civil in
ature, falling in the category of 'disputations'; some exam1996.* [10]* [11]
ples are: the debate between sheep and grain; the debate
between bird and sh; the tree and the reed; and the
dispute between silver and copper, etc.* [2] These topics
came some centuries after writing was established in Sumerian Mesopotamia. The debates are philosophical and address humanity's place in the world.
90.3
90.2 Compilation
The rst lines of the myth were discovered on the University
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, catalogue of the Babylonian section (CBS), tablet number 8310 from their excavations at the temple library at
Nippur. This was translated by George Aaron Barton in
1918 and rst published as Sumerian religious texts in
"Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions", number seven, entitled A Hymn to Ibbi-Sin".* [3] The tablet is 5.5 inches
(14 cm) by 4.75 inches (12.1 cm) by 1.6 inches (4.1 cm)
at its thickest point. Barton describes Ibbi-Sin as an inglorious King suggesting the text to have been composed
during his lifetime, he commented The hymn provides a
powerful statement for emperor worship in Ur at the time
of composition. Ibbi-Sin is still mentioned in the modern
translationFor my king named by Nanna, the son of Enlil,
Ibbi-Sin, when he is arrayed in the 'cutur' garment and the
'hursag' garment.* [4]
Another tablet from the same collection, number 8886 was
documented by Edward Chiera in Sumerian Epics and
Myths, number 46.* [5] Samuel Noah Kramer included
CBS tablets 3167, 10431, 13857, 29.13.464, 29.16.142
Story
The story takes the form of a contest poem between two cultural entities rst identied by Kramer as vegetation gods,
Emesh and Enten. These were later identied with the
natural phenomena of Winter and Summer.* [11] The location and occasion of the story is described in the introduction with the usual creation sequence of day and night,
food and fertility, weather and seasons and sluice gates for
irrigation.* [1]
The two seasons are personied as brothers, born after Enlil
copulates with a "hursag" (hill). The destinies of Summer
and Winter are then described, Summer founding towns and
villages with plentiful harvests, Winter to bring the Spring
oods.
The two brothers soon decide to take their gifts to Enlil's
house of life, the E-namtila, where they begin a debate
about their relative merits. Summer argues:
To which Winter replies:
Enlil eventually intervenes and declares Winter the winner of the debate and there is a scene of reconciliation.
Bendt Alster explains Winter prevails over Summer, because Winter provides the water that was so essential to agriculture in the hot climate of ancient Mesopotamia.* [11]
263
264
CHAPTER 90. DEBATE BETWEEN WINTER AND SUMMER
90.4 Discussion
John Walton wrote that people in the Ancient Near East
did not think of creation in terms of making material things
instead, everything is function oriented. Creation thus
constituted bringing order to the cosmos from an originally
nonfunctional condition. Consequently, to create something
(cause it to exist) in the ancient world means to give it a function, not material properties.* [1] Samuel Noah Kramer has
noted this myth is the closest extant Sumerian parallel to
the Biblical Cain and Abel story in the Book of Genesis (Genesis 4:116).* [12] This connection has been made
by other scholars. The disputation form has also been suggested to have similar elements to the discussions between
Job and his friends in the Book of Job.* [13] M. L. West
noted similarities with Aesop's fable a debate between
Winter and Springalong with another similar work by Bion
of Smyrna.* [14]
J.J.A. van Dijk analysed the myth and determined the following common elements with other Sumerian debates "(1)
Introduction, presenting the disputants and the occasion of
the dispute; (2) the dispute itself, in which each party praises
himself and attacks the other; (3) judgement uttered by a
god, followed by reconciliation; (4) a formula of praise.
*
[15]* [16] Bendt Alster suggests a link to harvest festivals,
saying It is denitely conceivable that summer and winter contests may have belonged to festivals celebrating the
harvest among the peasants.* [11] Herman Vanstiphout
has suggested the lexical listing of oerings was used in
scribal training, quoting the example from the mythWild
Animals, cattle and sheep from the mountains, Wild rams,
mountain rams, deer and full-grown ibex, Mountain sheep,
rst class sheep, and fat tailed sheep he brings.* [17]
Eliade and Adams note that in the story, the water ows
through the hursag(foothills), Enlil is identied as a
"kurgal" (mountain) and his main temple being the "eKur"
(mountain house), they link this mountain aspect with Enlil
being the Lord of the windsby suggesting the ancients
believed the winds originated in the mountains.* [18] Piotr Michalowski makes the connection in the story that "Ehursag" is a structure named as the residence of the king
and E-namtillaas the residence of Enlil, suspecting
the two words refer to the same place and thatE-namtilla
is simply another name for E-hursagand that it was a royal
palace.* [19]

Bottro, J.,Latensonet la rexion sur les choses
en Msopotamie, in Reinink, G. and Vanstiphout,
Herman L.J., (eds.), Dispute Poems and Dialogues in
the Ancient and Medieval Near East (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 42) Peeters: Leuven, 1991, 722:
commentary
Bottro, Jean, and Kramer, Samuel Noah, Lorsque
les dieux faisaient l'homme. (rev.ed.), ditions Gallimard: 1989, reprinted 1993, 481483: translation,
commentary (partial translation)
Civil, Miguel, The Farmer's Instructions. A Sumerian
Agricultural Manual. (Aula Orientalis Supplementa,
5), Editorial Ausa: Sabadell, 1994: 79, 83: commentary (ll. 181182)
Cooper, J.S., Enki's Member: Eros and the Irrigation in Sumerian Literature, in Behrens, Hermann
(ed.), and Loding, Darlene, and Roth, Martha Tobi,
DUMU-E-DUB-BA-A. Studies in Honor of ke W.
Sjberg (Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah
Kramer Fund, 11) University Museum: Philadelphia,
1989, 8789: commentary (ll. 1215)
van Dijk, J.J.A., La Sagesse sumro-accadienne. Brill:
Leiden, 1953, 4257: composite text, translation,
commentary (partial edition)
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J.,Joins Proposed in Sumerian Literary Compositions, NABU (1987), No. 87:
commentary
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J.,Lore, Learning and Levity in the Sumerian Disputations: A Matter of Form,
or Substance?", in Reinink, G. and Vanstiphout, Herman L.J., (eds.), Dispute Poems and Dialogues in
the Ancient and Medieval Near East (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 42), Peeters: Leuven, 1991, 23
46: commentary
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J., Sumerian Canonical
Compositions. C. Individual Focus. 5. Disputations
, in Hallo, William W. (ed.), The Context of Scripture,
I: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World
Brill: Leiden/New York/Kln, 1997, 575588. pp.
584588: translation
Vanstiphout, Herman L.J., The Mesopotamian Debate Poems. A General Presentation. Part II. The Subject, Acta Sumerologica 14 (1992), 339367. pp.
348350: commentary
90.6
See also
Song of the hoe

Barton Cylinder

Enlil and Ninlil
Hymn to Enlil
Kesh temple hymn
Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
90.7 References
[1] John H. Walton (30 July 2009). The Lost World of Genesis
One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate. InterVarsity Press. pp. 34. ISBN 978-0-8308-3704-5. Retrieved
28 May 2011.
2011.
[4] The debate between Winter and Summer., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic
Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998.
[5] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths, 46. The
University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[6] Samuel Noah Kramer (1944). Sumerian literary texts from
Nippur: in the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istanbul.
American Schools of Oriental Research. Retrieved 28 May
2011.
[7] Muazzez Cig; Hatice Kizilyay (1969). Sumerian literary tablets and fragments in the archeological museum of
Istanbul-I. Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. Retrieved 28 May
2011.
[8] Jane W. Heimerdinger (June 1979). Sumerian literary fragments from Nippur, numbers 55 & 56. distributed by
the Babylonian Fund, University Museum. ISBN 978-0934718-31-8. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
265
[9] British museum and Pennsylvania University. University

museum. Joint expedition to Mesopotamia; Pennsylvania
University. University museum (1928). Ur excavations
texts... 6 36 and 6 37. British museum. Retrieved 28 May
2011.
[10] The debate between Winter and Summer Bibliography
The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford
1998.
[11] Frede Lkkegaard (1990). Bendt Alster., Sumerian literary dialogues and debates and their Place in Ancient Near
East Literaturein Living waters: Scandinavian orientalistic studies presented to Frede Lkkegaard on his seventy-fth
birthday, January 27th 1990. Museum Tusculanum Press.
pp. 1. ISBN 978-87-7289-083-8. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
B.C. Forgotten Books. pp. 72. ISBN 978-1-60506-049-1.
[13] Leo G. Perdue (1991). Wisdom in revolt: metaphorical theology in the Book of Job. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 79. ISBN 978-1-85075-283-7. Retrieved
29 May 2011.
[14] Harvard University Department of Classics; Department Of
Classics Harvard University (1 January 1969). Harvard
Studies in Classical Philology. Harvard University Press. pp.
[15] J. J. A. van Dijk (1953). La sagesse sumro-accadienne:
recherches sur les genres littraires des textes sapientiaux, pp.
2985. E.J. Brill. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[16] Robert Murray (10 February 2006). Symbols of church and
kingdom: a study in early Syriac tradition. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 339. ISBN 978-0-56703082-5. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[17] G. J. Reinink; Herman L. J. Vanstiphout (1991). Dispute poems and dialogues in the ancient and mediaeval Near East:
forms and types of literary debates in Semitic and related literatures. Peeters Publishers. pp. 42. ISBN 978-90-6831341-3. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[18] Mircea Eliade; Charles J. Adams (1987). The Encyclopedia
of religion. Macmillan. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-02-909800-4.
Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[19] Piotr Michalowski (1989). The lamentation over the destruction of Sumer and Ur. Eisenbrauns. pp. 81. ISBN 978-0931464-43-0. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
90.8
External links
266
CHAPTER 90. DEBATE BETWEEN WINTER AND SUMMER
Cheira, Edward., Sumerian Epics and Myths, University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications, 1934.
Online Version
The debate between Winter and Summer., Black, J.A.,
Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998.
Composite Text The Electronic Text Corpus of
Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998.
Chapter 91
Ekur
tain". This was carried-on into later tradition in the Bible
by the prophet Micah who envisions the mountain of the
temple of Yahweh".* [4]
Ruins of the mountain house at Nippur
Ekur (.KUR, E2.KUR, E-kur) is a Sumerian term meaningmountain house. It is the assembly of the gods in the
Garden of the gods, parallel in Greek mythology to Mount
Olympus and was the most revered and sacred building of
ancient Sumer.* [1]* [2]
91.1 Origin and meaning

There is a clear association of Ziggurats with mountain houses. Mountain houses play a certain role in
Mesopotamian mythology and Assyro-Babylonian religion,
associated with deities such as Anu, Enlil, Enki and
Ninhursag. In the Hymn to Enlil, the Ekur is closely linked
to Enlil whilst in Enlil and Ninlil it is the abode of the
Annanuki, from where Enlil is banished. The fall of Ekur
is described in the Lament for Ur. In mythology, the Ekur
was the centre of the earth and location where heaven and
earth were united. It is also known as Duranki and one of
its structures is known as the Kiur (great place).* [2]
Enamtila has also been suggested by Piotr Michalowski to
be a part of the Ekur.* [3] A hymn to Nanna illustrates the
close relationship between temples, houses and mountains.
In your house on high, in your beloved house, I will come
to live, O Nanna, up above in your cedar perfumed moun-
The Tummal Inscription records the rst king to build

a temple to Enlil as Enmebaragesi, the predecessor of
Gilgamesh, around 2500 BC.* [5] Ekur is generally associated with the temple at Nippur restored by Naram-Sin of
Akkad and Shar-Kali-Sharri during the Akkadian Empire.
It is also the later name of the temple of Assur rebuilt by
Shalmaneser I.* [6] The word can also refer to the chapel
of Enlil in the temple of Ninimma at Nippur. It is also
mentioned in the Inscription of Gaddas as a temple of Enlil
builtoutside Babylon, possibly referring to the Enamtila
in west Babylon.* [6] It is used as part of such Sumerian
phrases as e-kur-igi-gal; House, Mountain Endowed with
Sight, e-kur-igi-bar-ra; House, Mountain which Sees
, e-kur-mah; House, Exalted Mountain, e-kur-mah; a
temple of Ninazu, e-kur-me-sikil; House, Mountain of
Pure Mes (laws or judgement)" - a sanctuary of Ishtar, ekur-nam-ti-la; House, Mountain of Life, e-kur-ni-zu;
House, Fearsome Mountain- the sanctuary of Ninlil at
hursag-kala-ma (likely a later name of e-hursag-kalam-ma),
etc.* [6]
The Ekur was seen as a place of judgement and the place
from which Enlil's divine laws are issued. The ethics
and moral values of the site are extolled in myths, which
Samuel Noah Kramer suggested would have made it the
most ethically-oriented in the entire ancient Near East. Its
rituals are also described as:banquets and feasts are celebrated from sunrise to sunsetwithfestivals, overowing
with milk and cream, are alluring of plan and full of rejoicing. The priests of the Ekur festivities are described with
en being the high priest, lagar as his associate, mues the
leader of incantations and prayers, and guda the priest responsible for decoration. Sacrices and food oerings were
brought by the king, described as faithful shepherdor
noble farmer.* [2]
267
268
91.2 The Ekur complex

The physical structure of the Ekur included shrines and
storehouses where foreigners brought oerings. These included the shrines of Enlil's wife Ninlil (her chamber, the
Gagisua is described as the place where they lived happily
together) and their sons, Nanna and Ninurta along with the
house of his vizier Nuska and mistress Suzianna. Descriptions of these locations show the physical structures about
the Ekur, these included an assembly hall, hut for ploughs,
a lofty stairway up a foothill from a house of darkness
considered by some to be a prison or chasm. It also contained various gates such as the gate where no grain was
cut, the lofty gate, gate of peaceand gate of
judgement, it also had drainage channels. Other locations
such as a multi-storygigunaare mentioned, among others
which have proved unintelligible, even to modern scholars.
The Ekur was noted for inspiring fear, dread, terror and
panic in people, especially amongst the evil and ignorant.
Kramer suggested the Ekur complex may have included
a primordial dungeon of the netherworld or house of
lamentwhere the damned were sent after judgement.
Nungal is the Sumerian goddess who was given the title
Queen of the Ekur. The hymn Nungal in the Ekur
describes the dark side of the complex with a house that
examines closely both the righteous and the wicked and
does not allow the wicked to escape. This house is described as having a River of ordealwhich leads to the
mouth of catastrophethrough a lock and bolt. Further descriptions of its structural components are given including
foundations, doors, a fearsome gate, architrave, a buttressed
structure called a dubla and a magnicent vault, all
described with terrifying metaphors. The hymn also references ahouse of lifewhere sinners are rehabilitated and
returned to their gods through the compassion of Nungal,
who holds the tablet of life.* [7]* [8]
The destruction and fall of these various structures is remembered in various city laments, destroyed either in a
great storm, ood or by variously Elamites, Subarians,
Gutians and some other, as yet unidentiedSu-people. It
was also recorded that the terrible acts of nal destruction
of the Ekur and its divine laws was committed by Sargon
the Great against his own people in approximately 2300
BC. The Curse of Agade describes the same thing happening at the hands of Naram-Sin Enlil, because his beloved
Ekur had been attacked, what destruction he wrought. The
foundations are broken with large axes and it's watercourses
are disabled, the gate of peace" is demolished and wars
start all over the land, statues are burnt and wealth carried
o. There is a body of evidence showing that Naram-Sin instead rebuilt the Ekur, likely in a single building project that
continued into the reign of his son Shar-Kali-Sharri, suggesting it was destroyed during Gutian raids. It was noted
CHAPTER 91. EKUR

that statues of the Sargonic kings were still honoured there
during the Ur III period.* [9] Restorations of the Ekur were
later carried out by Ur-Nammu around 2050 BC and IshmeDagan around 1950 BC, who made it fragrant again with
incense like a fragrant cedar forest.* [2] Evidence was
also found of further building work under the reign of Agum
Kakrime.* [10] Another restoration at Nippur was carried
out by Assyrian and Babylonian king Esarhaddon between
681 and 669 BC.* [11]
A hymn to Urninurta mentions the prominence of a tree in
the courtyard of the Ekur, reminiscent of the tree of life
in the Garden of Eden: O, chosen cedar, adornment of
the yard of Ekur, Urinurta, for thy shadow the country may
feel awe!". This is suggested by G. Windgren to reect the
concept of the tree as a mythical and ritual symbol of both
king and god.* [12]
91.3
The Ekur Archive
Nippur cubit, graduated specimen of an ancient measure from Nippur, Mesopotamia (3rd millennium B.C.) displayed in the Archeological Museum of Istanbul (Turkey).
The Akkadian Ekur reconstruction project was documented

in the Ekur archive; a number of administrative tablets
found under the Ur Gur platform or pavement level. These
were found by an expedition from the University of Pennsylvania between 1889 and 1900, led by John Punnett Peters, John Henry Haynes, and Hermann Volrath Hilprecht.
The tablets detail records of the building work and furnishings of the temple under Naram-Sin and Shar-Kali-Sharri.
These tablets describe the walls featuring statues of four
gold bison. The courtyard was paved with a pattern of
red and yellow bricks. The main entrance to the Ekur was
adorned with two copper lahmu-gures with golden faces.
These obscure gures held emblem-poles on either side.
Two gures of large, winged, copper dragons guarded the
gateway, their roaring mouths inlaid with gold. The doors
were studded with copper and gold with heavy bolts resembling either dragons or water bualo. The interior likely
featured an exquisite, carved wooden decorations, panelling
and furniture. Inner shrines had doors, which were also
built with golden faced lahmu-gures either side along with
91.5. SEE ALSO

a number of votive statues plated with gold. Around twenty
nine kilograms of gold was used making one hundred moon
crescents and one hundred sun discs used in the decorations. Two hundred kilograms of silver were used in the
construction of a single shrine. Interestingly, no records of
any personal adornments or jewellery were ever found in
the Ekur.* [10]
A total of seventy seven joiners were used in teams of eleven
under seven foremen and fty four carpenters under three
foremen. Eighty six goldsmiths were employed under six
foremen along with ten sculptors. The vast amounts of
bronze suggested there were as many as two hundred smiths
under fteen foremen and an unknown number of engravers
under three foremen. The Ekur archive is a testament to
the power and wealth of the Akkadian Empire with artisans coming from around the land to participate under the
direction of the master craftsman and 'Minister of Public
Works' of the King. Manufacture was suggested to have
taken place both in the temple and special workshop (Nippur cubit measuring rod pictured). The splendour of the
designs and decorations led Age Westenholz to suggest the
anaology of this spiritual sanctuary to the Sumerian empire
with that of the Vatican to the Roman Catholic world. The
chief administrator of the Ekur or sanga of Enlil was
appointed by the king and held special status in Nippur and
votive inscriptions of the kings indicate that it had held this
position since early dynastic times.* [10]
91.4 Cosmology
269
91.5
See also
Kesh temple hymn

Hymn to Enlil
Lament for Ur
Hursag
Hubur
Du-Ku
91.6
References
[1] Charles Penglase (24 March 1997). Greek Myths and

Mesopotamia: Parallels and Inuence in the Homeric Hymns
and Hesiod. Psychology Press. pp. 73. ISBN 978-0-41515706-3. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
[2] Michael V. Fox (1988). Temple in society. Eisenbrauns. pp.
8. ISBN 978-0-931464-38-6. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
[3] Piotr Michalowski (1989). The lamentation over the destruction of Sumer and Ur. Eisenbrauns. pp. 81. ISBN 978-0931464-43-0. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[4] Thomas B. Dozeman (29 May 2009). Exodus. Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 122. ISBN 978-0-8028-26176. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
Peter Jensen also associated the Ekur with the underworld

inDie Kosmologie der Babylonier, where he translated
it as a settlement of demons.* [13] The location also appears [5] Dina Katz (June 1993). Gilgamesh and Akka. BRILL. pp.
in Ludlul bl nmeqi and other myths as a home of demons
who go out into the land. It is noted by Wayne Horowitz [6] A. R. George (1993). House most high: the temples of anthat in none of the bilingual texts do the demons appear to
cient Mesopotamia. Eisenbrauns. pp. 117. ISBN 978-0be going upwardsbut outwards, contrary to what
931464-80-5. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
would be expected if Ekur referred to later concepts such
as Sheol, Hades and Hell, which were believed to be lo- [7] Sjberg Ake., Nungal in the Ekur,Archiv fr Orientforschung 24, p. 19-46, 1976.
cated under the surface of the earth.* [14] Morris Jastrow
discussed the place of the Ekur in Sumerian cosmology, [8] Frymer, Tikva Simone.,The Nungal Hymn and the EkurAnother name which species the relationship of Aralu to
prison, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
the world is Ekur or 'mountain house' of the dead. Ekur is
Orient 20, pp. 78-89, 1967.
one of the names for the earth, but is applied more particularly to that part of the mountain, also known as E-khar-sag- [9] Jerrold S. Cooper (February 1983). The Curse of Agade.
Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-2846-1.
kurkura (.AR.SAG.KUR.KUR-'a'house of the mounRetrieved 8 June 2011.
tain of all lands) where the gods were born. Before the
later speculative view was developed, according to which [10] Aage Westenholz; University of Pennsylvania. University
the gods, or most of them, have their seats in heaven, it was
Museum (January 1987). Old Sumerian and old Akkadian
on this mountain also that the gods were supposed to dwell.
texts in Philadelphia: TheAkkadiantexts, the Enlilemaba
Hence Ekur became also one of the names for temple, as
texts, and the Onion Archive. Museum Tusculanum Press.
pp. 25. ISBN 978-87-7289-008-1. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
the seat of a god.* [15]
270
[11] Barbara N. Porter (1993). Images, power, and politics: gurative aspects of Esarhaddon's Babylonian policy. American
Philosophical Society. pp. 62. ISBN 978-0-87169-208-5.
[12] James D. Martin; Philip R. Davies (1986). A Word in season: essays in honour of William McKane. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 104. ISBN 978-1-85075047-5. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[13] Peter Christian Albrecht Jensen (1890). Die Kosmologie der
Babylonier: Studien und Materialien : mit einem mythologischen Anhang, pp. 185-195. Trbner. Retrieved 8 June
2011.
[14] Wayne Horowitz (1998). Mesopotamian cosmic geography.
Eisenbrauns. pp. 295. ISBN 978-0-931464-99-7. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
[15] Morris Jastrow (1898). The religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 558. Ginn & Co. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
CHAPTER 91. EKUR
Chapter 92
Enamtila
Enamtila (.NAM.TI.LA, E-nam-ti-la) is a Sumerian
term meaning house of lifeor possibly house of creation.* [1]* [2] It was a sanctuary dedicated to Enlil, likely
to have been located within the Ekur at Nippur during the
Akkadian Empire. It also referred to various other temples
including those to later versions of Enlil; Marduk and Bel as
well as one to Ea. It was likely another name for Ehursag,
a temple dedicated to Shulgi in Ur.* [3] A hymn to Nanna
suggests the link To Ehursag, the house of the king (we
go), to the Enamtila of prince Shulgi we go!" Another reference in the Inanna - Dunmuzi text translated by Samuel
Noah Kramer references the king's palace by this name and
possibly makes references to the sacred marriage": In
the Enamtila, the house of the king, his wife dwelt with him
in joy, in the Enamtila, the house of the king, Inanna dwelt
with him in joy. Inanna, rejoicing in his house ....* [4]
A re is reported to have broken out next to the Enamtila
in a Babylonian astronomical diary dated to the third century BC.* [5] The Enamtila is also referred to as a palace of
Ibbi-Sin at Ur in the Lament for Sumer and Ur, Its king
sat immobilised in his own palace. Ibbi-Suen was sitting in
anguish in his own palace. In E-namtila, his place of delight,
he wept bitterly. The ood dashing a hoe on the ground was
levelling everything.* [6]
92.1 See also

Ekur
Hursag
Hubur
92.2 References
[1] A. R. George (1993). House most high: the temples of ancient Mesopotamia. Eisenbrauns. pp. 112. ISBN 978-0931464-80-5. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
271
[2] A. R. George (1992). Babylonian topographical texts.

Peeters Publishers. pp. 306. ISBN 978-90-6831-410-6.
[3] Joan Goodnick Westenholz; Muzeon artsot ha-Mira
(Jerusalem) (1996). Royal cities of the Biblical world. Bible
Lands Museum. ISBN 978-965-7027-01-1. Retrieved 9
June 2011.
[5] T. Boiy (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon.
[6] Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature - Lament for
Sumer and Ur - Translation
Chapter 93
Enlil and Ninlil

ber 9205 from their excavations at the temple library at
Nippur. This was translated by George Aaron Barton in
1918 and rst published as Sumerian religious texts in
"Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions", number seven, entitled A Myth of Enlil and Ninlil".* [1] The tablet is 6.5
inches (17 cm) by 4.5 inches (11 cm) by 1.2 inches (3.0
cm) at its thickest point. Barton noted that Theophilus G.
Pinches had published part of an equivalent Akkadian version of the same story in 1911, noting The two texts in
general agree closely, though there are minor variations here
and there.* [2]
Another tablet from the same collection, number 13853 was
used by Edward Chiera to restore part of the second column of Barton's tablet in Sumerian Epics and Myths,
number 77.* [3] Samuel Noah Kramer included CBS tablets
8176, 8315, 10309, 10322, 10412, 13853, 29.13.574 and
29.15.611. He also included translations from tablets in
the Nippur collection of the Museum of the Ancient Orient
in Istanbul, catalogue number 2707.* [4]* [5] Another tablet
used as cuneiform source for the myth is held by the British
Museum, BM 38600, details of which were published in
1919.* [6] Other tablets and versions were used to bring the
myth to its present form with the latest composite text by
Miguel Civil produced in 1989 with latest translations by
Drawing of Enlil and Ninlil taken from a mural decoration of Willem Rmer in 1993 and Joachim Krecher in 1996.* [7]
Susa. Lord Enlil (with hooves and horns of the Bull God) and the
Lady Ninlil. Second half of the 2nd millennium BC, Louvre, Paris.
Baked bricks, height 54 inches.
93.2
Story
Enlil and Ninlil or the Myth of Enlil and Ninlil or

Enlil and Ninlil: The begetting of Nanna is a Sumerian The story opens with a description of the city of Nippur,
creation myth, written on clay tablets in the mid to late 3rd its walls, river, canals and well, portrayed as the home of
the gods and, according to Kramer that seems to be conmillennium BC.
ceived as having existed before the creation of man. A.R.
George suggestsAccording to a well-known tradition, represented by the myth of Enlil and Ninlil, time was when Nip93.1 Compilation
pur was a city inhabited by gods not men, and this would
suggest that it had existed from the very beginning.He disThe rst lines of the myth were discovered on the University cusses Nippur as therst city(uru-sag, 'city-head(top)')
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropol- of Sumer.* [8] This conception of Nippur is echoed by Joan
ogy, catalogue of the Babylonian section (CBS), tablet num- Goodnick Westenholz, describing the setting as civitas
272

dei, existing before the "axis mundi".* [9]
The story continues by introducing the goddess Nun-barce-gunu warning her daughter Ninlil about the likelihood of
romantic advances from Enlil if she strays too near the river.
Ninlil resists Enlil's rst approach after which he entreats
his minister Nuska to take him across the river, on the other
side the couple meet and oat downstream, either bathing or
in a boat, then lie on the bank together, kiss and conceive
Suen-Acimbabbar, the moon god. The story then cuts to
Enlil walking in the Ekur, where the other gods arrest him
for his relationship with Ninlil and exile him from the city
for being ritually impure.
There follows three similar episodes as Enlil leaves the city,
speaking to as the keeper of the city gatekeeper
(
of the holy
barrierorman of the pure lock), the man who guards Idkura; the Sumerian river of the underworld (similar to the
river Styx in Greek Mythology) and lastly SI.LU.IGI, the
underworld ferryman (similar to Charon). Each time Enlil
tells these characters When your lady Ninlil comes, if she
asks after me, don't you tell her where I am!". Ninlil follows
him asking eachWhen did your lord Enlil go by?" To this,
Enlil (in disguise) tells herMy lord has not talked with me
at all, O loveliest one. Enlil has not talked with me at all,
O loveliest one upon which Ninlil oers to have sex with
him and each time they conceive another god. Two of the
ospring are gods of the underworld, Nergal-Meclamta-ea
and Ninazu. The third god, Enbilulu is called theinspector
of canals, however Jeremy Black has linked this god to
management of irrigation.* [11] The myth ends with praise
for the fertility of Enlil and Ninlil.
93.3 Discussion
Jeremy Black discusses the problems of serial pregnancy
and multiple births along with the complex psychology of
the myth. He also notes that there are no moral overtones
about Enlil being ritually impure.* [11] Ewa Wasilewska
noted about the location of the tale that Black and
Green suggest the Sumerians located their underworld in
the east mountains where the entrance to Kur was believed
to exist. He (Enlil) was thus the 'King of the Foreign
Lands/Mountains,' where the underworld to which he was
banished and from which he returned, was located.* [12]
Robert Payne has suggested that the initial scene of the
courtship takes place on the bank of a canal instead of a
river.* [13]
Herman Behrens has suggested a ritual context for the myth
where dramatic passages were acted out on a voyage between the Ekur and the sanctuary in Nippur.* [14] Jerrold
Cooper has argued for a more sociological interpretation,
explaining about the creation of gods who seem to perform
273
as substitutes for Enlil, he suggests the purpose of the work
is to tell the origins of four gods and that it explains
why one (Suen) is shining in the heavens, while the other
three dwell in the Netherworld. Cooper also argues that
the text uses local geographical placenames in regard to the
netherworld.* [15]
From the analysis of Thorkild Jacobsen, Dale Launderville
has suggested the myth provides evidence that Sumerian
society prohibited premarital sex in a discussion entitled
Channeling the Sex Drive Toward the Creation of Community. He discusses the attributes of the gods "(1) the
moon god was regarded as rejuvenating living things; (2)
Nergal was associated occasionally with agricultural growth
but more often with plague, pestilence, famine and sudden
death; (3) Ninazu and (4) Enbilulu were forces that ensured
successful agriculture.He concludes that the narrative exonerates Enlil and Ninlil indicating nature to have its way
even where societal conventions try to contain sexual desire.* [16]
93.4
Further reading
Behrens, Hermann. 1978. Enlil und Ninlil. Ein

sumerischer Mythos aus Nippur. Studia Pohl Series
Major 8. Rome: Biblical Institute Press.
Bottro, Jean and Kramer, Samuel Noah. 1989,
reprinted 1993. Lorsque les dieux faisaient l'homme
rev. ditions Gallimard. p. 105-115.
Cooper, Jerrold S. 1980. Critical Review. Hermann Behrens, Enlil und Ninlil etc.. In Journal of
Cuneiform Studies 32. 175-188.
Geller, M.J. 1980. Review of Behrens 1978. In
Archiv fr Orientforschung 27. 168-170.
Green, Margaret Whitney. 1982.Review of Behrens
1978. In Bibliotheca Orientalis 39. 339-344.
Hall, Mark Glenn. 1985. A Study of the Sumerian
Moon-God, Nanna/Suen. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania. p. 524-526.
Heimerdinger, Jane W. 1979. Sumerian literary fragments from Nippur. Occasional Publications of the
Babylonian Fund 4. Philadelphia: The University Museum. 1, 37.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. 1987. The Harps that Once ..
Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven/London:
Yale University Press. p. 167-180.
Rllig, Wolfgang. 1981. Review of Behrens 1978
. In Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen
Gesellschaft 131. 430.
274
Rmer, Willem H.Ph. 1993a. Mythen und Epen in
sumerischer Sprache. In Mythen und Epen I. Texte
aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments III, 3. Kaiser,
Otto (ed). Gtersloh: Gtersloher Verlagshaus Gerd
Mohn. p. 421-434.
93.5 See also

Barton Cylinder
Hymn to Enlil
Kesh temple hymn
Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
93.6 References
2011.
[2] Society of Biblical Archology (London, England) (1911).
Theophilus G. Pinches in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Volume 33 f. 85. The Society.
[3] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths, 77, p. 5.
The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
2011.
CHAPTER 93. ENLIL AND NINLIL
[7] Enlil and Ninlil - Electronic and Print Sources - The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[9] Miguel ngel Borrs; Centre de Cultura Contempornia de
Barcelona (2000). Joan Goodnick Westenholz, The Foundation Myths of Mesopotamian Cities, Divine Planners and
Human Builder in La fundacin de la ciudad: mitos y ritos
en el mundo antiguo. Edicions UPC. pp. 48. ISBN 97884-8301-387-8. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[10] Enlil and Ninlil., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E.,
and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature, Oxford 1998-.
Sumer. Oxford University Press. pp. 106. ISBN 978-019-929633-0. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[12] Ewa Wasilewska (2000). Creation stories of the Middle East.
Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 77. ISBN 978-1-85302681-2. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[13] Robert Payne (1959). The canal builders: the story of canal
engineers through the ages, p. 22. Macmillan. Retrieved 29
May 2011.
[14] Gwendolyn Leick (1998). A dictionary of ancient Near Eastern mythology. Routledge. pp. 47. ISBN 978-0-41519811-0. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[15] Charles Penglase (24 March 1997). Greek Myths and
Mesopotamia: Parallels and Inuence in the Homeric Hymns
and Hesiod. Psychology Press. pp. 40. ISBN 978-0-41515706-3. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
[16] Dale Launderville (1 July 2010). Celibacy in the Ancient World: Its Ideal and Practice in Pre-Hellenistic Israel,
Mesopotamia, and Greece. Liturgical Press. pp. 28. ISBN
978-0-8146-5697-6. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
93.7
External links

B.C. Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1-60506-049-1. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
Online Version
[6] Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1919).

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, f. 190. Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society.
Kramer, Samuel Noah., Sumerian Mythology: A

Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the
Third Millennium B.C., Forgotten Books, First published 1944. Online Version

Enlil and Ninlil., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus
of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
Transliteration - The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
275
Chapter 94
Feather Mountain
Feather Mountain (Chinese: ; pinyin: Yshn) is
one of many important mythological mountains in Chinese
mythology, particularly associated with the Great Flood.
According to the mythological studies of Lihui Yang, Gun
was executed on the outskirtsof Feather Mountain by
Zhu Rong, either for stealing the xirang or for failing to control the ood waters.* [1] According to K. C. Wu, Emperor
Shun exiled Gun to Feather Mountain for lse-majest, but
that Gun was not executed; and, rather, that such accounts
result from misunderstanding the meanings associated with
the ancient Chinese character j , which appears in certain source works.* [2]
Anthony Christie relays the following three mythic story
versions: that on Feather Mountain, Gun was either killed
by Zhu Rong, torn into pieces by tortoises and owls, or else
that his lifeless-seeming body lay there for three years before being slashed open at the belly with the Wu sword, after which his son Yu emerged as a winged dragon and Gun
himself metamorphosed into a yellow bear.* [3]
94.1 See also

Heavenly Questions
Kunlun Mountain: a mythical mountain, dwelling of
various divinities, and fabulous plants and animals
Yushan (mountain): in some accounts the dwelling of
Xi Wangmu
Mount Buzhou: mythical mountain
Mount Penglai: paradise; a fabled fairy isle on the
China Sea
94.2 References
[1] Yang, Lihui; Turner, Deming An, with Jessica Anderson
(2008). Handbook of Chinese mythology. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6.
276
[2] Wu, K. C. (1981). The Chinese heritage (1. ed.). New York:
Crown. pp. 86; 105, note 109. ISBN 0-517-54475X.
[3] Christie, Anthony (1975). Chinese mythology (3rd impression. ed.). London: Hamlyn. p. 87. ISBN 0600006379.
Chapter 95
Hymn to Enlil
Feather robed and turbaned archer gure of Ashur (a later development of Enlil). Seated and superimposed on a sun disc; the basic
cuneiform symbol of Enlil
95.1
Votive gure of standing male worshiper, 2750-2600 B.C. (when

Enlil was considered the most powerful god). Found in the remains of the square templeat Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar);
Alabaster (gypsum), shell, black limestone, bitumen; H. 29.5 cm,
Fletcher Fund, 1940 (40.156)
Compilation
Fragments of the text were discovered in the University of

Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
catalogue of the Babylonian section (CBS) from their excavations at the temple library at Nippur. The myth was
rst published using tablet CBS 8317, translated by George
Aaron Barton in 1918 as Sumerian religious textsin
"Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions", number ten, entitledAn excerpt from an exorcism".* [2] The tablet is 3.4
by 2.75 by 1.2 inches (8.6 by 7.0 by 3.0 cm) at its thickest point. A larger fragment of the text was found on CBS
tablet number 14152 and rst published by Henry Frederick Lutz asA hymn and incantation to EnlilinSelected
Sumerian and Babylonian Texts, number 114 in 1919.* [3]
Barton's tablet had only containted lines ve to twenty four
of the reverse of Lutz's, which had already been translated
in 1918 and was used to complete several of his damaged
lines.* [2]
The Hymn to Enlil, Enlil and the Ekur (Enlil A), Hymn
to the Ekur, Hymn and incantation to Enlil, Hymn to
Enlil the all benecent or Excerpt from an exorcism is
a Sumerian myth, written on clay tablets in the late third Edward Chiera published tablet CBS 7924B from the hymn
millennium BC.* [1]
inSumerian Epics and Myths.* [4] He also worked with
277
278
CHAPTER 95. HYMN TO ENLIL
95.2
Composition
The hymn, noted by Kramer as one of the most important of

its type,* [16] starts with praise for Enlil in his awe-inspiring
dais:
The hymn develops by relating Enlil founding and creating
the origin of the city of Nippur and his organization of the
earth.* [17] In contrast to the myth of Enlil and Ninlil where
the city exists before creation, here Enlil is shown to be responsible for its planning and construction, suggesting he
surveyed and drew the plans before its creation:
The hymn moves on from the physical construction of the
city and gives a description and veneration of its ethics and
moral code:
The last sentence has been compared by R. P. Gordon to the
description of Jerusalem in the Book of Isiah (Isiah 1:21),
the city of justice, righteousness dwelled in herand in
the Book of Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:23), O habitation of
*
Cuneiform list of Sumerian deities with Enlil rst (in the top right), justice, and mountain of holiness. [18] The myth continues with the city's inhabitants building a temple dedicated
represented by the sign of a sun disc
to Enlil, referred to as the Ekur. The priestly positions and
responsibilities of the Ekur are listed along with an appeal
Samuel Noah Kramer to publish three other tablets CBS for Enlil's blessings on the city, where he is regarded as the
8473, 10226, 13869 in Sumerian texts of varied con- source of all prosperity:
tentsin 1934. The name given this time wasHymn to the A similar passage to the last lines above has been noted in
Ekur", suggesting the tablets wereparts of a composition the Biblical Psalms (Psalms 29:9) The voice of the Lord
which extols the ekur of Enlil at Nippur, it may, however makes hinds to calve and makes goats to give birth (too)
be only an extract from a longer text.* [5] Further tablets quickly.* [19] The hymn concludes with further reference
were found to be part of the myth in the Hilprecht collec- to Enlil as a farmer and praise for his wife, Ninlil:
tion at the University of Jena, Germany, numbers 1530,
Andrew R. George suggested that the hymn to Enlil can
1531, 1532, 1749b, 2610, 2648a and b, 2665, 2685, 1576
be
incorporated into longer compositionsas with the Kesh
and 1577.* [6] Further tablets containing the text were extemple
hymn and the hymn to temples in Ur that introcavated at Isin, modern Ishan al-Bahriyat, tablet 923.* [7]
duces a Shulgi hymn.* [20]
Another was found amongst the texts in the Iraq Museum,
tablet 44351a.* [8] Others are held in the collections of the
Abbey of Montserrat in Barcelona and the Ashmolean in
Oxford.* [7]* [9]
95.3 Discussion
Other translations were made from tablets in the Nippur collection of the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul
(Ni). Samuel Noah Kramer amongst others worked to
translate several others from the Istanbul collection including Ni 1039, 1180, 4005, 4044, 4150, 4339, 4377,
4584, 9563 and 9698.* [10]* [11] More were found at
Henri de Genouillac's excavations at Kish (C 53).* [12]
Another tablet of the myth (Si 231) was excavated at
Sippar in the collections of the Istanbul Archaeological Museum.* [13] Sir Charles Leonard Woolley unearthed more
tablets at Ur contained in the Ur excavations textsfrom
1928.* [14] Other tablets and versions were used to bring
the myth to its present form with the latest translations presented by Thorkild Jacobsen, Miguel Civil and Joachim
Krecher.* [7]* [13]* [15]
The poetic form and laudatory content of the hymn have

shown similarities to the Book of Psalms in the Bible, particularly Psalm 23 (Psalms 23:1-2) The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want, he maketh me to lie down in green
pastures.* [21] Line eighty four mentions:
and in line ninety one, Enlil is referred to as a shepherd:
The shepherd motif originating in this myth is also found
describing Jesus in the Book of John (John 10:11-13).* [22]
Joan Westenholz noted that The farmer image was even
more popular than the shepherd in the earliest personal
names, as might be expected in an agrarian society.She
notes that both Falkenstein and Thorkild Jacobsen consider
the farmer refers to the king of Nippur; Reisman has sug-
95.5. REFERENCES
279
gested that the farmer or 'engar' of the Ekur was likely to

be Ninurta.* [23] The term appears in line sixty
el mundo antiguo. Edicions UPC. pp. 48. ISBN 978-848301-387-8. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
Wayne Horowitz discusses the use of the word abzu, normally used as a name for an abzu temple, god, cosmic place
or cultic water basin. In the hymn to Enlil, its interior is
described as a 'distant sea':
2011.
[3] Henry Frederick Lutz (1919). Selected Sumerian and Baby-
The foundations of Enlil's temple are made of lapis lazuli,

lonian texts, pp. 54-. The University Museum. Retrieved 3
June 2011.
which has been linked to the soham stone used in the
Book of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 28:13) describing the materials
[4] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths, 102 B.
used in the building of "Eden, the Garden of god" perched
The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
on the mountain of the lord, Zion, and in the Book
of Job (Job 28:6-16) The stones of it are the place of [5] Edward Chiera; Samuel Noah Kramer; University of Pennsylvania. University Museum. Babylonian Section (1934).
sapphires and it hath dust of gold".* [25] Moses also saw
Sumerian texts of varied contents, p. 4-. The University of
God's feet standing on a paved work of a sapphire stone
Chicago Press. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
in (Exodus 24:10). Precious stones are also later repeated
in a similar context describing decoration of the walls of [6] Samuel Noah Kramer; Ines Bernhardt (1961). Sumerische
New Jerusalem in the Apocalypse (Revelation 21:21).* [26]
literarische Texte aus Nippur, pp. 19-20, 3 15, 3 16, 3 17, 3
Along with the Kesh Temple Hymn, Steve Tinney has identied the Hymn to Enlil as part of a standard sequence of
scribal training scripts he refers to as the Decad. He suggested that the Decad constituted a required program of
literary learning, used almost without exception throughout Babylonia. The Decad thus included almost all literary
types available in Sumerian.* [27]* [28]
95.4 See also

Barton Cylinder
Enlil and Ninlil
Kesh temple hymn
Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
95.5 References
[1] Miguel ngel Borrs; Centre de Cultura Contempornia de
Barcelona (2000). Joan Goodrick Westenholz, The Foundation Myths of Mesopotamian Cities: Divine Planners and Human Builder inLa fundacin de la ciudad: mitos y ritos en
18, 3 19. Akademie-Verlag. Retrieved 3 June 2011.

[7] ETCSL Enlil and the Ekur Bibliography
[8] Cuneiform texts of varying content. (Texts in the Iraq Museum 9, 13). Leiden: Brill, 1976.
[9] Ashmolean Museum (1923). Oxford editions of cuneiform
inscriptions, Volume 11, 31. Oxford university press, Clarendon.
Nippur: in the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istanbul, 37
& 56. American Schools of Oriental Research. Retrieved
28 May 2011.
Istanbul-I, 68, 1f, 94 & 114. Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[12] Henri de Genouillac (1924).
Premires recherches
archologiques Kich: Mission d'Henri de Genouillac 1911
- 1912. Rapport sur les travaux et inventaires, fac-simils,
dessins, photographies et plans, C 53. douard Champion.
[13] Falkenstein, Adam., Sumerische Gtterlieder (Volume 1
of 2): Abhandlungen der Heidelberg Akademie der Wissenschaften - philosophisch-historische Klasse Jahrgang
1959, 1, 1, pl. 1f, 2f and 4, Abhandlung, Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1959.
texts... 6 65, 6 371, 6 *14 and 6 *63. British museum. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[15] Thorkild Jacobsen (23 September 1997). The Harps that
once--: Sumerian poetry in translation. Yale University
Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07278-5. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
280
B.C. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 15. ISBN 9780-8122-1047-7. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
CHAPTER 95. HYMN TO ENLIL
95.6
Further reading
Falkenstein, Adam, Sumerische Gtterlieder (Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist. Kl., Jahrgang 1959, 1. Abh.).
Carl Winter UniversittsVerlag: Heidelberg, 5-79,
1959.
[18] R. P. Gordon (1995). The place is too small for us": the
Israelite prophets in recent scholarship. Eisenbrauns. pp. 48
. ISBN 978-1-57506-000-2. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Harps that Once ... Sumerian Poetry in Translation. Yale University Press: New
Haven/London, 151-166: translation, pp 101111,
1987.
[19] Marten Stol; F. A. M. Wiggermann (2000). Birth in Babylonia and the Bible: its Mediterranean setting. BRILL. pp.
Reisman, Daniel David, Two Neo-Sumerian Royal

Hymns (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, 41-102, 1970.

Peeters Publishers. pp. 3. ISBN 978-90-6831-410-6. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
Rmer, W.H.Ph., 'Review of Jacobsen 1987', Bibliotheca Orientalis 47, 382-390, 1990.
[21] C. Hassell Bullock (1 September 2007). An Introduction to

the Old Testament Poetic Books. Moody Publishers. pp. 45.
[22] Johannes Beutler; Robert T. Fortna (15 December 2005).
The Shepherd Discourse of John 10 and Its Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38. ISBN 978-0-521-020602. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[23] Antonio Panaino; Andrea Piras (2004). Schools of oriental studies and the development of modern historiography:
proceedings of the Fourth annual symposium of the Assyrian
and Babylonian intellectual heritage project held in Ravenna,
Italy, October 13-17, 2001. Mimesis Edizioni. pp. 285.
95.7
External links
Lutz, Frederick Henry., Selected Sumerian and Babylonian texts, The University Museum, pp. 54-. Online
Version
Online Version

Chiera, Edward and Kramer, Samuel Noah., Sumerian

texts of varied contents, Number 116, University of
Chicago Oriental Institute Publications Volume XVI,
Cuneiform series - volume IV, 1934. - Online Version
[25] Richard S. Hess (June 1999). Zion, city of our God. Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 100. ISBN 978-0-8028-44262. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
Enlil and the Ekur (Enlil A)., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic
Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
[26] Jane Garry; Hasan M. El-Shamy (2005). Archetypes and

motifs in folklore and literature: a handbook. M.E. Sharpe.
pp. 198. ISBN 978-0-7656-1260-1. Retrieved 14 June
2011.
[27] Niek Veldhuis (2004). Religion, literature, and scholarship:
the Sumerian composition Nane and the birds, with a catalogue of Sumerian bird names. BRILL. pp. 63. ISBN
978-90-04-13950-3. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
[28] Tinney, Steve., On the Curricular Setting of Sumerian Literature, Iraq 61: 159-172. Forthcoming Elementary Sumerian
Literary Texts. MC.
Enlil A - ETCSL composite text

Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative - CBS 08317
Georey W. Bromiley (1959). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia - Image of a fragment of a
tablet containing the Hymn to Enlil in the University of
Pennsylvania Museum. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 542. ISBN 978-0-8028-3785-1. Retrieved
3 June 2011.
Enlil in the Ekur - set to music on Youtube
Chapter 96
Jade Mountain (mythology)

Jade Mountain (Chinese: ; pinyin: Yshn) is an
important mythological mountain in Chinese mythology.
The mythological Jade Mountain should not be confused
with any geographic places named Yushan. Also note, Jade
Mountain and Feather Mountain (alsoYushan), although
both important places in Chinese mythology are not the
same places and the Chinese words/characters yu are not the
same in this case. According to some sources, such as Lihui
Yang, et al, Jade Mountain was the residence of Xiwangmu
(2005:162); although, in mythology, Kunlun Mountain is
more typically the dwelling place of this Queen Mother of
the West. Jade Mountain is one of a number of mountains
in Chinese mythology, and another example of the importance of mountains in Chinese myths.
96.1 See also

Feather Mountain: scene of execution (or attempted
execution) of Gun
China Sea
96.2 References
Yang, Lihui, et al. (2005). Handbook of Chinese
Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6
281
Chapter 97
Kesh temple hymn
Sumerian Temple
Copper gure of a bull from the Temple of Ninhursag, Tell al'Ubaid, southern Iraq, around 2600 BC.
97.1
Compilation
Fragments of the text were discovered in the University of

Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
catalogue of the Babylonian section (CBS) from their excavations at the temple library at Nippur. One fragment of
the text found on CBS tablet number 11876 was rst published by Hugo Radau inMiscellaneous Sumerian Texts,
number 8 in 1909.* [3] Radau's fragment was translated by
Stephen Herbert Langdon in 1915.* [4] Langdon published
a translation from a 4 by 4 by 4 by 4 inches (10 by 10 by
Ruins of a temple at Nippur
10 by 10 cm) perforated, four sided, Sumerian prism from
Nippur and held in the Ashmolean in Oxford in 1913 (number 1911-405) in Babylonian Liturgies.The prism conThe Kesh Temple Hymn or Liturgy to Nintud or Liturgy tains around 145 lines in eight sections, similar to the Hymn
to Nintud on the creation of man and woman is a to Enlil. Langdon called it A Liturgy to Nintud, GodSumerian tablet, written on clay tablets as early as 2600 dess of Creationand noted that each section ended with
BC.* [1] Along with the Instructions of Shuruppak, it is the the same refrain, which he interpreted as referring to the
oldest surviving literature in the world.* [2]
creation of man and woman, the Biblical Adam and Eve.
282
97.2. COMPOSITION
283
[5] Langdon translated two further fragments in 1914 and than the one Biggs proposed.* [23] Biggs recognized various
1917.
dierences in the archaic cuneiform and that the literary
The myth was developed with the addition of CBS 8384, texts of this period were unrecognized for so long is due
translated by George Aaron Barton in 1918 and rst pub- to the fact that they present formidable obstacles to comlished as Sumerian religious textsin "Miscellaneous prehension. He suggests that Abu Salabikh could have
Babylonian Inscriptions,number eleven, entitledA Frag- been the location of Kesh, however points out that it is not
ment of the so-called 'Liturgy to Nintud.'"* [6] The tablet is near Adab as described and that Kesh could have just been
5.25 by 2.4 by 1.2 inches (13.3 by 6.1 by 3.0 cm) at its a variation in the spelling of Kish. He discusses how the
hymn is preserved for so long in later Nippur texts, saying
thickest point. Barton's tablet contained nine sections from
Although
the Abu Salbikh copies are approximately eight
which he was able to translate sections four, ve and six.
centuries earlier than copies known before, there is a surBarton argued for the abandonment of the myth's subtitle,
thecreation of man.He claimed,So far as the writer can prisingly small amount of deviation (except in orthography)
between them. The Old Babylonian version is thus not a
see, there is no allusion in the text to the creation of man.
He notes only the allusion to the goddess he called Nintu as creation of Old Babylonian scribes using older material, but
is a faithful reection of a text that had already been xed in
the mother of mankind.He suggested, Apparently the
*
text celebrated the primitive (or very early) conditions of the Sumerian literary tradition for centuries. [24] Biggs
some town; possibly the founding and growth of the town, suggested that other traditional works of literature may
also go back in essentially their present form to the last third
but beyond this we can condently arm nothing.* [6]
of the third millennium BC at least.* [25]
CBS tablet 6520 was published in 1929 by Edward Chiera
in Sumerian Lexical Texts.* [7] Chiera also published
three more tablets CBS 7802, CBS 13625 and CBS
14153inSumerian Epics and Myths.* [8] Other trans- 97.2 Composition
lations were made from tablets in the Nippur collection of
the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul (Ni). Chiera Victor Hurowitz referred to it as the Kesh Temple buildtranslated number Ni 2402 inSumerian Religious Texts ing hymnand suggests the hymn begins with a description
in 1924.* [9] Hermann Volrath Hilprecht and Samuel Noah and Enlil praising the city Kesh and its selection and estabKramer amongst others worked to translate several oth- lishment of the Ekur by Enlil. He also discusses the writing
ers from the Istanbul collection including Ni 4371, 4465, of the hymn by another god called Nisaba.* [26] Sabrina P.
4555 & 9773, 4597, 9649, 9810, 9861 & 9903.* [10]* [11] Ramet commented on the presence and role of Nisaba (or
A further tablet source of the myth is held by the Louvre Nidaba) in the establishment of the temple. She refers to
in Paris, number AO 6717.* [12] Others are held in the her as the goddess of vegetation, writing and literature
Ashmolean number 1929-478, British Museum number including astronomical texts, the deity of the house of
115798 and the Walters Art Museum number 48.1802, for- understanding(most likely intelligence), and as she who
merly called theDavid prism.* [13]* [14] Further tablets 'knows the (inmost) secrets of numbers'.Nisaba records
containing the text were excavated at Isin, modern Ishan the events and provides astandard versionof the events as
al-Bahriyat.* [15] More were found at Henri de Genouil- they really happened.* [26] Charpin and Todd noted in the
lac's excavations at Kish (B 150) and Jean Perrot's exca- relationship between Enlil and Nisuba (similar to Yahweh
vations at Susa.* [16]* [17] Sir Charles Leonard Woolley un- and Moses) how the text is the work of gods, who created
earthed more tablets at Ur contained in theUr excavations and transmitted it to humans, giving the literature a reason
textsfrom 1928.* [18] Other tablets and versions were used for legitimacy.* [27]
to bring the myth to its present form with the latest composite text by Miguel Civil produced in 1992 with latest The myth goes on to describe the temple dedication rites
translation by Gene Gragg in 1969 and Joachim Krecher and explains that the Annanuki were the lords of the temple.
placed in the
in 1966.* [19]* [20] Gragg described the text asone of the He suggests that the hymn mentionsobjects
*
[28]
His
translation
of the
temple
upon
its
completion.
best preserved literary texts that we possess from the Old
*
introduction
reads:
Babylonian period. [21]
Robert D. Biggs translated an exceptionally archaic version The hymn is composed of 134 lines, formally divided into
of the hymn from Tell Abu Salabikh. He dated this ver- eight songs or housesor temples, each of which
discussing the birth of
sion to around 2600 BCE based upon similarities to tablets ends with three rhetorical questions
*
*
Acgi:
[2]
[29]
Nintud's
warrior
son,
found in Shuruppak and dated to a similar age by Anton
Deimer in the 1920s.* [22] Subsequent radiocarbon dating Lines one to twenty one describe the election and praise
of samples taken from Tell Abu Salabikh date the site to of Kesh as recorded by Nisaba, twenty two to forty four
2550-2520 BCE however, a timeframe slightly more recent liken the temple to the moon against the sky containing the
284
life sources of Sumer and its cosmic dimensions lling the
world. Lines forty ve to fty seven give a metaphorical
description of the temple reaching both for the heaven and
descending into the underworld. Lines fty eight to seventy three discuss the complexities of the temple with vast
quantities of oxen and sheep. The temple is likened to the
trees from which wood was used in its construction. The
gods and functions of the temple are described and praised
during temple dedication with dierent parts of the temple described: its interior and exterior appearance, its gate,
courtyard, door and walls. The hymn ends on the conclusion to approach the temple.* [21]
Wayne Horowitz working from Gragg's translation, discusses the mention of the Abzu in the myth saying itoccurs
as a name for the cosmic waters of the water table beneath
the earth's surface in Sumerian literature.* [30]
The latest translation describes its founders, geography and
features:
Barton translated the actions of the Annanuki in and around
the temple:
Jeremy Black suggests the hymn describes the statues of
bulls or lions that were placed at the entrances to temples
Kesh temple, <before which> (something) in the shape of
winged lions stands, (something) in the shape of 'white' wild
bulls stands facing the desert.The hymn discusses music
being played at the temple towards the end with drums and
the coarse sound of a bull's horn sounding at temple ceremonies: the wild bull's horn was made to growl, the algarsura instrument was made to thud.* [31] Samuel Noah
Kramer suggested that the musical instruments mentioned
in the hymn were played in accompaniment. He proposed
that the tigi was probably a hymn accompanied by lyre, that
irshemma was perhaps one accompanied by a type of drum
and that adab possibly a hymn accompanied by another
form of string instrument.* [32]
CHAPTER 97. KESH TEMPLE HYMN

mankind and living things. He noted that Nintud, the primary goddess of Kesh was a form of Ninlil in Nippur :
in other words she is Ninlil of Kesh, where her character as
goddess of begetting was emphasized.He noted based on
an observation of Theophilus G. Pinches, that Ninlil or Belit
Ilani had seven dierent names (such as Nintud, Ninhursag,
Ninmah, etc.) for seven dierent localities.* [35] He also
discussed the location of Kesh appearing to be near Kish
to the east of Babylon calling the temple of Kesh Ekisigga.* [5]* [36] Raymond de Hoop noted similarities between Sumerian temple hymns and chapter forty nine of
Genesis in the Bible (Genesis 49:1-28). He suggests remarkably close syntactical and metaphorical parallels in the
sayings about Joseph and Judah such as the highly esteemed prince (Genesis 49:8),a leopard, who seizes prey
(Genesis 49:9), a great wild ox / a wild bull(Genesis
49:22) and " seed of a (the) steer, engendered by a wild ox
(Genesis 49:22).* [37] Jeremy Black noted that Kesh was no
longer a major settlement by the time of the later Babylonian versions but presumed that the temple of Nintud still
functioned.* [2] Wilfred G. Lambert noted that many kings
had built temples and chapels to Ninhursag, but that the
Kesh sanctuary was the centre of the goddess's cult from
the Early Dynastic period into the Old Babylonian Dynasty;
after this time it lost its importance.* [38]
97.4
See also
Barton Cylinder
Enlil and Ninlil
The hymn nishes with an admonition repeated four times

suggested to be both a warning and invocation of the divine presence in the temple. Such ambivalence about approaching temples has crucially inuenced the development
of Jewish and Christian mysticism.* [33]
A.R. George suggests such hymnscan be incorporated into

longer compositions, as with the eulogy to Nippur and Ekur
which makes up a large portion of a well-known Hymn to
Enlil and the hymn to temples in Ur that introduces a Shulgi
hymn.* [34]
Hymn to Enlil
Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
97.5
97.3 Discussion
Stephen Langdon suggested the hymn gave evidence of
the Sumerian theological view that Enlil and Ninlil created
References
[1] Mogens Herman Hansen; Kbenhavns universitet. Polis

centret (2002). A comparative study of six city-state cultures:
an investigation. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp.
97.5. REFERENCES

Sumer. Oxford University Press. pp. 325. ISBN 978-019-929633-0. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[3] Hugo Radau (1909). Miscellaneous Sumerian texts from the
temple library of Nippur, 8. n.p. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[4] Stephen Langdon; Ch Virolleaud (1919). Le pome sumrien
du Paradis: du dluge et de la chute de l'homme, 135-146.
ditions Ernest Leroux. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[5] Stephen Langdon (1913). Babylonian liturgies: Sumerian
texts from the early period and from the library of Ashurbanipal, p. 86-. Geushner. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
2011.
[7] Chiera, Edward., Cuneiform Series, Volume I: Sumerian
Lexical Texts from the Temple School of Nippur, Oriental Institute Publications 11, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1929
[8] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths, 108 and
109. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 28 May
2011.
(1924). Sumerian religious texts, pp. 26-. University. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
2011.
285
[16] Henri de Genouillac (1924).

Premires recherches
archologiques Kich: Mission d'Henri de Genouillac 1911
- 1912. Rapport sur les travaux et inventaires, fac-simils,
dessins, photographies et plans, B 150. douard Champion.
[17] Revue d'assyriologie et d'archologie orientale, 26, 13. Paris.
1929.
texts... 6 114, 6 115, 6 116, 6 11, 6 49, 6 103, 6 164. British
museum. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[19] The Ke temple hymn., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of
Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
[20] ETCSLtransliteration : c.4.80.2
[21] Aake W. Sjoberg; Gene B. Gragg; Eugen Bergmann (1969).
The collection of the Sumerian temple hymns ; The Kes temple
hymn: and. Augustin. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[22] Biggs, Robert (1974). Inscriptions from Tell Abu Salabikh
(PDF). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp 2426. ISBN 0-226-62202-9.
[23] Wright, H. (1980). Problems of Absolute Chronology in
Protohistoric Messopotamia. Paleoorient. 6 (1). p 95.
[24] Biggs, Robert D., Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie und
Vorderasiatische, Archologie , Volume 61 (2), de Gruyter
Jan 1, 1971 - Springerprotocols
[25] Georey William Bromiley (1979). The International standard Bible encyclopedia, p. 754. W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN
978-0-8028-8160-1. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
Istanbul-I, 54, 89, 106, 118, 120, 132, 156 & 187. Tarih
Kurumu Basimevi. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[26] Sabrina P. Ramet (1996). Gender reversals and gender cultures: anthropological and historical perspectives. Psychology Press. pp. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-11482-0. Retrieved 3
June 2011.
[12] Muse du Louvre. Dpartement des antiquits orientales et

de la cramique antique; Muse du Louvre. Dpartement
des antiquits orientales. Textes cuniformes, 16, 55. Librairie orientaliste, Paul Geuthner.
[27] Dominique Charpin; Jane Marie Todd (1 January 2011).

Reading and Writing in Babylon. Harvard University Press.
pp. 179. ISBN 978-0-674-04968-0. Retrieved 3 June
2011.
[13] Ashmolean Museum; Stephen Langdon; Godfrey Rolles

Driver; Herbert Joseph Weld; Oliver Robert Gurney; Samuel
Noah Kramer (1923). Oxford editions of cuneiform inscriptions. Oxford university press, H. Milford. Retrieved 3 June
2011.
[14] Ashmolean Museum (1976). Oxford Editions of Cuneiform
Texts, 5, 7. Oxford University Press.
[15] Nies Babylonian Collection (Yale University); Paul-Alain
Beaulieu; Ulla Kasten (1994). Late Babylonian texts in
the Nies Babylonian Collection. CDL Press. ISBN 978-1883053-04-8. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[28] Victor Hurowitz (1 June 1992). I have built you an exalted house: temple building in the Bible in the light of
Mesopotamian and North-West semitic writings. Continuum
International Publishing Group. pp. 66, 67, 261. ISBN 9781-85075-282-0. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[29] Michalowski Piotr., Epics, Hymns, and Letters pp. 248-256
in Jacques Briend and Michel Quesnel, eds., Supplment au
Dictionnaire de la Bible, fascicule 72. Paris: Letouzy &
An, 1999.
286
[31] Jeremy Black; Jeremy A. Black (1998). Reading Sumerian poetry. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp.
[33] Sanders, Seth L., Old light on Moses' shining face, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2002.
Peeters Publishers. pp. 3. ISBN 978-90-6831-410-6. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
[35] Society of Biblical Archology (London, England) (1911).
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Volume
33, Pl. XI. Society of Biblical Archology.
[36] Enheduanna; Betty De Shong Meador (1 August 2009).
Princess, priestess, poet: the Sumerian temple hymns of Enheduanna. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-29271932-3. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[37] Oudtestamentisch Werkgezelschap in Nederland; Raymond
de Hoop (1999). Genesis 49 in its literary and historical context. BRILL. pp. 264. ISBN 978-90-04-10913-1. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[38] Gwendolyn Leick (1998). A dictionary of ancient Near Eastern mythology, p. 132. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-198110. Retrieved 3 June 2011.

Rmer, Willem H.P., Die Klage ber die Zerstrung
von Ur aoat 309, Mnster: Ugarit, p. 97, 2004.
Biggs, Robert D., An Archaic Sumerian version of
the Kesh Temple Hymn from Tell Ab (S)albkh.
In Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie 61. 193-207, 1971.
Gragg, Gene B., The Ke Temple Hymn. In
The Collection of the Sumerian Temple Hymns.
Texts from Cuneiform Sources III. Sjberg, ke W.,
Bergmann, E., and Gragg, Gene B. (ed). Locust Valley, New York: J.J. Augustin. 155-189, 1969.
Jacobsen, Thorkild., The Harps that Once .. Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven/London: Yale
University Press. 151-166, 1987.
Wilcke, Claus., Die Inschriftenfunde der 7. und
8.
Kampagnen (1983 und 1984)".
In IsinIn Bahryt III: Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen 1983-1984. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Abhandlungen Neue Folge, 84. Hrouda, Barthel (ed).
Mnchen: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 83-120, 1987.
CHAPTER 97. KESH TEMPLE HYMN

Geller, M.J.,Jabosen'sHarpsand the Ke Temple
Hymn. In Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie 86. 68-79,
1996.
97.7
External links
Online Version
Version
Langdon, Stephen., Babylonian Liturgies. Museum of
the University of Pennsylvania, 1919. Online Version
Biggs, Robert D., Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie und
Vorderasiatische, Archologie , Volume 61 (2), de
Gruyter Jan 1, 1971 - Springerprotocols
The Ke temple hymn., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G.,
Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text
Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
ETCSLtransliteration : c.5.3.2
Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative - CBS 8384
The Walters Art Museum, Accession Number:
48.1802, Hymn to Kesh (with high resolution photo)
Chapter 98
Ehursag
Hursag
Ehursag (URSAG, .AR.SAG, ekharsag) is a

Sumerian term meaning house of the mountains.* [1]
Sumerian URSAG is written as a special ligature (PAxGN
),* [2] sometimes etymologized as
.AR.SAG (
), written with the signs temple(or
house), AR mountainand SAG head.
Hubur
98.2
Ehursag is commonly associated with a temple of Enlil discovered by Sir. Charles Leonard Woolley during excavations at Ur in modern-day Iraq. He originally considered
this to be a palace, a view that was later rejected in replace for a temple. The location of the royal palace at Ur
remains unknown. No graves were discovered under the
Ekursag during these excavations.* [3] Woolley eventually
conceded that it was aminor temple of some sort.Modern scholars still vary on their interpretations of it as a temple, palace or administrative building. It has even been suggested to be a wing or annex of the main temple, having
had some of its foundations destroyed.* [4] Stamped bricks
used in the construction of the foundations revealed that
they were built by Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur.
Bricks from the pavement bore the stamp of his successor,
Shulgi and later ones of the Isin-Larsa period after Ur was
destroyed by Elamites.* [4] Ehursag is also the name or epithet of Ninhursag's temple at Hiza and has been suggested
to have been an interchangeable word with Enamtila.* [1]
The Ehursag at Ur was restored in 1961 using ancient and
modern bricks, a 2008 report for the British Museum noted
that this had collapsed in some areas, especially the northwest corner.* [5]
98.1 See also

Ziggurat of Ur
Ur
Ekur
Enamtila
287
Notes
[1] A. R. George (1993). House most high: the temples of ancient

Mesopotamia. Eisenbrauns. pp. 2. ISBN 978-0-93146480-5. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[2] Erich Ebeling; Bruno Meissner; Dietz Otto Edzard
(1998). Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen
Archologie: Nab-Nuzi. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 15. ISBN
978-3-11-017296-6. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[3] Tonia M. Sharlach (2004). Provincial taxation and the Ur III
state. BRILL. pp. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-13581-9. Retrieved
9 June 2011.
[4] Harriet E. W. Crawford (2004). Sumer and the Sumerians.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 103. ISBN 978-0-52153338-6. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
[5] Curtis, John., Rahee, Qais Hussein., Clarke, Hugo, Al Hamdani, Abdulamir M., Stone, Elizabeth., Van Ess, Margarete.,
Collins, Paul., Ali, Mehsin., An assessment of archaeological sites in June 2008: An Iraqi-British Project., p. 8, arxaiologia.gr, Iraq, 2008
Chapter 99
Hursag
Hursag (transcribed cuneiform: ur.sa(HUR.SAG)) is a
4, 2004, , Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,
p.223, 30 Jan 2008
Sumerian term variously translated as meaningmountain
*
,hill,foothillsorpiedmont. [1] Thorkild Jacob[3] Richard J. Cliord (1972). The cosmic mountain in Canaan
sen extrapolated the translation in his later career to mean
and the Old Testament. Harvard University Press. Retrieved
literally, head of the valleys.* [2]
29 May 2011.
Mountains play a certain role in Mesopotamian mythology and Assyro-Babylonian religion, associated with deities
such as Anu, Enlil, Enki and Ninhursag.
[4] M. Mindlin; Markham J. Geller; John E. Wansbrough

(1987). Figurative language in the ancient Near East. Psychology Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-7286-0141-3. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
Some scholars also identify hursag with an undened mountain range or strip of raised land outside the plain of
Mesopotamia.* [3]* [4]
In a myth variously entitled by Samuel Noah Kramer as
The Deeds and Exploits of Ninurtaand later Ninurta
Myth Lugal-e by Thorkild Jacobsen, Hursag is described
as a mound of stones constructed by Ninurta after his defeat of a demon called Asag. Ninurtas mother Ninlil visits
the location after this great victory. In return for her love
and loyalty, Ninurta gives Ninlil the hursag as a gift. Her
name is consequentially changed from Ninlil to Ninhursag
or the mistress of the Hursag.* [5]* [6]
[5] Samuel Noah Kramer (January 1979). From the Poetry of

Sumer: Creation, Glorication, Adoration. University of
California Press. pp. 38, 39. ISBN 978-0-520-03703-8.
[6] The Harps that Once--: Sumerian Poetry in Translation. Yale
University Press. 1 September 1997. pp. 234235, 254
255. ISBN 978-0-300-07278-5.
99.2
The hursag is described here in a clear cultural myth as

a high wall, levee, dam or oodbank, used to restrain the
excess mountain waters and oods caused by the melting
snow and spring rain. The hursag is constructed with Ninurta's skills in irrigation engineering and employed to improve the agriculture of the surrounding lands, farms and
gardens where the water had previously been wasted.* [6]
Ninurta Myth Lugal-e describes the abundance of the Hursag:
99.1 Notes
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen; I. Tzvi Abusch (2002). Riches hidden
in secret places: ancient Near Eastern studies in memory of
Thorkild Jacobsen. Eisenbrauns. pp. 45. ISBN 978-157506-061-3. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
[2] Biggs, Robert D., Studies presented to Robert D. Biggs, June
288
Further reading
Chapter 100
Kiboreia
Kiboreia is a location that is known from a Greek
inscription taken from a large temple at Deir El
Aachayer on the northern slopes of Mount Hermon
in Lebanon.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
The inscription was found noting that a bench was installed
in the year 242, under Beeliabos, also called Diototos, son
of Abedanos, high priest of the gods of Kiboreia. Julien
Alquot argued that the bench had liturgical uses as a mobile
throne.* [5] The era of the gods of Kiboreia is not certain,
as is their location which is not conclusively to be identied with Deir El Aachayer, but was possibly the Roman
sanctuary or the name of a settlement in the area.* [6] It has
been suggested that the name Kiboreia was formed from the
Aramaic word kbr, meaning a place of great abundance
.* [5]
100.1 References
[1] Jalabert, L.,Inscriptions grecques et latines de Syrie (deuxime srie)" in Mlanges de la Facult Orientale de Beyrouth
2, p.265-320, 1907.
[2] Ted Kaizer (2008). The Variety of Local Religious Life in the
Near East In the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. BRILL. pp.
89. ISBN 978-90-04-16735-3. Retrieved 18 September
2012.
[3] Brown, J., E. Meyers, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies.
Places: 678253 (Kiboreia)". Pleiades. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
[4] Emile Puech (11 June 1998). Qumran Grotte 4: XVIII:
Textes Hebreux (4Q521-4Q528, 4Q576-4Q579). Oxford
University Press. pp. 52. ISBN 978-0-19-826948-9. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[5] Susanne Carlsson (29 April 2010). Hellenistic democracies:
freedom, independence and political procedure in some east
Greek city-states. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-51509265-4. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[6] Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D.
337. Harvard University Press. pp. 311. ISBN 978-0-67477886-3. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
289
Chapter 101
Mount Killaraus
Mount Killaraus is a legendary mountain in Ireland, most
famous for being the source of the stones of Stonehenge in
Arthurian legend.
Georey of Monmouth records the story in his Historia
Regum Britanniae. He describes how Aurelius Ambrosius
returned from his exile in Brittany and burnt Vortigern in his
tower. Rallying the Britons, he triumphed over the Saxon
invaders and executed their leader, Hengist. Following the
victory he decided to set up a great memorial to his triumph
at a place called Mount Ambrius. When his carpenters
and masons were unable to come up with a suitable aweinspiring design, Ambrosius commissioned Merlin to create
one.
Merlins solution was to import a stone circle called the
Giant's Round from its home atop Mount Killaraus. Giants
from Africa had originally brought the stones to Killaraus.
They would pour water over the stones and use it to ll baths
in which they cured their sick. Uther Pendragon went with
15,000 men to retrieve the stones but they proved too heavy
to move. Laughing, Merlin transported them to Salisbury
Plain using his magic and set them up just as they were.
According to Georey, they have stood there ever since as
Stonehenge.
101.1 References
Christopher Chippindale, Stonehenge
Thames and Hudson, London, 2004
Complete,
290
Chapter 102
Kunlun Mountain (mythology)

This article is about the mythological mountain of
Chinese traditional belief. For the real mountain
range in China, see Kunlun Mountains.
The mythological Kunlun Mountain should not be confused

with the real, geographic Kunlun Mountains. Various locations of Kunlun Mountain are proposed in the various legends, myths, and semi-historical accounts in which it appears. These various accounts describe it as the dwelling
place of various female gods and male gods, together with
marvelous plants and creatures. Many important events in
Chinese mythology were located on Kunlun Mountain, according to Lihui Yang, et al. (2005:160-164).
102.1
Historical development
As the mythology related to the Kunlun Mountain developed, and was inuenced by the introduction of ideas about
an axis mundi from the cosmology of India. Kunlun Mountain became identied with (or took on the attributes of)
Mount Sumeru. (Anthony Christie 1968:74)
Another historical development in the mythology of Kunlun, (again with Indian inuence) was that rather than just
being the source of the Yellow River, Kunlun began to be
considered to be the source of four major rivers owing
to the four quarters of the compass, according to Anthony
Christie (1968:74).
The Kunlun mythos was also inuenced by developments
within the Taoist tradition, causing Kunlun to be perceived
more as a paradise than a dangerous wilderness. (Christie,
1968:75)
Another trend argued in some recent research, is that over
time, a merger of various traditions has result in a duality of
paradises, an East Paradise (identied with Mount Penglai)
and a West Paradise, with Kunlun Mountain identied as
Kunlun Mountain* [1] (traditional Chinese: ; the West Paradise. A pole replaced a former mythic system
simplied Chinese: ; pinyin: Knln shn), or which opposed Penglai with Guixu
( Returning Mountain
known just as Kunlun, is an important symbol in Chinese ), and the Guixu mythological material was transferred to
mythology representing the axis mundi and divinity.
the Kunlun mythos. (Yang, et al., 2005:163).
1st2nd century lamp in the shape of Kunlun Mountain as the pillar
of the sky, realm of the Queen Mother of the West (1st2nd century
CE).
291
292
CHAPTER 102. KUNLUN MOUNTAIN (MYTHOLOGY)
102.2 Name
center of the earth. (Yang, et al., 2005:160-164).
The Chinese name Kunlun (or ) is written with

characters combining the "mountain radical" with phonetics of kun and lun . Alternate names for Kunlun
shan include Kunling (with hill) and Kunqiu
(with mound).
Some believed Kunlun to be located to the farwest,

in this case the alleged location was relocated further and
further to the west, along with advances in geographical knowledge.(Christie, 1968:74) E. T. C. Werner identies Kunlun with the Hindu Kush mountain range.(Werner,
1994[1922]:16)
The term Kunlunis theoretically semantically related

to the term Hundun, or, hundun (Chinese: ; pinyin:
hndn; WadeGiles: hun-t'un; literally: primal chaos
or muddled confusion), sometimes personied as a
living creature: and, also semantically related is the term
kongdong (Chinese: ; pinyin: kngdng; WadeGiles:
k'ung-t'ung; literally: grotto of vacuity), according to
Kristofer Schipper (1978: 366). Grotto-heavens were traditionally associated with mountains, as hollows or caves
located in/on certain mountains. The termKunlun Mountaincan be translated asCavernous Mountain": and, the
mythological Kunlun mountain has been viewed as a hollow
mountain (located directly under the Pole Star), according
to Schipper (1978: 365-366).
At times, the mythical Kunlun Mountain has been confused

with the modern Kunlun Mountains and with Kurung (or
Kurung Bnam, possibly meaningKings of the Mountain
in Old Khmer (formerly known as Old Cambodian), and
equivalent to the Sanskrit ailarja, also meaningKings of
the Mountain, referring to a mythical holy cosmic mountain. Kurung (Kunlun) is known to have ourished during
the time of the Tang dynasty, and seems to have developed
ambassadorial relations with the Tang court, by the time
of Li He (790816), who records a visit in one of his extent poems: although geographical specics of the state of
Kunlun's location(s) remain uncertain, it is associated with
trans-Gangetic India, possibly the Malay peninsula or areas controlled by the Sailendra thalassocracy (Shafer, 1985
Kunlun was anciently used to transcribe the southern [1963]:47-48).
people called Gurong, who were slaves in China. Edward H.
Schafer (1985:46) quotes the Old Book of Tang description.
They are also called Kurung. They are the barbarous men
of the islands, great and small, of the Southern Seas. They
are very black, and expose their naked Figures. They can 102.4 Description
tame and cow ferocious beasts, rhinoceroses, elephants, and
the like.Schafer (1985:290) notes that besides Kunlun
, these southerners were occasionally written Gulong Kunlun Mountain has been described in various texts, as
well as being depicted in art. Sometimes Kunlun appears
or Gulun .
as a pillar of the sky (or earth). Sometimes as being comJulie Wilensky notes that the term kunlun () is amys- posed of multiple tiers. Lihui Yang, et al., (2005:160) emterious and poorly understood word rst applied to dark- phasize the commonality of mystery, grandeur, or magskinned Chinese and then expanded over time to encompass nicencein the mythological descriptions. The base of the
multiple meanings, all connoting dark skin.(Wilensky, Kunlun Mountain is said to penetrate as far into the earth,
2002: 2) But then she goes on to say,These uses of kunlun as its above-ground part proceeds towards the sky (Christie,
are unrelated to the name of the Kunlun Mountains.And 1968:74).
in a footnote to this, " Chang Hsing-Iang writes that the
Kunlun mountain 'region has been familiar to the Chinese Generally, accounts emphasize the diculty of access to
from the earliest times, and no Chinese work has ever de- the mountain and even more to its more hallowed places,
scribed its inhabitants as being black-skinned.'"(Wilensky, due to surrounding waters and steep clis of immense
2002: 4) She then goes on to say howKunlunis used to heights. Kunlun typically also has a strong association with
refer to an island or islands in Southeast Asia. (Wilensky, various means to obtain immortality, or longevity. Poetic
descriptions tend to lavish Kunlun with paradisaical detail:
2002: 6-7)
gem-like rocks and towering clis of jasper and jade, exotic jeweled plants, bizarrely formed and colored magical
fungi, and numerous birds and other animals, together with
102.3 Location
humans who have become immortal beings. Sometimes it
is the Eight Immortals who are seen, coming to pay their
Various ideas of the location of the mythical Kunlun Moun- respects to the goddess Xiwangmu, perhaps invited to join
tain have been given: chapter eleven of the Shanhaijing de- her in a feast of immortal repast. Such anyway, was the
scribes it as being in the northwest, chapter sixteen says it well-worn image, which was also a motif frequently painted,
is south of the western sea, and other sources place it in the carved, or otherwise depicted in the material arts.
102.4. DESCRIPTION
102.4.1
Association with divinity
Supreme Deity
293
Shamans
Further information: Wu (shaman)
According to the Shanhaijing, the top of Kunlun is the habitation of shamans, depicting Wu Peng holding the herb of
immortality there, in the company of ve other shamans.
Kunlun is believed to be the representation of the Supreme
(Hawkes, 2011[1985]: 45)
Deity (Taidi). According to some sources, his throne is at
the top tier of the mountain and known as the Palace of
Heaven. As Kunlun was sometimes viewed as the pillar
Xian
holding up the sky and keeping it separated from the earth,
some accounts place the top of Kunlun in Heaven rather
Further information: Xian (Taoism)
than locating it as part of the earth: in this case the Supreme
Deity's abode on Kunlun is actually in Heaven, and Kunlun
functions as a sort of ladder which could be used to travel In later tradition Kunlun was pictured as a Daoist parbetween earth and Heaven. Accordingly, any person who adise, inhabited by xian, or Daoist immortals (humans who
succeeded in climbing up to the top of Kunlun would mag- had metamorphosed into superhuman form), which was
ically become an immortal spirit. (Yang, 2005: 160-162). presided over by Xiwangmu. The xian were often seen as
temporary residents, who visited by means of ying on the
back of a magical crane or dragon.
Further information: Chinese theology and Heaven
Xiwangmu
102.4.2
Creatures
Further information: Xiwangmu and Sun Wukong

Although not originally located on Kunlun, but rather on
a Jade Mountain neighboring to the north (and west of the
Moving Sands), Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West,
in later accounts was relocated to a palace protected by
golden ramparts, within which immortals (xian) feasted on
bear paws, monkey lips, and the livers of dragons, served
at the edge of the Lake of Gems. Every 6000 years the
peaches which conferred immortality upon those who ate
them would be served (except the time when they were purloined by Monkey King). Originally a plague deity with
tiger teeth and leopard tail, she became a beautiful and wellmannered goddess responsible for guarding the herb of immortality (Christie, 1968:78-79).
Yu Shi
Further information: Yu Shi
Yu Shi, a Chinese spirit or god of rain, also known as the
Lord of RainorLeader of Rainis thought to have his
dwelling place upon the Kunlun slopes. During the reign
of Shennong, a certain Chisongzi (Master Red Pine) performed a rain-making ceremony which successfully ended
a terrible drought, leading to his promotion to "Yu Shi",
Master of Rain(Christie, 1968:75).
Kunlun has a lively bestiary, with various more-or-less fantastic beasts and birds described as present in its environs.
Often the tiger or beings with tiger-like features are associated with Kunlun, since the tiger is symbolic of the west,
as Kunlun is often associated with the Western Paradise
(Christie, 1968:34). Creatures symbolic of immortality are
often seen or described in depictions of Kunlun, such as
deer or cranes. Xiwangmu is often identied as having a
pet spotted deer. Besides the cranes (traditionally thought
of as the mounts or the transformations of immortals), other
birds come and go from the mountain, ying errands for
Xiwangmu: these blue (or green) birds are her qingniao.
Sometimes the poets claim to have received a happy inspiration during a visit by one of these birds, carrying a message
from Xiwangmu.
102.4.3
Plants
The ora of Kunlun and its environs is in keeping with the

rest of its natural (and supernatural qualities), and includes
the Pearl and Jade Trees, the Tree of Immortality, and Tree
Grain, the last of which (Muhe) was forty feet and height
and ve spans in thickness (Yang, et al., 2005:160). Peaches
are (and have been) often associated with Xiwangmu (Eberhard, 2003: 320) The langgan (traditional Chinese:
(variantly ; simplied Chinese: ; pinyin: lnggn;
WadeGiles: lang-kan) was a tree of fairy gems in colours
of blue or green, which was reported to grow on Kunlun
294
CHAPTER 102. KUNLUN MOUNTAIN (MYTHOLOGY)
in the classic books of the Zhou and early Han dynasties. 102.6.2 Theater
(Schafer, 1963: 246)
The Kunlun Slave (slave from Kunlun) was a stock character in Chinese theater, and known in Japanese theaterKon102.4.4 Places
ron. He was portrayed as exotic in appearance, and possessed of superhuman powers. Mei Dingzuo (1549-1615)
Kunlun is described as having various structures, areas, wrote a playHow the Kunlun Slave Became an Immortal
or signicant features either on or around the area of .
the mountain. The palace of Xiwangmu, sometimes described as having golden ramparts, was located on Kunlun:
those blessed to gather there might partake of the fruit of 102.6.3 Poetry
longevity (Christie, 1968:72). Often her palace is described
as having a park or garden, bordering a Jasper Pool. Of gar- Kunlun Mountain is a subject of poetic allusion from the
dens, a (the) Hanging Garden was referenced early on.
ancient poems "Li Sao" and "Heavenly Questions" by Qu
Yuan, through frequent mentions in the medieval Tang dynasty poetry, and, in the twentieth century in Mao Zedong's
1935 poem Kunlun.
102.5 Events
Kunlun Mountain is a major scene of action in various
myths, as well as literary works derived from the myths,
legends, or religious descriptions or depictions.
102.5.1
Marriage of Nwa and Fuxi
Main articles: Nwa and Fuxi

Fuxi and Nuwa's marriage took place on the mountain of
Kunlun. Generally held to be brother and sister, and the
last surviving human beings after a catastrophic ood, the
incest taboo was waived by an explicit sign after prayerful
questioning of a divine being who approved their marriage
and thus the repopulation of the world.
102.5.2
Mu, Son of Heaven
Mu son of Heaven is one visitor, carried along on his trip by

eight extraordinary mounts, depicted in art as weird and
unworldly(Shafer, 1985 [1963]:59).
102.6 Literary allusions

Many important literary allusions to Kunlun Mountain exist, including famous novels, poems, and theatrical pieces.
102.6.1
Novels
Among other literature, Kunlun Mountain appears in

Fengshen Yanyi, Legend of the White Snake, the Tale of
King Mu, Son of Heaven, Kunlun Nu, Journey to the West
(also known as Monkey), and the manga 33 Eyes.
102.7
Gallery
Peach Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, a

Chinese Ming Dynasty painting from the early 17th
century, by an anonymous artist. A mythological event
traditionally occurring on the mythological Kunlun
Mountain. From the Freer and Sackler Galleries of
Washington D.C.
A Japanese painting depicting Emperor Wudi of the
Han dynasty meeting Xiwangmu, according to a ctional account of his magical transportation to Kunlun
Mountain.
A throne and screen from the imperial workshops
in the beginning of the era of the Kangxi Emperor
(1662-1722). The screen depicts the Western Paradise, mythologically located on Kunlun Mountain,
with scenes of mountains, valleys, seas, terraces, lakes,
and palaces. Shown is the arrival of its ruler, the
Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu), shown riding a phoenix, and the Eight Immortals awaiting her
arrival.
"Chiang Tz-ya at Kun-lun
102.8
See also
Axis mundi
Chi (mythology), has some discussion related to Kunlun beastiary
Chinese mythology, a general article on Chinese
mythology
102.10. REFERENCES
Feather Mountain, mythological location of Gun's
demise
Four Mountains, advisors to emperors Yao and Shun,
sometimes associated with four cardinal mountains
Gigaku, article mentioning the character from Kunlun
Hundun, mentions kunlun in etymological terms, with
cognate meaning
Jade Mountain (mythology), another mythical mountain
Mount Buzhou, another mythical mountain
Mount Penglai, another mythical mountain
Neijing Tu, Daoist internal alchemy diagram relating
human anatomy and cosmic theory
Peaches of Immortality, magical fruit providing
longevity
Sungmo, Korean primordial goddess associated to a
western mountain
Xiwangmu, Chinese primordial goddess identied
with Kunlun
102.9 Notes
[1] The Chinese language does not necessarily distinguish between singular and plural, thus from a purely grammatical
viewpointKunlun Mountainis an equally valid translation
asKunlun Mountains, also (shn) can meanmountain, hill, or mound"; however, most descriptions
and many depictions focus on a more singular and spectacular manifestation, thus the translation Kunlun Mountain
seems appropriate. Anthony Christie uses Mount, but
Mountainis probably less ambiguous
102.10 References
Christie, Anthony (1968).
Chinese Mythology.
Feltham: Hamlyn Publishing. ISBN 0600006379.
Eberhard, Wolfram (2003 [1986]), A Dictionary of
Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and
Thought. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415-00228-1
Hawkes, David, translator and introduction (2011
[1985]). Qu Yuan et al., The Songs of the South: An
Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems by Qu Yuan and
Other Poets. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-014-044375-2
295
Schafer, Edward H. (1985) The Golden Peaches of
Samarkand. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2.
Schipper, Kristofer (Feb. - May, 1978). The
Taoist Body, in History of Religions , Vol. 17, No.
3/4, Current Perspectives in the Study of Chinese Religions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. < Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062436
(subscription required) >
Werner, E. T. C. (1994 [1922]). Myths and Legends
of China. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486-28092-6
Wilensky, Julie (July, 2002). The Magical Kunlun and 'Devil Slaves:' Chinese Perceptions of
Dark-skinned People and Africa before 1500, in
Sino-Platonic Papers 122. New Haven:Yale. <
Stable URL: http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/
spp122_chinese_africa.pdf >
Yang, Lihui, et al. (2005). Handbook of Chinese
Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6
Chapter 103
Lament for Ur
Reconstructed ruins of the city of Ur
Ziggurat of Ur
103.1
Laments
It contains one of ve known Mesopotamian city

lamentsdirges for ruined cities in the voice of the city's
tutelary goddess.
Lament for Ur at the Louvre Museum in Paris
The other city laments are:

The Lament for Sumer and Ur
The Lament for Ur, or Lamentation over the city of Ur
is a Sumerian lament composed around the time of the fall
of Ur to the Elamites and the end of the city's third dynasty
(c. 2000 BC).
296
The Lament for Nippur

The Lament for Eridu
The Lament for Uruk
103.3. COMPOSITION
297
1932,522, 1932,526j and 1932,526o.* [5] Further tablets
were found to be part of the myth in the Hilprecht collection
at the University of Jena, Germany, numbers 1426, 1427,
1452, 1575, 1579, 1487, 1510 and 1553.* [6] More fragments are held at the Muse d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva) in
Switzerland, MAH 15861 and MAH 16015.* [7]
U.S. Soldiers on the Ziggurat of Ur
The Book of Lamentations of the Old Testament, which

bewails the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar
II of Babylon in the sixth century B.C., is similar in style
and theme to these earlier Mesopotamian laments. Similar
laments can be found in the Book of Jeremiah, the Book of
Ezekiel and the Book of Psalms, Psalm 137 (Psalms 137:19), a song covered by Boney M in 1978 as Rivers of Babylon.* [1]
Other translations were made from tablets in the Nippur collection of the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul
(Ni). Samuel Noah Kramer amongst others worked to
translate several others from the Istanbul collection including Ni 4496, 1162, 2401, 2510, 2518, 2780, 2911, 3166,
4024, 4424, 4429, 4459, 4474, 4566, 9586, 9599, 9623,
9822 and 9969.* [8]* [9] Other tablets from the Istanbul collection, numbers Ni 2510 and 2518 were translated by Edward Chiera in 1924 inSumerian religious texts.* [10] Sir
Charles Leonard Woolley unearthed more tablets at Ur contained in theUr excavations textsfrom 1928.* [11] Other
tablets are held in the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin and
the Yale Babylonian collection.* [12] Samuel Noah Kramer
compiled twenty-two dierent fragments into the rst complete edition of the Lament, which was published in 1940 by
the University of Chicago as Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (Assyriological Study no. 12). Other tablets and
versions were used to bring the myth to its present form with
a composite text by Miguel Civil produced in 1989 and latest translations by Thorkild Jacobsen in 1987 and Joachim
Krecher in 1996.* [13]* [14]
103.2 Compilation
The rst lines of the lament were discovered on the
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology catalogue of the Babylonian section, tablet
numbers 2204, 2270, 2302 and 19751 from their excavations at the temple library at Nippur. These were translated by George Aaron Barton in 1918 and rst published
asSumerian religious textsin Miscellaneous Babylonian
Inscriptions, number six, entitled A prayer for the city of
Ur".* [2] The restored tablet is 9 by 4.5 by 1.75 inches (22.9
by 11.4 by 4.4 cm) at its thickest point. Barton noted that
from the portions that can be translated it appears to be
a prayer for the city of Ur at a time of great danger and
distress. It seems impossible to assign it with certainty to
any particular period.He noted that it was plausible but
unconrmed to conjecture that it was written in the last
days of Ibbi-Sin when Ur was tottering to its fall.* [2]
Edward Chiera published other tablets CBS 3878, 6889,
6905, 7975, 8079, 10227, 13911 and 14110 in Sumerian texts of varied contentsin 1934, which combined with
tablets CBS 3901, 3927, 8023, 9316, 11078 and 14234 to
further restore the myth, calling it a Lamentation over
the city of Ur.* [3] A further tablet source of the myth
is held by the Louvre in Paris, number AO 6446.* [4] Others are held in the Ashmolean, Oxford, numbers 1932,415,
103.3
Composition
The lament is composed of four hundred and thirty eight

lines in eleven kirugu (sections), arranged in stanzas of six
lines. It describes the goddess Ningal, who weeps for her
city after pleading with the god Enlil to call back a destructive storm. Interspersed with the goddess's wailing are other
sections, possibly of dierent origin and composition; these
describe the ghost town that Ur has become, recount the
wrath of Enlil's storm, and invoke the protection of the god
Nanna (Nergal or Suen) against future calamities. Ningal,
the wife of the moon god Nanna, goes on to recall her petition to the leaders of the gods, An and Enlil to change
their minds and not to destroy Ur.* [15] She does this both
in private and in a speech to the Annanuki assembly:
The council of gods decide that the Ur III dynasty, which
had reigned for around one hundred years, had its destiny apportioned to end. The temple treasury was raided
by invading Elamites and the centre of power in Sumer
moved to Isin, while control of trade in Ur passed to several leading families of the city. Kenneth Wade suggested
that Terah, the father of Abraham in the Book of Genesis
could have been one of the heads of such a leading family
(Genesis 11:28).* [16] The metaphor of a garden hut being
298
knocked down is used for the destroyed temple of Ur and
in subsequent lines this metaphorical language is extended
to the rest of the setting, reminiscent of the representation
of Jerusalem as a boothin the Book of Amos (Amos
9:11).* [17] Ningal bewails:
The dierent temples throughout the land are described
with their patron gods or goddesses abandoning the temples, like sheepfolds:
Edward L. Greenstein has noted the emptying of sheep
pens as a metaphor of the destruction of the city. He also
notes that the speakers of the laments are generally male
lamentation-priests, who take on the characteristics of a traditional female singer and ask for the gods to be appeased
so the temples can be restored. Then a goddess, sometimes
accompanied by a god notes the devastation and weeps bitterly with a dirge about the destructive storm and an entreats
to the gods to return to the sanctuaries. The destruction of
the Elamites is compared in the myth to imagery of a rising
ood and raging storm. This imagery is facilitated by the
title of Enlil as thegod of the winds* [18] The following
text suggests that the setting of the myth was subject to a
destructive storm prior to its nal destruction:* [19]
Various buildings are noted to be destroyed in Enlil's storm,
including the shrines of Agrun-kug and Egal-mah, the Ekur
(the sanctuary of Enlil), the Iri-kug, the Eridug and the
Unug.* [13] The destruction of the E-kic-nu-jal is described
in detail.
Images of what was lost, and the scorched earth that was
left behind indicate the scale of the catastrophe. The Line
274 reads
The destruction of the location is reported to Enlil, and his
consort Ninlil, who are praised and exalted at the end of the
myth.* [21]
103.4 Discussion
CHAPTER 103. LAMENT FOR UR

stela (pictured) from Iraq depicts a similar destruction of a
mountain house at Susa.
Michelle Breyer suggested tribes of neighbouring shepherds
destroyed the city and called Ur,the last great city to fall
.* [24]
103.5
Further reading
Jacobsen, Thorkild., The Harps that Once .. Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven/London: Yale
University Press. 151-166. 1987.
Klein, Jacob.,Sumerian Canonical Compositions. A.
Divine Focus. 4. Lamentations: Lamentation over the
Destruction of Sumer and Ur (1.166)". In The Context of Scripture, I: Canonical Compositions from the
Biblical World. Hallo, William W. (ed). Leiden/New
York/Kln: Brill. 535-539. 1997.
Kramer, Samuel Noah., Lamentation Over the Destruction of Ur. Assyriological Studies 12. Chicago,
IL: Chicago University Press. 1940.
Rosengarten, Yvonne., Trois Aspects de la Pense Religieuse Sumrienne. Paris: Editions De Boccard.
1971.
Witzel, Maurus.,Die Klage ber Ur. In Orientalia
14. Rome 185-234. 1945.
Witzel, Maurus. 1946., Die Klage ber Ur. In
Orientalia 15. Rome 46-63. 1945.
Samet, Nili, The Lamentation over the Destruction of
Ur: A Revised Edition. Ramat-Gan 2010
103.6
See also
The Lament for Ur has been well known to scholarship and

well edited for a long time. Piotr Michalowski has suggested
this gave literary primacy to the myth over the Lament for
Sumer and Ur, originally called the Second Lament for
Ur, which he argues was chronologically a more archaic
version.* [20] Philip S. Alexander compares lines seventeen
and eighteen of the myth with Lamentations 2:17 The
Lord has done what he purposed, he has carried out his
threat; as he ordained long ago, he has demolished without
pity, suggesting this could allude to some mysterious,
ineluctable fate ordained for Zion in the distant past":
Barton Cylinder
The devastation of cities and settlements by natural disasters

and invaders has been used widely throughout the history
of literature since the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur. A
Hymn to Enlil

Enlil and Ninlil
Kesh temple hymn
103.7. REFERENCES
299
Sumerian religion

texts... 6 137, 6 135, 6 136, 6 137, 6 138, 6 139, 6 *290.
British museum. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
Sumerian literature
Panbabylonism
Third Dynasty of Ur
Sumer
103.7 References
[1] Victor Harold Matthews; Don C. Benjamin (2006). Old Testament parallels: laws and stories from the ancient Near East.
Paulist Press. pp. 248. ISBN 978-0-8091-4435-8. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
2011.
[3] Edward Chiera; Samuel Noah Kramer; University of Pennsylvania. University Museum. Babylonian Section (1934).
Sumerian texts of varied contents, p. 1-. The University of
Chicago Press. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
des antiquits orientales. Textes cuniformes, 16, 40. Librairie orientaliste, Paul Geuthner.
[5] Ashmolean Museum (1976). Oxford Editions of Cuneiform
Texts, 12, 13, 14 and 15. Oxford University Press.
[6] Universitt. Jena. Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection
of Babylonian Antiquities. Texte und Materialien der
Frau-Professor-Hilprecht-Collection of Babylonian antiquities: Neue Folge, 4 18, 4 19, 4 21, 4 20, 4 22, 4 23, 4 24 and
4 25. Hinrichs. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[7] University of Chicago. Dept. of Oriental Languages and
Literatures (1970). Journal of Near Eastern studies, pl. 1
and 2. Univ. of Chicago Press.
Nippur: in the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istanbul, 32,
45, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 and 99. American Schools of Oriental
Research. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
Istanbul-I, 81, 95, 100, 107, 115, 118, 139, 142 and 147.
Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
(1924). Sumerian religious texts, 32 & 45. University. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
[12] Knigliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatische Abteilung;

Heinrich Zimmern; Otto Schroeder; H. H. Figulla; Wilhelm Frtsch; Friedrich Delitzsch. Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmler 10, 141. Louis D. Levine. Retrieved 4 June
2011.
[13] The Lament for Ur., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson,
E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
[14] ETCSLtransliteration : c.4.80.2
[15] Dale Launderville (2003). Piety and politics: the dynamics of royal authority in Homeric Greece, biblical Israel, and
old Babylonian Mesopotamia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 248. ISBN 978-0-8028-3994-7. Retrieved 4 June
2011.
[16] Kenneth R. Wade (February 2004). Journey to Moriah: The
Untold Story of How Abraham Became the Friend of God.
Pacic Press Publishing. pp. 21. ISBN 978-0-8163-20240. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[17] J. Harold Ellens; Deborah L. Ellens; Rolf P. Knierim; Isaac
Kalimi (2004). God's Word for Our World: Biblical studies
in honor of Simon John De Vries. Continuum International
Publishing Group. pp. 287. ISBN 978-0-8264-6974-8.
[18] Karen Weisman (6 June 2010). The Oxford handbook of the
elegy. Oxford University Press. pp. 75. ISBN 978-0-19922813-3. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[19] Institut orientaliste de Louvain (1977). Orientalia Lovaniensia periodica. Instituut voor Orintalistiek. Retrieved 4 June
2011.
[21] Sabrina P. Ramet (1996). Gender reversals and gender cultures: anthropological and historical perspectives. Psychology Press. pp. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-11482-0. Retrieved 4
June 2011.
[22] Philip S. Alexander (1 December 2007). The Targum of
Lamentations. Liturgical Press. pp. 26. ISBN 978-08146-5864-2. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[23] Peter G. Tsouras (24 October 2005). The Book of Military
Quotations. Zenith Imprint. pp. 12. ISBN 978-0-76032340-3. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[24] Michelle Breyer (December 1997). Ancient Middle East.
Teacher Created Resources. pp. 41. ISBN 978-1-55734573-8. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
300

Chiera, Edward and Kramer, Samuel Noah., Sumerian texts of varied contents, Number 20, University of
Chicago Oriental Institute Publications Volume XVI,
Cuneiform series - volume IV, 1934. - Online Version
Version
Translation of the Lament, from the Electronic Text
Corpus of Sumerian Literature
Composite text, also from ETCSL
Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative - CBS 02204,
02270, 02302, 19751 and N 3144
CHAPTER 103. LAMENT FOR UR
Chapter 104
List of mythical Chinese mountains

Mythological mountains are an important motif in
Chinese mythology. Among them are:
Feather Mountain: a place of exile during or just after
the world ood
Jade Mountain: in some accounts the dwelling of
Xiwangmu, Queen Mother of the West
China Sea
301
Chapter 105
Mount Meru
For the Indian peak, see Meru Peak. For the Tanzanian
mountain, see Mount Meru (Tanzania).
Neruredirects here. For the Spanish footballer, see Neru
(footballer).
Mount Meru is a sacred mountain with ve peaks* [1] in
Hindu, Jain and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to
be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual
universes.* [2]
Pole (though no mountain exists there). Suryasiddhnta,

however, mentions a Mt. Meru in the middle of Earth, besides a Sumeru and a Kumeru at both the Poles.
There exist several versions of Cosmology in existing Hindu
texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain
was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala
Mountain to the east, Supasarva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasha to the south.* [16]
Meru (Sanskrit: ), also called

Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pli) (Tibetan:
), to which can be added the approbatory prex su-, resulting in the meaning excellent 105.2 Hindu legends
Meruor wonderful Meruand Mahameru i.e. Great
Meru(Chinese: Xumi Shan; Pli Neru; Burmese: Mount Meru of Hindu traditions has clearly mythical
aspects, being described as 84,000 Yojan high (about
Myinmo).
1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the
Many famous Hindu and similar Jain as well as Buddhist
Earth's diameter), and notes that the Sun along with all the
temples have been built as symbolic representations of this
planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one
mountain. The highest point (the nial bud) on the pyatthat,
unit.
a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
One Yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles)
though its magnitude seems to dier over time periods,
e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according
105.1 Geographical
to Vrhamihira and slightly less so in the ryabhatiya, but
is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhnta. The
The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to Matsya Purana and the Bhgvata Purna along with some
it being as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several state- other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yoments that say, The Sun along with all the planets circle janas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles
the mountain,make determining its location most dicult, or 1,082,000 kilometers.
according to most scholars.* [3]* [4]
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja
Some
researchers
identify
Mount
Meru Brahma in antiquity.* [16]
northwest of
or Sumeru with the Pamirs,
The Puranas and Hindu epics, often state that Surya, i.e. the
Kashmir.* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]* [13]* [14]
Sun God, along with all its planets and stars taken together
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in 'the as one unit, circumnavigate Mount Meru every day.
middle of the Earth' (bhurva-madhya) in the land of
the Jambunad (Jambudvip). Narpatijayachary, a ninth- Mount Meru is also the abode of Lord Brahma and the
century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Ymal Demi-Gods (Dev).
Tantr, mentions Sumeru Prithv-madhye shryate dr- According to the Epic, Mahabharata, Pandavas and
ishyate na tu('Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of Draupadi climbed this mountain to attain heaven. Draupadi
the Earth, but is not seen there').* [15] Vrhamihira, in his and other four Pandavas were cast down for their sins and
Pancha-siddhntik, claims Mt. Meru to be at the North died. Only Yudhishthira along with his faithful dog climbed
302
105.3. BUDDHIST LEGENDS
303
Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist Universe, 19th

century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan
Painting of Mount Meru from Jain cosmology from the Samghayanarayana
A mural depicting Mt. Meru, in Wat Sakhet, Bangkok, Thailand
105.3
Buddhist legends
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakoabhyam

(philosophical writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall.
The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some
accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4.5
the mountain, making him the only one to reach the Divine miles, but other accounts put it between 79 miles. It also
door.
descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to
304
CHAPTER 105. MOUNT MERU

and is divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and
west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great
Kings, who face outward toward the quarter of the world
that they supervise.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon
circle Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the change from day to night; when the Sun is north
of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvpa, and it is night in that location; at the
same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of
Uttarakuru, dawn in the eastern continent of Prvavideha,
and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodnya. Half a
day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in
Jambudvpa, dusk in Prvavideha, dawn in Aparagodnya,
and midnight in Uttarakuru.
A Korean world map centered on the legendary Mount Meru in

Central Asia.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each
longer and broader by a factor of two. They contain the
followers of the Four Great Kings, namely ngas, yakas,
gandharvas, and kumbhas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower
slopes of Sumeru are given below:
Below Sumeru, in the sea surrounding it is the abode of the

a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being founded upon the basal Asuras who are at war with the Tryastria gods.
layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both
size and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and
base of 80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle
(at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of
seas and mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (noted as square in shape) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing
in width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There
are seven seas and seven surrounding mountain-walls, until
one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are merely
small islands. The known world, which is on the continent
of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
105.4
Jain legends
Main article: Jain cosmology

According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is
The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakoabhyam are

shown in the table below:
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the
Tryastria heaven(Devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the Earth. The
next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven consist of a sheer Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur
precipice, narrowing like an inverted mountain until it is
20,000 yojanas square at a height of 40,000 yojanas above at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambdvpa,* [17]
the sea.
in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yoFrom this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four jans.* [18] There are two sets of sun, moon and stars reterraced ledges, each broader than the one above. The rst volving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other
terrace constitutes the heavenof the Four Great Kings set rests behind Mount Meru.* [19]* [20]* [21]
105.8. SOURCES
305
105.5 Javanese legends
[11] Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal - History; Geographical Concepts

in Ancient India, 1967, p 50
This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in Tantu

Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the Kawi
language from the 15th century Majapahit period. The
manuscript describes the mythical origin of Java island, and
the legend of the movement of portions of Mount Meru to
Java. The manuscript explained that Batara Guru (Shiva)
ordered the god Brahma and Vishnu to ll the Java island
with human beings. However at that time Java island was
oating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking.
To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to
the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa
(India) and attaching it to Java.* [22] The resulting mountain
is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
[12] Bechan Dube - India; Geographical Data in the Early

Puras: A Critical Study, 1972, p 2
105.6 See also
[13] Dr M. R. Singh - India; Studies in the Proto-history of India,

1971, p 17
[14] Dr Dvrak Prasda Mira - India.
[15] cf. second verse of Koorma-chakra in the book Narpatijayachary
[16] J.P. Mittal, History of Ancient India: From 7300 BC to 4250
BC, page 3
[17] Cort 2010, p. 90.
[18] Schubring, Walther (1995), pp. 204246
[19] CIL,Indian Cosmology Reections in Religion and Metaphysics, Ignca.nic.in
[20] Shah, Pravin K., Jain Geography (PDF)
Jainism
Hinduism
Buddhism
105.7 Notes
[21] Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal - Asiatic Society of

Bengal, 1834
[22] Soekmono, Dr R. (1973). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan
Indonesia 2. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Penerbit Kanisius. p.
119. ISBN 979-413-290-X.
105.8
Sources
[1] Angkor Wat : Image of the Day.

[2] Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through
the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 78.
[3] Sachau, Edward C. (2001). Alberuni's India. Psychology
Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-415-24497-8.
[4] The Devi Bhagavatam: The Eighth Book: Chapter 15.
Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[5] The Geopolitics of South Asia: From Early Empires to the
Nuclear Age, 2003, p 16
[6] Graham P. Chapman - Social Science; The Pamirs and the
Source of the Oxus, p 15
Further information: Jyotia bibliography

Cort, John (2010) [1953], Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1.
Narpatijayachary, commentary by Ganeshdatta
Pathak, Published by Chowkhambha Sanskrit
Sansthana, Varanasi, India, PIN-221001.
105.9
External links
[7] George Nathaniel Curzon; The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, 1968, p 184
Description of Mount Meru in the Devi-bhagavatapurana 12
[8] Benjamin Walker - Hinduism; Ancient Indian Tradition &

Mythology: Puras in Translation, 1969, p 56
Painting of Mount Meru found in Buddhist cave sanctuary in Xinjiang, China
[9] Jagdish Lal Shastri, Arnold Kunst, G. P. Bhatt, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare - Oriental literature; Journal of the K.R. Cama
Oriental Institute, 1928, p 38
[10] K.R. Cama Oriental Institute - Iranian philology; The Occult
in Russian and Soviet Culture, 1997, p 175
Mount Meru in Encyclopedia of Buddhist Iconography 12

Sumeru in Encyclopedia of Buddhist Iconography 12
Ngari
Chapter 106
Mount Buzhou
Mount Buzhou (Chinese: ; pinyin: Bzhu Shn)
was an ancient Chinese mythological mountain which according to old texts lay to the northwest of the Kunlun
Mountains, in a location today referred to as the Pamir
Mountains. It is the mountain said to have supported the
heavens, against which the Chinese water god Gong Gong
smashed his head in a t of anger, requiring the goddess
Nwa to repair the sky.
The mountain is mentioned in the Shan Hai Jing ()
and is the location where Qu Yuan wrote the classic poem Li
Sao, one of the Songs of Chu. Former Chinese leader Mao
Zedong also refers to Mount Buzhou in his poem Against
the First EncirclementCampaign (1931).
106.1 See also

Feather Mountain, a mythological mountain
Jade Mountain, a mythological mountain
China Sea
306
Chapter 107
Mount Meru (Buddhism)

For the equivalent central mountain in Hindu cosmology, see
Mount Meru
Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pli) or
Kangrinboqe) is the name of the central world-mountain in
Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of
the mountain is Meru (Pli Neru), to which is added the
approbatory prex su-, resulting in the meaningexcellent
Meruor wonderful Meru.
of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.

The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakoabhyam are
shown in the table below:
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the

Tryastria heaven(devaloka), which is the highest
plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next
40,000 yojanas below this heaven consist of sheer precipice,
narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is 20,000 yoThe concept of Sumeru is closely related to the Hindu janas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
mythological concept of a central world mountain, called From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four
Meru, but diers from the Hindu concept in several partic- terraced ledges, each broader than the one above. The rst
ulars.
terrace constitutes the heavenof the Four Great Kings
and is divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and
west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great
Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world
that he supervises.
107.1 Characteristics
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakoabhyam
(philosophical writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall.
The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some
accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately
4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles.
It also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding
waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being founded upon
the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile
for both size and stability in Buddhist texts.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon
circle Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north
of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvpa, and it is night there; at the same time
it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru,
dawn in the eastern continent of Prvavideha, and dusk in
the western continent of Aparagodnya. Half a day later,
when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in JamSumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and budvpa, dusk in Prvavideha, dawn in Aparagodnya, and
base of 80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the mid- midnight in Uttarakuru.
dle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each
square.
longer and broader by a factor of two. They contain the
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of
seas and mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of mountains,
which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in
width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are
seven seas and seven surrounding mountain-walls, until one
comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are merely
small islands. The known world, which is on the continent
followers of the Four Great Kings, namely ngas, yakas,

gandharvas, and kumbhas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower
slopes of Sumeru are given below:
Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the
Asuras who are at war with the Tryastria gods.
307
308
107.2 See also

Mount Meru a similar mountain in Hindu mythology.
Semeru a mountain in Java, Indonesia, named after
Sumeru.
Mandala (Southeast Asian history)

Painting of Sumeru found in Buddhist cave sanctuary
in Xinjiang
Mount Meru According to the Abhidharmakoa
(Huntington Archive) Stpa as Mount Meru (ibid.)
CHAPTER 107. MOUNT MERU (BUDDHISM)
Chapter 108
Mount Nisir
Mount Nisir (also spelled Mount Niir, and also called [4] R. Campbell Thompson, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Clarendon
Press, 1930, page 63, lines 140141
Mount Nimush), mentioned in the ancient Mesopotamian
Epic of Gilgamesh, is supposedly the mountain known as to[5] R. M. Best, page 277.
day as Pir Omar Gudrun (elevation 9000 ft. (approx. 2743
m)), near the city Sulaymaniyah in Iraqi Kurdistan. The
Coordinates: 353000N 452500E / 35.5000N
name may mean Mount of Salvation.* [1]
45.4167E
According to the Epic of Gilgamesh, Mt. Nisir is the resting
place of the ship built by Utnapishtim. Despite the precise
descriptions in the Epic of Gilgamesh, those curious have
never attempted to search for the remains of the giant ship
on Mt. Nisir.* [2]
An alternative translation of Mount Nisirin the Epic
of Gilgamesh XI,141a is based on the ambiguous words:
KUR- * KUR ni-sir held tight the boat.* [3] The Sumerian word KUR can mean land or country or hill, but not
mountain. In Akkadian, KUR with the phonetic complement - is read as shad which can mean hill or mountain.
The second KUR is a determinative indicating that nisir is
the name of a hill or land or country (or in Akkadian a
mountain). But Thompson * [4] read this determinative as
matu, an Akkadian word for country. The country Nisir
may have got its name from nisirtu which means a locality
that is hidden, inaccessible, or secluded. Hence the boat
may have grounded on an inaccessible hill.* [5]
108.1 References
[1] Scolnic, Benjamin Edidin (2005). If the Egyptians Drowned
in the Red Sea where are Pharaoh's Chariots?: Exploring the
Historical Dimension of the Bible. UP of America. p. 40.
ISBN 9780761831471.
[2] Werner Keller, The Bible As History: A Conrmation of the
Book of Books, trans. William Neil (New York: William
Morrow and Company, 1956) 39. From Chapter 4, entitled
A Flood Story From Old Babylonia.
[3] Robert M. Best, Noah's Ark and the Ziusudra Epic, page 277,
Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 0-9667840-1-4.
309
Chapter 109
Mount Potalaka
time of the great king Aoka in the third century BCE, it became a holy place also for Buddhists who gradually became
dominant as a number of their hermits settled there. The local people, though, mainly remained followers of Hinduism.
The mixed Hindu-Buddhist cult culminated in the formation of the gure of Avalokitevara.* [3]
109.2
Local traditions
Pothigai Malai in Tamil Nadu, proposed to be the original Mount

Potalaka in India
Mount Potalaka (traditional Chinese: ;

simplied Chinese: ; pinyin: Btulu Shn,
Japanese: Fudaraku-san), which meansBrilliance,* [1]
is the mythical dwelling of the Buddhist bodhisattva
Avalokitevara, said to exist in the seas south of India.
109.1 Origins
The mountain is rst mentioned in the nal chapter of the Model of Mount Putuo island
Avatasaka Stra, the Gaavyha Stra, where the chapter's protagonist journeys to seek the advice of AvalokiteLater Japanese Buddhists, such as the Japanese Yogacara
vara.
monk Jkei, espoused aspiring rebirth on Mount Potalaka
The Japanese scholar Shu Hikosaka, on the basis of his as an easier way to attain progress on the Buddhist path than
study of Buddhist scriptures, ancient Tamil literary sources, the more well-known pure land of Amitbha.* [4]
as well as eld survey, proposes the hypothesis that, the anPlaces named after Mount Potalaka include:
cient mount Potalaka, the residence of Avalokitevara described in the Gaavyha Stra and Xuanzangs Great
Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the real mountain
Mount Putuo in Zhejiang
Potikai or Potiyil situated at Ambasamudram in Tirunelveli
district, Tamil Nadu.* [2] Shu also says that mount Potiyil
Putuo Zongcheng Temple in Hebei
/ Potalaka has been a sacred place for the people of South
India from time immemorial.* [2]
With the spread of Buddhism in the region beginning at the
310
Potala Palace in Tibet
109.3. NOTES
109.3 Notes
[1] Lokesh CHANDRA, The Thousand-Armed Avalokitevara,
New Delhi: Abdhinav Publications/ Indira Gandhi National
Center for the Arts, 1988, p. 35;
[2] Hikosaka, Shu. The Potiyil Mountain in Tamil Nadu and
the Origin of the Avalokitevara Cult.Buddhism in Tamil
Nadu: Collected Papers. Chennai, India: Institute of Asian
Studies, 1998. 119-41.
[3] Lnemets, Mrt (2006). Bodhisattva Avalokitevara in
the Gandavyuha Sutra. Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
[4] Ford, James L. (2006). Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early
Medieval Japan. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 4750,
101138. ISBN 0-19-518814-4.
311
Chapter 110
Mount Qaf
mountains in mystery.* [1] In Iranian tradition this mountain could be any of the following:
The highest mountain
The land of the Demons (Who did not obey the Iranian
religion)
Saoshyant's battleeld
Simurgh's nest
110.2
Arab tradition
Mount Qaf in Arabian cosmology is a mysterious mountain

of ancient Muslim tradition renowned as thefarthest point
of the earth. Owing to its remoteness, the North Pole is
sometimes identied with this mountain.* [2]* [3]
Map of the world according to Zakariya al-Qazwini showing the Islamic view of how the universe is structured and how sky and earth
are supported, while being consistent with Quranic verse 22:65.
Zakariya al-Qazwini published Aj'ib al-makhlqt wa

ghar'ib al-mawjdt (The Wonders of Creation, literally Marvels of things created and miraculous aspects
of things existing)* [4] in the 16th century, a book that
was inuential in early modern Islamic society. According
to Qazwini's cosmology, the sky is held by Allah so that it
does not fall on Earth. The Earth is considered at and surrounded by a series of mountains including Mount Qaf
that hold it in its place like pegs; the Earth is supported by
an ox that stands on Bahamut, a giant sh (Arabic:
Bahamt) dwelling in a cosmic ocean; the ocean is inside a
bowl that sits on top of an angel or jinn.* [5]
According to certain authors, the Jabal Qaf of Muslim cosMount Qaf, also known as Cafcuh or Kafkuh, (Persian:
mology is a version of Rupes Nigra, a mountain whose
Qaafkuh or Kuh-e Qaaf; Arabic:
ascent, like Dante's climbing of the Mountain of PurJabal Qaf or Djebel Qaf) is a mythological mountain.
gatory, represents the pilgrim's progress through spiritual
states.* [6]
110.1 Iranian tradition

110.3
Historically Iranian power never extended over all of the
Northern Caucasus and ancient lore shrouded these high
312
See also
The Conference of the Birds (Maniq-u-ayr)
110.5. REFERENCES
Esoteric interpretation of the Quran

Daniel G. Prior: Travels of Mount Qf: From Legend
to 42 0' N 79 51' E. in: Oriente Moderno, Nuova
serie, Anno 89, Nr. 2. (Studies on Islamic Legends)
2009, pp. 425444
110.5 References
[1]
[2] Ibrahim Muhawi & Sharif Kanaana. Speak, Bird, Speak
Again: Palestinian Arab Folktales. Berkeley University of
California Press
[3] Irgam Yigfagna; al-Jabal al-Lamma
[4] The Wonders of Creation - World Digital Library
[5] Zakariya al-Qazwini. Aj'ib al-makhlqt wa ghar'ib almawjdt (The Wonders of Creation). Original published
in 1553 AD
[6] Irgam Yigfagna; al-Jabal al-Lamma, p. 44
313
Chapter 111
Niafjll
Niafjll (pronounced [nafjl], also written Nivellir),
which means dark mountains, are located in the northern
underworld. Niafjll is the site from which the dragon
Nhggr comes. According to Snorri Sturluson, the good
and virtuous people will live here in a golden palace after
the Ragnark, despite its proximity to Hel.* [1]* [2]
111.3
Niafjll is mentioned in Vlusp from the Poetic Edda.* [3]

From below the dragon dark comes forth, Nithhogg ying
from Nithafjoll; The bodies of men on his wings he bears,
The serpent bright: but now must I sink
Vlusp, verse 66
111.1 References
[1] The Guardian Spirits of Iceland (Legend from the Land of
Ice and Fire)
[2] Niafjll (Niafjll Publications)
[3] Voluspo, The Wise-Woman's Prophecy (The Poetic Edda, by
Henry Adams Bellows, 1936)
111.2 Other Sources

Faulkes, Anthony (trans. and ed.) (1987) Edda of
Snorri Sturluson (Everyman's Library) ISBN 0-46087616-3
Lindow, John (2001) Handbook of Norse mythology
(Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio) ISBN 1-57607-217-7
Orchard, Andy (1997) Dictionary of Norse Myth and
Legend (Cassell) ISBN 0-304-34520-2
Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology (D.S. Brewer) ISBN 085991-513-1
314
External links
Bellows, Henry Adams (trans.) (1923) The Poetic

Edda. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. Available online in www.voluspa (org).
Chapter 112

Hymn to Enlil
Old Babylonian oracle is a Sumerian myth, written on clay

tablets dated to between 2340 and 2200 BC.
The myth was discovered on the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, catalogue
of the Babylonian section (CBS), tablet number 8322 from
their excavations at the temple library at Nippur. This was
translated by George Aaron Barton in 1918 and rst published asSumerian religious textsin Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions, number two, entitled "An Old Babylonian Oracle". The tablet is 3.2 inches (8.1 cm) by 2.6
inches (6.6 cm) by 0.85 inches (2.2 cm) at its thickest
point.* [1]
Barton suggests the text is dicult and enigmatic, he confesses the interpretation put forward is uncertain and with
great reserve. He suggests that it describes an oracle given
by a seer for a priest called Allu-Kalwho wished to rebuild dwellings or a temple of cedar wood. Barton suggests
Enlil then appears and takes Enki's axe, presumably to chop
cedars for the building he proceeds to guard. Allu-Kal then
entreats the gods for protection of the dwellings of cedar to
which the gods exalt him in reply and he is called a "bearded
prince", suggested as a hint that he may be deied as were
Naram-Sin, Gudea and Shulgi.* [1]* [2]
Kesh temple hymn

Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
112.2
References
2011.
[2] American Oriental Society (January 2010). Journal of the
American Oriental Society, p. 139. General Books LLC.
ISBN 978-1-152-35514-9. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
112.3
with cedar he shall build. Strong are the

houses; the dwelling is of aromatic wood, the
great dwelling of Enlil.* [1]
External links
CDLI University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Museum no.:
CBS 08322
112.1 See also

Barton Cylinder
Enlil and Ninlil
315
Chapter 113
Mount Olympus
This article is about the mountain in Greece. For the volcano on the planet Mars, see Olympus Mons. For other
uses, see Olympus.
Mount Olympus (/olmps, -/;* [3] Greek: ;
it. The usual starting point is the town of Litochoro, on

the eastern foothills of the mountain, 100 km from Thessaloniki, where, in the beginning of every summer, the Olympus Marathon terminates.* [5]
113.1
Olympus' highest peak, Mytikas
also transliterated as Olympos, and on Greek maps, Oros

Olympos) is the highest mountain in Greece and the second
highest mountain in the Balkans. It is located in the Olympus Range on the border between Thessaly and Macedonia,
between the regional units of Pieria and Larissa, about 80
km (50 mi) southwest from Thessaloniki. Mount Olympus has 52 peaks, deep gorges, and exceptional biodiversity.* [4] The highest peak Mytikas, meaningnose, rises
to 2,918 metres (9,573 ft).* [1] It is one of the highest peaks
in Europe in terms of topographic prominence.* [2]
Olympus was notable in Greek mythology as the home of
the Greek gods, on the Mytikas peak. Mount Olympus is
also noted for its very rich ora with several species. It has
been a National Park, the rst in Greece, since 1938. It is
also a World's Biosphere Reserve.* [1]
Every year thousands of people visit Olympus to admire its
fauna and ora, to tour its slopes, and reach its peaks. Organized mountain refuges and various mountaineering and
climbing routes are available to visitors who want to explore
Geography
The shape of Olympus was formed by rain and wind, which

produced an isolated tower almost 3,000 metres (9,800 ft)
above the sea, which is only 18 kilometres (11 mi) away at
Litochoro. Olympus has many peaks and an almost circular shape. The mountain has a circumference of 150 kilometres (93 mi), an average diameter of 26 kilometres (16
mi), and 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi) of area. To
the northwest lies the Vlach village of Kokkinoplou. The
Makryrema stream separates Olympus from the massif of
Voulgara. The villages Petra, Vrontou and Dion lie to the
northwest, while on the eastern side there is the town of
Litochoro, where Enipeas bisects the massif of Olympus.
On its southeastern side, the Ziliana gorge divides Mount
Olympus from Kato Olympos (Lower Olympus), while on
its southwestern foothills, there are the villages Sykaminea
and Karya. The Aghias Triadas Sparmou Monastery and
the village Pythion lie to the west. Olympus' dry foothills
are known as the Xirokampi, containing chaparral and small
animals. Further east, the plain of Dion is fertile and watered by the streams which originate on Olympus.
113.2
Geology
Mount Olympus is formed of sedimentary rock laid down

200 million years ago in a shallow sea. Various geological events that followed caused the emergence of the whole
region and the sea. Around one million years ago glaciers
covered Olympus and created its plateaus and depressions.
With the temperature rise that followed the ice was melted
and the streams that were created swept away large quantities of crushed rock in the lowest places, forming the alluvial
316
113.4. MYTHOLOGY
317
sharply rising 200 meters presenting the greatest challenge
for climbers. Further south, Skolio (second highest peak 2,912 metres (9,554 ft)) completes an arc of about 200 degrees, with its steep slopes forming on the west side, like a
wall, an impressive precipitous amphitheatrical cavity, 700
metres (2,300 ft) in depth and 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in circumference, the 'Megala Kazania'. On the east side of the
high peaks the steep slopes form zonelike parallel folds, the
'Zonaria'. Even narrower and steeper scorings, the 'Loukia',
lead to the peak.
Satellite photo of Olympus' region
fans, that spread out all over the region from the foothills of
the mountain to the sea.* [1]
Muses' Plateau, with Stefani (or Thronos Dios) in the background
113.3 Morphology
Mount Olympus as seen from north at Petra, Pieria
The complicated geological past of the region is obvious

on the morphology of Olympus and its National Park. Features include deep gorges and dozens of smooth peaks,
many of them in altitude of more than 2,000 metres (6,600
ft), including Aghios Antonios (2,815 metres (9,236 ft)),
Kalogeros (2,700 metres (8,900 ft)), Toumpa (2,801 metres (9,190 ft)) and Protis Ilias (2,803 metres (9,196 ft)).
However it is the central, almost vertical, rocky peaks, that
impress the visitor, over Litochoro, where the relief of the
mountain displays on the horizon an apparent V, between
two peaks of almost equal height. In the left limb is Mytikas
(or Pantheon - 2,918 metres (9,573 ft)), Greece's highest peak, and on the right one Stefani (or Thronos Dios
(Throne of Zeus - 2,902 metres (9,521 ft)), that presents
the most impressive and steep peak of Olympus, with its last
n the north side, between Stefani and Protis Ilias, extends the Muses' Plateau, at 2,550 metres (8,370 ft), while
further south, almost in the center of the massif, extends
the alpine tundra region of Bara, at an altitude of 2,350
metres (7,710 ft). Olympus has numerous ravines and
gullies. Most distinguishable of the ravines are those of
Mavrologos-Enipeas (14 km) and Mavratzas-Sparmos (13
km) near Bara and 'cut' the massif in two oval portions.
On the southern foothills the great gorge of Ziliana, 13 km
long, consists of a natural limit that separates the mountain
from Lower Olympus. There are also many precipices and
a number of caves, even nowadays unexplored. The form
and layout of the rocks favor the emergence of numerous
springs, mainly lower than 2,000 m, of small seasonal lakes
and streams and of a small river, Enipeas, with its springs
in the site Prionia and its estuary in the Aegean Sea.
113.4
Mythology
In Greek mythology Olympus was the home of the Twelve

Olympian gods of the ancient Greek world.* [6] It is the setting of many Greek mythical stories. The Twelve Olympian
gods lived in the gorges, where there were also their palaces.
Pantheon (today Mytikas) was their meeting place and theater of their stormy discussions. The Throne of Zeus (today Stefani) hosted solely him, the leader of the gods.
From there he unleashed his thunderbolts, expressing his
godly wrath. The Twelve Olympians were Zeus, Hera,
Demeter, Poseidon, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite,
318
CHAPTER 113. MOUNT OLYMPUS
Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, and the twelfth was either where they had a view of the two peaks and where they left
Hestia or Dionysus.* [7]
oerings, as recent archaeological ndings indicate. In the
In Pieria, on Olympus' northern foot, the mythological tra- modern era, a series of explorers tried to study the mountain
dition had placed the nine Muses, patrons of the Fine Arts, and to reach, unsuccessfully, its summit. Examples include
daughters of Zeus and the Titanide Mnemosyne: Calliope the French archaeologist Leon Heuzey (1855), the German
(Epic Poetry), Clio (History), Erato (Love Poetry), Euterpe explorer Heinrich Barth (1862), and the German engineer
(Music), Melpomene, (Tragedy), Polyhymnia (Hymns), Edward Richter. Richter tried to reach the summit in 1911
Terpsichore (Dance), Thalia (Comedy) and Urania (Astron- but was abducted by Klephts, who also killed the Ottoman
Gendarmes that accompanied him.
omy).* [8]
It was just one year after the liberation of Greece from Ottoman rule, on 2 August 1913, that the until then untrodden summit of Olympus was nally reached. The Swiss
113.5 History
Frdric Boissonnas and Daniel Baud-Bovy, aided by a
hunter of wild goats from Litochoro, Christos Kakalos,
According to several sources, including here, Mt Olympus were the rst to reach Greece's highest peak. Kakalos, who
was originally named Mount Belus. The history of Olym- had much experience climbing Olympus, was the rst of
pus has been turbulent, as its surrounding area was not only the three to climb Mytikas. Afterwards and till his death
a sacred shrine but also a battleeld for the control of the (1976) he was the ocial guide of Olympus. In 1921, he
access from Thessaly to Macedonia in ancient times. In the and Marcel Kurz reached the second highest summit of
period of the Ottoman Empire the mountain was a hiding Olympus, Stefani. Based on these explorations, Kurz in
place and base of operations for klephts and armatoloi.* [1] 1923 edited Le Mont Olympe, a book that includes the rst
In Olympus, the second armatoliki was founded, led by detailed map of the summits. In 1928, the painter Vasilis
Kara Michalis in 1489. The action of the klephts in Olym- Ithakisios climbed Olympus together with Kakalos, reachpus led the Turks to visit their outrage on the klephts' ally- ing a cave that he named Shelter of the Muses, and he spent
village of Milia (in the late 17th century), which they de- many summers painting views of the mountain. Olympus
stroyed. In that period Livadi in Olympus became the was later photographed and mapped in detail by others, and
seat of the armatoliki of Olympus and Western Macedonia, a series of successful climbings and winter ascents of the
with their rst renowned commander Panos Zidros. In the steepest summits in dicult weather conditions took place.
18th century the Turks had to replace the armatoloi (who Climbing Mount Olympus is a non-technical hike, except
very often joined the klephts) with Moslem Albanian ar- for the nal section from the Skala summit to the Mytikas
matoloi who ravaged the countryside of Macedonia. How- peak, which is a YDS class 3 rock scramble. It is estimated
ever, Olympus' armatoloi, even after their capitulation to that 10,000 people climb Mount Olympus each year, most
Ali Pasha, never ceased ghting on land and at sea. Among of them reaching only the Skolio summit. Most climbs of
them who were active there and in nearby regions were Mount Olympus start from the town of Litochoro, which
Nikotsaras, Giorgakis Olympios and the legendary family took the name City of Gods because of its location at the
of Lazaioi. In the early 20th century, even for some time foot of the mountain. From there a road goes to Prionia,
after the liberation from the Ottoman Empire (1912), rob- where the hike begins at the bottom of the mountain.
bers were active in the region - the best known of them the
notorious Giagoulas, while during the German invasion in
1941 the Greek army fought signicant battles along with
113.7 Ancient and medieval sites
units of New Zealanders and Australians. During the German Occupation (1941 - 1944) the mountain was one of
the centers of the Greek Resistance, while a little later the The whole region of Pieria's Olympus was declared archaeological and historical site for the preservation of its monGreek Civil War (194649) started there, in Litochoro.
umental and historical character. Five km away from the
sea is Dion, sacred city of the ancient Macedons, dedicated
to Zeus and the Twelve Olympians. Its prosperity lasted
113.6 Climbing expeditions
from the 5th century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. The excavations, continuing since 1928, have revealed numerous
Ancient Greeks likely never tried to climb Olympus' ndings of the Macedonian, the Hellenistic and the Roman
peaks Parththeon and the Throne of Zeus (currently called period. Currently there is a unique archaeological park of
Mytikas and Stefani respectively), which they considered to 200 hectares, with the ancient town and the sacred places of
be the Twelve Olympians' home. But surely they reached worship, outside its walls. Many statues and other invaluthe nearest peak, nowadays called Aghios Antonios, from able items are kept in the nearby Dion's museum. Pimblia
113.10. FLORA
and Livithra, two other towns in Olympus' region, are related to Orpheus and the Orphicmysteries. According
to a tradition Orpheus, son of Apollo and Calliope (one of
the Muses), taught here the mystic ceremonies of worship
of Dionysus. By the sea, in a strategic position, at Macedonia's gates is located Platamon Castle, built between 7th
and 10th century A.D. in the ancient town of Heraclea.
113.8 Christian monuments

In Olympus' region there are also several Christian monuments, among them the highest-altitude chapel of Orthodox Christianity, that of Protis Ilias, on the summit of the
same name (2,803 m). It was built in the 16th century by
Saint Dionysios of Olympus, who also founded the most
signicant monastery in the region. The Old Monastery of
Dionysios (altitude 820 m) lies in Enipeas' gorge and is accessible by car from Litochoro. It was looted and burned by
the Ottomans and in 1943 it was destroyed by the German
invaders, who suspected it was a guerilla den. Nowadays it
has been partially restored and operates as a dependency of
the New Monastery of Dionysios, that is outside Litochoro.
On Olympus' southern foot, in a dominant position (820
m) in Ziliana gorge, there is the Kanalon Monastery, 8 km
away from Karya. It was founded in 1864 and since 2001 it
has been restored and operates as a convent. Further west,
in the edge of Mavratza stream, at 1,020 m, there is the
Aghias Triadas Sparmou Monastery, that ourished in the
early 18th century, possessed great property and assisted to
establish the famous Tsaritsani' school. It was abandoned in
1932, but in 2000 it was completely renovated and reopened
as a male monastery, aliated to Elassona's diocese.
319
rain than the continental northwest, so, as a result, there is
a clear dierence in vegetation. being more abundant in
the rst of them. Hottest month is August, while coldest is
February.
The mountain's highest zone, over 2,000 metres, is snowcapped for about nine months (September to May). In
some places the winds gather snow, 810 metres thick,
('anemosouria' in Greek), while in some deep ravines the
snow is maintained all over the year (everlasting snow). For
this Olympus' alpine region, recordings have been made in
the 1960s in the highest-altitude weather station in Greece,
that was established on the summit of Aghios Antonios
(2,815 m), providing a number of interesting data for the
mountain's climate. he average temperature is 5 C in
winter and 10 C in summer. The average annual precipitation heights vary from 149 cm at Prionia (1,100 m) to
170 cm at Aghios Antonios, about half of them rainfall and
hailstorms in summer and the rest snowfall in winter. The
weather may change several times in the same day. In summer rainfalls are frequent, commonly as evening thunderstorms, many times accompanied by hail and strong winds.
However water springs over 2,000 metres are scarce and
visitors should ensure that they have always water and of
course the necessary clothing for any weather conditions.
113.10
Flora
The research of Olympus' plants started in 1836, when the

French botanist cher - l studied them. According to
this and later studies, the National Park of Olympus is considered one of the richest ora regions in Greece, with about
1,700 species and subspecies, that represent some 25% of
Greek ora. Of them 187 are characterized as signicant,
56 are Greek endemic and of them 23 are local endemic,
i.e. they can be found only in Olympus, and 16 are rare in
113.9 Climate
Greece or/and have there the limits of their spread within
Generally speaking Olympus' climate can be described as Northern Greece.
one of mediterranean type with continental inuence. Its Most of those found in lower altitude are the common
local variations is the result of the impact of the sea and the Mediterranean and central European species. Jankaea helrugged relief of the region. In the lower locations (Lito- dreichii, a plant relic of the Ice age, is of particular interest
choro and the foothills) the climate is typically mediter- for the botanists. he intense diversity of the landscape,
ranean, i.e. hot and dry in the summer, while humid and the varying orientation of the slopes and their position in
cold in the winter. Higher it is more humid and severe, relation to the sea aect locally Olympus' climate and so
with more intense phenomena ; in these locations it often a local microclimate prevails, combined with the geologisnows all over the winter, while raining and snowing is not cal background and the soil favor the growth of particular
unusual, even in the summer. The temperature varies in the vegetation types and biotopes. Generally Olympus' northwinter from 10 C to 10 C and in the summer from 0 C east side is densely forested, as it receives the most rainfall,
to 20 C, while winds are an almost everyday occurrence. while the southwest one has signicantly sparser vegetation.
Generally the temperature falls 1 C per 200 m of altitude. Moreover, there is a clear sequence of the vegetation zones
As the altitude rises, the phenomena are more intense and in accordance to altitude, in Olympus there is no such a regthe variations of temperature and humidity are often sud- ularity. It is due to the great microclimate variety, caused
den. The coastal northeast slopes of Olympus receive more by the region's landscape.
320
113.10.1
Flora zones
dry and its slopes are rocky. There are no springs or water
streams. The vegetation growing there is adapted to specic
In Olympus there are generally four sequent ora zones, but local conditions and represented by typical shrubs, graminot clearly separated:
naceous, chasmophytes etc., while the ora includes many
endemic species of the Balkans.
Mediterranean vegetation zone
No forest high mountains' zone (Alpine tundra)
In the altitude between 300 and 500 metres occurs the evergreen broadleaf trees' zone (maquis. Along with oak (Quercus ilex) and Greek strawberry tree there occur kermes oak,
strawberry tree, Phillyrea latifolia, bay laurel, cedar and
others. Of the deciduous species most common are axinus
ulmus, Montpellier maple, Judas tree, terebinth, Cotinus
coggygria and others.
Beyond Bosnian pine's zone follows an extensive zone, without trees, with alpine meadows, consisted by a mosaic of
grassland ecosystems, depending on the topography, the
slope and the orientation of the ground. In general, this
alpine ora with more than 150 plant species, contains snow
accumulation meadows, grassy swamps, alpine scree and
rock crevices. On the meadows, the rocks and the steep
slopes live most of the endemic Olympus' plants, among
Forest zone of beech, r and mountain coniferous
them some of the most beautiful wildowers in Greece.
Half of them are found only in the Balkans and 23 only
The evergreen broadleaf trees' zone is gradually replaced in Olympus and nowhere else.
by ecosystems of European black pine, that forms compact
clusters, with no intermediate zone of deciduous oaks, although trees of these species occur sporadically within clus- 113.10.2 Olympus' endemic plants
ters of black pine. On the northern slopes of Xirolakos valley, at altitude between 600 and 700 metres, there is a high
1. Achillea ambrosiaca
forest of downy oak of about 120 hectares.
2. Alyssum handelii
he black pine dominates on the eastern and northern side
3. Asprerula muscosa
of the mountain, between 500 and 1,700 metres. In this
zone there is also hybrid r in small groups and scrubs or
4. Aubrieta thessala
small clumps, particularly in the lower region and in the sites
Naoumi (west) and Stalamatia and Polykastro (east), where
5. Campanula oreadum
it is mixed with black pine and Bosnian pine. In this zone
6. Carum adamovicii
there is also beech. While in the neighboring mountains
Pierians and Ossa it creates an extended vegetation zone, in
7. Centaurea incompleta
Olympus it is restricted to small clusters, appearing as islets,
mainly in more humid locations and the best soils. A par8. Centaurea litochorea
ticularly rich variety of trees and shrubs is found in Enipeas'
9. Centaurea transiens
gorge. One can see there elm, cherry plum, European yew,
hazel, holly, cornus mas, manna ash, maple and a considerable variety of herbaceous plants. Gorges and ravines are 10. Cerastrium theophrasti
covered by oriental planes, willows, black alders and river- 11. Erysimum olympicum
side greenery.
12. Festuca olympica
Boreal coniferous zone
13. Gensta sakellariadis
Typical species of this zone is Bosnian pine. This rare kind

of pine occurs sporadically higher than 1,000 metres and
gradually replaces the black pine, while over 1,400 metres
it creates an almost unmixed forest. ver 2,000 metres the
forest becomes sparser, reaching to 2,750 metres, thus creating the highest forest limit (highest limit of forest growth)
in the Balkans, or even in Europe. Another feature of this
zone is that over 2,500 metres the trees appear in a crawling form. The region, where Bosnian pine grows, is mostly
14. Jankaea heldreichii

15. Ligusticum olympicum
16. Melampyrum ciliatum
17. Poa thessala
18. Potentilla deorum
19. Rynchosinapis nivalis
113.13. ACCESS TO THE REGION

20. Silene dionysii
21. Silene oligantha
22. Veronica thessalica
23. Viola striis - notata
113.11 Fauna
Salamander in Enipeas' gorge
lympus' fauna, that has not been systematically studied so

far, includes considerable variety and is marked by important, rare and endangered species. Large mammals, that
lived formerly in the region, like deer, have disappeared. In
ancient times there were lions (Pausanias), while at least until the 16th century there were bears (Life of St. Dionysios
the Later). There have been recorded 32 species of mammals, including wild goat (Ricapra rupicapra), roe deer
(Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), wildcat (Felis sylvestris), beech marten (Martes foina), red fox (vulpes
vulpes) and red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). There have
also been detected 108 species of birds (like sparrowhawk,
cinereous vulture, rock partridge, white stork, rock dove,
European robin, lanner falcon, peregrine falcon, tree falcon, golden eagle, short-toed snake eagle, booted eagle and
hoopoe). Many of them, particularly the birds of prey, are
scarce. In addition there are the common reptiles of Greek
fauna (22 species like snakes, turtles, lizards, etc.) and some
amphibians (8 species) in streams and seasonal ponds, as
well as a great variety of insects, particularly butteries.
321
region, i.e. of wild ora, fauna and natural landscape, as
well as its cultural and other values.... In addition the declaration has aimed promoting scientic research along with
environmental education for the public and tourist development in the region. Specic laws prohibit all forms of
exploitation on the eastern side of the mountain in an area
of about 4,000 hectares, that is the core of the Park. A
wider region, around this core, has been designated peripheral zone of the National Park, so that its managing
and exploitation to be done so as not to adversely aect the
core's protection. At present, the park has been expanded
to 24,000 hectares. Administratively it belongs to Pieria's
and Larissa's Prefectures and specically to the municipalities Diou-Olympou and Katerinis (Pieria) and empon and
Elassonas (Larissa). Its lowest altitude is 600 metres and
its peak, Mytikas, at 2,918 metres. In 1981 UNESCO proclaimed Olympus Biosphere Reserve. European Union
has listed Olympus in the Signicant for Birdlife Regions
of European Union. It is also registered in the list of
Natura 2000 European Network as a special protection
area and a site of Community interest.
113.12.1
Olympus' National Park's regulations
The Park is protected by specic legislation. Under the

Special Regulation entrance to the Park is allowed only
by the existing roads and trac is allowed from sunrise to
sunset only on formed paths. The visitor should also know
that the following activities are not allowed :
Entrance to children under 14 years unescorted.
Parking in places other than the specic parking lots.
Felling, humus transportation, rooting and collecting
shrubs, plants and seeds.
Hunting any animal by any means throughout the year.
Collection and destruction of nests, eggs or chicks and
general disturbance and destruction of fauna species.
Damage to geological formations.
Free movement of any animals accompanying visitors.
113.12 National Park
113.13
Greece's highest mountain, dwelling of the Twelve Gods

of antiquity, has been the rst region in the country to be
applied specic protective rules, by its declaration as a National Park in 1938. The aim of this declaration was ...the
preservation in perpetuity of the natural environment of the
Olympus' massif is found about in the middle of continental Greece and it is easy to approach from the national and
railway network Athens-Thessaloniki and from secondary
roads that connect towns and villages around the mountain,
with principal base for excursions the picturesque town of
Access to the region
322
Litochoro, where there is a lot of hotels and taverns. In addition, on Pieria's coastal zone there are many camp sites
and lodgings. The nearest international airport is that of
Thessaloniki and the closest to Olympus railway stations are
those of Litochoro, Katerini and Leptokarya. There is frequent service of KTEL buses and a taxi stand in Litochoro's
central square.
113.14
Refuges
By air: Makedonia Airport in Thessaloniki, 80 km

away from Katerini and 150 km from Elassona.
By train: Athens-Leptokarya (regular line), AthensKaterini (Intercity) and Thessaloniki-Litocoro (Suburban).
By bus: Athens-Katerini (437 km), ThessalonikiKaterini (68 km), Katerini-Litochoro (25 km),
Athens-Larissa (354 km), Larissa-Elassona, ElassonaOlympus' refuge Spilios Agapitos
Kokkinopilos (22 km), Elassona-Karya (36 km).
By car:
To Litochoro via Road P.A.TH.E. (412 km away from
Athens, 93 km from Thessaloniki).
To Elassona via National Roads Athens-Larissa (354
km) and Larissa-Elassona (38 km).
To Karya via road Larissa-Rodia-Sykaminea-Karya
(48 km, 6 km of them dirt road).
To Karya via Road P.A.TH.E. and road LeptokaryaKarya (24 km), or Neos Panteleimonas-KallipefkiKarya (37 km).
To Kokkinopilos from Elassona via road KateriniFoteina-Elassona (46 km) or via forest road FoteinaPetra-Kokkinopilos.
Spilios Agapitos. The rst and evener refuge of the

region is at the site "alkoni(orExostis) at 2,100
metres (6,900 ft) altitude, in the center of Mavrologos and belongs to Greek Federation of Mountaineering Club (E.O.O.S). t provides 110 beds, water, electricity and telephone facilities, heating, blankets and a
restaurant, managed by Maria Zolota and her husband
Dionisis. It operates from May to October, 6-10 p.m.
Vrysopoules. The second refuge is westerly, behind
Mavratzas' gorge at the site Vrysopoules (1,800 m) and
is accessible also by car from location Sparmos. It is
managed by .... (Army Skiers) since 1961. It
provides 30 beds, a kitchen, water, electricity, central
heating and a replace. It is open all year round, but
to overnight a military license is required.
Christos Kakalos. t is at the southwest edge of
Muses' Plateau (2,648 m), belongs to Greek Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing (...) that
operates it from May to October and provides 18
beds, electricity, blankets, a kitchen and tank water.
It is managed by one of the best experienced Greek
climbers, the geologist Mihalis Stylas.
Stavros(Dimitrios Bountolas). It is on Olympus' eastern side, 9.5 km on asphalt road away from
Litochoro, at 930 metres (3,050 ft) altitude, in Dionysios Monastery forest. It belongs to the Greek Mountaineering Club of Thessaloniki, operates all year
round, mainly as refreshment room and restaurant and
can host 30 persons. It is managed by Doultsinou family.
he path in the striking passage Laimou-Ghiosou (location Skourta)

with high Olympus' peaks in the background
Giosos Apostolidis. It is on Muses' Plateau (Diaselo

- 2,760 m) and belongs to the Club of Grrek moun-
113.16. SEE ALSO
323
taineers of Thessaloniki. It can accommodate 80 per- of the coin. Above the scene is written, in Greek,National
sons, it provides electricity, water, a replace and an Park Olympus.
equipped kitchen and it is open from June to October.
It is managed by Dimitris Zorbas.
Petrostrouga. It is on the second, more common,
path to Olympus (D10); it is the same path to reach to
Muses' Plateau. his refuge is at 1,900 metres (6,200
ft) altitude, surrounded by perennial Bosnian pines. It
can accommodate 60 persons, it provides an equipped
kitchen, electricity, water and a replace and it is open
all year round. It is managed by the Hellenic Rescue
Team. It provides organized medical equipment and
one of the three emergency heliports in Olympus (the
others at Skourta and Spilios Agapitos) and emergency
wireless inside and out of the refuge.
113.14.1
Emergency refuges
113.16
See also
Greek mythology
List of mountains in Greece
113.17
References
[1] General Information. Olympus National Park. Management Agency of Olympus National Park. Retrieved 30
August 2016.
[2] Europe Ultra-Prominences. peaklist.org. Retrieved 31
December 2010.
Aghios Antonios: emergency refuge on the summit

Aghios Antonios (2,818 m). It is equipped with emergency items by the Hellenic Rescue Team. In the
refuge there is wireless for communication in case of
emergency.
[3] Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann

and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
Kalyva tou Christaki: emergency refuge in Megali

Gourna (2,430 m) along the Path E4, Kokinopilos Skala. The refuge does not provide emergency items
(there are only beds) but is only for protection from
bad weather.
[5] Course Description. olympus-marathon.com. Retrieved

4 November 2015.
Kakalos: emergency refuge at theoropedio ton mouson

It belongs to the Greek Mountaineering & Climbing Federation (www.eooa.gr) and is located at the eastern margin of the Plateau of Muses at an elevation of 2,650 metres (8,690 ft). It was named after Christos Kakalos the
Olympus hunter and guide who together with the Swiss
climbers Fred Boissonnas and Daniel Baud Bovy made the
rst recorded ascent to Olympus highest peak Mytikas on
2 August 1913. It has a capacity of 25 people and oers
lodging, food and toilets. It is open from mid May to end
of October and from December to mid April.
113.15 Coin
Mount Olympus and the national Park around it were selected as the main motif for the Greek National Park Olympus commemorative coin, minted in 2005.
On the reverse, the War of the Titans on Mount Olympus is
portrayed along with owering branches on the lower part
[4] Kakissis, Joanna (17 July 2004). Summit of the gods.

The Boston Globe. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
[6] Wilson, Nigel (31 October 2005). Encyclopedia of Ancient

Greece. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 516.
[7] Hansen, William F. (2005). Classical Mythology: A Guide
to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford
University Press. p. 250. ISBN 9780195300352.
[8] Smith, William (1880). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Earinus-Nyx. J. Murray. p.
1125.
113.18
External links
Media related to Mount Olympus at Wikimedia Commons

"Olympus". Encyclopdia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.).
1911.
Mount Olympus website
Greek Mountain Flora
Management Agency of Olympus National Park
Laboratory of Geodesy - University of Thessaloniki:
GPS measurement of the height of the peaks of Mountain Olympus
Chapter 114

(4.1 cm) at its thickest point.* [1] Barton noted that similar hymns were published by Stephen Herbert Langdon and
introduced into Sumerian religion at the time of the Third
dynasty of Ur onwards. He dates the tablet to the reign of
Shulgi, sayingThe script of our tablets shows that this copy
was made during the time of the First Dynasty of Babylon,
but that does not preclude an earlier date for the composition of the original.* [1] Further tablets were used by Jacob
Klein to expand and translate the myth again in 1981. He
used several other tablets from the University Museum in
Pennsylvania including CBS 8289. He also included translations from tablets in the Nippur collection of the Museum
of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul, catalogue number 4571.
He also used tabled 5379 from the Louvre in Paris.* [2]
114.2
Story
Weight of 2 mina (actual weight 248 gr.) dedicated by King Shulgi

and bearing the emblem of the crescent moon: it was used in the
temple of the Moon-God at Ur. Diorite, beginning of the 21st century BC (Ur III). Louvre Museum, Department of Oriental Antiquities, Richelieu, rst oor, room 2, case 6
In the story, Shulgi is praised and compared to all manner

of animals and wonderous things such as a tree.
114.1 Compilation
114.3
The myth was discovered on the University of Pennsylvania

Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, catalogue of
the Babylonian section (CBS), tablet number 11065 from
their excavations at the temple library at Nippur. This
was translated by George Aaron Barton in 1918 and rst
published as Sumerian religious texts in "Miscellaneous
Babylonian Inscriptions", number three, entitled Hymn to
Dungi" (Dungi was later renamed to Shulgi). The tablet
is 7 inches (18 cm) by 5.4 inches (14 cm) by 1.6 inches
Samuel Noah Kramer suggests that Shulgi hymns speaking

about the achievements of the king focussed on the two areas of social behaviour and religion. He is both shown to
be concerned for social justice, law and equity along with
being faithful in his priestly rites and interaction with the
gods. He notes uppermost in their minds was the Ekur,
the holy temple of Nippur where virtually every king in the
hymnal repertoire brought gifts, oerings, and sacrices to
Enlil.* [4]
His interactions and relationships with a large number of

the pantheon of Sumerian gods are described along with
Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) is a Sumerian myth, writ- victories in foreign lands and description of the royal barge.
ten on clay tablets dated to between 2100 and 2000 BC.
324
Discussion
114.4 See also

Barton Cylinder
Enlil and Ninlil
Hymn to Enlil
Kesh temple hymn
Lament for Ur
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
114.5 References
[1] George Aaron Barton (1918). Miscellaneous Babylonian inscriptions. Yale University Press. p. 52. Retrieved 23 May
2011.
[2] Klein, Jacob, Three Shulgi Hymns. Sumerian Royal Hymns
Glorifying King Shulgi of Ur. Bar Ilan University Press:
Ramat-Gan, 1981: 50-123
[3] ETCSL Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) - Translation
[4] Samuel Noah Kramer (1 November 1988). In the World of
Sumer: An Autobiography. Wayne State University Press.
pp. 116. ISBN 978-0-8143-2121-8. Retrieved 31 May
2011.

CDLI University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Museum no.:
CBS 11065
ETCSL Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) - Bibliography
ETCSL Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) - Translation
ETCSL Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) - Composite
Text
325
Chapter 115
Sierra de la Plata
115.1.1
Juan Daz de Sols
Cerro Rico de Potos as depicted in 1715, a possible origin of the

Sierra de la Plata myth.
The Sierra de la Plata (Silver Mountains) was a mythical source of silver in the interior of South America. The
legend began in the early 16th century when castaways from
the Juan Daz de Sols expedition heard indigenous stories
of a mountain of silver in an inland region ruled by the socalled White King. The rst European to lead an expedition
in search of it was the castaway Aleixo Garcia, who crossed
nearly the entire continent to reach the Andean altiplano.
On his way back to the coast, Garcia died in an indigenous
ambush in Paraguay, but survivors brought precious metals
back to corroborate their story. The legend inspired other
expeditions, all of which ended in failure.
The Ro de la Plata (literallySilver River) and the modern
country of Argentina (from the Latin argentum, silver)
both take their names from the myth. The legend of the
Sierra de la Plata may have been based on the Cerro Rico
de Potos in Bolivia, which was discovered by a Spanish
expedition traveling from Peru in 1545.
115.1 Origins of the Legend
Map from the Miller Atlas (1519) showing the coast of Brazil and
the mouths of the Amazon River and the Ro de la Plata.
The legend of the White King and the Sierra de la Plata

began with the expeditions of Juan Daz de Sols along the
coast of South America. On his rst voyage in 1512,* [1]
Sols followed the coast of Brazil until he came across
an enormous estuary, the Ro de la Plata, which Amerigo
Vespucci had named the River Jordan* [2] on his 1501-02
expedition and the local inhabitants called Paranaguazu (
river like the seaorgreat water).* [1] Sols decided to
call it the Mar Dulce (Freshwater Sea) due to its great
size. After exploring the area and guessing it could be a
strait connecting the Atlantic to the Pacic, Sols returned
to Spain to stake his claim as conqueror and governor of
the region.* [1] In 1516, he returned with the title of Captain General, but when Sols and his party landed on the
eastern bank of the Ro de la Plata, they were attacked and
killed by Guarans. Seeing this, the crew remaining on the
ships decided to weigh anchor and return to Spain.* [1]
326
115.2. THE SEARCH
115.1.2
Aleixo Garcia
327
be reached via an enormous estuary further south. The estuary ended up being called the Ro de la Plata for its role
as the supposed natural gateway to the treasure. The legend
captivated Cabot, so he abandoned his mission and decided
to nd the Sierra de la Plata, assuming that the royal authorities would be indulgent if he found enough silver.
On their way back to Europe, one of the Sols expedition's

vessels shipwrecked o the coast of Santa Catarina Island
in what is now Brazil, leaving eighteen men stranded. One
of them, the Portuguese explorer Aleixo Garcia, became
friendly with the local Tup-Guarans, and through them On Santa Catarina, the castaways Melchor Rodrguez and
learned of a great mountain of shining metals far into the Enrique Morales conrmed the stories, telling Cabot about
mainland.
Aleixo Garcia's expedition and showing him the metals that
Garcia left Santa Catarina along with other castaways and a had been brought back. Cabot headed toward Ro de la
large indigenous party to search for the Sierra de la Plata, Plata, where he disembarked to repair two ships that had
crossing most of South America before reaching the An- been damaged in a storm. There, the expedition met fordean altiplano. This was supposedly the home of the White mer cabin boy Francisco del Puerto, the sole survivor of
King, whose throne was entirely decorated with silver. Af- Sols's landing party. Del Puerto, who was living with the
ter taking a few valuable pieces, the explorers headed back Guarans, also veried the legend and oered his services
to the Brazilian coast, but along the way, Aleixo Garcia and as guide and interpreter.
the other Europeans were killed in a Payagu ambush. The After entering the Ro de la Plata, the expedition divided in
few Tup-Guarans who managed to escape told their story, two: Cabot would continue up the Paran River and Antn
showing o the silver pieces they had gotten from the realms de Grajeda would travel up the Uruguay River. In 1527, at
of the White King.
the conuence of the Paran and Carcara Rivers, Cabot
115.2 The Search

115.2.1
Sebastian Cabot
established the fort of Sancti Spiritu, the rst European settlement in the Ro de la Plata basin, and a future base for
expeditions to the land of the White King. The party was
suering from hunger and sickness, and since they could
not travel by land, they continued north upriver until they
landed at an island they named Ao Nuevo (New Year).
There, they traded colored glass with the Timbs for food,
but Cabot, thinking he had been shortchanged, ordered his
men to kill them, burn their homes, and take their food.
In February 1529, they reached an indigenous town they
called Santa Ana, where they were treated hospitably, fed
well, and told rumors of otherwhite menwho were coming up the river behind them. Cabot, however, stuck to his
plan and continued up the Paraguay River until strong currents prevented him from going further. There, he had a
brigantine sent ahead under the command of Miguel de Rifos. Near the conuence of the Pilcomayo River, Rifos decided to disembark with a few men after being welcomed
by some indigenous people on the shore. The Europeans
headed through the forest to the village, where they were
unexpectedly ambushed. Supposedly, it was a trap arranged
by the local chief and Del Puerto, who wanted a larger share
of the plunder.
Ro de la Plata Basin.
In 1526, the Venetian explorer Sebastian Cabot left Spain

with the goal of reaching the Molucca Islands in Indonesia
by way of the Straits of Magellan. During a stopover in
Pernambuco in northern Brazil, he rst heard the story
about a land rich in precious metals far inland, which could
Those who had stayed in the brigantine managed to escape,

and when they returned to Cabot, he decided to head back
to Sancti Spiritu. On the way, he came across Diego Garca,
theother white manhe had been told about. Garca, like
Cabot, had been commissioned to travel to the Moluccas,
but had deserted when he heard the tales of the White King.
After a brief dispute, the two captains decided to join forces
to nd the Sierra de la Plata, with Cabot in charge of the
unied eet.
328
CHAPTER 115. SIERRA DE LA PLATA
At Sancti Spiritu, Captain Francisco Csar was chosen to

explore the local region together with another fteen soldiers. Three months later Csar returned with half of his
men and a rumor that nearby was a great city full of riches
that from then on would be known as the Ciudad de los
Csares (City of the Caesars).
expedition returned with the news that they had managed to

build a fort called Corpus Christi upriver near the modernday town of Gaboto and had encountered some indigenous
people who talked about the Sierra de la Plata. Pedro de
Mendoza decided to travel to the fort with Ayolas and some
400 men.
The Sebastian Cabot expedition ended in failure when

Cabot and Diego Garca made their next attempt to nd
the Sierra de la Plata. The local indigenous people took advantage of their absence to attack and destroy Fort Sancti
Spiritu, killing many of his men. Low on morale, food, and
supplies, Cabot and his crew were nally forced to give up
their goal and return to Europe.
During the voyage, some 200 men died of sickness and

hunger, and once they reached Corpus Christi, Mendoza
consulted Cabot's map to nd that they were still far from
their destination. These major setbacks, along with the
syphilis he had contracted, convinced Mendoza to return
to Europe after a short stop in Buenos Aires.
115.2.2
Pedro de Mendoza
Pedro de Mendoza died on the open sea on June 23,

1537.* [3] Juan de Ayolas, who had left Corpus Christi
on October 14, 1536 with a eet of three brigantines and
170 soldiers, inherited his title of adelantado. Meanwhile,
Buenos Aires had overcome its famine thanks to provisions
Gonzalo de Mendoza brought from Brazil, and was left under the provisional command of Captain Francisco Ruiz
Galn, who ordered the rst planting of corn with the goal
of making the fort self-sustainable.
115.2.3
Juan de Ayolas
Santa Mara de los Buenos Ayres, shortly after its foundation in

1536.
In 1534, King Charles I authorized Pedro de Mendoza to

conquer and populate the lands and provinces around the
Sols River, which some call the Plate. With fourteen ships
and some 1,200 men, it was at the time the largest and most
important expedition that had left Europe for America.* [3]
In 1536 Pedro de Mendoza founded the port of Santa Mara
de los Buenos Ayres, which was probably located in what
is now the Parque Lezama in Buenos Aires.* [3] Resources
were in short supply to support such a population, and after
the Spaniards mistreated the local Querands, they stopped
supplying food to the settlement. Mendoza decided to send
out two eets in search of food: the rst, led by his nephew
Gonzalo de Mendoza, headed toward Brazil, and the second, led by Juan de Ayolas, went up the River Paran with
three ships and 270 men. Meanwhile, Mendoza ordered
his brother Diego to take 300 soldiers and 30 cavalrymen
to ght the Querands. The battle was a failure. Diego
de Mendoza was killed, and the Querands began a longlasting siege of Buenos Aires. Cut o from supplies, the
settlers began to eat their horses and their dead. Finally, the
Querands withdrew, and in a few days, the Juan de Ayolas
The Pilcomayo river at Tarija, Bolivia.
Before Pedro de Mendoza left Buenos Aires, having no

news of the Ayolas expedition, he sent Juan de Salazar Espinosa upriver in search of him. On August 15, 1537, Espinosa established the fort of Nuestra Seora de la Asuncin (today Asuncin, Paraguay) at the junction of the rivers
Paraguay and Pilcomayo.
Meanwhile, Juan de Ayolas was further up the river
Paraguay in Payagua territory, where he met one of Aleixo
Garcia's former companions, who told him how dicult the
journey had been, due to all the gold and silver that weighed
them down. Hearing this story, Ayolas decided to found
the port of Candelaria on the spot (close to present-day
Corumb) and commissioned Domingo Martnez de Irala as
provisional Lieutenant Governor until he returned from an
115.2. THE SEARCH
329
overland expedition with 130 soldiers. After a short time, cin, where they met Domingo Martnez de Irala.
with no news of Ayola, Irala decided to abandon his post Cabeza de Vaca clashed with the colonists at Asuncin, calland return downriver to the fort of Asuncin.
ing the village a Moorish paradise,as each colonist had
However, the Juan de Ayolas expedition had successfully taken multiple indigenous women as wives.
reached a mountainous area where precious metals were
Soon, Cabeza de Vaca began to prepare an expedition to the
mined. On his return trip, his party suered losses from lands of the White King. First, he sent Irala up the Paraguay
skirmishes with indigenous people, and before he reached
River to see if it led to the Sierra de la Plata. He reached
the Paraguay River, he ordered his men to bury most of La Gaiba Lake in the Pantanal region, where he founded the
the treasure they carried. When he returned, he was disap- Puerto de los Reyes. In September 1543, Cabeza de Vaca
pointed to nd the port of Candelaria abandoned, so he ac- led his own expedition through the forest, but sickness and
cepted the invitation of the Payaguas to rest in their village. clashes with his ocers, mostly Irala's men, convinced him
On his way there, a ght broke out between the Spaniards to abandon his search and return to Asuncin.
and the local people, and almost the entire expedition was
With his authority undermined and disliked by the
killed, including Juan de Ayolas.
colonists, the Captain General was soon overthrown. On
After this, Domingo Martnez de Irala became the expe- April 25, 1544, Irala's men entered Cabeza de Vaca's house
dition's new leader, and he took up the goal of conquer- and took him prisoner. Eleven months later, he was sent to
ing the Sierra de la Plata and the lands of the White King. Spain on a ship under the command of Gonzalo de MenIrala decided to convert Asuncin into the headquarters of doza. During the voyage, a violent storm broke out, which
the conquest, and ordered the colonists at Buenos Aires to the superstitious sailors interpreted as divine punishment,
tear down their buildings and move to Asuncin. However, so they decided to free all of their prisoners. In Spain,
their newly planted corn was yielding a good crop, and they Cabeza de Vaca denounced the colonists' actions to the
refused to move. Six months later, Irala disembarked at
court, but the case was never resolved, and he never reBuenos Aires to carry out the order. The rst settlement at turned to the Americas.
Buenos Aires was nally destroyed and abandoned in 1541.
115.2.4
lvar Nez Cabeza de Vaca
115.2.5
Domingo Martnez de Irala
Iguaz Falls on the border of Argentina and Brazil.
View of modern-day Asuncin, Paraguay.
While Irala was preparing his expedition to the Sierra de

la Plata, Spain had chosen lvar Nez Cabeza de Vaca as
the ocial successor to Pedro de Mendoza's title of adelantado. Known for his reckless overland expedition in
Florida, Cabeza de Vaca made a similar decision in South
America, choosing to cross Paraguay on foot rather than
travel by boat up the Ro de la Plata. In October 1541, his
expedition left Santa Catalina, crossing jungles, mountains,
and rivers to reach Asuncin. In January 1542, they passed
Iguaz Falls and on March 11, 1542, they reached Asun-
With his authority conrmed, Domingo Martnez de Irala

organized an expedition of 300 Spanish men and 3,000 indigenous men in search of the Sierra de la Plata. After a
few battles with indigenous peoples, Irala's men reached a
tribe of Macass, who immediately began speaking to them
in Spanish. They told them their lord was Pedro Anzures,
and therefore they were out of their jurisdiction. Irala sent a
party to speak with the governor of Peru, Pedro de la Gasca,
who only ordered the expedition to go no further under pain
of death, so they had no choice but to return to Asuncin.
330
Irala organized several other expeditions to legendary locations like theLand of Riches, theLake of El Dorado",
and "Paititi". All of these expeditions ended in failure, with
great cost in human lives and materials. Meanwhile, the
king named Juan de Sanabria as the new adelantado in the
region, but he died during preparations and was replaced by
his son Diego, who ended up staying in Europe even though
several of his ships had already sailed. Finally, the crown
decided to formalize Irala's de facto power, so as Irala was
preparing his next expedition, a royal emissary arrived in
Asuncin, informing Irala that he had been named governor
of the Governorate of New Andalusia (also known as the
Governorate of the Ro de la Plata and Paraguay) with express orders not to lead any more expeditions. With Buenos
Aires destroyed and the Sierra de la Plata under another jurisdiction, Paraguay experienced a long period of isolation
under Irala, who nally died in October 1556 at the age of
70.
115.3 Cerro Rico de Potos

The Sierra de la Plata legend likely corresponds to the Cerro
Rico de Potos in Bolivia, and the White King to the Inca
Huayna Cpac. When Aleixo Garcia explored the region
and discovered precious metals in the early 16th century,
Spain had barely begun colonizing the coasts of Panama
and Colombia, and Portugal had barely begun colonizing
the coast of Brazil. Neither of the two crowns knew about
the existence of the Inca Empire until Francisco Pizarro encountered it in 1528, traveling from the Pacic coast. King
Charles I tried to solve conicts between conquistadors by
dividing South America into several governorates: New
Castile, under Francisco Pizarro, which reached from the
Santiago River, Ecuador to Pisco, Peru; New Toledo, under
Diego de Almagro, from Pisco to Taltal, Chile; and New
Andalusia, under Pedro de Mendoza, two hundred leagues
south. Of these three, it was Almagro's men who rst found
the Cerro Rico de Potos, leaving New Andalusia without
any claim to the Sierra de la Plata.
115.4 See also

Antillia
City of the Caesars (Ciudad de los Csares)
El Dorado
La Plata Mountains
Quivira and Cbola
Paititi
CHAPTER 115. SIERRA DE LA PLATA
115.5
Notes
[1] Lpez de Gmara, Francisco. Historia General de las Indias.

Medina del Campo: 1553; Zaragoza: 1555.
[2] Garca Mata, Rafael.Haba un Ro Jordan al sur del Nuevo
Mundo... y era el Ro de la Plata. La Nacin [Buenos Aires,
Argentina] 6 May 2001.
[3] Pigna, Felipe. Fundaciones de Ciudades. El Historiador
115.6
References
Goodman, Edward J. The Explorers Of South America.

Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
Hosne, Roberto. Historias del Ro de la Plata. Buenos
Aires: Planeta, 1998.
Kinsbruner, Jay, and Erick D. Langer, eds. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 2nd ed.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
Chapter 116
Song of the hoe
Stone hoes from America. The rst basalt hoes in the Near East
would have looked similar to these.
The Song of the hoe or the Creation of the pickax is a

Sumerian creation myth, written on clay tablets from the
last century of the 3rd millennium BC.* [1]
116.1 Disputations
Chinese hoes made of wood
Seven debate topics are known from the Sumerian literature, falling in the category of disputations; some examples are: The Debate between sheep and grain; The
Debate between bird and sh; the Debate between Winter and Summer; and The Dispute between Silver and Copper, etc.* [2] These topics came some centuries after writing was established in Sumerian Mesopotamia. The debates
are philosophical and address humanity's place in the world.
Some of the debates may be from 2100 BC.* [3] The song of
the hoe stands alone in its own sub-category as a one-sided
debate poem.* [4]
116.2
Compilation
Three tablets of the myth are held by the British

Museum, numbers 80170, 132243 (unpublished) and
139993.* [5]* [6] Two tablets of the myth are held by the
Louvre in Paris, number AO 7087 & AO 8898.* [7] One
is held in the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, number 17378 and three at the Yale Babylonian collection,
numbers 5487, 7070 and 11941.* [8] Lines of the myth
331
332
CHAPTER 116. SONG OF THE HOE

2473, 2742.* [10]* [11]* [12] Other tablets were added from
theUr excavations textsin 1928 along with several others to bring it to its present form, which is virtually complete.* [13] The latest composite text and translation was
produced in 1996 by H. Behrens, B. Jagersma and Joachim
Krecher.* [14]
116.3
Story
The poem is composed of the frequent use of the wordal

, which means hoe. The verb-forms and nouns also frequently start with, or contain the syllable al(or ar
), suggesting the writer intended it for humour as a satirical
school text or as a tongue-twister.* [15] The song starts with
a creation myth where Enlil separates heaven and earth in
Duranki, the cosmic Nippur or 'Garden of the Gods'.
Modern Hoe
The myth continues with a description of Enlil creating daylight with his hoe; he goes on to praise its construction and
creation. Enlil's mighty hoe is said to be made of gold, with
the blade made of lapis lazuli and fastened by cord. It is inlaid with lapis lazuli and adorned with silver and gold. Enlil
makes civilized man, from a brick mould with his hoe
and the Annanuki start to praise him. Nisaba, Ninmena,
and Nunamnir start organizing things. Enki praises the
hoe; they start reproducing and Enlil makes numerous shining hoes, for everyone to begin work. Enlil then founds
the Ekur with his hoe whilst a god-mancalled Lord
Nudimmud builds the Abzu in Eridug. Various gods are
then described establishing construction projects in other
cities, such as Ninhursag in Kesh, and Inanna and Utu in
Zabalam; Nisaba and E-ana also set about building.* [16]
The useful construction and agricultural uses of the hoe are
summarized, along with its capabilities for use as a weapon
and for burying the dead. Allusions are made to the scenes
of Enkidu's ghost, and Urshanabi's ferry over the Hubur, in
the Epic of Gilgamesh:
Ninmena is suggested to create both the priestess and
king.* [17] The hymn ends with extensive praisings of the
hoe, Enlil, and Nisaba:
Hoe or Alis repeated excessively in the song for literary eect
were discovered on the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, catalogue of the
Babylonian section (CBS), from their excavations at the
temple library at Nippur. Tablets from this collection, numbers 8111, 13122, 13382 and 13864 were documented by
Edward Chiera inSumerian Epics and Myths.* [9] Samuel
Noah Kramer included CBS tablets 8531, 10310, 10335,
29.16.23, 29.16.436. He also included translations from
tablets in the Nippur collection of the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul, catalogue numbers 1117, 2337,
116.4
Discussion
Modern society may have trouble comprehending the virtue

of extolling a tool such as the lowly hoe, for the Sumerians
the implement had brought agriculture, irrigation, drainage
and the ability to build roads, canals and eventually the rst
proto-cities.* [1] One of the tablets from the Yale Babylonian Collection was published by J.J. Van Dijk which spoke
of three cosmic realms; heaven, earth and kur in a time
when darkness covered an arid land, when heaven and earth
116.6. SEE ALSO

were joined and the Enlil's universal laws, the me did not
function.* [1] Two of the major traditions of the Sumerian
concept of the creation of man are discussed in the myth.
The rst is the creation of mankind from brick moulds or
clay. This has notable similarities to the creation of man
from the dust of the earth in the Book of Genesis in the
Bible (Genesis 2:6-7). This activity has also been associated with creating clay gurines.* [18] The second Sumerian
tradition which compares men to plants, made to break
through the ground, an allusion to imagery of the fertility or mother goddess and giving an image of man being
plantedin the ground.* [18] Wayne Horowitz notes that
ve Sumerian myths recount a creation scene with the separation of heaven and earth. He further notes the gurative imagery relaying the relationship between the creation
of agricultural implements making a function for mankind
and thereby its creation from theseed of the land.* [19]
The myth was called the Creation of the Pickaxby
Samuel Noah Kramer, a name by which it is referred in
older sorurces. In Sumerian literature, the hoe or pickaxe
is used not only in creation of the Ekur but also described
as the tool of its destruction in lament hymns such as the
Lament for Ur, where it is torn apart with a storm and then
pickaxes.* [20]
The cosmological position of the hoe does not t into
Charles Long's categorization of cosmogenic myths. Creation has been suggested to have been the responsibility of
dierent gods via dierent processes. Creation via a cosmological agricultural implement seems to occupy a unique
place in the creation myth genre. The song was meant to be
sung aloud with the repetition of the word hoe or ala
total of forty ve times in the text with common use of the
two syllables together al"/"ar. A cosmological link is
suggested between the hoe's being and its doing; making
everything prosper and ourish within a community. Gary
Martin discusses the sociological benets of singing songs
to a hoe, to remind people that they wield the implement of
Enlil and of creation. That they can participate in creativity
and work well to preserve and improve society. He suggests
that perhaps by praising the simple tool of an extremely
important group of laborers, and imbuing it with cosmological signicance, those wielders of the hoe are themselves
brought into a grand cosmological drama.* [21]
333
Edzard, Dietz Otto., U 7804 // UET VI/1 26:
Gedicht von der Hacke"", in George, A. R. (ed.), and
Finkel, I. L., Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies
in Assyriology in Honour of W. G. Lambert, Eisenbrauns: Winona Lake, 131-135, 2000.
Farber, Gertrud., ""Das Lied von der Hacke, ein
literarischer Spass?", in Klengel, Horst and, Renger,
Johannes (eds.), Landwirtschaft im Alten Orient: ausgewhlte Vortrge der XLI. Rencontre Assyriologique
Internationale Berlin., 4.8.7.1994 (Berliner Beitrge
zum Vorderen Orient, 18), Dietrich Reimer Verlag:
Berlin, 369-373, 1999.
Farber, Gertrud.,Sumerian Canonical Compositions.
A. Divine Focus. 1. Myths: The Song of the Hoe
(1.157)", in Hallo, William W. (ed.), The Context of
Scripture, I: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical
World. Brill: Leiden/New York/Kln, 511-513, 1997.
Jacobsen, Thorkild.,Sumerian Mythology, a Review
Article, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 5, 128-152:
134, 1946.
Kramer, Samuel Noah., Sumerian Mythology. The
American Philosophical Society: Philadelphia, 51-53,
1944.
Pettinato, Giovanni., Das altorientalische Menschenbild und die sumerischen und akkadischen Schpfungsmythen. Winter: Heidelberg, 82-85, 1971.
Wilcke, Claus., Hacke - B. Philologisch, in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 4, 33-38: 36-38, 1972.
116.6
See also
Barton Cylinder
Enlil and Ninlil
Civil, Miguel., Review of CT 44, Journal of Near

Eastern Studies 28, 70-72: 70, 1969.
Hymn to Enlil
Civil, Miguel., The Farmer's Instructions. A Sumerian

Agricultural Manual. (Aula Orientalis Supplementa,
5) Editorial Ausa: Sabadell, 1994.
Lament for Ur
Kesh temple hymn
334
Sumerian disputations
Sumerian religion
Sumerian literature
116.7 References
[1] Samuel Noah Kramer (April 1979). From the poetry of
Sumer: creation, glorication, adoration. University of California Press. pp. 25. ISBN 978-0-520-03703-8. Retrieved
10 June 2011.
[3] Sumerian literature
Sumer. Oxford University Press. pp. 311. ISBN 978-019-929633-0. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
[5] British Museum. Dept. of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. Cuneiform texts from Babylonian tablets in the British
museum, 44, 10. The Trustees.
[6] British Museum. Dept. of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. Cuneiform texts from Babylonian tablets in the British
museum, 58, 52. The Trustees.
des antiquits orientales. Textes cuniformes, 16, 72 & 92.
Librairie orientaliste, Paul Geuthner.
CHAPTER 116. SONG OF THE HOE

texts... 6/3 152, 6/3 168, 6/3 206. British museum. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[14] The song of the hoe - Bibliography - The Electronic Text
Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
[15] William W. Hallo; K. Lawson Younger (January 1997). The
Context of Scripture: Canonical compositions from the biblical world. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10618-5. Retrieved 10
June 2011.
[16] ETCSL Translation
[17] religious of the past. Brill Archive. pp. 140. GGKEY:
SDQ069KTBZ0. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
[18] Tikva Simone Frymer-Kensky (May 2006). Studies in Bible
and feminist criticism. Jewish Publication Society. pp. 21.
[20] F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp (1993). Weep, O daughter of Zion: a
study of the city-lament genre in the Hebrew Bible. GBPress
Pont. Ist.Biblicum. pp. 57. ISBN 978-88-7653-346-4.
[21] http://faculty.washington.edu/garmar/
CosmologicalHoeSumer.pdf Martin, Gary., The Cosmological Hoe, University of Washington, 2005.
116.8
External links
[8] Knigliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatische Abteilung;

Heinrich Zimmern; Otto Schroeder; H. H. Figulla; et al.
Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmler 24, 68. Louis D. Levine.
Online Version
[9] Edward Chiera (1964). Sumerian epics and myths, 33, 34,
37 and 39. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 28
May 2011.
Song of the hoe., Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zlyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus
of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.

B.C. Forgotten Books. pp. 75 & 165. ISBN 978-1-60506049-1. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
Composite text - The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.

2011.
Istanbul-I. Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. Retrieved 28 May
2011.
Bibliography - The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998-.
Chapter 117
Teide
Mount Teide (Spanish: Pico del Teide, pronounced: [piko
el teie], Teide Peak) is a volcano on Tenerife in the
Canary Islands, Spain. Its 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) summit
is the highest point in Spain and the highest point above sea
level in the islands of the Atlantic.
117.2
Legends
If measured from its base on the ocean oor, it is at 7,500

m (24,600 ft) the third highest volcano on a volcanic ocean
island in the world after Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa in
Hawaii.* [2] Its elevation makes Tenerife the tenth highest
island in the world. It remains active: its most recent eruption occurred in 1909 from the El Chinyero vent on the
northwestern Santiago rift. The United Nations Committee for Disaster Mitigation designated Teide a Decade Volcano* [3] because of its history of destructive eruptions and
its proximity to several large towns, of which the closest are
Garachico, Icod de los Vinos and Puerto de la Cruz. Teide,
Pico Viejo and Montaa Blanca form the Central Volcanic
This 3D panoramic view of Mount Teide was created using SRTM
Complex of Tenerife.
The volcano and its surroundings comprise Teide National
Park, which has an area of 18,900 hectares (47,000 acres)
and was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on June
28, 2007.* [4] Teide is the most visited natural wonder of
Spain, the most visited national park in Spain and Europe
and by 2015 the eighth most visited in the world,* [5]
with some 3 million visitors yearly.* [6] A major international astronomical observatory is located on the slopes of
the mountain.
117.1 Name
Before the 1495 Spanish colonization of Tenerife, the native Guanches called the volcano Echeyde, which in their
legends referred to a powerful gure leaving the volcano,
which could turn into hell. El Pico del Teide is the modern
Spanish name.
data (160% elevation).
Teide was a sacred mountain for the aboriginal Guanches,

so it was considered a mythological mountain, as Mount
Olympus was to the ancient Greeks. According to legend,
Guayota (the devil) kidnapped Magec (the god of light and
the sun) and imprisoned him inside the volcano, plunging
the world into darkness. The Guanches asked their supreme
god Achamn for clemency, so Achamn fought Guayota,
freed Magec from the bowels of the mountain, and plugged
the crater with Guayota. It is said that since then, Guayota has remained locked inside Teide. When going on to
Teide during an eruption, it was customary for the Guanches
to light bonres to scare Guayota. Guayota is often represented as a black dog, accompanied by his host of demons
(Tibicenas).
The Guanches also believed that Teide held up the sky.
Many hiding places found in the mountains contain the remains of stone tools and pottery. These have been interpreted as being ritual deposits to counter the inuence of
evil spirits, like those made by the Berbers of Kabylie. The
Guanches believed the mountain to be the place that housed
the forces of evil and the most evil gure, Guayota.* [7]
335
336
Guayota shares features similar to other powerful deities inhabiting volcanoes, such as the goddess Pele of Hawaiian
mythology, who lived in the Klauea volcano and was regarded by the native Hawaiians as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano.* [8]
CHAPTER 117. TEIDE

m or 12,198 ft) island in the Canaries. It has a complex
volcanic history. The formation of the island and the development of the current Teide volcano took place in the
ve stages shown in the diagram on the right.
117.3.1
117.3 Formation
Stage one
Like the other Canary Islands, and volcanic ocean islands in

general, Tenerife was built by accretion of three large shield
volcanoes, which developed in a relatively short period of
time.* [9] This early shield stage volcanism formed the bulk
of the emerged part of Tenerife. The shield volcanoes date
back to the Miocene and early Pliocene* [10] and are preserved in three isolated and deeply eroded massifs: Anaga
(to the northeast), Teno (to the northwest) and Roque del
Conde (to the south).* [11] Each individual shield was apparently constructed in less than three million years, and the
entire island in about eight million years.* [12]
117.3.2
Stages two and three
Satellite image of Tenerife with dierent volcanic massifs labeled
The initial juvenile stage was followed by a period of 2

3 million years of eruptive quiescence and erosion. This
cessation of activity is typical of the Canaries; La Gomera,
for example, is currently at this stage.* [13] After this period of quiescence, the volcanic activity became concentrated within two large edices: the central volcano of Las
Caadas, and the Anaga massif. The Las Caadas volcano
developed over the Miocene shield volcanoes and may have
reached 40 km (25 mi) in diameter and 4,500 m (14,800
ft) in height.* [14]
117.3.3
Stage four
Around 160220 thousand years ago the summit of the

Las Caadas I volcano collapsed, creating the Las Caadas
(Ucanca) caldera.* [12] Later a fresh stratovolcano, Las
Caadas II, re-formed and underwent catastrophic collapse.
Detailed mapping indicates that the site of this volcano was
in the vicinity of Guajara. The Las Caadas III volcano
formed in the Diego Hernandez sector of the caldera. Detailed mapping indicates that all the Las Caadas volcanoes
attained a maximum altitude similar to that of Teide (which
is also referred to as the Las Caadas IV volcano).
Summary diagram for formation of Tenerife through to current
Teide volcano
The stratovolcanoes Teide and Pico Viejo (Old Peak, although it is in fact younger than Teide) are the most recent
centres of activity on the volcanic island of Tenerife, which
is the largest (2,058 km2 or 795 sq mi) and highest (3,718
Two theories on the formation of the 16 km 9 km (9.9

mi 5.6 mi) caldera exist.* [15] The rst states that the
depression is the result of a vertical collapse of the volcano triggered by the emptying of shallow magma chambers at around sea level under the Las Caadas volcano after
large-volume explosive eruptions.* [12]* [16]* [17] The second theory is that the caldera was formed by a series of
117.5. POTENTIAL ERUPTIONS

lateral gravitational collapses similar to those described in
Hawaii.* [18] Evidence for the latter theory has been found
in both onshore observations* [19]* [20]* [21] and marine
geology studies.* [12]* [22]
117.3.4
Stage ve
337
and 9 km (5.6 mi) from north to south. At Guajara, on the
south side of the structure, the internal walls rise as almost
sheer clis from 2,100 to 2,715 m (6,890 to 8,907 ft). The
3,718 m (12,198 ft) summit of Teide itself, and its sister
stratovolcano Pico Viejo (3,134 m (10,282 ft)), are both
situated in the northern half of the caldera and are derived
from eruptions later than this prehistoric explosion.
From around 160 thousand years ago until the present day,
the stratovolcanoes of Teide and Pico Viejo formed within
the Las Caadas caldera.
117.4 Historical eruptions

Teide last erupted in 1909 from the El Chinyero vent,* [12]
on the Santiago Ridge. Historical volcanic activity on the
island is associated with vents on the Santiago or northwest rift (Boca Cangrejo in 1492, Montaas Negras in
1706,* [12] Narices del Teide or Chahorra in 1798 and El
Chinyero in 1909) and the Cordillera Dorsal or northeast
rift (Fasnia in 1704, Siete Fuentes and Arafo in 1705). The
1706 Montaas Negras eruption destroyed the town and
principal port of Garachico, as well as several smaller villages.
Historical activity associated with the Teide and Pico Viejo
stratovolcanoes * [12] occurred in 1798 from the Narices
del Teide on the western ank of Pico Viejo. Eruptive material from Pico Viejo, Montaa Teide and Montaa Blanca
partially lls the Las Caadas caldera.* [11] The last explosive eruption involving the central volcanic centre was from
Montaa Blanca around 2000 years ago. The last eruption within the Las Caadas caldera occurred in 1798 from
the Narices del Teide or Chahorra (Teide's Nostrils) on the
western ank of Pico Viejo. The eruption was predominantly strombolian in style and most of the lava was A.
This lava is visible beside the VilaorChio road.
Christopher Columbus reported seeing a great re in the
Orotava Valley" as he sailed past Tenerife on his voyage
to discover the New World in 1492. This was interpreted
as indicating that he had witnessed an eruption there. Radiometric dating of possible lavas indicates that in 1492 no
eruption occurred in the Orotava Valley, but one did occur
from the Boca Cangrejo vent.* [12]
Nyiragongo
Vesuvius
Etna
Santorini
Unzen
Sakurajima
Taal
Merapi
Ulawun
Mauna Loa
Colima
Santa Mara
Avachinsky
Koryaksky
Galeras
Rainier
Teide is one of the 16 Decade Volcanoes.
The last summit eruption from Teide occurred about the

year 850 CE, and this eruption produced the Lavas Ne- 117.5 Potential eruptions
grasor Black Lavasthat cover much of the anks of
the volcano.* [12]
Future eruptions may include pyroclastic ows and surges
About 150,000 years ago, a much larger explosive eruption similar to those that occurred at Mount Pele, Merapi,
occurred, probably of Volcanic Explosivity Index 5. It cre- Vesuvius, Etna, Soufrire Hills, Mount Unzen and elseated the Las Caadas caldera, a large caldera at about 2,000 where. During 2003, there was an increase in seismic activm above sea level, around 16 km (9.9 mi) from east to west ity at the volcano and a rift opened on the north-east ank.
338
CHAPTER 117. TEIDE
No eruptive activity occurred but a volume of material possibly liquid, was emplaced into the edice and is estimated to have a volume of ~1011 m3 . Such activity can
indicate that magma is rising into the edice, but is not always a precursor to an eruption.
Teide additionally is considered structurally unstable and
its northern ank has a distinctive bulge. The summit of
the volcano has a number of small active fumaroles emitting sulfur dioxide and other gases, including low levels of
hydrogen sulde.
A recent study showed that Teide will probably erupt violently in the future, and that its structure is similar to that
of Vesuvius and Etna.* [23]
117.6 Major climbs

In a publication of 1626, Sir Edmund Scory, who probably stayed on the island in the rst decades of the 17th century, gives a description of Teide, in which he notes the suitable paths to the top and the eects the considerable height
causes to the travellers, indicating that the volcano had been
accessed via dierent routes before the 17th century.* [24]
In 1715 the English traveler J. Edens and his party made the
ascent and reported their observations in the journal of the Echium wildpretii on Tenerife
Royal Society in London.* [25]
After the Enlightenment, most of the expeditions that went
to East Africa and the Pacic had Teide as one of the most
rewarding targets. The expedition of Lord George Macartney, George Staunton and John Barrow in 1792 almost
ended in tragedy, as a major snowstorm and rain swept over
them and they failed to reach the peak of Teide, just barely
getting past Montaa Blanca.* [25]
During an expedition to Kilimanjaro, the German adventurer Hans Heinrich Joseph Meyer visited Teide in 1894 to
observe ice conditions on the volcano. He described the
two mountains as two kings, one rising in the ocean and
the other in the desert and steppes.* [25]
117.7 Flora and fauna

The lava ows on the anks of Teide weather to a very thin
but nutrient- and mineral-rich soil that supports a wide va- Southern Tenerife lizard (Gallotia galloti galloti)
riety of plant species. Vascular ora consists of 168 plant
species, 33 of which are endemic to Tenerife.* [26]
Forests of Canary Island Pine (Pinus canariensis) with
Canary Island juniper (Juniperus cedrus) occur from 1,000
to 2,100 metres (3,3006,900 ft), covering the middle
slopes of the volcano and reaching an alpine tree line
1,000 m (3,300 ft) lower than that of continental moun-
tains at similar latitudes.* [27]* [28] Within the Las Caadas

caldera and at higher altitudes, plant species endemic
to the Teide National Park include: the Teide white
broom (Spartocytisus supranubius), which has white owers; Descurainia bourgaeana, a shrubby crucifer with yel-
117.8. SCIENTIFIC USE
339
117.8
Scientic use
Teide National Park is a useful volcanic reference point for

studies related to Mars because of the similarities in their
environmental conditions and geological formations.* [38]
In 2010 a research team tested the Raman instrument at
Las Caadas del Teide in anticipation of its use in the 2016
2018 ESA-NASA ExoMars expedition.* [38] In June 2011
a team of researchers from the UK visited the park to test a
method for looking for life on Mars and to search for suitable places to test new robotic vehicles in 2012.* [39]
Teide and Roque Cinchado
low owers; the Canary Island wallower (Erysimum scoparium), which has violet owers; and the Teide bugloss (Echium wildpretii), whose red owers form a pyramid up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in height.* [29] The Teide daisy
(Argyranthemum teneriae) can be found at altitudes close
to 3,600 m (11,800 ft) above sea level, and the Teide violet
(Viola cheiranthifolia) can be found right up to the summit,
making it the highest owering plant in Spain.* [30]
These plants are adapted to the tough environmental conditions on the volcano, such as high altitude, intense sunlight, extreme temperature variations, and lack of moisture. Adaptations include hemispherical forms, a downy
or waxy cover, a reduction of the exposed leaf area, and
a high ower production.* [28]* [31] Flowering takes place
in the late spring or early summer, in May and June.* [26]
117.9
Access
The volcano and its surroundings, including the whole of the

Las Caadas caldera, are protected in the Teide National
Park. Access is by a public road running from northeast
to southwest across the caldera. TITSA runs a return service to Teide once a day from both Puerto de la Cruz and
Playa de las Americas. The park has a parador (hotel) and a
small chapel. A cable car goes from the roadside at 2,356 m
(7,730 ft) most of the way to the summit, reaching 3,555 m
(11,663 ft), carrying up to 38 passengers (34 in a high wind)
and taking eight minutes to reach the summit. Queues can
exceed two hours in peak season. Access to the summit itself is restricted; a free permit is required to climb the last
200 m (660 ft). Numbers are normally restricted to 200 per
day.
Teide National Park contains a large number of invertebrate

species, over 40% of which are endemic species, and 70 of
which are found only in the National Park. The invertebrate
fauna includes spiders, beetles, dipterans, hemipterans, and
hymenopterae.* [32]
In contrast, Teide National Park has only a limited variety of vertebrate fauna.* [33] Ten species of bird nest
there, including the blue chanch (Fringilla teydea teydea),
Berthelot's pipit (Anthus berthelotii berthelotii), the Atlantic
canary (Serinus canaria) and a subspecies of kestrel (Falco
tinnunculus canariensis).* [34]* [35]
Three endemic reptile species are found in the park: the Canary Island lizard (Gallotia galloti galloti), the Canary Island
wall gecko (Tarentola delalandii), and the Canary Island
skink (Chalcides viridanus viridanus).* [33]* [36] The only
mammals native to the park are bats, the most common of
which is Leislers bat (Nyctalus leisleri). Other mammals,
such as the mouon, the rabbit, the house mouse, the black
rat, the feral cat, and the North African hedgehog, have all
been introduced to the park.* [37]
Mount Teide from a distance with a cloud at the top
Several footpaths take hikers to the upper cable car terminal, and then onto the summit (with the permit). The most
popular route is via the Refugio de Altavista, however these
are demanding hikes requiring at least 45 hours of ascent.
Because of the altitude, the air is signicantly thinner than
at sea level. This can cause people (especially with heart
340
CHAPTER 117. TEIDE
or lung conditions) to become light-headed or dizzy, to develop altitude sickness, and in extreme cases to lose consciousness. The only treatment is to return to lower altitudes
and acclimatise.
Flag of Tenerife
117.10 Astronomical observatory

117.12
Mountain of the Moon
Mons Pico, one of the Montes Tenerie range of lunar

mountains in the inner ring of the Mare Imbrium, was
named by Johann Hieronymus Schrter after the Pico von
Tenerie, an 18th-century name for Teide.* [7]* [40]
Teide Observatory
Main article: Teide Observatory

An astronomical observatory is located on the slopes of
the mountain, taking advantage of the altitude (above most
clouds), good weather and stable seeing from the site.
The Teide Observatory is operated by the Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias. It includes solar, radio and microwave
telescopes, in addition to traditional optical night-time telescopes.
117.13
Gallery
Teide from Llano de Ucanca
Teide and Pico Viejo
Teide from Llano de Ucanca
117.11 Symbol
Teide is the main symbol of Tenerife and the most emblematic natural monument of the Canary Islands. An image
of Teide appears gushing ames at the centre of Tenerife's
coat of arms. Above the volcano appears St. Michael, the
patron saint of Tenerife. The ag colors of the island are
dark blue, traditionally identied with the sea that surrounds
the island, and white for the whiteness of the snow-covered
peaks of Mount Teide during winter.
Teide has been depicted frequently throughout history, from
the earliest engravings made by European conquerors to
typical Canarian craft objects, on the back of 1000-peseta
notes, in oil paintings and on postcards.
Coat of arms of Tenerife
The snow-capped summit of

Teide in December 2004
117.14. SEE ALSO
341
the left
Snow-capped Teide from the

north, March 2006
117.14
See also
Teide National Park

Roque Cinchado
Mount Guajara
Pico Viejo
Teide from the air
Tenerife
List of tallest mountains in the Solar System
117.15
The small church at the foot

of the mountain
References
[1] Europe: Atlantic Islands Ultra Prominences on peaklist.org as Pico de Teide. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
[2] Tenerife: El Parque Nacional del Teide. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
[3] http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/DecadeVolcanoes/
Decade Volcanoes USGS
[4] Teide National Park. World Heritage List. UNESCO.
Retrieved January 18, 2009.
The cable car on Teide
[5] En las entraas del volcn|El Espaol

[6] Parque Nacional del Teide. Ascenso, Fauna, Flora....
Retrieved March 21, 2016.
[7] Sheehan, William & Baum, Richard, Observation and inference: Johann Hieronymous Schroeter, 17451816, JBAA
105 (1995), 171
Teide from Caada de los

Guancheros at 2050 m
Astronaut photograph of Teide
[8] Ethnograa y anales de la conquista de las Islas Canarias

. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
[9] Guillou, H., Carracedo, J. C., Paris R. and Prez Torrado,
F.J., 2004a. K/Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy of the
Miocene-Pliocene shield volcanoes of Tenerife, Canary Islands: Implications for the early evolution of Tenerife and
the Canarian Hotspot age progression. Earth & Planet. Sci.
Letts., 222, 599614.
[10] Fster, J.M., Araa, V., Brandle, J.L., Navarro, J.M.,
Alonso, U., Aparicio, A., 1968. Geology and volcanology
of the Canary Islands: Tenerife. Instituto Lucas Mallada,
CSIC, Madrid, 218 pp
View overlooking Teide National Park (World Heritage Site), Mount Teide on
[11] Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Day, Simon (2002). Canary Islands

(Classic Geology in Europe 4). Terra Publishing, 208 pp.
ISBN 1-903544-07-6
342
[12] Carracedo, J. C., Rodrguez Badioloa, E., Guillou, H., Paterne, M., Scaillet, S., Prez Torrado, F. J., Paris, R., FraPaleo, U., Hansen, A., 2007. Eruptive and structural history of Teide Volcano and rift zones of Tenerife, Canary
Islands.Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,
119(910). 10271051
[13] Paris, R, Guillou, H., Carracedo, JC and Perez Torrado,
F.J., Volcanic and morphological evolution of La Gomera
(Canary Islands), based on new K-Ar ages and magnetic
stratigraphy:implications for oceanic island evolution, Journal of the Geological Society, May 2005, v.162; no.3; p.501512
[14] Carracedo, J.C., Prez Torrado, F.J., Ancochea, E., Meco,
J., Hernn, F., Cubas, C.R., Casillas, R., Rodrguez Badiola,
E. and Ahijado, A., 2002. In: Cenozoic Volcanism II: the
Canary Islands. The Geology of Spain (W. Gibbons and T.
Moreno, eds), pp. 439472. Geological Society, London
[15] Tenerife. Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved December 12, 2007.
[16] Mart, J., Mitjavila, J., Araa, V., 1994. Stratigraphy, structure and geochronology of the Las Caadas Caldera (Tenerife, Canary Islands). Geol. Mag. 131: 715727
[17] Mart. J. and Gudmudsson, A., 2000. The Las Caadas
caldera (Tenerife, Canary Islands): an overlapping collapse
caldera generated by magma-chamber migration. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 103: 167173
CHAPTER 117. TEIDE
[25] El Parque Nacional del Teide: patrimonio mundial de la

UNESCO, con Juan Carlos Carracedo y Manuel Durbn Nicols Gonzlez Lemus. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
[26] Dupont, Yoko L., Dennis M., Olesen, Jens M., Structure of
a plant-ower-visitor network in the high altitude sub-alpine
desert of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Ecography. 26(3), 2003,
pp. 301310.
[27] Gieger, Thomas and Leuschner, Christoph. Altitudinal
change in needle water relations of the Canary pine (Pinus Canariensis) and possible evidence of a drought-induced
alpine timberline on Mt. Teide, Tenerife, Flora Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants, 199(2),
2004, Pages 100-109y
[28] J.M. Fernandez-Palacios, Climatic response of plant species
on Tenerife, the Canary islands, J. Veg. Sci. 3, 1992, pp.
595602
[29] Tenerife National Park Flora. Tenerife Tourism Corporation. Archived from the original on June 14, 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2007.
[30] J.M. Fernandez-Palacios and J.P. de Nicolas, Altitudinal
pattern of vegetation variation on Tenerife, J. Veg. Sci. 6,
1995, pp. 183190
[31] C. Leuschner, Timberline and alpine vegetation on the tropical and warm-temperate oceanic islands of the world: elevation, structure and oristics, Vegetatio 123, 1996, pp. 193
206.
[18] Moore, J. G., 1964. Giant submarine landslides on the

Hawaiian Ridge. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 501-D, D95D98
[32] Ashmole, M. and Ashmole, P. (1989) Natural History Excursions in Tenerife. Kidston Mill Press, Scotland. ISBN 0
9514544 0 4.
[19] Carracedo, J.C., 1994. The Canary Islands: an example of

structural control on the growth of large oceanic island volcanoes. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 60: 225242
[33] Thorpe, R.S., McGregor, D.P., Cumming, A.M., and Jordan, W.C., DNA evolution and colonisation sequence of island lizards in relation to geological history: mtDNA RFLP,
cytochrome B, cytochrome oxidase, 12s rRNA sequence,
and nuclear RAPD analysis, Evolution, 48(2), 1994, pp.
230240
[20] Guillou, H., Carracedo, J.C., Prez Torrado, F. and Rodrguez Badiola, E., 1996. K-Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy of a hotspot-induced, fast grown oceanic island : El
Hierro, Canary Islands. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 73:
141155
[21] Stillman, C.J., 1999. Giant Miocene Landslides and the
evolution of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 94, pp. 89104
[22] Masson, D.G., Watts, A.B., Gee, M.J.R., Urgels, R.,
Mitchell, N.C., Le Bas, T.P., Canals, M., 2002. Slope failures on the anks of the western Canaested in the embayment itself.
[34] Lack, D., and H.N. Southern. 1949. Birds of Tenerife. Ibis,
91:607626
[35] P.R. Grant, Ecological compatibility of bird species on
islands, Amer. Nat., 100(914), 1966, pp. 451462.
[36] Lever, Christopher (2003). Naturalized Reptiles and Amphibians of the World (First ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-850771-0.
[23] Un estudio prev que el Teide sufrira erupciones violentas

(La Opinin.es)
[37] Nogales, M., Rodrguez-Luengo, J.L. & Marrero, P. (2006)

Ecological eects and distribution of invasive non-native
mammals on the Canary IslandsMammal Review, 36, 49
65
[24] Francisco Javier Castillo, The English Renaissance and the

Canary Islands: Thomas Nichols and Edmund Scory, Proceedings of the II Conference of SEDERI: 1992: 57-69
[38] Unidad Editorial Internet (November 3, 2010).Tenerife se

convierte en un laboratorio marciano - Ciencia - elmundo.es
. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
[39] Buscando marcianosen el Teide

[40] Schroeter, Johann Hieronymous, Selenotopographische
Fragmente sur genauern Kenntniss der Mondche [vol. 1].
Lilienthal: auf Kosten des Verfassers, 1791

UNESCO World Heritage Site datasheet
Teide National ParkOcial Website
Teide Webcam
Cable car
(Spanish) Description of the ascent of Mount Teide
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Geminid Meteors over Teide Volcano (December 17, 2013)
343
Chapter 118
Temples of Mount Hermon
Map of the Mount Hermon area
and Sir Charles Warren.* [4]* [5] Ten sacred sites were also
documented by Daniel Krencker and Willy Schietzschmann
in 1938.* [6] Maurice Tallon published an itinerary of the
sanctuaries in 1967 with details of the paths to reach
Summit of Mount Hermon
them.* [7] George F. Taylor provided a pictorial guide in
the late 1960s with more recent information coming from
The Temples of Mount Hermon are around thirty* [1] Shim'on Dar in 1993 and epigraphic surveys in 2002 and
shrines and Roman temples that are dispersed around 2003.* [8] Some of the sites have been connected with the
the slopes of Mount Hermon in Lebanon, Israel and high places used for the worship of Baal in the Books of
Syria.* [2]* [3]
Kings.* [9]
The Seleucids occupied the area after 200 BCE, shortly
after which the Ituraeans developed a principality in the
118.1 Surveys
area until the fall of Chalcis when the territory passed to
the Herodian kings Agrippa I and Agrippa II. After the
Discovery of the Hermonian temples in rural villages be- end of the rst century CE the territory became jointly
gan in the 19th century, with surveys by Edward Robinson controlled by the cities of Damascus, Sidon and Paneas.
344
118.1. SURVEYS
Roman temple at Niha, Lebanon
345
Small lower temple at Niha, Lebanon
Roman temple of Qsarnaba, near Zahle, Lebanon
Statue at the Roman temple at Niha, Lebanon

Roman temple of Qsarnaba, near Zahle, Lebanon
It is thought that the area was inhabited continuously until the third century CE. Precise dating of the structures
is currently not possible. Krencker and Zscheitzschmann
suggested they were mostly constructed between 150 and
300 CE and epigraphic evidence has been found to support
this for several temples. Construction techniques have been
seen to dier from those used in shrines of the Phoenician
and Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods such as Tyre, Tell
Anafa and Kharayeb.* [3] Recent studies have highlighted

dierences in construction style of the Hermonian temples
from Hellenistic architecture at Khirbet Massakeb,* [10]
Khirbet Zemel* [11] and other sites in the Hauran and
Jawlan.* [12] Although the sites may have been built on previous layers of architecture, the current temples are predominantly considered to be of Roman construction and
346
CHAPTER 118. TEMPLES OF MOUNT HERMON

the view that the religious architecture was the responsibility ofthe hand of a single master builderbut was not able
to answer the question of why so many shrines should be
concentrated in the area.* [8] Henry Seyrig, when reviewing Krencker and Zscheitzmann's Romische Tempel in
Syrienhighlighted that the clue to an important social
and economic change that would deserve to be one day the
focus of a study. There is still a deplorable lack of a comprehensive study into the history, archaeology, architecture
of these buildings and ancient sites, or the religious life of
the people who used them.* [3]
Roman temple of Hosn Niha, Lebanon
118.2
Summit site of Qasr Antar
There is a sacred building made of hewn blocks of stone

on the summit of Mount Hermon. Known as Qasr Antar, it
was the highest temple of the ancient world, sitting at 2,814
metres (9,232 ft) above sea level. It was documented by Sir
Charles Warren in 1869. Warren described the temple as a
rectangular building, sitting on an oval, stone plateau without roof. He removed a limestone stele from the northwest
of the oval, broke it into two pieces and carried it down the
mountain and back to the British Museum, where it currently resides. An inscription on the stele was translated by
George Nickelsburg to readAccording to the command of
the greatest a(nd) Holy God, those who take an oath (proceed) from here. Nickelsburg connected the inscription
with oath taken by the angels under Semjaza who took an
oath together, bound by a curse in order to take wives in the
Book of Enoch (1 Enoch 6:6). Hermon was said to have become known asthe mountain of oathby Charles Simon
Clermont-Ganneau. The name of God was supposed to be
a Hellenized version of Baal or Hadad and Nickelsburg
connected it with the place name of Baal-Hermon (Lord of
Hermon) and the deity given by Enoch asThe Great Holy
One.* [14] Eusebius recognized the religious importance
of Hermon in his work Onomasticon, saying Until
today, the mount in front of Panias and Lebanon is known
as Hermon and it is respected by nations as a sanctuary. It
has been related to the Arabic term al-haram, which means
sacred enclosure.* [15]
118.3
Deities
were largely abandoned after the fourth century CE during Apart from the supreme god of the lofty sanctuary, other
the Byzantine era.* [3]
gods were evidenced to have been worshipped in the area.
The temples were often connected with ancient occupa- The god Pan is often connected with the headwaters of the
tional sites. Olivier Callot and Pierre-Louis Gatier ar- Jordan river in the area. Inscriptions on stones used in the
gued that several of the temple sites might have been mis- church of Heleliye near Sidon have referred to Threption,
taken for monumental tombs as Roman mausoleums such son of Neikon oering stone lions to Zeus. Other deities
as Saidnaya have been found in Lebanon.* [13] Taylor held noted to have been worshipped in the area were called
118.6. SITES IN SYRIA

Theandrios and Leucothea, which were likely Greek names
substituted for native Caananite gods. Leucothea was the
Greek goddess of the sea and she was known to have been
worshipped from 60 CE at the temple devoted to her at
Rakleh and also at Kfar Zabad, Inkhil, Tel Jezreel, Tyre
and Segeria as evidenced by an inscription found at Ayn
al-Burj.* [3]
347
118.6
Sites in Syria
Of the Syrian Hermonian temples, the easiest to reach from

Damascus are at and Burqush and Rakleh.* [1] At the temple
in Rakleh, there is an engraved god on one wall, surrounded
by a wreath and facing towards Mount Hermon.* [23]
Two other sanctuaries that have been the subject of study

The Gods of Kiboreia are known from a Greek by Israelis in the occupied Golan Heights are Qalaat Bustra
inscription taken from a large temple at Deir El and Har Senaim.* [3]
Aachayer on the northern slopes of Mount Hermon
in Lebanon.* [3]* [16]* [17]* [18]
The inscription was found noting that a bench was installed
in the year 242, under Beeliabos, also called Diototos, son
of Abedanos, high priest of the gods of Kiboreia".* [19] The
era of the gods of Kiboreia is not certain, as is their location which is not conclusively to be identied with Deir
El Aachayer, but was possibly the Roman sanctuary or the
name of a settlement in the area.* [20] It has been suggested
that the name Kiboreia was formed from the Aramaic word
kbr, meaning a place of great abundance.* [19]
118.4 Sites in Lebanon

George Taylor divided up the Temples of Lebanon into
three groups, one group of Temples of the Beqaa Valley
lies north of the road from Beirut to Damascus. Second,
there is the group in the area south of the same road, including the Wadi al-Taym and the western ank of Mount
Hermon. Third, the group in the area west of a line drawn
along the ridge of Mount Lebanon. There are relatively
few temples along Lebanon's coastal plain. The Temples of
Mount Hermon in Taylor's second group included Ain Harcha, Aaiha, Deir El Aachayer, Dekweh, Yanta, Hebbariye,
Ain Libbaya, Nebi Safa, Aaqbe, Khirbet El-Knese, Mejdal
Anjar, Mdoukha and Bakka.* [8] Four new sites were identied during epigraphic surveys of 2003 and 2004 at Ain
Ata, Ain Qaniya, Korsei el-Debb and Qasr Chbib whilst
possible identication was made requiring further investigation at the sites of Qatana, Kafr Dura, Qalaat al-Almond,
Haouch Hafoufa and Mazraat el-Faqaa.* [3]
118.5 Sites in Israel
118.7
References
[1] Ross Burns (20 January 2005). Damascus: A History. Taylor & Francis. pp. 78. ISBN 978-0-415-27105-9. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[2] Dar, Shimon. Settlements and Cult Sites on Mount Hermon, Israel: Ituraean Culture in the Hellenistic and Roman
Periods. BAR international series, 589. Oxford, England:
Tempus Reparatum, 1993. ISBN 9780860547563.
[3] Ted Kaizer (2008). Aliquot, Julien., Sanctuaries and villages
on Mount Hermon in the Roman period in The Variety of
Local Religious Life in the Near East In the Hellenistic and
Roman Periods. BRILL. pp. 76. ISBN 978-90-04-167353. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
[4] Edward Robinson (1856). Biblical researches in Palestine
and the adjacent regions: a journal of travels in the years
1838 and 1852. J. Murray. pp. 433. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
[5] Sir Charles William Wilson (1881). Picturesque Palestine,
Sinai, and Egypt. D. Appleton. Retrieved 17 September
2012.
[6] Daniel M. Krencker; Willy Zschietzschmann (1938).
Rmische Tempel in Syrien: nach Aufnahmen und Untersuchungen von Mitgliedern der Deutschen Baalbekexpedition
1901-1904, Otto Puchstein, Bruno Schulz, Daniel Krencker.
W. de Gruyter & Co. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
[7] Tallon, Maurice., Sanctuaires et itinraires romains du.
Chouf et du sud de la Bqa,Mlanges de l'universit Saint
Joseph 43, pp. 233-50, 1967.
[8] George Taylor (1971). The Roman temples of Lebanon: a
pictorial guide. Les temples romains au Liban; guide illustr.
Dar el-Machreq Publishers. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[9] Josias Porter (1 March 2005). Through Samaria To Galilee
And The Jordan: Scenes Of The Early Life And Labors Of
Our Lord. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 142. ISBN 978-14179-7535-8. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
A sacred site at Tel Dan has been excavated southwest of

Mount Hermon. It was shown to have had successive layers
of occupation through the Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic,
Bronze Age, Iron Age, Greco-Roman, Medieval and [10] Kalos, M., Un sanctuaire d'epoque hellenistique en Syrie du
Ottoman period.* [21]* [22]
sud: Khirbet Massakeb. Topoi, 9/2, pp. 777-794, 1999.
348
[11] Hartal, M., Khirbet Zemel: Northern Golan: an Iturean

Settlementin Zvi Gal (ed.), Eretz Zafon: Studies in Galilean
Archaeology, pp. 75-117, Jerusalem:IAA, 2002.
[12] Kropp, Andreas., Limits of Hellenisation: Pre-Roman
basalt temples in the Hauran, Bollettino di Archaeologia On
Line, Special Volume for the International congress of classical archaeology meetings between cultures in the ancient
mediterranean, Rome, 2008.
[13] Callot, Olivier, and Pierre-Louis Gatier. Le reseau des
sanctuaires en Syrie du Nord.Topoi 9, pp. 665-688, 1999.
[14] Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1. A Commentary on the Book of 1
Enoch, 136; 81108, Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001.
[15] E. A. Myers (11 February 2010). The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources. Cambridge University Press. pp. 65. ISBN 978-0-521-51887-1. Retrieved
18 September 2012.
[16] Jalabert, L.,Inscriptions grecques et latines de Syrie (deuxime srie)" in Mlanges de la Facult Orientale de Beyrouth
2, p.265-320, 1907.
[17] Brown, J., E. Meyers, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies.
Places: 678253 (Kiboreia)". Pleiades. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
[18] Emile Puech (11 June 1998). Qumran Grotte 4: XVIII:
Textes Hebreux (4Q521-4Q528, 4Q576-4Q579). Oxford
University Press. pp. 52. ISBN 978-0-19-826948-9. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[19] Susanne Carlsson (29 April 2010). Hellenistic democracies:
freedom, independence and political procedure in some east
Greek city-states. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-51509265-4. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[20] Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D.
337. Harvard University Press. pp. 311. ISBN 978-0-67477886-3. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[21] Archaeologists Excavate Legendary City of Dan, Popular
Archaeology, Vol. 5, December 2011
[22] Pottery Neolithic Levels at Tel Dan. Mitekufat Haeven,
Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 20:91-113. BarYosef, O., Gopher, A., and Nadel, D. 1987.
[23] Albert Leighton Rawson (1870). The Bible Handbook: For
Sunday-schools and Bible Readers. With 150 Engravings and
25 Maps and Plans. R.B. Thompson. pp. 87. Retrieved
18 September 2012.

The Roman Temples of Lebanon by George Taylor on
discoverlebanon.com
CHAPTER 118. TEMPLES OF MOUNT HERMON

Photo of the Roman temple at Hebbariye on
panoramio.com
Full text of Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt.
Edited by Charles Wilson, 1881.
Qasr Antar temple at the summit of Mount Hermon photo on Flikr
Qasr Antar temple at the summit of Mount Hermon photo on Library of Congress website
Roman Temples of the Bekaa - Lebanese Ministry of
Tourism Guide
Chapter 119
Anahita
This article is about the goddess. For other purposes, see 119.1 Characteristics
Anahita (disambiguation). For the female given name derived from Anahita, see Anas.
119.1.1 Nomenclature
Nahidredirects here. For other uses, see Nahid (disambiguation).
Only Ardev (a word otherwise unknown, perhaps with an
Anahita is the Old Persian form of the name of an Iranian
original meaning moist) is specic to the divinity. It
might have been derived from Arya devi* [1] The words sra
and anhta are generic Avestan language adjectives,* [3]
and respectively mean mightyand pure.* [4]* [5]
Both adjectives also appear as epithets of other divinities or
divine concepts such as Haoma* [6] and the Fravashis.* [7]
Both adjectives are also attested in Vedic Sanskrit.* [8]
As a divinity of the waters (Abn), the yazata is of IndoIranian origin, according to Lommel related to Sanskrit
Sarasvat that, like its Proto-Iranian equivalent *Harahvat ,
derives from Indo-Iranian *Saraswt .* [1]* [9]* [10] In its
old Iranian form *Harahvat , her name was given to
the region, rich in rivers, whose modern capital is Delhi
(Avestan Harax* vait , Old Persian Hara(h)uvati-, Greek
Arachosia).* [1] It might have been derived from the GodTaq-e Bostan high-relief of the investiture of Khosrow II (r. 590 to
628). The king (center) receives the ring of kingship from Mithra dess Sarasvati. Like the Devi Saraswati, [Aredvi Sura
(right). On the left, apparently sanctifying the investiture, stands Anahita] nurtures crops and herds; and is hailed both as a dia female gure generally assumed to be Anahita (but see remark, vinity and the mythical river that she personies, 'as great in
bigness as all these waters which ow forth upon the earth'.
below).
goddess and appears in complete and earlier form as Aredvi
Sura Anahita (Ardv Sr Anhit); the Avestan language
name of an Indo-Iranian cosmological gure venerated as
the divinity of 'the Waters' (Aban) and hence associated
with fertility, healing and wisdom. Aredvi Sura Anahita is
Ardwisur Anahid or Nahid in Middle- and Modern Persian,
Anahit or Anaheed in Armenian.* [1] An iconic shrine cult
of Aredvi Sura Anahita, was together with other shrine
cults introduced apparently in the 4th century BCE and
lasted until it was suppressed in the wake of an iconoclastic
movement under the Sassanids.* [2]
In the (Middle-)Persian texts of the Sassanid and later eras,

Ardv Sra Anhta appears as Ardwisur Anhd.* [1] The
evidence suggest a western Iranian origin of Anhta.* [11]
(see borrowing from Babylonia, below).
She shares characteristics with Mat Zemlya (Damp Mother
Earth) in Slavic mythology.
119.1.2
Conation with Ishtar
At some point prior to the 4th century BCE, this yazata was
conated with (an analogue of)* [] Semitic Itar,* [5] likeThe Greek and Roman historians of classical antiquity re- wise a divinity ofmaidenfertility and from whom Aredvi
fer to her either as Anatis or identied her with one of the Sura Anahita then inherited additional features of a divindivinities from their own pantheons. 270 Anahita, a silica- ity of war and of the planet Venus orZohrehin Arabic.
ceous S-type asteroid is named after her.
It was moreover the association with the planet Venus, it
349
350
CHAPTER 119. ANAHITA
seems, which led Herodotus to record that the [Persis]* [] one of the daughter-peaks of Hara Berezaiti. On the sumlearnt 'to sacrice tothe heavenly goddess"' from the As- mit of that mountain is Lake Urvis, the Turmoil, into
syrians and Arabians.* [12]* [13]* [14]
which the waters ow, becoming quite puried and exit*
Ishtar also apparently [15] gave Aredvi Sura Anahita ing through another golden channel. Through that channel,
the epithet Banu, 'the Lady', a typically Mesopotamian con- which is at the height of a thousand men, one portion of
struct* [15] that is not attested as an epithet for a divinity the great spring Aredvi Sura Anahita drizzles in moisture
in Iran before the common era. It is completely unknown upon the whole earth, where it dispels the dryness of the air
in the texts of the Avesta,* [15] but evident in Sassanid-era and all the creatures of Mazda acquire health from it. Another portion runs down to Vourukasha, the great sea upon
middle Persian inscriptions (see the cult, below) and in a
*
middle Persian Zend translation of Yasna 68.13. [16] Also which the earth rests, and from which it ows to the seas
and oceans of the world and puries them.
in Zoroastrian texts from the post-conquest epoch (651 CE
onwards), the divinity is referred to as 'Anahid the Lady', In the Bundahishn, the two halves of the name Ardwisur
'Ardwisur the Lady' and 'Ardwisur the Lady of the wa- Anahidare occasionally treated independently of one anters'.* [17]
other, that is, with Ardwisur as the representative of waters,
Because the divinity is unattested in any old Western Iranian and Anahid identied with the planet Venus: The water of
language,* [3] establishing characteristics prior to the intro- the all lakes and seas have their origin with Ardwisur (10.2,
duction of Zoroastrianism in Western Iran (c. 5th century 10.5), and in contrast, in a section dealing with the creation
speaks of
BCE) is very much in the realm of speculation. According of the stars and planets (5.4), the Bundahishn
*
'Anahid
i
Abaxtari',
that
is,
the
planet
Venus.
[21]
In yet
to Boyce, it is probablethat there was once a Perso
other
chapters,
the
text
equates
the
two,
as
in
Ardwisur
Elamite divinity by the name of *Anahiti (as reconstructed
from the Greek Anaitis).* [18] It is then likely (so Boyce) who is Anahid, the father and mother of the Waters" (3.17).
that it was this divinity that was an analogue of Ishtar, and
that it is this divinity with which Aredvi Sura Anahita was
conated.* [3] Boyce concludes thatthe Achaemenids' devotion to this goddess evidently survived their conversion to
Zoroastrianism, and they appear to have used royal inuence to have her adopted into the Zoroastrian pantheon.
*
[19]* [] According to an alternate theory, Anahita was
perhaps a daeva of the early and pure Zoroastrian faith,
incorporated into the Zoroastrian religion and its revised
canonduring the reign of "Artaxerxes I, the Constantine
of that faith.* [20]* []
119.1.3
Cosmological entity
This legend of the river that descends from Mount Hara appears to have remained a part of living observance for many
generations. A Greek inscription from Roman times found
in Asia Minor reads the great goddess Anatis of high
Hara.* [22] On Greek coins of the imperial epoch, she is
spoken of as Anatis of the sacred water.* [21]
119.2
In scripture
Aredvi Sura Anahita is principally addressed in Yasht 5

(Yasna 65), also known as the Aban Yasht, a hymn to the
waters in Avestan and one of the longer and better preserved of the devotional hymns. Yasna 65 is the third of
the hymns recited at the Ab-Zohr, the oering to the watersthat accompanies the culminating rites of the Yasna
service. Verses from Yasht 5 also form the greater part of
the Aban Nyashes, the liturgy to the waters that are a part
of the Khordeh Avesta.
The cosmological qualities of the world river are alluded

to in Yasht 5 (see in the Avesta, below), but properly developed only in the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian account of
creation nished in the 11th or 12th century CE. In both
texts, Aredvi Sura Anahita is not only a divinity, but also According to Nyberg* [23] and supported by Lommel* [24]
the source of the world river and the (name of the) world and Widengren,* [25] the older portions of the Aban Yasht
river itself. The cosmological legend runs as follows:
were originally composed at a very early date, perhaps not
All the waters of the world created by Ahura Mazda long after the Gathas themselves. * [] Yasna 38, which is
originate from the source Aredvi Sura Anahita, the life- dedicated to the earth and the sacred watersand is part
increasing, herd-increasing, fold-increasing, who makes of seven-chapter Yasna Haptanghiti, is linguistically as old
prosperity for all countries. This source is at the top of as the Gathas.
the world mountain Hara Berezaiti, High Hara, around In the Aban Yasht, the river yazata is described as the
which the sky revolves and that is at the center of Airyanem great spring Ardvi Sura Anahita is the life-increasing, the
Vaejah, the rst of the lands created by Mazda.
herd-increasing, the fold-increasing who makes prosperity
The water, warm and clear, ows through a hundred thou- for all countries(5.1). She iswide owing and healing
sand golden channels towards Mount Hugar,the Lofty, , ecacious against the daevas", devoted to Ahura's
119.3. INSCRIPTIONS AND CLASSICAL ACCOUNTS
351
a description of the weapons bestowed upon worshippers
(5.130), and the superiority in battle (5.34 et al.). These
functions appears out of place in a hymn to the waters,* [1]
and may have originally been from Yasht 17.
Other verses in Yasht 5 have masculine instead of feminine
pronouns, and thus again appear to be verses that were originally dedicated to other divinities.* [26] Boyce also suggests
that the new compound divinity of waters with martial characteristics gradually usurped the position of Apam Napat,
the great warlike water divinity of the Ahuric triad, nally
causing the latter's place to be lost and his veneration to
become limited to the obligatory verses recited at the AbZohr.
4th-6th century silver and gilt Sassanian vessel, assumed to be depicting Anahita. (Cleveland Museum of Art)
lore(5.1). She is associated with fertility, purifying the

seed of men (5.1), purifying the wombs of women (5.1),
encouraging the ow of milk for newborns (5.2). As a river
divinity, she is responsible for the fertility of the soil and
for the growth of crops that nurture both man and beast
(5.3). She is a beautiful, strong maiden, wearing beaver
skins (5.3,7,20,129).
119.3
Inscriptions and classical accounts
119.3.1
Evidence of a cult
The earliest dateable and unambiguous reference to the

iconic cult of Anahita is from the Babylonian scholar-priest
Berosus, who although writing over 70 years* [] after the
reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon* [] records that the emperor had been the rst to make cult statues of Aphrodite
Anaitis and place them in the temples of many of the
empire's major cities, including Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana,
Persepolis, Damascus and Sardis.* [c1] Also according to
Berosus, the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images.* [c1]* [] This is substantiated by Herodotus, whose mid-5th-century-BCE general
remarks on the usages of the Perses, Herodotus notes that
it is not their custom to make and set up statues and images
and altars, and those that make such they deem foolish, as
I suppose, because they never believed the gods, as do the
Greeks, to be the likeness of men.* [c23]* [27]* [28]
The association between water and wisdom that is common to many ancient cultures is also evident in the Aban
Yasht, for here Aredvi Sura is the divinity to whom priests
and pupils should pray for insight and knowledge (5.86).
In verse 5.120 she is seen to ride a chariot drawn by four
horses named wind, rain, cloudsand sleet
. In newer passages she is described as standing in statuesque stillness, ever observed, royally attired with
a golden embroidered robe, wearing a golden crown, necklace and earrings, golden breast-ornament, and gold-laced
ankle-boots (5.123, 5.126-8). Aredvi Sura Anahita is bountiful to those who please her, stern to those who do not, and
she resides in 'stately places' (5.101).
The extraordinary innovation of the shrine cults can thus

be dated to the late 5th century BCE (or very early 4th
century BCE), even if this evidence is not of the most
satisfactory kind.* [5] Nonetheless, by 330 BCE and under Achaemenid royal patronage, these cults had been disseminated throughout Asia Minor and the Levant, and from
there to Armenia.* [21] This was not a purely seless act,
for the temples also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids had
taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a onetenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest
to their land or other source of income.* [29] A share of this
The concept of Aredvi Sura Anahita is to a degree blurred income called the quppu a arri orkings chest an ingewith that of Ashi, the Gathic gure of Good Fortune, nious institution originally introduced by Nabonidus was
and many of the verses of the Aban Yasht also appear in then turned over to the ruler.
Yasht 17 (Ard Yasht), which is dedicated to Ashi. So also Nonetheless, Artaxerxes' close connection with the Anahita
352
temples is almost certainly the chief cause of this king's

long-lasting fame among Zoroastrians, a fame which made
it useful propaganda for the succeeding Arsacids to claim
him (quite spuriously) for their ancestor.* [30]* [31]
119.3.2
Parsa, Elam, and Medea
Artaxerxes II's devotion to Anahita is most apparent in

his inscriptions, where her name appears directly after
that of Ahura Mazda and before that of Mithra. Artaxerxes' inscription at Susa reads: By the will of Ahura
Mazda, Anahita, and Mithra I built this palace. May Ahura
Mazda, Anahita, and Mithra protect me from all evil
(AHc 1510). This is a remarkable break with tradition;
no Achaemenid king before him had invoked any but Ahura
Mazda alone by name although the Behistun inscription of
Darius invokes Ahuramazda andThe other gods who are
.* [32]
The temple(s) of Anahita at Ecbatana (Hamadan) in
Medea must have once been the most glorious sanctuaries in the known world.* []* [c2] Although the palace
had been stripped by Alexander and the following Seleucid kings,* [c3] when Antiochus III raided Ecbatana in 209
BCE, the templehad the columns round it still gilded and
a number of silver tiles were piled up in it, while a few gold
bricks and a considerable quantity of silver ones remained.
*
[c4]
Polybius' reference to Alexander is supported by Arrian,
who in 324 BCE wrote of a temple in Ecbatana dedicated to
Asclepius(by inference presumed to be Anahita, likewise
a divinity of healing), destroyed by Alexander because she
had allowed his friend Hephaestion to die.* [c5] The massive stone lion on the hill there (said to be part of a sepulcral monument to Hephaestion* []) is today a symbol that
visitors touch in hope of fertility.
Plutarch records that Artaxerxes II had his concubine Aspasia consecrated as priestess at the temple to Diana of Ecbatana, whom they name Anaitis, that she might spend the
remainder of her days in strict chastity.* [c6] This does not
however necessarily imply that chastity was a requirement
of Anaitis priestesses. * []
on the royal highway along the left bank of the

Euphrates.* [c7]* [34]
During the Hellenistic Parthian period, Susa had its Dianae templum augustissimum* [c8] far from Elymais
where another temple, known to Strabo as the "Ta Azara",
was dedicated to Athena/Artemis* [c9] and where tame lions roamed the grounds. This may be a reference to
the temple above the Tang-a Sarvak ravine in present-day
Khuzestan Province. Other than this, no evidence of the
cult in Western Iran from the Parthian period survives,
but it is reasonable to assume that the martial features
of Anhita (Ishtar) assured her popularity in the subsequent
centuries among the warrior classes of Parthian feudalism.
*
[35]
In the 2nd century CE, the center of the cult in Parsa (Persia
proper) was at Staxr (Istakhr). There, Anahita continued to
be venerated in her martial role and it was at Istakhr that
Sassan, after whom the Sassanid dynasty is named, served
as high priest. Sassan's son, Papak, likewise a priest of
that temple, overthrew the King of Istakhr (a vassal of the
Arsacids), and had himself crowned in his stead. By this
time (the beginning of the 3rd century), Anhita's headgear (kolh) was worn as a mark of nobility, which in
turn suggests that she was goddess of the feudal warrior
estate.* [35] Ardashir (r. 226-241 CE) would send the
heads of the petty kings he defeated for display at her temple.* [36]
During the reign of Bahram I (r. 272-273 CE), in the
wake of an iconoclastic movement that had begun at about
the same time as the shrine cult movement, the sanctuaries dedicated to a specic divinity were - by law - disassociated from that divinity by removal of the statuary and
then either abandoned or converted into re altars.* [37] So
also the popular shrines to Mehr/Mithra which retained the
name Darb-e Mehr - Mithra's Gate - that is today one of
the Zoroastrian technical terms for a re temple. The temple at Istakhr was likewise converted and, according to the
Kartir inscription, henceforth known as theFire of Anahid
the Lady.* [38] Sassanid iconoclasm, though administratively from the reign of Bahram I, may already have been
supported by Bahram's father, Shapur I (r. 241-272 CE).
In an inscription in Middle Persian, Parthian and Greek at
Ka'ba of Zoroaster, the Mazdean lord, ..., king of kings,
..., grandson of lord Papak(ShKZ 1, Naqsh-e Rustam)
records that he instituted res for his daughter and three of
his sons. His daughter's name: Anahid. The name of that
re: Adur-Anahid.
Isidore of Charax, in addition to a reference to the temple at Ecbatana (a temple, sacred to Anaitis, they sacrice there always)* [c2] also notes atemple of Artemis
*
[] at Concobar (Lower Medea, today Kangavar). Despite archaeological ndings that refute a connection with
Anahita,* [33] remains of a 2nd-century BCE Hellenic-style Notwithstanding the dissolution of the temple cults, the
edice at Kangavar continue to be a popular tourist attrac- triad Ahura Mazda, Anahita, and Mithra (as Artaxerxes
II had invoked them) would continue to be prominent
tion.
throughout the Sassanid age, and were indeed (with Tiri
Isidore also records another royal place, a temple and Verethragna) to remain the most popular of all divine
of Artemis, founded by Darius" at Basileia (Apadana),
119.3. INSCRIPTIONS AND CLASSICAL ACCOUNTS

beings in Western Iran.* [39] Moreover, the iconoclasm of
Bahram I and later kings apparently did not extend to images where they themselves are represented. At an investiture scene at Naqsh-e Rustam, Narseh (r. 293-302 CE)
is seen receiving his crown from a female divinity identied as Anahita. Narseh, like Artaxerxes II, was apparently
also very devoted to Anahita, for in the investure inscription at Paikuli (near Khaniqin, in present-day Iraq), Narseh
invokes Ormuzd and all the yazatas, and Anahid who is
called the Lady.* [38]
353
having been founded byCyrus(presumably* [43] Cyrus
the Younger, brother of Artaxerxes II, who was satrap of
Lydia between 407 and 401 BCE).
In the 2nd century CE, the geographer Pausanias reports
having personally witnessed (apparently Mazdean) ceremonies at Hypaipa and Hierocaesarea.* [c11] According to
Strabo, Anahita was revered together with Omanos at Zela
in Pontus.* [c12] * [c13] At Castabala, she is referred to as
'Artemis Perasia'.* [c14] Anahita and Omanos had common
altars in Cappadocia.* [c15]
119.3.4
Armenia and the Caucasus
Main article: Anahit

Hellenic inuence [gave] a new impetus to the cult of images [and] positive evidence for this comes from Armenia,
then a Zoroastrian land.* [21] According to Strabo, the
Armenians shared in the religion of the Perses and the
Medes and particularly honored Anaitis.* [c16] The kings
of Armenia weresteadfast supporters of the cult* [34] and
Tiridates III, before his conversion to Christianity,prayed
Naqsh-e Rustam investiture of Narseh (r. 293-302), in which the ocially to the triad Aramazd-Anahit-Vahagn but is said
Sassanian king (second from right) receives the ring of kingship to have shown a special devotion to 'the great lady Anahit,
from Anahita (right).
... the benefactress of the whole human race, mother of
all knowledge, daughter of the great Aramazd'"* [44] AcAnahita has also been identied as a gure in the investi- cording to Agathangelos, tradition required the Kings of
ture scene of Khusrow Parvez (r. 590-628 CE) at Taq-e Armenia to travel once a year to the temple at Eriza (Erez)
Bostan, but in this case not quite as convincingly as for the in Acilisene in order to celebrate the festival of the divinone of Narseh.* [40] But, aside from the two rock carvings ity; Tiridates made this journey in the rst year of his reign
at Naqsh-e Rustam and Taq-e Bostan,few gures unques- where he oered sacrice and wreaths and boughs.* [c27]
tionably representing the goddess are known.* [40] The The temple at Eriza appears to have been particularly fagure of a female on an Achaemenid cylinder seal has been mous, the wealthiest and most venerable in Armenia
identied as that of Anahita, as have a few reliefs from the * [c29], staed with priests and priestesses, the latter from
Parthian era (250 BCE-226 CE), two of which are from eminent families who would serve at the temple before marossuaries.* [41]
rying.* [c16] This practice may again reveal Semitic syn*
In addition, Sassanid silverware depictions of nude or scant- cretic inuences, [34] and is not otherwise attested in other
areas.
Pliny
reports
that Mark Antony's soldiers smashed an
ily dressed women seen holding a ower or fruit or bird or
enormous
statue
of
the
divinity made of solid gold and then
*
child are identied as images of Anahita. [42] Additiondivided
the
pieces
amongst
themselves.* [c19] Also accordally,it has been suggested that the colonnaded or serrated
Acilisene eventually
crowns [depicted] on Sasanian coins belong to Anahid. ing to Pliny, supported by Dio Cassius,
*
*
came
to
be
known
as
Anaetica.
[c20]
[c21] Dio Cassius
*
[40]
also mentions that another region along the Cyrus River, on
the borders of Albania and Iberia, was also calledthe land
of Anaitis.* [c22]* []
119.3.3 Asia Minor and the Levant
The cult ourished in Lydia even as late as end of the Hellenistic Parthian epoch.* [15] The Lydians had temples to
the divinity at Sardis, Philadelphia, Hieroaesarea, Hypaipa
(where she was still revered as Artemis Anaitis or Persian
Artemis in Classical and Roman times), Maeonia and elsewhere;* [15] the temple at Hieroaesarea reportedly* [c10]
Anahit was also venerated at Artashat (Artaxata), the capital of the Armenian Kingdom, where her temple was close
to that of Tiur* [], the divinity of oracles. At Astishat, center of the cult of Vahagn, she was revered as voskimayr, the
'golden mother'.* [c24] In 69 BCE, the soldiers of Lucullus
saw cows consecrated to 'Persian Artemis' roaming freely
at Tomisa in Sophene (on the Euphrates in South-West Ar-
354
menia), where the animals bore the brand of a torch on their
heads.* [c25] Following Tiridates' conversion to Christianity, the cult of Anahit was condemned and iconic representations of the divinity were destroyed.* [34]
Attempts have been made to identify Anahita as one of
the prime three divinities in Albania, but these are questionable. However, in the territories of the Moschi in
Colchis, Strabo mentions* [c26] a cult of Leucothea, which
Wesendonck and others have identied as an analogue of
Anahita.* [34] The cult of Anahita may have also inuenced
Ainina and Danina, a paired deities of the Caucasian Iberians mentioned by the medieval Georgian chronicles.* [45]
119.5
See also
Ab-Zohr, the Zoroastrianpurication of the waters

ceremony and the most important act of worship in
Zoroastrianism.
Aban,the Waters, representing and represented by
Aredvi Sura Anahita.
Airyanem Vaejah, rst of the mythological lands created by Ahura Mazda and the middle of the world that
rests on High Hara.
Anahita temple
Arachosia, name of which derives from Old Iranian *Harahvat (Avestan Haraxait, Old Persian
Hara(h)uvati-).
119.4 Legacy
Hara Berezaiti,High Hara, the mythical mountain

that is the origin of the *Harahvat river.
Oxus, identied* [51] as the world river that descends
from the mythological High Hara.
As a divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita is of enormous signi Sarasvati River, a manifestation of the goddess
cance to the Zoroastrian religion, for as a representative of
Saraswati.
Aban (the waters), she is in eect the divinity towards
whom the Yasna service the primary act of worship is
directed. (see Ab-Zohr). To this day reverence for water
is deeply ingrained in Zoroastrians, and in orthodox com- 119.6 References
munities oerings are regularly made to the household well
or nearby stream.* [46]* []
119.6.1 Notes
*
It isvery probable[17] that the shrine of Bibi Shahrbanu
at royal Ray (Rhagae, central Medea) was once dedicated 119.6.2 Citation index
to Anahita.* [17]* [] Similarly, one of the most beloved
mountain shrines of the Zoroastrians of Yazd, set beside 119.6.3 Bibliography
a living spring and a great conuence of water-courses, is
Arjomand, Sad Amir; Arjomand, Said Amir (1998),
devoted to Banu-Pars, the Lady of Persia."* [47]* [48]
Artaxerxes, Ardar, and Bahman, Journal of
However, and notwithstanding the widespread popularity of
the American Oriental Society, 118 (2): 245248,
Anahita,it is doubtful whether the current tendency is jusdoi:10.2307/605896, JSTOR 605896
tied whereby almost every isolated gure in Sassanid art,
whether sitting, standing, dancing, clothed, or semi-naked,
Bikerman, E. (1938),Anonymous Gods, The Jouris hailed as her representation.* [48]* [49]
nal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 1 (3):
187196,
doi:10.2307/750004, JSTOR 750004
The Armenian cult of Anahit, as well as the pre-Christian
Armenian religion in general, was very closely connected to
Persian Zoroastrianism,* [50] but it also had signicant distinct features deriving from local pagan traditions as well as
from non-Zoroastrian foreign cults. In present-day Armenia, it is remembered as part of the historical mythological
heritage of the nation, and the name Anahid is a popular
female given name. In 1997, the Central Bank of Armenia issued a commemorative gold coin with an image of the
divinity Anahit on the obverse.
As the name Nahid, the meaning is equivalent to the
Pleiades (in English) and Subaru in Japanese.
Boyce, Mary (1968), Bb Shahrbn and the Lady

of Prs, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, London: University of London, 30 (1): 3044,
doi:10.1017/S0041977X00099080
Boyce, Mary (1975a), A History of Zoroastrianism,
Vol. I, Leiden/Kln: Brill
Boyce, Mary (1975b), On the Zoroastrian Temple
Cult of Fire, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Ann Arbor: AOS/UMich. Press, 95 (3): 454
465, doi:10.2307/599356, JSTOR 599356
119.6. REFERENCES
Boyce, Mary (1982), A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol.
II, Leiden/Kln: Brill
Boyce, Mary (1983), "ban, Encyclopdia Iranica,
1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p. 58
Boyce, Mary (1983),Anhd, Encyclopdia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp.
10031009
Cumont, Franz (1926), Anahita, in Hastings,
James, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 1, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark
Dandamaev, Muhammad A; Lukonin, Vladimir G
(1989), The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient
Iran, New York: Cambridge UP, ISBN 0-521-321077
Darmesteter, James (1892), Le Zend-Avesta, I,
Annales du Muse Guimet, Paris: Muse Guimet, 21
Darrow, William R (1988),Keeping the Waters Dry:
The Semiotics of Fire and Water in the Zoroastrian
'Yasna'", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 56 (3): 417442, doi:10.1093/jaarel/lvi.3.417
de Jong, Albert (1997), Traditions of the Magi:
Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin literature, BRILL
Girshman, Roman (1962), Persian art, Parthian and
Sassanian dynasties, London: Golden Press
Gray, Louis H (1926), A List of the Divine
and Demonic Epithets in the Avesta, Journal
of the American Oriental Society, 46: 97153,
doi:10.2307/593793, JSTOR 593793
Jacobs, Bruno (2006), Anahita, Iconography of
Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East (Electronic Pre-Publication) (PDF), Leiden: U Zrich/Brill
Kleiss, Wolfram (2005),Kangavar, Encyclopdia
Iranica Online, OT 7, Costa Mesa: Mazda Pub
Lommel, Herman (1927), Die Yats des Awesta,
Gttingen-Leipzig: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/JC
Hinrichs
Lommel, Herman (1954), Anahita-Sarasvati,
in Schubert, Johannes; Schneider, Ulrich, Asiatica:
Festschrift Friedrich Weller Zum 65. Geburtstag,
Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, pp. 405413
MacKenzie, David Neil (1964), Zoroastrian
Astrology in the 'Bundahin'", Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies, London: University of London, 27 (3): 511529,
doi:10.1017/S0041977X0011835X
355
Meyer, Eduard (1886), Anaitis, Ausfhrliches
Lexikon der griechischen und rmischen Mythologie, I,
Leipzig: WH Roscher, pp. 330334
Monier-Williams, Monier (1898), A Sanskrit-English
Dictionary, New York: OUP
Nldecke, Theodor (ed.) (1879), Geschichte der
Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, Leiden: Brill
(repr. 1973)
Nyberg, Henrik Samuel (1938), Die Religionen des alten Iran, Leipzig: JC Hinrichs
Taqizadeh, Sayyid Hasan (1938), Old Iranian Calendars (Prize Publication Fund, Vol. 16), London:
Royal Asiatic Society
Tseretheli, MIchael (January 1935). The Asianic
(Asia Minor) elements in national Georgian paganism
. Georgica. 1 (1): 55. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
Widengren, Geo (1955), Stand und Aufgaben der
iranischen Religionsgeschichte: II. Geschichte der
iranischen Religionen und ihre Nachwirkung, Numen, 2 (1/2): 47134, doi:10.2307/3269455, JSTOR
3269455
Widengren, Geo (1965), Die Religionen Irans (Die Religion der Menschheit, Vol. 14), Stuttgart: Kohlhammer
Chapter 120
Celadon (river)
The Celadon is a mythological river of Arcadia crossed by
Heracles in pursuit of the Hind of Ceryneia, according to
Pindar: it is mentioned by Strabo. Pausanias names it the
Celadus and states that it is a tributary of the Alpheus.
In Homer's Iliad it is described as being under the walls of
Pheia, not far from the river Iardanus, on the borders of
Pylos:* [1] Ereuthalion was killed by Nestor here.
120.1 References
[1] Gill, N.S. Places in the Iliad. About.com. Retrieved 23
May 2011.
Revd J. Banks (1856). The works of Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis. London: H.G. Bohn. p. 141.
Michael Grant; John Hazel (2002). Who's who in classical mythology. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN 0-41526041-8.
John Lemprire (1823). A classical dictionary: containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in ancient authors (12th ed.). Printed for T.
Cadell. p. 166.
356
Chapter 121
Gihon
Iran and Kush with the land of the Kassites.* [7]
For the Okinawan king, see Gihon

(Ryukyu).
For the Gihon Spring in Jerusalem, see
Gihon Spring.
121.1
Gihon is the name of the second river mentioned in the

second chapter of the biblical Book of Genesis. The Gihon
is mentioned as one of four rivers (along with the Tigris,
Euphrates, and Pishon) issuing out of the Garden of Eden
that branched from a single river within the garden. The
name (Hebrew Gin )may be interpreted asbursting
forth, gushing.
See also
al-Qurnah
121.2
The Gihon is described as encircling the entire land of

Cush", a name associated with Ethiopia elsewhere in the
Bible or Kush. This is one of the reasons that Ethiopians have long identied the Gihon (Giyon) with the Abay
River (Blue Nile), which encircles the former kingdom
of Gojjam. From a current geographic standpoint this
would seem impossible, since two of the other rivers said
to issue out of Eden, the Tigris and the Euphrates, are in
Mesopotamia. However, the scholar Edward Ullendor has
argued in support of this identication.* [1] The city in the
Mesopotamian area which best ts the description is called
Kish (derivative of Kush or Cush) located in a plain area
(Sumerian 'edin') and resembles an area that is repeatedly
ooded by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.
Nineteenth century, modern, and Arabic scholars have
sought to identify theland of Cushwith Hindu Kush, and
Gihon with Amu Darya (Jihon/Jayhon of the Islamic texts).
Amu Darya was known in the medieval Islamic writers as
Jayhun or Ceyhun in Turkish.* [2] This was a derivative of
Jihon, or Zhihon as it is still known by the Persians.* [3]* [4]
First-century Jewish historian Josephus associated the Gihon river with the Nile.* [5]
Gihon has also been associated with the Araxes (modern
Aras) river of Turkey. Another theory is that the Gihon
river no longer exists, due to topographical changes caused
by the Noachian Flood.* [6]
Juris Zarins identied the Gihon with the Karun River in
357
References
[1] Edward Ullendor, Ethiopia and the Bible (Oxford: University Press for the British Academy, 1968), p. 2.
[2] Encyclopdia Britannica Online - Amu Darya
[3] William C. Brice. 1981. Historical Atlas of Islam. Leiden
with support and patronage from Encyclopaedia of Islam.
ISBN 90-04-06116-9.
[4] Svat Soucek. 2000. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-65704-0.
[5] Jewish Antiquities, 1.39
[6] Ham, Ken (20 August 2013). Where Was the Garden of
Eden Located?". Answers in Genesis. Retrieved 12 October
2016.
[7] Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987).Has the Garden of Eden
been located at last?" (PDF). Smithsonian Magazine. 18 (2).
Retrieved 8 January 2014.
Chapter 122
Hubur
world.* [6] Linda Foubister has suggested the river of creation was linked with the importance of rivers and rain in
the fertile crescent and suggested it was related to the underworld as rivers resemble snakes.* [7] Samuel Eugene Balentine suggested that thepit(sahar) andriverorchannel
(salah) in the Book of Job (Job 33:18) were referencing the
Hubur.* [8] The god Marduk was praised for restoration or
saving individuals from death when he drew them out of the
waters of the Hubur, a later reference to this theme is made
in Psalm 18 (Psalms 18).* [9]
River of the netherworld
Hubur (U.BUR, Hu-bur) is a Sumerian term meaning 122.2 Mythology

river,watercourseornetherworld, written ideographically with the cuneiform signs
.* [1]* [2]* [3] It is
*
The river plays a certain role in Mesopotamian mytholusually the river of the netherworld. [4]
ogy and Assyro-Babylonian religion, associated with
the Sumerian paradise and heroes and deities such as
Gilgamesh, Enlil, Enki and Ninlil.* [4] The Hubur was sug122.1 Usage and meaning
gested to be between the twin peaks of Mount Mashu to the
east in front of the gates of the netherworld. The Sumerian
A connection to Tiamat has been suggested with parallels to myth of Enlil and Ninlil tells the tale of the leader of the
her description asUmmu-Hubur. Hubur is also referred gods, Enlil being banished to the netherworld followed by
to in the Enuma Elish asmother sea Hubur, who fashions his wife Ninlil.* [10] It mentions the river and its ferryman,
all things.* [5] The river Euphrates has been identied with SI.LU.IGI, who crosses the river in a boat. Themes of this
Hubur as the source of fertility in Sumer. This Babylonian story are repeated later in the Epic of Gilgamesh where the
river of creationhas been linked to the Hebrew river ferryman is called Urshanabi. In later Assyrian times, the
of paradise".* [3] Gunkel and Zimmern suggested resem- ferryman became a monster called Hamar-tabal and may
blance in expressions and a possible connection between have inuenced the later Charon of Greek Mythology.* [4]
the Sumerian river and that found in later literary tradition In another story a four-handed, bird demon carries souls
in the Book of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 47) likely inuencing im- across to the city of the dead. Several Akkadian demons
agery of the River of Water of Life" in the Apocalypse are also restrained by the river Hubur. The river is men(Revelation 22). They also noted a connection between the tioned in the Inscription of Ilum-Ishar, written on bricks at
Water of Lifein the legend of Adapa and a myth trans- Mari. Nergal, god of the netherworld is referred to asking
lated by A.H. Sayce called An address to the river of Huburin a list of Sumerian gods. The word is also used
creation.* [3] Delitzch has suggested the similar Sume- into the Assyrian empire where it was used as the name of
rian word Habur probably meant mighty water source the tenth month in a calendar dated to around 1100 BC.
, source of fertilityor the like. This has suggested the There was also a goddess called Haburitim mentioned in
meaning of Hubur to be river of fertility in the under- texts from the Third dynasty of Ur.* [10]
358
122.5. NOTES
359
122.3 Cosmology and geography
[6] The Evidence of Language. CUP Archive. pp.

GGKEY:4T5W4APR1T2. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
In Sumerian cosmology, the souls of the dead had to

travel across the desert or steppe, cross the Hubur river, to
the mountainland of Kur.* [5] Here the souls had to pass
through seven dierent walled and gated locations to reach
the netherworld.* [11] The Annanuki administrated Kur as
if it were a civilized settlement both architecturally and politically.* [11]
[7] Linda Foubister (October 2003). Goddess in the Grass: Serpentine Mythology and the Great Goddess. Linda Foubister.
29.
[8] Samuel Eugene Balentine (November 2006). Job. Smyth &

Helwys Pub. ISBN 978-1-57312-067-8. Retrieved 7 June
2011.
Frans Wiggermann connected Hubur to the Habur, a trib- [9] John H. Walton; Victor Harold Matthews; Mark William
Chavalas (2000). The IVP Bible background commentary:
utary of the Euphrates far away from the Sumerian heartOld Testament. InterVarsity Press. pp. 522. ISBN 978-0*
land, [5] there was also a town called Haburatum east of
8308-1419-0. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
the Tigris.* [10] He suggested that as the concept of the
netherworld (as opposed to an underworld) in Sumerian [10] K. van der Toorn; Bob Becking; Pieter Willem van der Horst
(1999). Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible DDD.
cosmogeny lacked the modern concept of an accompanying
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 431. ISBN 978-90-04divine ruler of a location underneath the earth, the geo11119-6. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
graphical terminology suggested that it was located at the
edges of the world and that its features derived in part from [11] John H. Walton (1 November 2006). Ancient Near Eastern
real geography before shifting to become a demonic fantasy
thought and the Old Testament: introducing the conceptual
world.* [5]
world of the Hebrew Bible. Baker Academic. pp. 318.
122.4 See also

Styx
The Voyage of Life
Manunggul Jar - Early depiction on burial jar from
Tabon Caves on Palawan of boatman paddling across
river
122.5 Notes
[1] Webster's Online Dictionary, Sumerian 3100 BCE - 2500
BCE hubur (netherworld)
[2] Hairenik Association (1954). The Armenian review p.117.
Hairenik Association. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
[3] L. W. King (19 March 2004). The Seven Tablets Of Creation:
The Babylonian And Assyrian Legends Concerning The Creation Of The World And Of Mankind. Kessinger Publishing.
[4] A. R. George (2003). The Babylonian Gilgamesh epic: introduction, critical edition and cuneiform texts. Oxford University Press. pp. 500. ISBN 978-0-19-927841-1. Retrieved
7 June 2011.
[5] Marianna E. Vogelzang; Herman L. J. Vanstiphout (February 1996). Mesopotamian poetic language: Sumerian and
Akkadian. BRILL. pp. 212. ISBN 978-90-72371-84-3.
Chapter 123
Iardanus
The River Iardanus or Iardanes (Ancient Greek: or ) denoted two or three small rivers in
classical antiquity, as well as the father of the Lydian queen
Omphale.
A Iardanus in Elis is referred to in passing in Iliad (Book
VII.135), where Nestor remembers Pylians and Arcadians
gathered in ght by the rapid river Celadon under the walls
of Pheia, and round about the waters of the river Iardanus.
Strabo (VII.3.12) notes, in describing the coast of ElisAfter Chelonatas comes the long sea-shore of the Pisatans; and
then Cape Pheia. And there was also a small town called
Pheia: 'beside the walls of Pheia, about the streams of Iardanus,'* [1] for there is also a small river near by. According
to some, Pheia is the beginning of Pisatis.
123.1
Notes
[1] Quoting Homer.

[2] Gordon, Before the Bible (London) 1962:284-85.
[3] Edwin M. Yamauchi, The Present Status of Mandaean
StudiesJournal of Near Eastern Studies 25.2 (April 1966,
pp. 88-96) p. 95f.
[4] Diodorus Siculus iv.31.5 (On-line text)
123.2
In the Odyssey (Book III.293), on the other hand, a River

Iardanus lies in northwestern CreteNestor again recalls
where the Cydonians dwell round about the waters of the
river Iardanus.
Yet in the 2nd century CE, Pausanias reports (v.5.9), of
a sulfurous-smelling river that descends from the mountain Lapithus in Arcadia, called the Acidas, I heard from
an Ephesian that the Acidas was called Iardanus in ancient
times. I repeat his statement, though I have nowhere found
evidence in support of it.Cyrus H. Gordon was the rst
to point out* [2] that Jordan in the Hebrew Bible is not a
proper name, but, with two exceptions, always appears with
a qualier, and suggested that on an early linguistic level it
may relate to the rivers in Crete and in the Greek mainland
as the word river. In the Mandaean cosmological accounts Jordan plays an important part, the river of living
water"; Mandaeans resist the connection with the geological
River Jordan.* [3]
Iardanus is specied by Diodorus Siculus as the father of
Omphale,the queen of the people who were called at that
time Maeonians, but now Lydians.* [4]
360
References
Georg Autenrieth. A Homeric Dictionary for Schools
Chapter 124
ngr
Not to be confused with Inger or iFinger.
In Norse mythology, Ing (Old Norse, ngr) is the name
of a river that separates Asgard, the realm of the gods, from
Jotunheim, the land of giants, according to stanza 16 of the
poem Vafthrudnismal from the Poetic Edda:
Ing the river is called, which divides the earth
between the sons of giants and the gods;
freely it will ow through all time,
ice never forms on the river.
Larrington trans.
John Lindow in Norse Mythology (2001) states in reference
to Ing that a river on which ice will never form is one that
runs swiftly and therefore is extremely dicult to ford (thus
forming an eective barrier between the worlds of gods and
giants).
124.1 References
Larrington, Carolyne (transl.) (1996). The Poetic
Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0-19-2839462.
Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0.
361
Chapter 125
River Malvam
The River Malvam (Anglicized: Malve), also known as the
Malva was a mythical river in ancient North Africa where
the Roman province of Mauretania would be. Mentioned by
the medieval mytho-historians Georey of Monmouth and
Nennius in their histories, they say Brutus of Troy stopped
there because his ships had run out of supplies. Georey
adds that his army conquered all the Mauretanian coast to
resupply. After this restocking, the ships set sail for the
straits of Gibraltar.
362
Chapter 126
Pahruli
In Tamil literature, Pahruli (Tamil:, Pahruli) is a
mythical ancient river located in the sunken landmass of
Kumari Kandam. The Silappadhikaram, one of the Five
Great Epics of Tamil Literature written in the rst few centuries CE, states that the 'cruel sea took the Pandiyan land
that lay between the rivers Pahruli and the mountainous
banks of the Kumari, to replace which the Pandiyan king
conquered lands belonging to the Chola and Chera kings
(Maturaikkandam, verses 17-22).
363
Chapter 127
Pishon
Some early modern scholars such as A.D. Calumet (1672
1757) and later gues such as Rosenmller (17681835),
and Kell (18071888), believed the source river [for Eden]
was a region of springs: The Pishon and Gihon were
mountain streams. The former may have been the Phasis
or Araxes, and the latter the Oxus.* [3] James A. Sauer,
former curator of the Harvard Semitic Museum, made an
argument from geology and history that Pishon referred to
what is now the Wadi Bisha, a dry channel which begins
in the Hijaz Mountains near Medina to run northeast to
Kuwait.* [4] With the aid of satellite photos, Farouk El-Baz
of Boston University traced the dry channel from Kuwait
up the Wadi Al-Batin and the Wadi Al-Rummah system
originating near Medina.* [5]
David Rohl identied Pishon with the Uizhun, placing Havilah to the northeast of Mesopotamia. The Uizhun is known
locally as the Golden River. Rising near Mt. Sahand, it meanders between ancient gold mines and lodes of lapis lazuli
before feeding the Caspian Sea. Such natural resources corPicture of mosaic representing Pishon from Church of Theodorias respond to the ones associated with the land of Havilah in
(Qasr Libya) ca 539 CE.
Genesis.
The Pishon (Hebrew: Pn) is one of four rivers
(along with Hiddekel (Tigris), Phrath (Euphrates) and
Gihon) mentioned in the Biblical Book of Genesis. In that
passage, these rivers are described as arising within the
Garden of Eden. The Pishon is described as encirclingthe
entire land of Havilah.* [1]
127.2
127.1 Identication
Unlike the Tigris and the Euphrates, the Pishon has never
been clearly located. It is briey mentioned together with
the Tigris in the Wisdom of Sirach (24:25), but this reference throws no more light on the location of the river. The
Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus, in the beginning
of his Antiquities of the Jews (1st century AD) identied
the Pishon with the Ganges.* [2] The medieval French rabbi
Rashi identied it with the Nile.
364
References
[1] Genesis 2:11

[2] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews - Book I.
Chapter 1.3. And Phison, which denotes a multitude, running into India, makes its exit into the sea, and is by the
Greeks called Ganges. Euphrates also, as well as Tigris, goes
down into the Red Sea.
[3] Duncan, George S. (October 1929) The Birthplace of
ManThe Scientic Monthly 29(4): pp. 359-362, p. 360.
[4] James A. Sauer,The River Runs Dry,Biblical Archaeology Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, July/August 1996, pp. 52-54,
57, 64
[5] Farouk El-Baz,A river in the desert, Discover, July 1993.
Chapter 128
Sambation
According to rabbinic literature, the Sambation is the river the rest of Jewry by the legendary river Sambationwhose
beyond which the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel were exiled by foaming waters raise high up into the sky a wall of re and
the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V.
smoke that is impossible to pass through.* [2]
Obadiah ben Abraham writes that he was informed by
Adeni Jews in Jerusalem, that they had heard from Muslim
merchants that the river was located about fty-days' walking distance from their place as one journeys through the
desert.* [3] The river, which ows with rocks for six days a
week, completely surrounded a land inhabited by Jews who
could not ever leave, for by doing so, Shabbat would be desecrated. These Jews were all the ospring of Moses and
were as holy as angels and sinless.* [1]
128.1 Location
In the earliest references, such as the Targum PseudoJonathan, the river is given no particular attributes, but later
literature claims it rages with rapids and throws up stones
six days a week, or even consists entirely of stone, sand and
ame. For those six days the Sambation is impossible to
cross, but it stops owing every Shabbat, the day Jews are In modern literature, the Sambation appears prominently in
not allowed to travel; some writers say this is the origin of Umberto Eco's novel Baudolino, whose protagonists manage to cross the raging river of stones - but nd on the other
the name.
side, not the Lost Ten Tribes but the Kingdom of Prester
Pliny the Elder, writing in the mid-1st century, mentions John of Christian myth.
that there is a river in Judaea that dries up every Shabbat
(NH xxxi.18). His younger contemporary Josephus speaks
of the Sabbatical River () that he claims was 128.2 See also
called after the sacred seventh day of the Jewsand that
he locates between Arka (in the northern Lebanon range)
Ramlat al-Sab`atayn
and Raphanaea (in Upper Syria) (War 7.96-99), although
according to his account it is dry for six days and ows
only on Shabbat. The Sambation was also a popular subject
in medieval literature, for instance, some versions of the 128.3 References
Alexander Romance have Alexander the Great encounter
The Chazon Ish on locating the Sambation:
the river on his travels. Others have said it is an active
: : :
volcano (which explains the rapids, stones, re and smoke)
which rests on the Sabbath.
In 1280, Abraham Abulaa (1240 c. 1291), a mystic
and Kabbalist, set out to nd the Sambation. He stopped
in Rome to see Pope Nicholas III. The meeting never took
place; Abulaa was jailed. The purpose of his attempted
meeting is unknown, but Abulaa apparently believed he
was the Messiah. Nahmanides identies the Sambation
with the Guzana River mentioned in II Kings, located in
Medes.* [1]
128.4
An Ashkenazi Jewish tradition speaks of the Lost Tribes

as Die Roite Yiddelech, The little red Jews", cut o from
365
Notes
[1] Pathway to Jerusalem, CIS, 1992. pg. 68.

[2] Moses Rosen. The Recipe(published as epilogue to The
Face of Survival, 1987).
[3] Avraham Yari, Igros Eretz Yisroel (Letters of the Land of Israel), in the Letter of Rabbi Obadiah di Bertinora from
Jerusalem to his Brother,written in 1489, Tel-Aviv 1943,
p. 140 (in PDF) [Hebrew].
366

PBS: The Lost Tribes
Sambation from the Jewish Encyclopedia
CHAPTER 128. SAMBATION
Chapter 129
Sarasvati River
For other rivers of the same name, see Saraswati River (dis- Ghaggar-Hakra River system, which ows through northambiguation).
western India and Pakistan. This was proposed by sevThe Sarasvati River (Sanskrit: srasvat eral scholars in the 19th and early 20th century. More recently, satellite images have conrmed that a more signicant river once followed the course of the present day Ghaggar River.* [5] Indian Remote Sensing satellite data, along
with digital elevation models, were combined with historical maps, archaeological sites, hydro-geological and drilling
data to chart this river's course. It was observed that major
Indus Valley Civilization sites at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),
Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal
(Gujarat) also lay along this course.* [6]* [7]
Another theory suggests that the Helmand River of southern
Afghanistan corresponds to the Sarasvati River.* [8]
129.1
Etymology
The Ghaggar river owing through Panchkula, Haryana, India.

The Ghaggar-Hakra system has been identied as the Vedic Sarasvati river by many modern researchers.
Sarasvat is the devi feminine of an adjective sarasvant(which occurs in the Rigveda* [9] as the name of the
keeper of the celestial waters), derived from Proto-IndoIranian
*sras-vat- (and earlier, PIE *sles-u n t-ih), meannad ) is one of the main Rigvedic rivers mentioned in the
ing marshy, full of pools, or she with many lakes.
scripture Rig Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts.
It plays an important role in Hinduism, since Vedic San- The other term -vat is the Sanskrit grammatical feminine
skrit and the rst part of the Rig Veda are regarded to have possessor sux.
originated when the Vedic people lived on its banks, dur- Sanskrit sras means pool, pond or lake; the feminine
ing the 2nd millennium BCE.* [1] The goddess Sarasvati saras means stagnant pool, swamp.* [10] Like its cogwas originally a personication of this river, but later de- nates Welsh hl, heledd river meadowand Greek
veloped an independent identity.* [2] The Nadistuti hymn (hlos)swamp, the Rigvedic term refers mostly to stagin the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the nant waters, and Mayrhofer considers unlikely a connection
Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west. Later Vedic with the root *sar- run, ow.* [11]
texts like the Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas, as well as Sarasvat is an exact cognate with Avestan Harax* vat,
the Mahabharata, mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a perhaps* [12] originally referring to Ardv Sr Anhit
desert. The Sarasvati is also considered by Hindus to ex- (modern Ardwisur Anahid), the Zoroastrian mythological
ist in a metaphysical form, in which it formed a conuence world river, which would point to a common Indo-Iranian
with the sacred rivers Ganges and Yamuna, at the Triveni myth of a cosmic or mystical Sras-vat- river. In the
Sangam.* [3] The name Sarasvati was also given to a forma- younger Avesta, Harax* vat is Arachosia, a region detion in the Milky Way.* [4]
scribed to be rich in rivers, and its Old Persian cognate HaModern scholars have identied the Sarasvati River with the rauvati, which gave its name to the present-day Hrt River
367
368
CHAPTER 129. SARASVATI RIVER
in Afghanistan, may have referred to the entire Helmand 129.3.1 Praise

drainage basin (the center of Arachosia).
The Sarasvati is praised lavishly in the Rigveda as
the best of all the rivers: e.g. in RV 2.41.16 she is
called mbitame ndtame dvitame srasvati, best
mother, best river, best goddess. Other verses of
129.2 Importance
praise include RV 6.61.8-13, RV 7.96 and RV 10.17.
In some hymns, the Indus river seems to be more imThe Saraswati river was revered and considered important
portant than the Sarasavati, especially in the Nadistuti
for Hindus because it is said that it was on this river's banks,
sukta. In RV 8.26.18, the white owing Sindhu 'with
along with its tributary Drishadwati, in the Vedic state of
golden wheels' is the most conveying or attractive of
Brahmavarta, that Vedic Sanskrit had its genesis,* [13] imthe rivers.
portant Vedic scriptures like Manusmriti, initial part of
Rigveda and several Upanishads were supposed to have
RV 7.95.2. and other verses (e.g. RV 8.21.18) speak
been composed by Vedic seers. In the Manusmriti, Brahof the Sarasvati pouringmilk and ghee.Rivers are
mavarta is portrayed as the purecentre of Vedic culoften likened to cows in the Rigveda, for example in
ture. Bridget and Raymond Allchin in The Rise of CivilizaRV 3.33.1,
tion in India and Pakistan took the view that The earliest Aryan homeland in India-Pakistan (Aryavarta or BrahLike two bright mother cows who lick their
mavarta) was in the Punjab and in the valleys of the Saras*
youngling,
vati and Drishadvati rivers in the time of the rigveda. [14]
In 2015, Reuters reported that members of the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh believe that proof of the physical existence of the Vedic river would bolster their concept of
a golden age of Hindu India, before invasions by Muslims and Christians.The Bharatiya Janata Party Government had therefore ordered archaeologists to search for the
river.* [15]
129.3 In the Rigveda
Vipas and Sutudri speed down their waters.

Strong attention has been given to the Sarasvati River
in the Rigveda along with several suktas dedicated to
it. As such it seems there are a number of Sarasvatis with the earliest Sarasvati not identiable with
the Hakra and Ghaggar. The Sarasvati River is perceived to be a great river with perennial water. The
Hakra and Ghaggar cannot be compared to it. The
earliest Sararvati is said to be similar to the Helmand
in Afghanistan which is called the Harakhwati in the
vest.* [17]
The phrase srasvat saptth sndhumt of RV
7.36.6 has been rendered as " Sarasvati the Seventh,
Mother of Floodsin a popular translation.* [18] While
this takes a tatpurusha interpretation of sndhumt,
the word is actually a bahuvrihi.* [19]
Map of northern India in the late Vedic period
The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all but the fourth book

of the Rigveda. The most important hymns related to Sarasvati are RV 6.61, RV 7.95 and RV 7.96.* [16]
Pavaka nah saravati, vajebhir vajinivati; Yajnam

vastu dhiyavasuh.
Codayitri sunrtanam, cetanti
sumatinam; Yajnam dadhe sarasvati. Maho arnah
sarasvati, pra cetayati ketuna; Dhiyo visva vi rajati
verse from Rigveda* [20] The complete translation
would be in Sri Aurobindo's own words: May purifying Sarasvati with all the plenitude of her forms
of plenty, rich in substance by the thought, desire
our sacrice. She, the impeller to happy truths,
the awakener in consciousness to right mentalisings,
Sarasvati, upholds the sacrice.
Sarasvati by the perception awakens in consciousness the great ood (the
vast movement of the ritam) and illumines entirely all
the thoughts "* [21]
129.3. IN THE RIGVEDA
129.3.2
369
Course
The late Rigvedic Nadistuti sukta enumerates all important rivers from the Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in a clear geographical order. Here (RV
10.75.5), the sequence Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati,
Shutudri" places the Sarasvati between the Yamuna
and the Sutlej, which is consistent with the Ghaggar
identication.
Verses in RV 6.61 indicate that the Sarasvati river
originated in the hills or mountains (giri), where she
burst with her strong waves the ridges of the hills
(giri)". It is a matter of interpretation whether this
refers only to the Himalayan foothills, where the
present-day Sarasvati (Sarsuti) river ows, or to higher
mountains.
RV 3.23.4 mentions the Sarasvati River together with
the Drsadvati River and the pay River. RV 6.52.6
describes the Sarasvati as swollen (pinvamn) by the
rivers (sindhubhih).
While RV 6.61.12 associates the Sarasvati River with
the ve tribes; and RV 7.95-6 with the Paravatas and
the Purus; in RV 8.21.18, a number of petty kings are
said to dwell along the course of Sarasvati,
Citra is King, and only kinglings [rjaka] are the
rest who dwell beside Sarasvati.
In RV 7.95.1-2, the Sarasvati is described as owing to
the samudra, a word now usually translated as ocean.
This stream Sarasvati with fostering current comes
forth, our sure defence, our fort of iron.
As on a chariot, the ood ows on, surpassing in
majesty and might all other waters.
Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean,
alone of streams Sarasvati hath listened.
Thinking of wealth and the great world of creatures, she poured for Nahusa her milk and fatness.
129.3.3
As a goddess
Main article: Saraswati

The Sarasvati is mentioned some fty times in the hymns
of the Rig Veda.* [22] it is mentioned in thirteen hymns of
the late books (1 and 10) of the Rigveda.* [23] Only two of
these references are unambiguously to the river: 10.64.9,
calling for the aid of three great rivers, Sindhu, Sarasvati and Sarayu; and 10.75.5, the geographical list of the
Painting of Goddess Saraswati by Raja Ravi Varma
Nadistuti sukta. The others invoke Sarasvati as a goddess

without direct connection to a specic river.
In 10.30.12, her origin as a river goddess may explain her
invocation as a protective deity in a hymn to the celestial
waters. In 10.135.5, as Indra drinks Soma he is described
as refreshed by Sarasvati. The invocations in 10.17 address
Sarasvati as a goddess of the forefathers as well as of the
present generation. In 1.13, 1.89, 10.85, 10.66 and 10.141,
she is listed with other gods and goddesses, not with rivers.
In 10.65, she is invoked together withholy thoughts(dh )
andmunicence(puradhi), consistent with her role as
a goddess of both knowledge and fertility.
Though Sarasvati initially emerged as a river goddess in the
Vedic scriptures, in later Hinduism of the Puranas, she was
rarely associated with the river. Instead she emerged as an
independent goddess of knowledge, learning, wisdom, music and the arts. The evolution of the river goddess into the
goddess of knowledge started with later Brahmanas, which
identied her as Vgdev, the goddess of speech, perhaps
due to the centrality of speech in the Vedic cult and the development of the cult on the banks of the river. It is also
possible that two independently postulated goddesses were
fused into one in later Vedic times.* [2] Aurobindo has proposed, on the other hand, thatthe symbolism of the Veda
370
betrays itself to the greatest clearness in the gure of the a desert (at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana);* [31]
goddess Sarasvati...She is, plainly and clearly, the goddess after having disappeared in the desert, reappears in
of the Word, the goddess of a divine inspiration....* [24] some places;* [32] and joins the sea impetuously.* [33]
MB.3.81.115 locates the state of Kurupradesh or Kuru
Kingdom to the south of the Sarasvati and north of the
Drishadvati. The dried-up, seasonal Ghaggar River in
129.4 Other Vedic texts
Rajasthan and Haryana reects the same geographical view
described in the Mahabharata.
In post-Rigvedic literature, the disappearance of the Sarasvati is mentioned. Also the origin of the Sarasvati is identi- According to Hindu scriptures, a journey was made dured as Plaksa Prasravana (Peepal tree or Ashwattha tree as ing the Mahabharata by Balrama along the banks of the
Saraswati from Dwarka to Mathura. There were ancient
known in India and Nepal).* [25]* [26]
kingdoms too (the era of the Mahajanapads) that lay in parts
In a supplementary chapter of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita of
of north Rajasthan and that were named on the Saraswati
the Yajurveda (34.11), Sarasvati is mentioned in a conRiver.* [34]* [35]* [36]* [37]
text apparently meaning the Sindhu: Five rivers owing on their way speed onward to Sarasvati, but then become Sarasvati a vefold river in the land.* [27] According Puranas
to the medieval commentator Uvata, the ve tributaries of
the Sarasvati were the Punjab rivers Drishadvati, Satudri
(Sutlej), Chandrabhaga (Chenab), Vipasa (Beas) and the Several Puranas describe the Sarasvati River, and also
Iravati (Ravi).
record that the river separated into a number of lakes
*
The rst reference to the disapparance of the lower course (saras). [38]
of the Sarasvati is from the Brahmanas, texts that are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, but dating to a later date than the
Veda Samhitas. The Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.297) speaks
of the 'diving under (upamajjana) of the Sarasvati', and
the Tandya Brahmana (or Pancavimsa Br.) calls this the
'disappearance' (vinasana). The same text (25.10.11-16)
records that the Sarasvati is 'so to say meandering' (kubjimati) as it could not sustain heaven which it had propped
up.* [28]* [note 1]
The Plaksa Prasravana (place of appearance/source of the
river) may refer to a spring in the Siwalik mountains. The
distance between the source and the Vinasana (place of disappearance of the river) is said to be 44 asvina (between
several hundred and 1600 miles) (Tandya Br. 25.10.16; cf.
Av. 6.131.3; Pancavimsa Br.).* [29]
In the Latyayana Srautasutra (10.15-19) the Sarasvati seems
to be a perennial river up to the Vinasana, which is west
of its conuence with the Drshadvati (Chautang). The Drshadvati is described as a seasonal stream (10.17), meaning
it was not from Himalayas. Bhargava* [30] has identied
Drashadwati river as present day Sahibi river originating
from Jaipur hills in Rajasthan. The Asvalayana Srautasutra
and Sankhayana Srautasutra contain verses that are similar
to the Latyayana Srautasutra.
129.5 Post-Vedic texts

The Mahabharata
According to the Mahabharata, the Sarasvati dried up in
In the Skanda Purana, the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma and ows from Plaksa on the Himalayas.
It then turns west at Kedara and also ows underground.
Five distributaries of the Sarasvati are mentioned.* [39]
The text regards Sarasvati as a form of Brahma's consort
Brahmi.* [40] According to the Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the
Sarasvati rose from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree).* [38]
Smritis
In the Manu Smriti, the sage Manu, escaping from a
ood, founded the Vedic culture between the Sarasvati
and Drishadvati rivers. The Sarasvati River was thus
the western boundary of Brahmavarta: the land between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati is created by God;
this land is Brahmavarta.* [41]
Similarly, the Vasistha Dharma Sutra I.8-9 and 1213 locates Aryavarta to the east of the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the desert, to the west of
Kalakavana, to the north of the mountains of Pariyatra
and Vindhya and to the south of the Himalaya.
Patanjali's Mahbhya denes Aryavarta like the Vasistha Dharma Sutra.
The Baudhayana Dharmasutra gives similar denitions, declaring that Aryavarta is the land that lies west
of Kalakavana, east of Adarsana (where the Sarasvati
disappears in the desert), south of the Himalayas and
north of the Vindhyas.
129.6. IDENTIFICATION THEORIES
371
diving underof the Puranic Sarasvati, and the ending of
the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra river in a desert.
The identication of the Vedic Sarasvati River with the
Ghaggar-Hakra River was proposed by some scholars
in the 19th and early 20th century, including Christian
Lassen,* [55] Max Mller,* [56] Marc Aurel Stein, C.F.
Oldham* [57] and Jane Macintosh.* [58] Danino notes that
the 1500 km-long bed of the Sarasvatiwas rediscoveredin the 19th century.* [59] According to Danino,most
Indologistswere convinced in the 19th century that the
bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra was the relic of the Sarasvati.
*
[59]
Romila Thapar terms the identication controversial

and dismisses it, noticing that the descriptions of Sarasvati
Vedic rivers
owing through the high mountainsdoes not tally with
Ghaggar's course and suggests that Sarasvati is Haraxvati
129.6 Identication theories
of Afghanistan.* [60] Wilke suggests that the identication
is problematic since the Ghaggar-Hakra river was already
Attempts have been made to identify the mythical Sarasvati dried up at the time of the composition of the Vedas,* [61]
of the Vedas with physical rivers.* [42] Many think that the let alone the migration of the Vedic people into northern
Vedic Sarasvati river once owed east of the Indus (Sindhu) India.* [62]* [63]
river.* [43] Scientists, geologists as well as scholars have
identied the Sarasvati with many present-day or now deCourse of the historical Ghaggar-Hakra River
funct rivers.
Two theories are popular in the attempts to identify the
Sarasvati. Several scholars have identied the river with
the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River or dried up part
of it, which is located in Northwestern India and Pakistan.* [44]* [45]* [46]* [47] A second popular theory associates the river with the Helmand river or an ancient river in
the present Helmand Valley in Afghanistan.* [8]* [48] Others consider Sarasvati a mythical river.
129.6.1
Ghaggar-Hakra River
Main article: Ghaggar-Hakra River
The historical Ghaggar-Hakra river, identied with the

Sarasvati, owed down the present Ghaggar-Hakra River
channel, and that of the Nara in Sindh.* [64] Satellite images in possession of the ISRO and ONGC have conrmed
that the major course of a river ran through the present-day
Ghaggar River.* [65]
The full ow of the paleo-Ghaggar-Hakra River was not
present during the Holocene. According to Liviu Giosan
et al. and Clift et al. the Yamuna and Sutlej were lost
during the Pleistocene, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River was
a much smaller river, fed entirely by monsoon rains rather
than glacial streams, during the mid-late Holocene (including the Vedic period).* [42]* [66]* [note 2]
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is a seasonal river in India and In 2016, A committee constituted by Government of India
constituted on Palaeochannels of North-West India: RePakistan that ows only during the monsoon season.
view and Assessment, concluded that Saraswati river had
two branches eastern & western. The eastern branch inIdentication with the Sarasvati
cluded Sarsuti-Markanda rivulets in Haryana and the western branches included Ghaggar-Patiali channels. The comMany scholars as well as geologists have iden- mittee considers that branches met near Patiala, at Shatrana,
tied the Sarasvati river with the present-day then owed as a large river.* [67]
Ghaggar-Hakra River, or the dried up part of
it.* [45]* [46]* [47]* [49]* [50]* [51]* [52]* [53]* [54]
The
main arguments are the supposed position east of the In- Drying-up of the Ghaggar-Hakra system
dus, which corresponds with the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed;
the actual absence of a mighty rivereast of the Indus, Late in the 2nd millennium BCE the Ghaggar-Hakra uwhich may be explained by the drying up of the historical vial system dried up, which aected the Harappan civilisaGhaggar-Hakra river; and the resemblance between the tion. Giosan et al., in their study Fluvial landscapes of the
372
Harappan civilisation,* [42] make clear that the Ghaggarthe river Sutlej by the river Beas which rendered part
Hakra uvial system was not a large glacier-fed Himalayan
of the river dry.* [72]
*
*
river, but a monsoonal-fed river. [note 3] [note 2] They
The lack of water far down the old course threatens the
concluded that the Indus Valley Civilisation died out bevegetation necessary to help maintain the river. It is
cause the monsoons, which fed the rivers that supported
also assumed that the plains formed during the course
the civilisation, migrated to the east. With the rivers dryof the river was a part of Indo Gangetic plains which
ing out as a result, the civilisation diminished some 4000
*
later turned to Thar Desert after the depletion of River
years ago. [42] This particular eected the Ghaggar-Hakra
Sarasvati.* [72]* [73]
system, which became ephemeral and was largely aban*
doned. [68] The Indus Valley Civilisation had the option
to migrate east toward the more humid regions of the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, where the decentralized late Harap- Identication with the Indus Valley Civilisation
pan phase took place.* [68]
The Indus Valley Civilisation (Harrapan Civilisation),
Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found which is named after the Indus, was largely located on the
in the bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra banks of and in the proximity of the Ghaggar-Hakra uvial
river, suggesting that the river had dried up before this pe- system.* [74]
riod.* [69]
The Indus Valley Civilisation is sometimes called the
Other scenarios suppose that geological changes diverted Sarasvati culture, the Sarasvati Civilization, the
the Sutlej towards the Indus and the Yamuna towards the Indus-Sarasvati Civilizationor the Sindhu-Sarasvati
Ganges, following which the river did not have enough wa- Civilization, as it is theorized that the civilisation ourter to reach the sea any more and dried up in the Thar desert. ished on banks of the Sarasvati river, along with the InActive faults are present in the region, and lateral and verti- dus.* [46]* [47]* [75] Danino notes that the dating of the
cal tectonic movements have frequently diverted streams in Vedas to the third millennium BCE coincides with the mathe past. The Saraswati may have migrated westward due ture phase of the Indus Valley civilisation,* [76] and that it
to such uplift of the Aravallis.* [70] According to geologists is temptingto equate the Indus Valley and Vedic culPuri and Verma a major seismic activity in the Himalayan tures.* [77]
region caused the rising of the Bata-Markanda Divide. This
resulted in the blockage of the westward ow of Sarasvati
forcing the water back. Since the Yamun Tear opening 129.6.2 Helmand river
was not far o, the blocked water exited from the opening
into the Yamun system.* [71]
Main article: Helmand River
Apart from the above reasons, the following can be the possible reasons for the drying up of the river:
Suggestions for the identity of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati
River include the Helmand River in Afghanistan, separated
Capture of the waters of the Sarasvati by the adjoin- from the watershed of the Indus by the Sanglakh Range.
ing rivers, Sutlej and the Yamuna. During the Indus The Helmand historically besides Avestan Haetumant bore
period, the Sarasvati was a large river, receiving water the name Haraxvaiti, which is the Avestan form cognate
from the Sutlej and the Yamuna. The tectonic move- to Sanskrit Sarasvati. The Avesta extols the Helmand in
ments during this period resulted in a distinct separa- similar terms to those used in the Rigveda with respect to
tion of the river Yamuna from the Indus system. Over the Sarasvati: the bountiful, glorious Haetumant swelling
time, these waters were withdrawn and the river be- its white waves rolling down its copious ood.* [78]
came smaller and eventually dried up.* [72]
Kochhar (1999) argues that the Helmand is identical to the
early Rigvedic Sarasvati of suktas 2.41, 7.36 etc., and that
The banks have undergone intense erosion leading to
the Nadistuti sukta (10.75) was composed centuries later,
the collapse of the banks and drying of the river. Also,
after an eastward migration of the bearers of the Rigvedic
the river bed could be choked with modern moving
culture to the western Gangetic plain some 600 km to the
sand.* [72]
east. The Sarasvati by this time had become a mythical
disappearedriver,
and the name was transferred to the
Two major shifts in the course and the volume of water
Ghaggar
which
disappeared
in the desert.* [8]
associated with the river during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.* [72] The two major shifts were the drying The geographic situation of the Sarasvati and the Helof one of the important tributaries of the Sarasvati, re- mand rivers are similar. Both ow into a terminal lakes:
sulting in reduced volume of water and the capture of the Helmand into a swamp in the Iranian plateau (the ex-
129.8. CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS MEANING

tended wetland and lake system of Hamun-i-Helmand).
This matches the Rigvedic description of the Sarasvati owing to the samudra, which at that time meant 'conuence',
'lake', 'heavenly lake, ocean'; the current meaning of 'terrestrial ocean' was not even felt in the Pali Canon.* [79] In
post-Rig Vedic texts (Brahmanas) the Sarasvati (she who
has (many) lakes), is said to disappear (dive under)
in the desert.* [8]
129.6.3
Mythical river
According to Michael Witzel, superimposed on the Vedic

Sarasvati river is the heavenly river Milky Way, which
is seen as a road to immortality and heavenly afterlife.* [4]* [80]* [81] The description of the Sarasvati as the
river of heavens, is interpreted to suggest its mythical nature.* [45]
Ashoke Mukherjee (2001) is critical of the attempts to
identify the Rigvedic Sarasvati. Mukherjee notes that many
historians and archaeologists, both Indian and foreign, concluded that the wordSarasvati(literallybeing full of water) is not a noun, a specicthing. However, Mukherjee
believes that Sarasvatiis initially used by the Rig Vedic
people as an adjective to the Indus as a large river and later
evolved into anoun. Mukherjee concludes that the Vedic
poets had not seen the palaeo-Sarasvati, and that what they
described in the Vedic verses refers to something else. He
also suggests that in the post-Vedic and Puranic tradition the
disappearanceof Sarasvati, which to refers to "[going]
under [the] ground in the sands, was created as a complementary myth to explain the visible non-existence of the
river. Suggesting a political angle, he accusesthe BJP-led
Governments at the centre and in some states to boost up
Hindu religious sentiments and prejudices over some of the
sensitive areas of Indian history.* [82]
373
Veda accounts as factual descriptions, and dating the drying
up late in the third millennium, are incompatible.* [76] According to Danino, this suggests that the Vedic people were
present in northern India in the third millennium BCE,* [88]
a conclusion which is drawn by some Indian archaeologists, but not by Western archaeologists.* [76] Danino states
that there is an absence of any intrusive material culture in the Northwest during the second millennium BCE,
*
[76]* [note 6] a biological continuity in the skeletal remains,* [76]* [note 5] and a cultural continuity. Danino then
states that if the testimony of the Sarasvati is added to
this,
[T]he simplest and most natural conclusion is
that the Vedic culture was present in the region
in the third millennium.* [77]
Danino acknowledges that this asks forstudying its tentacular ramications into linguistics, archaeoastronomy, anthropology and genetics, besides a few other elds.* [77]
Annette Wilke notes that the historical riverSarasvati
was a topographically tangible mythogeme, which was
already reduced to a small, sorry tickle in the desert,
by the time of composition of the Hindu epics. These postVedic texts regularly talk about drying up of the river, and
start associating the goddess Sarasvati with language, rather
than the river.* [92]
Michael Witzel also notes that the Rig Veda indicates that
the Sarsvatihad already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra).
*
[62]* [note 7]* [note 8]
129.8
Contemporary
meaning
religious
129.7 Drying-up and dating of the

Vedas
Diana Eck notes that the power and signicance of the

Sarasvati for present-day India is in the persistent symbolic
presence at the conuence of rivers all over India.* [22] Although materially missing,* [95] she is the third river,
The Vedic and Puranic statements about the drying-up and which emerges to join in the meeting of rivers, thereby makdiving-under of the Sarasvati have been used as a refer- ing the waters triple holy.* [95]
ence point for the dating of the Harappan civilisation and After the Vedic Sarasvati dried, new myths about the rivers
the Vedic culture.* [3] Some see these texts as evidence for arose. Sarasvati is described to ow in the underworld and
an earlier dating of the Rig Veda, identifying the Sarasvati rise to the surface at some places.* [92] For centuries, the
with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, rejecting the Indo-Aryan Sarasvati river existed in a subtle or mythicform, since
migrations theory, which postulates a migration at 1500 it corresponds with none of the major rivers of present-day
BCE.* [note 4]* [note 5]
South Asia.* [3] The owing together of the Ganges and
Michel Danino places the composition of the Vedas in the Yamuna rivers at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, converging
third millennium BCE, a millennium earlier than the con- with the unseen Sarasvati river, which is believed to ow
ventional dates.* [76] Danino notes that accepting the Rig underground. The Padma Purana proclaims:
374

Sarasvati is the name of a river originating in the
Aravalli mountain range in Rajasthan, passing through
Sidhpur and Patan before submerging in the Rann of
Kutch.
Saraswati River, a tributary of Alaknanda River, originates near Badrinath
Saraswati River in Bengal, formerly a distributary of
the Hooghly River, has dried up since the 17th century.
129.9
Triveni Sangam, Allahabad - the conuence of Ganga, Yamuna
and the unseenSarasvati.
One who bathes and drinks there where

the Gang, Yamun and Sarasvati join enjoys
liberation. Of this there is no doubt.* [96]
The Kumbh Mela, a mass bathing festival is held at Triveni
Sangam, literally conuence of the three rivers, every
12 years.* [3]* [97]* [98] The belief of Sarasvati joining at
the conuence of the Ganges and Yamuna originates from
the Puranic scriptures and denotes the powerful legacy
the Vedic river left after her disappearance. The belief is
interpreted as symbolic.* [43] The three rivers Sarasvati, Yamuna, Ganga are considered consorts of the Hindu
Trinity (Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu (as Krishna) and Shiva
respectively.* [40]
In lesser known conguration, Sarasvati is said to form
the Triveni conuence with rivers Hiranya and Kapila at
Somnath. There are several other Trivenis in India where
two physical rivers are joined by the unseenSarasvati,
which adds to the sanctity of the conuence.* [99]
Romila Thapar notes thatonce the river had been mythologized through invoking the memory of the earlier river, its
name - Sarasvati - could be applied to many rivers, which
is what happened in various parts of the [Indian] subcontinent.* [60]
Several present-day rivers are also named Sarasvati, after
the Vedic Sarasvati:
Sarsuti is the present-day name of a river originating
in a submontane region (Ambala district) and joining
the Ghaggar near Shatrana in PEPSU. Near Sadulgarh
(Hanumangarh) the Naiwala channel, a dried out channel of the Sutlej, joins the Ghaggar. Near Suratgarh
the Ghaggar is then joined by the dried up Drishadvati
river.
Revival
According to the government of Indian state of Haryana,

research and satellite imagery of the region has conrmed
to have found the lost river when water was detected during
digging of the dry river bed at Yamunanagar. The government constituted Saraswati Heritage Development Board
(SHDB) had conducted a trial run on July 30, 2016 lling
the river bed with 100 cusecs of water which was pumped
into a dug-up channel from tubewells at Uncha Chandna
village in Yamunanagar. The water is expected to ll the
channel uptil Kurukshetra, a distnce of 40 kilometres. Once
conrmed that there is no obstructions in the ow of water,
the government proposes to ow in another 100 cusecs after a fortnight. There also are plans to build three dams on
the river route to keep it owing perennially.* [100]
129.10
See also
Brahmavarta
Drishadwati River
Sapta Sindhu
Saraswati - goddess
Indus River
Saraswat Brahmins
Triveni Sangam
Michel Danino - The lost River
Sarasvati Pushkaram
129.11
Notes
[1] See Witzel (1984)* [28] for discussion; for maps (1984) of
the area, p. 42 sqq.
129.12. REFERENCES
[2] Valdiya (2013) dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 37002500
years ago.
[3] Giosan et al. (2012, pp. 1688, 1689):
Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacierfed Himalayan river, identied by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the
interuve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we
show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there
during the Holocene.(Giosan et al. 2012, p. 1688)
Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that
the Ghaggar-Hakra uvial system, at times identied
with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7,
19), was a large glacierfed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River,
the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack
of large-scale incision on the interuve demonstrates
that large, glacier-fed rivers did not ow across the
Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene.(Giosan
et al. 2012, p. 1689)
[4] According to David Anthony, the Yamna culture was
the Urheimat of the Indo-Europeans at the Pontic
steppes.* [83] From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west,
south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.* [84] These languages may have been carried by small groups of males,
with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.* [83] Eastward emerged the Sintashta culture (21001800 BCE), from
which developed the Andronovo culture (18001400 BCE).
This culture interacted with the BMAC (23001700 BCE);
out of this interaction developed the Indo-Iranians, which
split around 1800 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.* [85] The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant, northern
India, and possibly south Asia.* [86]
[5] The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups,* [87]
which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language
spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and
the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.* [83]
[6] Michael Witzel points out that this is to expected from a mobile society, but that the Gandhara grave culture is a clear indication of new cultural elements.* [89] Michaels points out
that there are linguistic and archaeological data that shows
a cultural change after 1750 BCE,* [90] and Flood notices
that the linguistic and religious data clearly show links with
Indo-European languages and religion.* [91]
[7] Witzel: The autochthonous theory overlooks that RV
3.33206 already speaks of a necessarily smaller Sarasvat:
the Suds hymn 3.33 refers to the conuence of the Beas
and Sutlej (Vip, utudr). This means that the Beas had
already captured the Sutlej away from the Sarasvat, dwarfing its water supply. While the Sutlej is fed by Himalayan
375
glaciers, the Sarsuti is but a small local river depending on

rain water.
In sum, the middle and later RV (books 3, 7 and the late
book, 10.75) already depict the present day situation, with
the Sarasvat having lost most of its water to the Sutlej (and
even earlier, much of it also to the Yamun). It was no longer
the large river it might have been before the early Rgvedic
period.* [93]
[8] Witzel further notes: If the RV is to be located in the Panjab, and supposedly to be dated well before the supposed
1900 BCE drying up of the Sarasvat, at 4-5000 BCE (Kak
1994, Misra 1992), the text should not contain evidence of
the domesticated horse (not found in the subcontinent before c. 1700 BCE, see Meadow 1997,1998, Anreiter 1998:
675 sqq.), of the horse drawn chariot (developed only about
2000 BCE in S. Russia, Anthony and Vinogradov 1995, or
Mesopotamia), of well developed copper/bronze technology, etc.* [94]
129.12
References
[1] Global Warming Trends: Ecological Footprints, by Julie Kerr

Casper
[2] Kinsley 1998, p. 10, 55-57.
[3] The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica, Sarasvati, Encyclopedia Britannica
[4] Witzel (2012, pp. 74, 125, 133): It can easily be understood, as the Sarasvat, the river on earth and in the nighttime
sky, emerges, just as in Germanic myth, from the roots of
the world tree. In the Middle Vedic texts, this is acted out
in the Ytsattra... along the Rivers Sarasvat and Dadvat
(northwest of Delhi)...
[5] Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu Civilization, edited by S.
Kalyanaraman (2008), ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 PP.308
[6] Mythical Saraswati River |The work on delineation of entire course of Sarasvati River in North West India was carried out using Indian Remote Sensing Satellite data along
with digital elevation model. Satellite images are multispectral, multi-temporal and have advantages of synoptic view, which are useful to detect palaeochannels. The
palaeochannels are validated using historical maps, archaeological sites, hydro-geological and drilling data. It was observed that major Harappan sites of Kalibangan (Rajasthan),
Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal
(Gujarat) lie along the River Saraswati.Department of
Space, Government of India.
[7] Saraswati The ancient river lost in the desert |
A.V.Shankaran.
[8] Kochhar, Rajesh (1999), On the identity and chronology
of the gvedic river Sarasvat", in Roger Blench; Matthew
Spriggs, Archaeology and Language III; Artefacts, languages
and texts, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10054-2
376
[9] e.g. 7.96.4, 10.66.5

[10] e.g. RV 7.103.2b
[11] Mayrhofer, EWAia, s.v.; the root is otherwise often connected with rivers (also in river names, such as Sarayu or
Susartu); the suggestion has been revived in the connection
of an "out of India" argument, N. Kazanas, Rig-Veda is
pre-Harappan, p. 9.
[12] by Lommel (1927); Lommel, Herman (1927), Die Yats des
Awesta, Gttingen-Leipzig: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/JC
Hinrichs
[13] Manu (2004). Olivelle, Patrick, ed. The Law Code of Manu.
Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19280-271-2.
[30] Sudhir Bhargava, Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati river is important to nd earliest alignment of Saraswati
riverSeminar, Saraswati river-a perspective, Nov. 20-22,
2009, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, organised by:
Saraswati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana, Seminar Report:
pages 114-117
[31] Mhb. 3.82.111; 3.130.3; 6.7.47; 6.37.1-4., 9.34.81; 9.37.12
[32] Mbh. 3.80.118
[33] Mbh. 3.88.2
[34]
[35]
[14] Bridget Allchin, Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization

in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, 1982,
P.358.
[36]
[15] Special Report - Battling for India's soul, state by state.

Reuters. Accessed 13 October 2015.
[38] D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati, 1999, p.35-44
[16] Ludvk 2007, p. 11
[39] compare also with Yajurveda 34.11, D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati,
1999, p.35-44
[17] Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu Civilization,Edited by

S.Kalyanaraman ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 PP.96
[37] Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean culture, Volume 2,

page 398
[40] Eck p. 149

[18] Grith
[19] Hans Hock (1999) translates sndhumt as a bahuvrihi,
whose mother is the Sindhu, which would indicate that
the Sarasvati is here a tributary of the Indus. A translation
as a tatpurusha (mother of rivers, with sindhu still with
its generic meaning) would be less common in RV speech.
[20] Rigveda,4.58.1
[21] Sri Aurobindo , op.cit.
[22] Eck 2012, p. 145.
[23] 1.3, 13, 89, 164; 10.17, 30, 64, 65, 66, 75, 110, 131, 141
[24] K.R. Jayaswal,Hindu Polity, pp. 12-13
[25] Pancavimsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana,
Katyayana Srauta Sutra, Latyayana Srauta; Macdonell and
Keith 1912
[26] Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Sankhayana Srauta Sutra; Macdonell and Keith 1912, II:55
[27] Grith, p.492
[41] Manusmriti 2.17-18

[42] Giosan et al. 2012.
[43] Eck p. 145
[44] Darian 2001, p. 58.
[45] Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh (16 May 2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 3112. ISBN 978-1-4020-5180-7.
[46] Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson
Education India. pp. 1378. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
[47] Charles Keith Maisels (16 December 2003). The Indus/'Harappan'/Sarasvati Civilization. Early Civilizations
of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China. Routledge. p. 184.
ISBN 978-1-134-83731-1.
[48] Darian p. 59
[49] Darian p. 58
[28] Witzel 1984.
[50] Proceedings of the second international symposium on

the management of large rivers for sheries: Volume II.
Fao.org. 2003-02-14. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
[29] D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati 1999. According to this reference,
44 asvins may be over 2600 km
[51] Mughal, M. R. Ancient Cholistan. Archaeology and Architecture. Rawalpindi-Lahore-Karachi: Ferozsons 1997,
2004
129.12. REFERENCES
[52] J. K. Tripathi et al., Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints,Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 8, 25
October 2004
[53] Press Information Bureau English Releases. Retrieved
2016-10-18.
[54] PTI. Government-constituted expert committee nds
Saraswati river did exist. Indian Express. PTI. Retrieved
19 October 2016.
377
[74] Jayant K. Tripathi, Barbara Bock, V. Rajamani and A.

Eisenhauer (25 October 2004). Is River Ghaggar,
Saraswati? Geochemical constraints (PDF). Current Science. 87 (8).
[75] Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008).
Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology Press. p. 766. ISBN
978-0-7007-1267-0.
[76] Danino 2010, p. 256.
[55] Indische Alterthumskunde
[77] Danino 2010, p. 258.
[56] Sacred Books of the East, 32, 60
[78] Yasht 10.67
[57] Oldham 1893 pp.5152
[79] Klaus, K. Die altindische Kosmologie, nach den Brhmaas

dargestellt. Bonn 1986; Samudra, XXIII Deutscher Orientalistentag Wrzburg, ZDMG Suppl. Volume VII, Stuttgart
1989, 367-371
[58] The ancient Indus Valley:new perspectives By Jane McIntosh

[59] Danino 2010, p. 252.
[60] Romila Thapar (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD
1300. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0520-24225-8.
[61] Wilke 2011.
[62] Witzel 2001, p. 93.
[63] Mukherjee 2001, p. 2, 8-9.
[64] A. V. Sankaran. Saraswati the ancient river lost in the
desert. Indian Institute of Science. Retrieved 22 January
2015.
[65] Valdiya, K. S. (2002-01-01). Saraswati: The River that Disappeared. Indian Space Research Organization. p. 23.
ISBN 9788173714030.
[80] Ludvk (2007, p. 85): The Sarasvat river, which, according to Witzel,... personies the Milky Way, falls down to this
world at Plaka Prsarvaa,the world tree at the center of
heaven and earth,and ows through the land of the Kurus,
the center of this world.
[81] Wilke (2011, p. 310, note 574):Witzel suggests that Sarasvat is not an earthly river, but the Milky Way that is seen as
a road to immortality and heavenly after-life. In `mythical
logic,' as outlined above, the two interpretations are not however mutually exclusive. There are passages which clearly
suggest a river.
[82] Mukherjee 2001, p. 2, 6-9.
[83] Anthony 2007.
[84] Beckwith 2009, p. 29.
[85] Anthony 2007, p. 408.
[66] Clift et al. 2012.
[86] Beckwith 2009.
[67] http://www.rajras.in/index.php/
saraswati-river-exist-says-k-s-valdiya-committee/
[87] Witzel 2005, p. 342-343.
[68] Giosan et al. 2012, p. 1693.
[88] Danino 2010, p. 256, 258.
[69] Gaur, R. C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera, Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi.
[89] Witzel 2005.
[70] D. S. Mitra & Balram Bhadu (10 March 2012). Possible

contribution of River Saraswati in groundwater aquifer system in western Rajasthan, India (PDF). Current Science.
102 (5).
[91] Flood 1996, p. 33.
[71] Puri and Verma 1998, Glaciological and geological source

of Vedic Saraswati in the Himalayas.
[90] Michaels 2004, p. 33.
[92] Wilke 2011, pp. 310311

[93] Witzel 2001, p. 81.
[94] Witzel 2001, p. 31.
[72] http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/staff/resources/
background/bg9/bg9pdf.pdf
[95] Eck 2012, p. 148.
[73] Valdiya, K. S. (2002), Saraswati: The River That Disappeared, Universities Press (India), Hyderabad, ISBN 817371-403-7
[97] Ludvk 2011, p. 1
[96] Eck 2012, p. 147.
[98] At the Three Rivers TIME, February 23, 1948
378
[99] Eck p. 220

[100] Zee Media Bureau (August 6, 2016). "'Lost' Saraswati river
brought 'back to life'". Zee Media. Retrieved 19 August
2016.
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Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009), Empires of
the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the
Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 1400829941, retrieved 30 December 2014
Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of
Vedic Culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19513777-9
Danino, Michel (2010), The Lost River - On the trail
of the Sarasvati, Penguin Books India
Darian, Steven G. (2001), 5.Ganga and Sarasvati:
The Transformation of Myth, The Ganges in Myth
and History, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81208-1757-9
Eck, Diana L. (2012), India: A Sacred Geography,
Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony, ISBN 978-0385-53191-7
Clift; et al. (2012),U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a
Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna
River, Geology, 40
Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism,
Cambridge University Press
Giosan; et al. (2012), Fluvial landscapes of the
Harappan civilization, PNAS, 109 (26): E1688
E1694, doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109
Gupta, S.P. (ed.). 1995. The lost Saraswati and the
Indus Civilization. Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur.
Hock, Hans (1999) Through a Glass Darkly: Modern RacialInterpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in
Vedic Indo-Aryan Society.in Aryan and Non-Aryan
in South Asia, ed. Bronkhorst & Deshpande, Ann Arbor.
Keith and Macdonell. 1912. Vedic Index of Names
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Kinsley, David (1998), Hindu Goddesses: Visions of
the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition,
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of the Sarasvati, Penguin Books India

Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati?
pathi,Bock,Rajamani, Eir
by
Tri-
Saraswati the ancient river lost in the desert by A. V.

Sankaran
Sarasvati research and Education Trust
Map " () (Regional River Basin: Saraswati Basin)". Narmada, Water Resources, Water Supply and Kalpsar Department.
Chapter 130
Sillas River
Sillas River is a non-existent river believed by Megasthenes
(c. 350 BCE-290 BCE) (a Greek traveller and geographer
who visited India during the third century BCE) to be owing in India. According to Magasthenes, this river was peculiar in entire world since nothing cast into it would oat
but strangely would sink to the bottom. Magasthenes had
mentioned it in his book - Indika. No such river has been
ever found in India or elsewhere. * [1]
[1] http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/
primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/
Megasthenes-Indika.htm
380
Chapter 131
Styx
River Styxredirects here. For the band, see Styx (band).
For other uses, see River Styx (disambiguation) and Styx
(disambiguation).
In Greek mythology, Styx (/stks/; Ancient Greek:
Etching of G. Dor
[stks]) is a deity and a river that forms the boundary between Earth and the Underworld (the domain often called
Hades, which also is the name of its ruler). The rivers Styx,
Phlegethon, Acheron, Lethe, and Cocytus all converge at
the center of the underworld on a great marsh, which sometimes is also called the Styx. According to Herodotus, the
river Styx originates near Feneos.* [1] Styx is also a goddess Waters of Styx on the Aroanian mountains
with prehistoric roots in Greek mythology as a daughter of
Tethys, after whom the river is named and because of whom
it had miraculous powers.
promised every oath be sworn upon her.* [2] Zeus swore to
give Semele whatever she wanted and was then obliged to
follow through when he realized to his horror that her re131.1 Signicance of the River Styx quest would lead to her death. Helios similarly promised his
son Phaton whatever he desired, also resulting in the boy's
The deities were bound by the Styx and swore oaths upon death. Myths related to such early deities did not survive
Styx. According to classical myths, the reason related long enough to be included in historic records, but tantalizfor this is that during the Titan war, Styx, the goddess ing references exist among those that have been discovered.
of the river Styx, sided with Zeus. After the war, Zeus According to some versions, Styx had miraculous powers
381
382
CHAPTER 131. STYX
and could make someone invulnerable. According to one ogy related to the underworld.
tradition, Achilles was dipped in the waters of the river by
his mother during his childhood, acquiring invulnerability,
with exception of his heel, by which his mother held him. 131.4 See also
The only spot where Achilles was vulnerable was his heel,
where he was struck and killed by Paris' arrow in the Trojan
Kormet
War. This is the source of the expression Achilles' heel, a
metaphor for a vulnerable spot.
Ras
Styx was primarily a feature in the afterworld of classical
Greek mythology, similar to the Christian area of Hell in
texts such as The Divine Comedy and Paradise Lost. The
ferryman Charon often is described in contemporary literature as having transported the souls of the newly dead
across this river into the underworld, although in the original Greek and Roman sources, as well as in Dante, it was
the river Acheron that Charon plied. Dante put Phlegyas
as ferryman over the Styx and made it the fth circle of
Hell, where the wrathful and sullen are punished by being
drowned in the muddy waters for eternity, with the wrathful ghting each other. In ancient times some believed that
placing a coin (Charon's obol) in the mouth* [3] of the deceased would pay the toll for the ferry to cross the Acheron
River, which would lead one to the entrance of the underworld. If someone could not pay the fee it was said that
they would never be able to cross the river. This ritual was
performed by the relatives.
The variant spelling Stix was sometimes used in translations of Classical Greek before the twentieth century.* [4]
By metonymy, the adjective stygian (/stdin/) came to
refer to anything dark, dismal, and murky.
Sanzu River
Burial jar depicting a boatman with passenger
131.5
Notes
[1] Herodotus, Histories 6. 74.

Khthonios/PotamosStyx.html
1, http://www.theoi.com/
[2] Hesiod, Theogony 383 (trans. Evelyn-White)

[3] No ancient source says that the coins were placed on the dead
person's eyes; see Charon's obol#Coins on the eyes?.
[4] Iliad(1-3), Homer; H. Travers, 1740
[5] Pluto moons get mythical new names. BBC News.
131.6
External links
Theoi Project - Potamos Styx

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Styx". Encyclopdia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
131.2 Goddess
Styx was the name of the daughter of Tethys and Oceanus,
the goddess of the River Styx. In classical myths, her husband was Pallas and she gave birth to Zelus, Nike, Kratos,
and Bia (and sometimes Eos). In those myths, Styx supported Zeus in the Titanomachy, where she was said to
be the rst to rush to his aid. For this reason, her name
was given the honor of being a binding oath for the deities.
Knowledge of whether this was the original reason for the
tradition did not survive into historical records following the
religious transition that led to the pantheon of the classical
era.
131.3 Science
As of 2 July 2013, Styx ocially became the name of one of
Pluto's moons.* [5] The other moons (Charon, Nix, Hydra,
and Kerberos) also have names from Greco-Roman mythol-
Chapter 132
Vaitarna River (mythological)

it appears in Matsya Purana, and Vamana Purana, lastly it is
the Padma Purana which reveals the etymology of Vaitarani
in Vaitarani Mahatmya, where it is dened as Vai (truly)
tarini (saving) and that related the legend wherein it was
brought on to the earth from Patala, due to the penance of
Parashurama resulting in a boon from Shiva.* [3]* [4]
It is equivalent to the Styx river in Greek mythology and
is associated with the Vaitarani Vrata, observed on the
eleventh day of the dark phase of the moon i.e., Krishna
Paksha of Margashirsha in the Hindu calendar, wherein a
cow is worshiped and donated, which is believed to take
one across the dreaded river as mentioned in the Garuda
Purana, verses 77-82.* [5]* [6]
Naraka suurounded by the Vaitarna.
132.1
Description of the river
This article is about the mythological river. For the actual This river is very frightening and when seen inspires misriver, see Vaitarna River.
ery. Even hearing an account of this river arouses fear. It
is a hundred yojanas in width and it does not contain water.
Vaitarna or Vaitarani (Vaitara) river, as mentioned in It is a river full of blood and pus with heaps of bones on its
the Garuda Purana and various other Hindu religious texts, banks and mud of blood and esh. It is impossible for a sinlies between the earth and the infernal Naraka, the realm of ful soul to cross this river as he is obstructed by hairy moss
Yama, Hindu god of death and is believed to purify one's and the river is lled with huge crocodiles and crowded with
sins. Furthermore, while the righteous see it lled with hundreds of esh-eating birds. When a sinner comes near
nectar-like water, the sinful see it lled with blood.* [1]* [2] the river in an attempt to cross, it seethes and becomes overSinful souls are supposed to cross this river after death. Ac- spread with smoke and ames like butter in a frying pan. It
cording to the Garuda Purana, this river falls on the path is also covered with dreadful throngs of insects with piercleading to the Southern Gate of the city of Yama. It is also ing stings and vultures and crows with metallic beaks. In
mentioned that only the sinful souls come via the southern addition to crocodiles it also contains leeches, shes, turtles
and other esh-eating water animals. It is said that the hungate.
However, other texts like the Harihareshwara Mahatmya gry and thirsty sinful souls drink the blood owing in the
in the Skanda Purana mention a physical river as well, that river. The sinners who fall into it wail with pain and fright.
joins in the eastern ocean; he who bathes in it is supposed There is no rescuer for them. The hundreds of whirlpools in
to forever be free from the torment of Yama. It rst ap- the river takes the ones fallen in to the lower region. They
pears in the TirthaYatra Parva (Pilgrimage Episode) of the stay for a moment in the lower region and then they rise
Mahabharat, where it is mentioned to be rising from the again.
Vindhyas and falling into the Bay of Bengal after passing The river was created only for the sinful. It is extremely
through Orissa as present Baitarani River. Apart from that dicult to cross and the other bank cannot be seen.
383
384
132.2 Ways to cross the river

There are a few ways to cross this river. It is important to
note that as mentioned in the description of the river, only
those souls who have sinned have to cross this river. The
souls with good deeds or good karma do not travel on the
path through which the Vaitarna River ows.
The person who commits good deeds in his life and
does not have to cross this river.
A sinner who has done certain meritorious deeds can
get a boat to cross the river after travelling on the terrible way of Yama for some time. These deeds include
donating a cow, food, wealth or any sacrice etc.
It is said that even though a person is a sinner, if he is
following a real spiritual guru, the sinner can cross the
river holding his Guru's hand.* [7]
CHAPTER 132. VAITARNA RIVER (MYTHOLOGICAL)

the realms of Yama, and the inauspicious wanderings
of creatures through diverse wombs, and the character of their residence in the unholy uterus in the midst
of blood and water and phlegm and urine and faeces,
all of foul smell, and then in bodies that result from
the union of blood and the vital seed, of marrow and
sinews, ...
Bhishma. Mahabharat, Shanti Parva: Part III. Section CCCII.* [9]
"..The torrent of blood excited fear amongst those who
came to see it, as the river Vaitarani on the way to hell
(the Lord of Death) is very fearful to the sinners.
Devi Bhagawatam, The Third Book, Chapter XV,
On the battle between Yudhajit and Virasena.* [10]
132.5
See also
If the sinner cannot cross using the above two methods,

he has to wait many years till it is decided that he will
cross or the servants of Yama drag him through the
river.
Garuda Purana
The descendents of the sinful soul can help him cross

the river by chanting the name Shree Gurudev Datta
. This is the chant for the Hindu god Dattatreya.
Dattatreya
Yama
Sin
132.6
132.3 Consequences of successfully
crossing the river
After successfully crossing this river, the sinners reach the
terrifying Southern Gate of the City of Yama. In this City
the sinners along with the souls with good deeds are judged
by the Lord of Justice (Yama or Yamaraja). The sinners are
taken to hell and the better souls are taken to heaven.
If a soul cannot cross the Vaitarna River then he cannot be
taken to hell. He is stuck at its shore. Thus this prevents him
from getting reborn on earth as human or animal. These
souls are considered as the ghosts who have not passed on
and are stuck.
Footnotes
[1] Dange, Sadashiv Ambadas (1989). Encyclopaedia of Puranic Beliefs and Practices (Volume 4). Navrang. p. 1210.
ISBN 81-7013-056-5.
[2] Hopkins, E Washburn (2008). Epic Mythology. READ
BOOKS. p. 110. ISBN 1-4437-7716-1.
[3] Cunha, Joseph Gerson (1993). Notes on the history and antiquities of Chaul and Bassein. Asian Educational Services.
p. 123. ISBN 81-206-0845-3.
[4] Singh, N.K. (1997). Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume
22. Anmol Publications. p. 2651. ISBN 81-7488-168-9.
[5] Verma, Manish (2000). Fasts and festivals of India. Diamond Pocket Books. p. 68. ISBN 81-7182-076-X.
[6] Wood, p. 64
132.4 Mentions in scriptures

One should next proceed to the Vaitarani capable of
destroying every sin.
Mahabharat, Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirta Yatra
Parva: Section LXXXV.* [8]
[7]Siddhabodhby Gagangiri Maharaj. Published on 13 December 1998 by Gagangad publications

[8] Mahabharat, Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirta Yatra Parva: Section LXXXV p. 191.
[9] Mahabharat, Shanti Parva: Part III. Section CCCII p. 2.
O king, by creatures of sinful acts, and the miseries [10] The Third Book, Chapter XV, On the battle between Yudendured by those that fall into the river Vaitarani in
hjit and Vrasena p. 178.
132.7. REFERENCES
132.7 References
The Garuda Purana, tr. by Ernest Wood, S. V. Subrahmanyam. BiblioBazaar, LLC. 2008. ISBN 1-43753213-6.
Siddhabodhby Gagangiri Maharaj. Gagangad publications. 1998.(Marathi)
Kalayaan (Year 43) Parlok Aur Punarjanma (World
of the Dead and Reincarnation), Gita Press, Gorakhpur. (Hindi)
Spiritual Science Research Foundation :- Articles on
Martyalok
385
Chapter 133
Acheron
Acheron Riverredirects here.
Acheron (disambiguation).
For other uses, see
The Acheron (/krn/; Ancient Greek:

(Acheron)* [1] or (Acherusius); Modern
Greek: (Acherontas)) is a river located in the
Epirus region of northwest Greece. Its source is near the
village Zotiko, in the southwestern part of the Ioannina
regional unit it ows into the Ionian Sea in Ammoudia,
near Parga.
133.1 Mythology
In ancient Greek mythology, Acheron was known as the
river of woe, and was one of the ve rivers of the
Greek underworld. In the Homeric poems the Acheron
was described as a river of Hades, into which Cocytus and
Phlegethon both owed.* [2]* [3]
The Roman poet Virgil called it the principal river of
Tartarus, from which the Styx and Cocytus both sprang.* [4]
The newly dead would be ferried across the Acheron by
Charon in order to enter the Underworld.* [5]
The Suda describes the river as a place of healing, not
a place of punishment, cleansing and purging the sins of William Blake's depiction of The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls
Mustering to Cross the Acheronin his Illustrations to Dante'sDihumans.* [7]
vine Comedy object 5 c. 1824-27. The original for the work is
held by the National Gallery of Victoria.* [6]
According to later traditions, Acheron had been a son of

Helios and either Gaia or Demeter, who had been turned
into the Underworld river bearing his name after he refreshed the Titans with drink during their contest with Zeus.
By this myth, Acheron is also the father of Ascalaphus by
either Orphne* [8] or Gorgyra.* [9]
tied the Acherusian lake into which Acheron owed with

Lake Avernus. Plato in his Phaedo identied Acheron as the
second greatest river in the world, excelled only by Oceanus.
The river called Acheron with the nearby ruins of the

Necromanteion is found near Parga on the mainland opposite Corfu. Another branch of Acheron was believed
to surface at the Acherusian cape (now Karadeniz Ereli
in Turkey) and was seen by the Argonauts according to
Apollonius of Rhodes. Greeks who settled in Italy iden-
He claimed that Acheron owed in the opposite direction

from Oceanus beneath the earth under desert places. The
word is also occasionally used as a synecdoche for Hades itself. Virgil mentions Acheron with the other infernal rivers
in his description of the underworld in Book VI of the
Aeneid. In Book VII, line 312* [10] he gives to Juno the fa-
386
133.3. REFERENCES
387
Truss bridge over the Acheron

river
Eurasian penduline tit nest

above the river
133.3
Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls across the
Acheron to Hell. Those who were neutral in life sit on the banks
References
[1] Of uncertain etymology (R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 182).
[2] Homer, The Odyssey x. 513
mous saying, ectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo:

'If I cannot bend the will of Heaven, I shall move Hell.' The
same words were used by Sigmund Freud as the dedicatory
motto for his seminal book The Interpretation of Dreams,
guring Acheron as psychological underworld beneath the
conscious mind.
The Acheron was sometimes referred to as a lake or swamp
in Greek literature, as in Aristophanes' The Frogs and
Euripides' Alcestis.
In Dante's Inferno, the Acheron river forms the border of
Hell. Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls
across this river to Hell. Those who were neutral in life
sit on the banks.
[3] Pausanias, Description of Greece i. 17, 5

[4] Virgil, Aeneid vi. 297
[5] Virgil, Aeneid 6. 323
[6] Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (eds.).
Illustrations to Dante'sDivine Comedy, object 5 (Butlin
812.5) The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls Mustering to
Cross the Acheron"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved
January 25, 2015.
[7] Suda On Line
[8] Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 539
[9] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 33
[10] Line 312 in the conventional lineation, see J.W. Mackail
(Editor and Translator), The AEneid (Clarendon press, Oxford: 1930), p. 271.
133.2 Gallery
133.4
External links
Theoi Project - Potamos Akheron
Acheron river
L'Achron, Viol Consort
Chapter 134
Cocytus
Cocytus /kosats/ or Kokytos /kokats/ (Ancient
Greek: , literallylamentation) is a river in the
underworld in Greek mythology.* [1] Cocytus ows into the
river Acheron, on the other side of which lies Hades, The
Underworld, the mythological abode of the dead. There
are ve rivers encircling Hades. The River Styx is perhaps
the most famous; the other rivers are Phlegethon, Lethe,
Acheron and Cocytus.
134.1 In literature
The Cocytus river was one of the rivers that surrounded
Hades. Cocytus, along with the other rivers related to
the underworld, was a common topic for ancient authors.
Dante's Cocytus, as illustrated by Gustave Dor (1832-1883).
Of the ancient authors, Cocytus was mentioned by Virgil,
Homer, Cicero, Aeschylus, Apuleius and Plato, among others.* [2]
rather than a river, although it originates from the same
Cocytus also makes an appearance in John Milton's epic source as the other infernal rivers, the tears of a statue called
poem Paradise Lost. In Book Two, Milton speaks ofCo- The Old Man of Crete which represents the sins of humancytus, named of lamentation loud / Heard on the rueful ity. Dante describes Cocytus as being the home of traitors
and those who committed acts of complex fraud. Dependstream.* [3]
ing on the form of their treachery, victims are buried in ice
It is also mentioned in William Shakespeare's Titus Andron- to a varying degree, anywhere from neck-high to completely
icus and in Rick Riordan's The House of Hades.
submerged in ice. Cocytus is divided into four descending
Cocytus also appears in Friedrich Schiller's poemGruppe rounds,or sections:
aus dem Tartarus": Hohl sind ihre Augenihre Blicke/
Sphen bang nach des Cocytus Brcke
Caina, after the Biblical Cain; traitors to blood relatives.
Antenora, after Antenor from the Iliad; traitors to
country.
134.2 In The Divine Comedy

Main article: Divine Comedy
In Inferno, the rst cantica of Dante's Divine Comedy,
Cocytus is the ninth and lowest circle of The Underworld. Dante and Virgil are placed there by the giant
Antaeus. There are other Giants around the rim that are
chained; however Antaeus is unchained as he died before
the Gigantomachy. Cocytus is referred to as a frozen lake
388
Ptolomea, after Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, who

murdered his guests (1 Maccabees); traitors to guests.
Here it is said that sometimes the soul of a traitor falls
to Hell before Atropos cuts the thread, and their body
is taken over by a end.
Judecca, after Judas Iscariot; traitors to masters and
benefactors.
134.3. REFERENCES
Dante's Satan is at the center of the circle buried waist-high
in ice. He is depicted with three faces and mouths. The
central mouth gnaws Judas. Judas is chewed head foremost with his feet protruding and Satan's claws tearing his
back while those gnawed in the side mouths, Brutus and
Cassius, leading assassins of Julius Caesar, are both chewed
feet foremost with their heads protruding. Under each chin
Satan aps a pair of wings, which only serve to increase the
cold winds in Cocytus and further imprison him and other
traitors. Dante and his guide Virgil proceed then to climb
down Satan's back and into Purgatory, though Dante is at
rst confused at their turning round, but Virgil explains it is
due to the change in forces as they pass through the centre
of the Earth.
134.3 References
[1] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cocytus". Encyclopdia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.
631632.
[2] KOKYTOS. Theoi Project. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
[3] Milton, John (2005). Paradise Lost. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 591.
389
Chapter 135
Eridanos (river of Hades)

This article is about the mythological river. For
the real rivers, see Eridanos (geology) or Eridanos
(Athens).
the guinea-fowl on them, because none of these

exist in this area.* [4]
The river Eridanos /rdns/ or Eridanus (/rdns/;

Ancient Greek: ,Amber) is a river mentioned 135.2 Starry Eridanus
in Greek mythology. Virgil considered it one of the rivers
of Hades in his Aeneid VI, 659.
Main article: Eridanus (constellation)
When in Nonnus' fourth- or fth-century CE Dionysiaca
the vast monster Typhon boasts that he will bathe instarry
Eridanus, it is hyperbole, for the constellation Eridanus,
Hesiod, in the Theogony, calls it deep-eddying Eridanos represented as a river, was one of the 48 constellations listed
in his list of rivers, the ospring of Tethys. Herodotus (III, by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy; it remains one
115) points out that the word Eridanos is essentially Greek of the 88 modern constellations.
in character, and surmises that consequently the river supposed to run around the world is probably a Greek invention. He associated it with the river Po, because the Po
was located near the end of the Amber Trail. According to 135.3 Real river
Apollonius of Rhodes* [1] and Ovid,* [2] amber originated
from the tears of the Heliades, encased in poplars as dryads,
shed when their brother, Phaeton, died and fell from the There have been various guesses at which real river was the
sky, struck by Zeus' thunderbolt, and tumbled into the Eri- Eridanos: these include the Po River in north Italy, and the
danos, where to this very day the marsh exhales a heavy Rhone, in France. The Eridanos is mentioned in Greek
*
vapour which rises from his smouldering wound; no bird writings as a river in northern Europe rich in amber. [5]
can stretch out its fragile wings to y over that water, but in A small river near Athens was named Eridanos in ancient
mid-ight it falls dead in the ames;"* [3]along the green times, and has been rediscovered with the excavations for
banks of the river Eridanos,Cygnus mourned himOvid construction of the Athens Metro.
toldand was transformed into a swan. There in the far
west, Heracles asked the river nymphs of Eridanos to help
him locate the Garden of the Hesperides.
135.1 Ancient references
Strabo disregards such mythmaking:

One must put aside many of the mythical or false
accounts such as those of Phaethon and of the
Heliades changed into black poplars near the Eridanos (a river that does not exist anywhere on
earth, although it is said to be near the Po), and
of the Islands of Amber that lie o the Po, and of
135.4
Cenozoic river
Main article: Eridanos (geology)

Eridanos is the name that has been applied by geologists to a
river which owed where the Baltic Sea is now,* [6] a river
system also known simply as the Baltic River System
.* [7]
390
135.5 References
[1] Argonautica, iv.597.
[2] Ovid, Metamorphoses II, 367380.
[3] Apollonius 4.599603
[4] Strabo, Geography v,1,9.
[5]the holy isle of Elektris, named for elektron, amber
, o the mouth of the Eridanos, was reached by the Argonauts, who were eeing from the Colchians, in Apollonius
of Rhodes' Argonautica, Book IV; their return trip from
Colchis, in which they passed the farthest reaches of the
stream Eridanos(iv.597), cannot be made to coincide with
actual geography.
[6] Overeem, I., Weltje, G.J., Bishop-Kay, C. & Kroonenberg,
S.B., 2002. The Late Cenozoic Eridanos delta system in
the southern North Sea Basin: a climate signal in sediment
supply?" Basin Research 13: 293312.
[7] Bijlsma, S., 1981.
'"Fluvial sedimentation from the
Fennoscandian area into the North-West European Basin
during the Late Cenozoic. Geologie en Mijnbouw, 60: 337
345.

"Eridanus". The American Cyclopdia. 1879.
391
Chapter 136
Lethe
136.1.2
For other uses, see Lethe (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Leath.
In Greek mythology, Lethe /lii/ (Greek: , Lth;
Ancient Greek: [l :t], Modern Greek: [lii]) was one of the
ve rivers of the underworld of Hades. Also known as the
Ameles potamos (river of unmindfulness), the Lethe owed
around the cave of Hypnos and through the Underworld,
where all those who drank from it experienced complete
forgetfulness. Lethe was also the name of the Greek spirit
of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often
identied.
Goddess
Lethe was also the name of the personication of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often associated.
Hesiod's Theogony identies her as the daughter of Eris (
strife), and the sister of Ponos (Hardship), Limos (
Starvation), Algae (Pains), Hysminai (Battles),
Makhai (Wars), Phonoi (Murders), Androktasiai (
Manslaughters), Neikea Quarrels
(
), Pseudea Lies
(
),
Logoi (Stories), Amphillogiai (Disputes), Dysnomia
(Anarchy), Ate (Ruin), and Horkos (Oath).* [4]
In Classical Greek, the word lethe literally meansoblivion

,forgetfulness, orconcealment.* [1] It is related to the
Greek word fortruth, aletheia (), which through
the privative alpha literally means un-forgetfulnessor
un-concealment.
136.2
Role in religion and philosophy
Some ancient Greeks believed that souls were made to

drink from the river before being reincarnated, so they
would not remember their past lives. The Myth of Er at
the end of Plato's Republic tells of the dead arriving at
the plain of Lethe, through which the river Ameles (
136.1 Mythology
careless) runs. A few mystery religions taught the existence of another river, the Mnemosyne; those who drank
from the Mnemosyne would remember everything and at136.1.1 River
tain omniscience. Initiates were taught that they would receive a choice of rivers to drink from after death, and to
Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, was one of the ve rivers of drink from Mnemosyne instead of Lethe.
the Greek underworld, the other four being Styx, Acheron These two rivers are attested in several verse inscriptions on
(the river of sorrow), Cocytus (the river of lamentation) and gold plates dating to the 4th century BC and onward, found
Phlegethon (the river of re). According to Statius, it bor- at Thurii in Southern Italy and elsewhere throughout the
dered Elysium, the nal resting place of the virtuous. Ovid Greek world. There were rivers of Lethe and Mnemosyne
wrote that the river owed through the cave of Hypnos, at the oracular shrine of Trophonius in Boeotia, from which
god of sleep, where its murmuring would induce drowsi- worshippers would drink before making oracular consultaness.* [2]
tions with the god.
The shades of the dead were required to drink the waters
of the Lethe in order to forget their earthly life. In the
Aeneid, Virgil writes that it is only when the dead have
had their memories erased by the Lethe that they may be
reincarnated.* [3]
More recently, Martin Heidegger usedlth" to symbolize

theconcealment of Beingorforgetting of Beingthat he
saw as a major problem of modern philosophy. Examples
are found in his books on Nietzsche (Vol 1, p. 194) and on
Parmenides.
392
136.5. SEE ALSO
393
136.3 References in literature
other side, one by one, by name. The soldiers, astonished

that their general remembered their names, crossed the river
Limia was not
Many ancient Greek poems mention or describe Lethe. The as well without fear. This act proved that the
*
[7]
as
dangerous
as
the
local
myths
described.
river is also referenced in more recent novels and poetry.
Simonides of Ceos, an ancient Greek lyrical poet, refer- In Cadiz (Spain), the river Guadalete was originally named
ences Lethe in the sixty-seventh fragment of one of his po- Lethe by local Greek and Phoenician colonists who, about
ems. Publius Ovidius Naso, known as Ovid, in his descrip- to go to war, solved instead their dierences by diplomacy
tion of the Underworld in his Metamorphoses, includes a and named the river Lethe to forever forget their former difdescription of Lethe as a stream that puts people to sleep. ferences. When the Arabs conquered the region much later,
Aeneas, the protagonist of Virgil's epic Latin poem, Aeneid, their name for the river became Guadalete (River Lethe, in
travels to Lethe to meet the ghost of his father. Virgil also Arabic).
writes about Lethe in his didactic hexameter poem, the
In Alaska, a river which runs through the Valley of Ten
Georgics.* [5]
Thousand Smokes is called River Lethe. It is located
In the Purgatorio, the second cantica of Dante Alighieri's within the Katmai National Park and Preserve, in SouthDivine Comedy, the Lethe is located in the Earthly Paradise west Alaska.
atop the Mountain of Purgatory. Dante, held in the arms of
Matilda, is immersed in the Lethe so that he may wipe out
all memory of sin (Purg. XXXI). After being washed in the 136.5 See also
Lethe, penitents are washed in the Eunoe, a river of Dante's
own invention. The Lethe is also mentioned in the Inferno,
River Lethe in popular culture
the rst part of the Comedy, as owing down to Hell from
Purgatory to be frozen in the ice around Satan,the last lost
The Golden Bough (mythology)
vestiges of the sins of the saved* [6] (Inf. XXXIV.130).
The recent Heroes of Olympus series and a short story by
Rick Riordan for children and young adults mention Lethe
as a river in the Underworld.
136.6
References
[1] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek

English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
136.4 Real rivers
[2]LETHE : Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion

; mythology. Retrieved 2010-02-06.
[3] Day-Lewis, Cecil (trans.) (1952). Virgil's Aeneid. p. 705.
[4] Richard Caldwell, Hesiod's Theogony, Focus Publishing/R.
Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). ISBN 978-0-941051-002.
[5]LETHE : Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion
; mythology. www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2016-03-13.
[6] John Ciardi, Purgatorio, notes on Canto XXVII, pg. 535
[7] Strabo iii. p. 153; Mela, iii, 1; Pliny the Elder H.N. iv. 22 s.
35
Lima Bridge on Lima River in Ponte de Lima, Portugal
Amongst authors in Antiquity, the tiny Limia River between

Northern Portugal and Galicia (Spain) was said to have the
same properties of memory loss as the legendary Lethe
River, being mistaken for it. In 138 BC, the Roman general
Decimus Junius Brutus sought to dispose of the myth, as it
impeded his military campaigns in the area. He was said to
have crossed the Limia and then called his soldiers from the
136.7
External links
Theoi Project: Lethe, Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion

Theoi Project: Lethe, Greek goddess or spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion
Chapter 137
Phlegethon
In Greek mythology, the river Phlegethon (,
English translation: aming) or Pyriphlegethon
(, English translation: re-aming) was
one of the ve rivers in the infernal regions of the underworld, along with the rivers Styx, Lethe, Cocytus, and
Acheron. Plato describes it asa stream of re, which coils
round the earth and ows into the depths of Tartarus".* [1]
It was parallel to the river Styx. It is said that the goddess
Styx was in love with Phlegethon, but she was consumed
by his ames and sent to Hades. Eventually when Hades
allowed her river to ow through, they reunited.
In Paradise Lost (II, 580) John Milton names the Phlegeton

(sic) as one of the rivers of Hell, which bold adventuring
demons explore while Satan's ight to Earth begins. Milton
also mentions the Rivers Styx, Acheron, and Cocytus. The
river Lethe is also counted among the rivers of the underworld.
In Edgar Allan Poe's short story "Descent into the maelstrom,the narrator, looking down on the whirlpool from a
mountain, refers to the water as the howling Phlegethon
below,signifying its danger and coiling eect.
In the novel Inferno by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle,

Phlegethon is guarded not by centaurs, but by military ocers taken from all eras of history (with instructions to shoot
anyone who tries to escape). There is also a wooden sailing
137.1 Literary references
ship sunk on the other side, which is inhabited by the souls
In Oedipus by Seneca the Younger, the rst singing of the of slave traders.
chorus, which mainly describes the plague that has settled In the rst arc of the Curse of the Spawn series, the Spawn's
in Thebes, includes the line, Phlegethon has changed his creator Plegethonyarre was named after the mythological
course and mingled Styx with Theban streams.While this river.
is not essential to the plot of the play, the line guratively
Track 5 of The Residents' 2011 CD The Rivers of Hades is
serves to suggest Death has become physically present in
called Phlegethon River.
Thebes. The line also reveals the common preoccupation
In H.P. Lovecraft's short story The Other Gods,one of
with death and magic found in Roman tragedy.
the characters, when discovered by the Outer Gods, makes
In Dante's Inferno Phlegethon is described as a river of
a cry as no man else ever heard save in the Phlegethon of
blood that boils souls. It is in the Seventh Circle of Hell,
unrelatable nightmares,demonstrating that in an instant he
which punishes those who committed crimes of violence
has suered tortures normally reserved for the damned.
against their fellow men (see Canto XII, 4648); murderers,
*
tyrants, and the like. By causing hot blood to ow through In rick riordans heroes of olympus house of hades [2]
their violent deeds in life, they are now sunk in the owing,
boiling blood of the Phlegethon. The depth at which each
sinner must stand in the river is determined by the level of 137.2 See also
violence they caused in life; Dante sees Attila the Hun and
Alexander the Great up to their eyebrows. Centaurs patrol
Greek mythology in popular culture
the circle, ring arrows at those who try to rise above their
allotted level in the river. Dante and Vergil cross Phlegethon
with help from Nessus.
In Spenser's The Faerie Queene the Phlegethon is to be
found in hell, and is portrayed as a ery oodwhere
the damned ghosts in torments fry(Canto V, 291291).
137.3
394
References
[1] Plato. Phaedo. 112b.
[2] Riordan, Rick. Heroes of olympus house of hades.

Theoi Project - Potamos Pyriphlegethon
395
Chapter 138
Nadistuti sukta
The Nadistuti sukta (Sanskrit: ), hymn Grith translates: First united with the Trishtama in orof praise of rivers", is hymn 10.75 of the Rigveda.
der to ow, with the Susartu and Rasa, and with this Svetya
(you ow), O Sindhu (Indus) with the Kubha (Kabul R.) to
It is important for the reconstruction of the geography of
the Vedic civilization. Sindhu (the Indus) is addressed as the Gomati (Gomal), with the Mehatnu to the Krumu (Kurram), with whom you rush together on the same chariot.
the mightiest of rivers and addressed specically in verses
1, 2, 7, 8 and 9.
1. Trstama
In verse 5, the rishi enumerates ten rivers, beginning with
the Ganga and moving westwards:
2. Susartu
O Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri (Sutlej), Parushni
3. Ras
(Iravati, Ravi), follow my praise! O Asikni (Chenab)
Marudvridha, Vitasta (Jhelum), with the Arjikiya (Haro)
4. Shvetya
and Sushoma (Sohan), listen! Translation: Grith
5. Sindhu
1. Ganga
6. Kubha
2. Yamuna
7. Gomati
3. Sarasvati
8. Krumu
4. Sutudri
9. Mehatnu
5. Parusni
According to Max Mueller on 10.75.5 in the book India:
What Can It Teach Us? : Satadru (Sutlej)". Parushni
(Iravati, Ravi)". Asikni, which means black. It is the
modern Chinab. " Marudvridha, a general name for river.
According to Roth the combined course of the Akesines and
Hydaspes. Vitasta, the last of the rivers of the Punjab,
changed in Greek into Hydaspes."It is the modern Behat
or Jilam.According to Yaska the Arjikiya is the Vipas
. Its modern name is Bias or Bejah. According to
Yaska the Sushoma is the Indus.
6. Asikni
7. Marudvrdha
8. Vitasta
9. Arjikiya
10. Susoma
verse 6 adds northwestern rivers (tributaries of the Indus Grith (1896) in his footnote to 10.75.5, explains this arowing through Afghanistan and north-western Pakistan), rangement as follows:
First thou goest united with the Trishtama on this journey,
with the Susartu, the Rasa ( Ramha Araxes ?), and the Sveti,
O Sindhu with the Kubha (Kophen, Cabul river) to the Gomoti (Gomal), with the Mehatnu to the Krumu ( Kurum)
with whom thou proceedest together.Translated by Max
Mueller.
396
the poet addresses rst the most distant rivers.

Ganga: the Ganges is mentioned, indirectly, in
only one other verse of the Rigveda, and even
there, the word is said by some to be the name
of a woman. See 6.45.31.

More recent interpretations take the arrangement to corresponds to the eastward expansion of the Vedic culture. Recent linguistic reconstruction suggests that Book 6 is one
of the earliest of the Rigveda, while book 10 is one of the
youngest, so that it would appear that the Ganges still fell
within the area of Vedic culture before the codication of
the Rigveda.
The list of ten rivers in the Nadistuti sukta should not be
confused with the Sapta Sindhu, the Seven Riversof
uncertain identication of the earlier Rigveda.

The Geography of the Rigveda
397
Chapter 139
Rigvedic rivers
Rivers, such as the Sapta Sindhavah (seven rivers
Sanskrit: ),* [1] play a prominent part in the
hymns of the Rig Veda, and consequently in early Hindu
religion. It may have been derived from an older ProtoIndo-Iranian hydronym, as a cognate name, hapta hndu,
exists in the Avestan language.
139.1 Mythology
A recurring theme in the Yajurveda is that of Indra slaying
Vritra (literally the obstacle), liberating the rivers; in a
variant of the myth, Indra smashes the Vala cave, releasing
the cows that were within. Though the two myths are separate,* [2] rivers and cows are often poetically correlated in
the Rigveda, for example in 3.33, a notable hymn describes
the crossing of two swollen rivers by the chariots and wagons of the Bharata tribe:
3.33.1cd Like two bright mother cows who lick
their youngling, Vipas and Sutudri speed down
their waters. (trans. Grith)* [3]
139.2 Seven Rivers
139.2.1
Identity of the Seven Rivers
It is not entirely clear how the Seven Rivers were intended

to be enumerated. They are often located in northern India
/ eastern Pakistan. If the Sarasvati and the ve major rivers
of India are included (Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Vitasta,
Vipas (Vip), the latter all tributaries of Sindhu/Indus),
one river is missing, probably the Kubha. (The Sindhu is a
special case, having feminine or masculine gender). Other
possibilities include the Arjikiya or Sushoma; compare also
the list of ten rivers, both east and west of the Indus, in the
Nadistuti sukta, RV 10.75. In 6.61.10, Sarasvati is called
she with seven sisters(saptasvas) indicating a group of
eight rivers, the number seven being more important than
the individual members (see also saptarshi, hapta karuuar /haft keshvar in Avestan), so that the list of the Sapta
Sindhava may not have been xed or immutable. In RV
10.64.8 and RV 10.75.1, three groups of seven rivers are
referred to (tr sapt sasr nadya thrice seven wandering rivers), as well as 99 rivers. The Sapta-Sindhava
region was bounded by Saraswati in the east, by the Sindhu
in the west and the ve in between were Satudru, Vipasa,
Asikni, Parusni and Vitasta.
Not all researchers agree with this interpretation. In his
book Land of the Seven Rivers, writer Sanjeev Sanyal has
argued that theSapta Sindhurefers only to the Sarasvati
and its own tributaries. If Sanyal is right, the Sapta Sindhava
region only refers to a small area including Haryana and a
part of north Rajasthan but leaving out most of Pakistan.
According to his interpretation, Sapta Sindhuis only a
small subset of the Rig Vedic terrain and its disproportionate importance derives from it being the original homeland
of the victorious Bharata Trutsu tribe.
The Seven Rivers are a group of seven chief rivers of uncertain or uctuating identication (the number seven is of
greater importance than the exact members of the group)compare the Saptarishi of the Avesta (and also the later
seven seas and the seven climes) . The Avesta's hapta hndu
are preemptively equated with the Vedic Sapta Sindhava
or vis-a-vis: in Vendidad 1.18 these are described to be the
fteenth of the sixteen lands created by Mazda.* [4] Note:
The term Sapta Sindhava, commonly used in Hindi and
other Indian languages, is the nominative plural in Sanskrit 139.3 Geography of the Rigveda
(dropping the nal visarga in conformity with the convention when expressing Sanskrit words in modern languages). Identication of Rigvedic rivers is the single most imporSapta Sindhu, often seen in English, is in the singular, and tant way of establishing the geography of the early Vedic
civilization. Rivers with certain identications stretch from
is therefore ungrammatical.
398
139.4. LIST
399
during the composition of the Rigveda.
Geography of the Rigveda; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H

cultures are indicated.
Kabul River near Jalalabad
eastern Afghanistan to the western Gangetic plain, clustering in the undivided Punjab (the region's name means
ve rivers). Some river names appear to go back to
common Indo-Iranian rivers, with cognate river names in
Avestan, notably the Sarasvati (Avestan Haraxvaiti, Old
Persian Hara(h)uvati) and the Sarayu (Iran. Harayu, Avestan acc. Hariim, mod. Persian Har).
A number of names can be shown to have been re-applied
to other rivers as the center of Vedic culture moved eastward from the central Vedic heartland in undivided Punjab. It is possible to establish a clear picture for the latest
phase of the Rigveda, thanks to the Nadistuti sukta (10.75),
which contains a geographically ordered list of rivers. The
most prominent river of the Rigveda is the Sarasvati, next to
the Indus. The Sarasvati river of the Rigveda is commonly Swat River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
identied with the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra, although
the Helmand River as a possible locus of early Rigvedic references has been discussed. This is sometimes ascribed to
the supposed movement of Vedic Aryans from their early
seats in Seistan (Arachosia, Avestan Harauua), Gandhara
and eastern Afghanistan into the Indus plains and beyond,
though there is no archaeological evidence for such a movement.
On the other hand, archaeologists like B.B. Lal have shown
the possibility of reverse westward movements of some
Indo-Aryan clans from the Indus basin as well as the absence of a certain archaeological trace for any outside intrusion to the subcontinent.* [5]
Har Rd in Afghanistan
139.4 List
In the geographical organization of the following list, it has
to be kept in mind that some names appearing both in early
and in late hymns may have been re-applied to new rivers
Northwestern Rivers (western tributaries of the Indus):

Trstama (Gilgit)?
Susartu
400
CHAPTER 139. RIGVEDIC RIVERS
Anitabha (listed once, in 5.53.9, with the Afghan

rivers Rasa (Avestan Rangha/Rah), Kubha, Krumu,
Sarayu (Avest. Hariiu)
Ganges
Rasa (on the upper Indus (often a mythical river, Avestan Rangha, Scythian Rha)
Gomati or Adi Ganga
Svetya
Kubha (Kabul), Greek Kophn
Krumu (Kurrum)
Mehatnu (along with the Gomati and Krumu)
Suvastu (Swat) in RV 8.19.37)
Gauri (Panjkora)??
Sarayu in Uttar Pradesh
Gandaki
Uncertain / other
Silamavati?
Urnavati?
Yavyavati (Zhob river?)
Kusava (Kunar)??
The Indus and its minor eastern tributaries:
Sindhu (Indus; (sindhu also means stream/Giant
Rivergenerically)
Susoma (Sohan)
Arjikiya (Haro)?
Central Rivers (rivers of the Punjab):
Vitasta (Jhelum)
Asikni (Chenab)
Parusni (Ravi)
Vipas (Beas)
Sutudri (Sutlej)
Marudvrdha
139.5
See also
Ap (water)
Aryan migration
Nadistuti sukta
Old European hydronymy
Out of India theory
Rigvedic deities
River goddess
Samudra
Zhetysu - 7 rivers of Central Asia
139.6
Notes
East-central Rivers (rivers of Haryana):

[1] e.g. RV 2.12; RV 4.28; RV 8.24
Sarasvati (References to the Sarasvati river in the

Rigveda are identied with the present-day Ghaggar
River, although originally it might have been the name
of the Arghandab and Helmand rivers, as a possible
locus of early Rigvedic references.)* [6]
Drsadvati, Apaya (RV 3.23.4, Mahabharata Apaga.)
Eastern Rivers:
Asmanvati (Assan)?
Yamuna
[2] H.-P. Schmidt, Brhaspathi and Indra, Wiesbaden 1968

[3] http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv03033.htm
[4] Gnoli 1989 pp.4446
[5] http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/
19th-century-paradigms.html
and texts, Routledge, p. 262, ISBN 0-415-10054-2
139.7. REFERENCES
139.7 References
S.C. Sharma. 1974. The description of the rivers in
the Rig Veda. The Geographical Observer, 10: 79-85.
Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes
dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris,
1989, 97265.
Gherardo Gnoli, De Zoroastre Mani. Quatre leons
au Collge de France (Travaux de lInstitut dtudes
Iraniennes de lUniversit de la Sorbonne Nouvelle
11), Paris (1985)
Shrikant G. Talageri, The Rigveda, a historical analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi (chapter 4)
401
Chapter 140
Beas River
For other uses, see Beas (disambiguation).
The Beas River also known as the Bis or Bias,* [1]* [2]
(Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis),* [3] is a river in north
India. The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal
Pradesh, India, and ows for some 470 kilometres (290 mi)
to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of Punjab.* [4]
Its total length is 470 kilometres (290 mi) and its drainage
basin is 20,303 square kilometres (7,839 sq mi) large.* [5]
140.1 Etymology
The river was also known as Arjikuja of the Vedas, or Beas River in Himachal Pradesh
Vipasa to the ancient Indians, and the Hyphasis to the
Ancient Greeks.* [6]
It is said that Beas is a misnomer for Vyasa (exchange of B
with V and always truncation of the last vowel is common
in North Indian languages) and is named after Veda Vyasa,
the presiding patron of the river; he is said to have created
it from its source lake, the Vyas Kund.* [7]
140.2 History
The Beas River marks the eastern-most border of
Alexander the Great's conquests in 326 BC. It was one of
the rivers which created problems in Alexander's invasion
of India. His troops mutinied here in 326 BCE, refusing to go any further; they had been away from home for
eight years. Alexander shut himself in his tent for three
days, but when his men did not change their desires he
gave in, raising twelve colossal altars to mark the limit and
glory of his expedition.* [8]* [9] According to the Kavyamimansa * [10] of Rajasekhara, the kingdom-territories of the
Gurjara-Pratihara monarch Mahipala I extended as far as
the upper course of the river Beas in the north-west.* [11]
Beas River in Pathankot
Project for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation

purposes. The second-phase Pong Dam was completed in
1974 followed by the rst-phase 140 kilometres (87 mi) upstream, Pandoh Dam in 1977. The Pong Dam served initially to primarily provide irrigation below Talwara but was
soon developed as well for power generation; its power staIn the 20th century, the river was developed under the Beas tion has a 360 MW installed capacity. The Pandoh Dam
402
140.4. TRAGEDY
403
diverts the river through a system of tunnels and channels for a short distance, the river forms the boundary between
to the 990 MW Dehar Power Station on the Sutlej River, Amritsar and Kapurthala. Finally the Beas joins the river
connecting both rivers.* [12]* [13]
Sutlej at the south-western boundary of Kapurthala district
of Punjab after a total course of 470 kilometres (290 mi).
The chief tributaries are Bain, Banganga, Luni and Uhal.
The Sutlej continues into Pakistani Punjab and joins the
140.3 Course
Chenab River at Uch near Bahawalpur to form the Panjnad
River; the latter in turn joins the Indus River at Mithankot.
The water of the Beas river is allocated to India under
the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty between India and
Pakistan.* [14]
140.4
Tragedy
Main article: 2014 Beas River Tragedy
Beas river and mountains as seen from Kullu south of Manali
On 8 June 2014, 24 engineering students, and one tour operator, were drowned when the ood gates of the Larji dam
were opened, allegedly without proper warnings and procedure. The water level rose suddenly to 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to
1.8 m), and the surge carried the students away.* [15]
140.5
References
[1] The Land of the Five Rivers and Sindh. David Ross. London.
1883
[2] The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province and Kashmir. Sir
James McCrone Douie. 1916, pp. 16-17, 22, 25-26, 52, 68,
etc.
[3] 'The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province and Kashmir.
Sir James McCrone Douie. 1916, p. 25
[4] About District.
Tourists enjoy rafting on the Beas in Kullu
[5] Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P.

(5 March 2007). Hydrology and water resources of India.
Springer. p. 481. ISBN 978-1-4020-5179-1. Retrieved 15
May 2011.
The river rises 4,361 metres (14,308 ft) above sea-level on

the southern face of Rohtang Pass in Kullu. It traverses
the Mandi District and enters the Kangra District at Sand- [6]
hol, 590 metres (1,940 ft) above sea-level. During its lower
course the Beas is crossed by numerous ferries, many of [7]
which consist of inated skins (darais). Near Reh in Kangra
District it divides into three channels, which reunite after
passing Mirthal, 300 metres (980 ft) above sea-level. On [8]
meeting the Sivalik Hills in Hoshiarpur, the river sweeps
sharply northward, forming the boundary with Kangra Dis- [9]
trict. Then bending round the base of the Sivalik Hills, it
takes the southerly direction, separating the districts of Gurdaspur and Hoshiapur. After touching the Jullundur district [10]
Beas The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 7, p. 138..

Wasini Pandey, Bindhy. Geoenvironmental hazards in Himalaya. Pg.58. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
Travels into Bokhara, Lieut. Alex. Burnes FRS, London,
John Murray, 1834, page 6
The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great.
World Digital Library. 1833. Retrieved 2013-07-26.
Kavyamimansa of Rajasekhara, ch. XVII, P. 94
404
[11] Rama Shankar Tripathi (1989). History of Kanauj: To the

Moslem Conquest. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 262264.
ISBN 812080404X, ISBN 978-81-208-0404-3.
[12] Developmental History of Beas Project. Bhakra Beas
Management Board. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
[13] India: National Register of Large Dams 2009 (PDF).
Central Water Commission. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
[14] The Indus Waters Treaty 1960(PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
[15] http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/chandigarh/
silent-river-beas-turned-into-watery-grave-within-seconds/
article1-1227660.aspx
CHAPTER 140. BEAS RIVER
Chapter 141
Bhagirathi River
Jadh Ganga at Bhaironghati (elevation 2,650 m (8,690
ft)),
This article is about the tributary of the Ganges. For the

distributary in West Bengal, see Hooghly River. For the
2012 lm, see Bhagirathi (lm).
Kakora Gad and Jalandhari Gad near Harsil (elevation

2,745 m (9,006 ft)),
The Bhgrath (Pron:/bg/) is a turbulent

Himalayan river in the Indian states of Uttarakhand, and
one of the two headstreams of the Ganges, the major
river of Northern India and the holy river of Hinduism. In
Hindu mythology and culture, the Bhagirathi is considered
the source stream of the Ganges. However, in hydrology,
the other headstream, Alaknanda, is considered the source
stream on account of its great length and discharge.
Siyan Gad near Jhala (elevation 2,575 m (8,448 ft)),

Asi Ganganear Uttarkashi (elevation 1,158 m (3,799
ft)),
Bhilangna River near Old Tehri (elevation 755 m
(2,477 ft)).
141.1 Etymology
The word Bhagirathi(Sanskrit, literally, caused by
Bhagiratha") refers to a mythological Sagar Dynasty prince
who, to gain the release his 60,000 great-uncles from the
curse of saint Kapila, brought the goddess Ganga in the
form of the river Ganges, from the heavens to the earth.* [2]
Bhagiratha was the king of Kosala, a kingdom in ancient India. He was a descendent of the great King Sagara of the
Suryavanshi, or Surya Dynasty. He was one of the forefathers of Lord Rama, of the Ramayana, the epic in which
Bhagiratha's tale is primarily recounted.* [3]
The Bhilangna itself rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier

(elevation 3,717 m (12,195 ft)) approximately 50 km (31
mi) south of Gaumukh.
The river ows from its source for 205 km (127 mi) before meeting the Alaknanda River at an elevation of 475
m (1,558 ft) in the town of Devprayag. Downstream of
this conuence, considered holy by Hindus, the river is
known as the Ganga Ji, or Ganges River by westerners.
The controversial Tehri dam lies at the conuence of the
Bhgirathi and the Bhilangna, at 302232N 782848E
/ 30.37556N 78.48000E, near Tehri.Chaukhamba I is the
highest point of the Bhagirathi basin.
141.2 Course
The headwaters of the Bhagirathi are formed at Gaumukh
(elevation 3,892 metres (12,769 ft)), at the foot of the
Gangotri glacier and Khatling glaciers in the Garhwal Himalaya. It is then joined by its tributaries; these are, in order
from the source:
Kedar Ganga at Gangotri (elevation 3,049 m (10,003
ft)),
405
The turbulent Bhgrath as it

enters Devprayag.
406
CHAPTER 141. BHAGIRATHI RIVER
141.5
References
Wilson,, W. (1860). A summer ramble in the Himalayas: with sporting adventures in the Vale of Cashmere. London: Hurst and Blackett. OCLC 58410561.
available on microlm
The Bhagirathi (foreground) on

its way to meet the sediment-laden
Heske, Franz (1937).

Im heiligen Lande der
Gangesquellen (In the Holy Lands of the Source of the
Ganges) (in German). Neudamm, Germany: J. Neumann. OCLC 35036471.
Sharma, Man Mohan (1997). Through the Valley of
Gods: Travels in the Central Himalayas (2 ed.). New
Delhi: Vision Books. OCLC 4547622.
Another view of the conuence of the Bhgirathi (right) and the sediment-rich
Alaknanda (left) at Devprayag.Alaknanda river,
shown entering on the left, at Devprayag, and to ow
on as the Ganges
Tehri Dam, the 5th tallest dam

in the world
141.3 Dams
There are 18 dams along the Bhgirathi River, either in operation, under construction or planned. These are, in order
from the source:
141.4 Notes
[1] Catchment Area Treatment:, Bhagirathi River Valley Development Authority, Uttaranchal
[2] Mankodi, Kirit (1973) Gag Tripathag"Artibus Asiae
35(1/2): pp. 139-144, p. 140
[4] Map of the Bhagirathi River showing dams(PDF). Dams,
Rivers & People. South Asian Network on Dams Rivers &
People(sandrp.in). August 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2010.
141.6
External links
Chapter 142
Chautang
The Chautang (Hindi: ), originating in Siwalik
Hills, is a tributary of Sarsuti river which in turn is tributary
of Ghaggar river in of Haryana state of India.* [1]* [2]
142.3
See also
Western Yamuna Canal, branches o Yamuna river

Markanda river, a tributary of Sarsuti
142.1 Origin and route
Dangri, a tributary of Sarsuti
The Chautang river is a seasonal river in the state

of Haryana, India. It is a remnant of the Drsadvati
and joins the Ghaggar-Hakra River east of Suratgarh in
Rajasthan.* [3] This river was one of the main contributors to the Sarasvati river until the Yamuna changed its
course.* [4] However, according to recent studies, Yamuna
changed its course towards east some 50,000 to 10,000
years ago, and that Chautang is a rain-fed river and the Yamuna had not been pouring any water into it for the last
10,000 years.* [5]
Tangri river, a tributary of Sarsuti, merge if Dangri

and Tangri are same
Sarsuti, a tributary of Ghaggar-Hakra River
Kaushalya river, a tributary of Ghaggar-Hakra River
Sutlej, a tributary of Indus
Ganges
Indus
142.2 Identication
rivers
with
Vedic
142.4
References
Several modern scholars identify the old Ghaggar-Hakra

River as the Sarasvati river and the Chautang river with
the Drishadvati river of Vedic period, on the banks of
which Indus-Sarasvati civilisation developed. such scholars include Gregory Possehl,* [6] J. M. Kenoyer,* [7] Bridget
and Raymond Allchin,* [8] Michael Witzel,* [9] Kenneth
Kennedy,* [10] Franklin Southworth,* [11] and numerous
Indian archaeologists.
[1] AmbalaOnline - Rrvers of Ambala
Gregory Possehl and Jane McIntosh refer to the GhaggarHakra river asSarasvatithroughout their respective 2002
and 2008 books on the Indus Civilisation.* [12]* [13]
[5] Giosan, Liviu; et al. (2012). Fluvial landscapes of the

Harappan civilization. PNAS. 109 (26): E1688E1694.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109. PMC 3387054 . PMID
22645375.
Gregory Possehl states:
[2] Indian Express - Ghaggar and Tangri rivers overow

[3] Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations. John Wiley & Sons.
Retrieved 18 February 2014.
[4] McIntosh, Jane. The Ancient Indus Valley: New perspectives.
Retrieved 18 February 2014.
[6] Possehl, Gregory L. (December 1997), The Transformation of the Indus Civilization, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (4): 425472, doi:10.1007/bf02220556, JSTOR
25801118
Linguistic, archaeological, and historical

data show that the Sarasvati of the Vedas is the
modern Ghaggar or Hakra.* [13]
407
408
[7] Kenoyer, J. M. (1997), Early City-states in South Asia:

Comparing the Harappan Phase and the Early Historic Period, in D. L. Nichols; T. H. Charlton, The Archaeology of
City States: Cross Cultural Approaches, Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 5270, ISBN 1560987227
[8] Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982), The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press,
p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
[9] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
[10] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[11] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.
[12] McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
[13] Gregory L. Possehl (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. p. 8. ISBN 9780-7591-0172-2.

Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization and Sarasvati River
The Saraswati: Where lies the mystery by Saswati Paik
CHAPTER 142. CHAUTANG
Chapter 143
Chenab River
Chenabredirects here.
Chenab, Iran.
For the village in Iran, see
The Chenab River is a major river of India and Pakistan. It

forms in the upper Himalayas in the Lahaul and Spiti district
of Himachal Pradesh, India, and ows through the Jammu
region of Jammu and Kashmir into the plains of the Punjab,
Pakistan. The waters of the Chenab are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty.* [2]* [3]
A view of River Chenab near

Gujrat.
143.1 History
The river was known to Indians in the Vedic period* [4] as

Chandrabhaga (Sanskrit: ), also Ashkini (Sanskrit:
) or Iskmati (Sanskrit: ) and as Acesines
to the Ancient Greeks.* [5]* [6] In 325 BC, Alexander the
Great allegedly founded the town of Alexandria on the Indus (present day Uch Sharif or Mithankot or Chacharan in
Pakistan) at the conuence of the Indus and the combined
stream of Punjab rivers (currently known as the Panjnad
River).* [7]
A view of Chandrabhagha
River through Pangi valley in Himachal Pradesh.
143.3
References
[1] ftp://daac.ornl.gov/data/rivdis/STATIONS.HTM, ORNL,

Retrieved 8 Dec 2016
[2] River Chenab (PDF). Retrieved 8 Dec 2016.
[3] Indus Waters Treaty. The World Bank. Retrieved 8 Dec
2016.
143.2 Image gallery
[4] Yule, Henry; Arthur Coke Burnell; William Crooke.

Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial
words & phrases and of kindred terms. Pg.741. Retrieved
8 Dec 2016.
Chandra river (shown) is an

upper tributary of Chenab.
[5] https://www.britannica.com/place/Chenab-River, Chenab

River on Encyclopedia Britannica, Retrieved 8 Dec 2016
[6] Encyclopdia Britannica article on the Chenab
[7] Alexandria (Uch)
Bhaga
River
near
Jispa,
Lahaul.
409
Chapter 144
Dangri
The Dangri (Hindi: or ), originating in
Siwalik Hills, is a tributary of Ghaggar river in of Haryana
state of India.* [1]* [2]
144.3
References

[3] Valdiya, K.S. (2002). Saraswati : the river that disappeared. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. pp. 2327. ISBN
9788173714030. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
The Dangri is a small stream that rises in the Siwalik Hills

of south-eastern Himachal Pradesh in India.* [3]
[4] Danino, Michel (2010). The lost river : on the trail of the
Sarasvat . New Delhi: Penguin Books India. p. 12. ISBN
9780143068648. Retrieved 4 May 2015. (Chapter 1, page
12)
It ows south where it is joined by two other streams, the

Markanda and the Sarsuti, before joining the Ghaggar river
near the village of Rasula.* [3]
It is thereafter known as the Ghaggar. Further downstream
on the banks of the Ghaggar stands an old derelict fort
named Sarsuti.* [3]
144.4
External links
It is believed that Sarsuti is a corruption of the word

Sarasvati and that the 68 km wide channel of the Sarsuti
Ghaggar system might have once been the Sarasvati River
mentioned in the Rig Veda.* [3]* [4]

Coordinates: 3013N 7643E / 30.217N 76.717E
144.2 See also

and Tangri are same
Western Yamuna Canal, branches o Yamuna
Markanda river, Haryana, a tributary of Sarsuti
Chautang, a tributary of Ghaggar-Hakra River
Ganges
Indus
410
Chapter 145
Drishadvati river
texts, the river originated in the pot of Brahma: Pushkar
Lake, near Ajmer. The Sarasvati, with four branches
owing in dierent directions, originated in the hills near
Pushkar. Drashadwati was the branch owing north. Most
of the ashrams of the Rishis who compiled the Rigveda
were on the river, between Pushkar and Dhosi Hill in Brahmavarta.* [1] According to the Rigveda, the Drashadwati
was preferred for religious sacrices by the Vedic people.
The Sarasvati River; the Drishadvati was probably a tributary (dotted lines indicate modern rivers).
The Drishadvati river (IAST:dad-vat,She with many

stones) is a river hypothesized by Indologists to identify the route of the Vedic river Saraswati and the state of
Brahmavarta. Brahmavarta, where the Rishis composed the
Vedas and other Sanskrit Granthas which are the basis of
the Vedic Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism), was at the conuence of the Saraswati and Drishadwati during the Vedic
period.
145.1 Location
In the Manu Smriti, the Drishadwati and the Sarasvati dene

the boundaries of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta:* [2] It
says that the land, created by the Gods, which lies between
the two divine rivers Sarasvati and Drishadvati, the (sages)
call Brahmavarta.The text also says that although the
Sarasvati formed the northern boundary of Kuru Pradesh,
the Drishadwati owed in southern Kuru Pradesh and north
of Brahmavarta. According to the Mahabharata, the southern boundary of Kuru Pradesh was Guru Drona's ashram
(present-day Gurgaon at one end and Rohtak and Jhajjar at
the other); therefore, the Drishadwati owed in the southern portions of these cities. Although about 100 streams
owed south to north in the 200-kilometre (120 mi)-wide
Aravalli Range during the Vedic period, the only large river
is the present-day Sahibi.* [3] The Sahibi has a lower ow
at present because of low rainfall in its catchment area and
has a wide, dry bed which carries water from the districts
of Jaipur, Sikar, Alwar Rewari, Jhajjar, Rohtak and Delhi
in Yamuna.
The Drishavati is mentioned in the Rigveda (RV 3.23.4)
with the Sarasvati and Apaya. According to the Rigveda,
the Brahmanas and the Kalpa, Vedic sacrices were performed on this river and on the Sarasvati. In the Srimad
Bhagavatam, the Drsadvati is a transcendental river.
Although the Drishadvati is mentioned several times in Sanskrit Granthas, a detailed description of the river is not
found in other ancient literature and this has generated 145.2 Origin
speculation about its source and route. The Latyayana
Srautasutra (10.17) describes it as a seasonal river, with the The Drishadvati was identied by Oldham as the Chautang
Saraswati a perennial river until its vinasana (10.15-19).
River,* [4] and in 2000 Talageri identied it with the
The Drishadwati is mentioned in Brahmanas written pri- Hariyupiya and Yavyavati Rivers. In 1871 Alexander Cunmarily in the state of Brahmavarta. According to these ningham identied the Rakshi River as the old Drishadvati
411
412
and demonstrated its ow to have been from Chunar, near
Varanasi. According to the Brahman Granthas, before its
conuence with the Saraswati the Drishadwati owed from
the east to west. The Saraswati owed from north to south
during the Vedic period, and the Drishadwati owed from
south to north through the Aravallis from Pushkar Lake in
Rajasthan to Nangal Chaudhery in southern Haryana. The
river then turned to reach Satnali and meet the Saraswati.
After major seismic activity in the Aravalli Range, the river
changed course.* [5]
According to Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar,* [6] the Drishadwati
originated in the Vindya Mountains of Baghelkhand and
joined the Charmanwati. After an earthquake, it owed
north to join the Son River. Sarkar believes that the Drishadvati is the Ghaghara.
145.3 See also

Ghaggar-Hakra River
145.4 References
[1] Sudhir Bhargava; Saraswati-a perspective, 2009
[2] Manusmriti, Chapter 2, Shalok 17
[3] Sudhir Bhargava, Convenor, Brahmavarta Research Foundation, Rewari, Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati river is important to nd earliest alignment of Saraswati
River, Presentation in Seminar 'Saraswati River-a perspective', on Nov. 20-22, 2009, Kurukshetra university,
Kurukshetra, pages 114-117, Seminar report, published by
Saraswati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana.
[4] e.g. Keith and Macdonell. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and
Subjects.; Oldham: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 25,
58; see Amal Kar and Bimal Ghose 1984
[5] Sudhir Bhargava, Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati river is important to nd earliest alignment of Saraswati
riverSeminar, Saraswati river-a perspective, Nov. 20-22,
2009, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, organised by:
Saraswati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana, Seminar Report:
pages 114-117
[6] Namah Shivaya Shantaya, English edition, chap. 7, Ananda
Marga Publications, 1982 (written under the spiritual name
of P. R. Sarkar, that is, Shri Anandamurti).
Amal Kar, Bimal Ghose: Drishadvati River System

of India: An assessment and new ndings. The Geographical Journal, Vol 150, No 2, 1984.
Shrikant G. Talageri, The Rigveda, a historical analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi (2000), chapter 4
CHAPTER 145. DRISHADVATI RIVER
Chapter 146
Ganges
For other uses, see Ganges (disambiguation).
The Ganges (/ndiz/ GAN-jeez), also Ganga (Hindustani: [a]) is a trans-boundary river of Asia which ows
through the nations of India and Bangladesh. The 2,525 km
(1,569 mi) river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and ows south and east through
the Gangetic Plain of North India into Bangladesh, where it
empties into the Bay of Bengal. It is the third largest river
in the world by discharge.
The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus.* [4] It is also
a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course
and depend on it for their daily needs.* [5] It is worshipped
as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism.* [6] It has also been
important historically, with many former provincial or im- Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.
perial capitals (such as Pataliputra,* [7] Kannauj,* [7] Kara,
Kashi, Patna, Hajipur, Munger, Bhagalpur, Murshidabad,
Baharampur, Kampilya, and Kolkata) located on its banks.
The Ganges was ranked as the fth most polluted river of
the world in 2007. Pollution threatens not only humans,
but also more than 140 sh species, 90 amphibian species
and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. The Ganga Action Plan, was launched in 1985. an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus
far,* [lower-alpha 1]* [lower-alpha 2]* [8] due to corruption,
lack of technical expertise,* [lower-alpha 3] poor environmental planning,* [lower-alpha 4] and lack of support from
religious authorities.* [lower-alpha 5]
The name Ganges, ending in "-es, came to English Devprayag, conuence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left)
via Latin from Ancient Greek sources, particularly from ac- rivers, beginning of the Ganges proper.
counts of Alexander the Great's wars. Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal are the states
through which Ganga ows.
146.1 Course
The main stem of the Ganges begins at the conuence of the
Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag
in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand.
The Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu
culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer,
413
414
CHAPTER 146. GANGES

verts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river,
whose course has been roughly southwest until this point,
now begins to ow southeast through the plains of northern
India.
The Ganges follows an 800 km (500 mi) arching course
passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and
Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga,
which contributes an average annual ow of about 500
m3 /s (18,000 cu ft/s).* [13] The Ganges joins the Yamuna
at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, a holy conuence in
Hinduism. At their conuence the Yamuna is larger than
the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3 /s (104,000 cu
ft/s),* [13] or about 58.5% of the combined ow.* [14]
The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges river in the Garhwal

region of Uttarakhand, India. The headstreams and rivers are labelled in italics; the heights of the mountains, lakes, and towns are
displayed in parentheses in metres.
and, therefore, hydrologically the source stream.* [9]* [10]

The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt
from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. The
Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gomukh,
at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft), being mythologically
referred to as, residing in the matted locks of Shiva, symbolically Tapovan, being a meadow of ethereal beauty at the
feet of Mount Shivling, just 5 km (3.1 mi) away.* [11]* [12]
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters
of the Ganges, the six longest and their ve conuences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the
Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini,
and Bhagirathi rivers. The ve conuences, known as the
Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in
downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga
joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini
joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins, Rudraprayag,
where the Mandakini joins; and nally, Devprayag, where
the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges
River proper.* [9]
Now owing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also
called Tons), which ows north from the Kaimur Range
and contributes an average ow of about 190 m3 /s (6,700
cu ft/s). After the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, owing
south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual ow of about 234 m3 /s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the
Ghaghara River (Karnali River), also owing south from
the Himalayas of Nepal, joins. The Ghaghara (Karnali),
with its average annual ow of about 2,990 m3 /s (106,000
cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the
Ghaghara (Karnali) conuence the Ganges is joined from
the south by the Son River, contributing about 1,000 m3 /s
(35,000 cu ft/s). The Gandaki River, then the Kosi River,
join from the north owing from Nepal, contributing about
1,654 m3 /s (58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3 /s (76,500 cu ft/s),
respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the
Ganges, after the Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.* [13]
Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur,
Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar,
Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river
begins to ow south-southeast and at Pakur, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its rst distributary, the
Bhgirathi-Hooghly, which goes on to become the Hooghly
River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka
Barrage controls the ow of the Ganges, diverting some
of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for
the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly
River is formed by the conuence of the Bhagirathi River
and Jalangi River at Nabadwip, and Hooghly has a number
of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar River,
which is 541 km (336 mi) long, with a drainage basin of
25,820 km2 (9,970 sq mi).* [15] The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.* [16] Between
Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the
towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and
Howrah.
After owing 250 km (160 mi)* [12] through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at
Rishikesh, then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges
pilgrimage town of Haridwar.* [9] At Haridwar, a dam di-
146.3. HYDROLOGY
415
is known as the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Jamuna

River, the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra. Further
downstream, the Padma joins the Meghna River, the second largest distributary of the Brahmaputra, and takes on
the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which
empties into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganges Delta, formed mainly by the large, sedimentladen ows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the
world's largest delta, at about 59,000 km2 (23,000 sq
mi).* [17] It stretches 322 km (200 mi) along the Bay of
Bengal.* [18]
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined ow of the Ganges, the
Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.* [18] In A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.
Major left-bank tributaries include Gomti (Gumti), Ghaghara
full ood only the Amazon is larger.* [19]
(Gogra), Gandaki (Gandak), and Kosi (Kusi); major right-bank
tributaries include Yamuna (Jumna), Son, Punpun and Damodar.
146.2 Geology
The Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate,
a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.* [20] Its
dening geological processes commenced seventy-ve million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, it began a northeastwards drift lasting fty million yearsacross the then unformed Indian
Ocean.* [20] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with
the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the
Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.* [20] In
the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been lled with sediment borne by the Indus
and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries,* [21] The river Ganges at Kolkata, with Howrah Bridge in the backnow forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.* [22]
ground
The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin.* [23]
146.3 Hydrology
The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region. One result is dierent
ways to determine the river's length, its discharge, and the
size of its drainage basin.
The name Ganges is used for the river between the conuence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the India-Bangladesh border, near the Farakka
Barrage and the rst bifurcation of the river. The length
of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over 2,500 Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh
km (1,600 mi) long, about 2,505 km (1,557 mi),* [24]
to 2,525 km (1,569 mi),* [25]* [14] or perhaps 2,550 km
(1,580 mi).* [26] In these cases the river's source is usually
416
River Ganga in Patna, with Gandhi Setu Bridge in the background
CHAPTER 146. GANGES

Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern slopes of
the Vindhya range in the south, from the eastern slopes
of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau
and the Sunderbans delta in the east. A signicant
portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from
the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya,
the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the
Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming
the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to the
Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming
the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east.
This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest
peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including
Mount Everest which is the high point of the Ganges
basin.* [33] The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin
are Kangchenjunga,* [34] Lhotse,* [35] Makalu,* [36]
Cho
Oyu,* [37]
Dhaulagiri,* [38]
Manaslu,* [39]
*
*
Annapurna [40] and Shishapangma. [41] The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern
portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of
Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme
north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.
assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri

Glacier at Gomukh, and its mouth being the mouth of the
Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.* [25]* [14]* [24]* [26]
Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at
Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch The discharge of the Ganges also diers by source. Freonto the Gangetic Plain.* [27]
quently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna
In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given for its River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra
Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main and Meghna. This results in a total average annual discharge
3
*
outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of of about 38,000 m /s (1,300,000 cu ft/s), [18] or 42,470
3
*
about 2,620 km (1,630 mi), from the source of the Bhagi- m /s (1,500,000 cu ft/s). [17] In other cases the average anrathi,* [17] or 2,135 km (1,327 mi), from Haridwar to the nual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna
3
Hooghly's mouth.* [28] In other cases the length is said to are given separately, at about 16,650 m /s (588,000 cu ft/s)
3
be about 2,240 km (1,390 mi), from the source of the Bha- for the Ganges, about 19,820 m /s (700,000 cu ft/s) for the
3
girathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m /s (180,000 cu ft/s) for
*
*
the Meghna. [25]
Padma. [29]
For similar reasons, sources dier over the size of the
river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of four
countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi.* [30] The Ganges basin, including the
delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about
1,080,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi), of which 861,000 km2
(332,000 sq mi) are in India (about 80%), 140,000 km2
(54,000 sq mi) in Nepal (13%), 46,000 km2 (18,000
sq mi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km2 (13,000
sq mi) in China (3%).* [31] Sometimes the Ganges and
BrahmaputraMeghna drainage basins are combined for
a total of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi),* [19]
or 1,621,000 km2 (626,000 sq mi).* [18] The combined Hardinge Bridge, Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River. It
Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or is one of the key sites for measuring streamow and discharge on
GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, the lower Ganges.
India, Nepal, and China.* [32]
The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded
146.4. HISTORY
at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded 70,000 m3 /s
(2,500,000 cu ft/s).* [42] The minimum recorded at the
same place was about 180 m3 /s (6,400 cu ft/s), in
1997.* [43]
The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by
the Southwest Monsoon. About 84% of the total rainfall
occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, streamow in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The
average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6,
as measured at Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource
development in the region.* [29] The seasonality of ow is
so acute it can cause both drought and oods. Bangladesh,
in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry
season and regularly suers extreme oods during the monsoon.* [43]
417
River. It ows south to join the Ganges-Padma. Since ancient times the main ow of the Brahmaputra was more
easterly, passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining the
Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary
but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.* [45] The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna conuence, in the locality of Langalbandh, is still considered
sacred by Hindus. Near the conuence is a major early historic site called Wari-Bateshwar.* [16]
146.4
History
In the Ganges Delta many large rivers come together,

both merging and bifurcating in a complicated network
of channels. The two largest rivers, the Ganges and
Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the
largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining. This current channel pattern was not always
the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have changed
course, sometimes altering the network of channels in signicant ways.
Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the
Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The main ow
of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly
River but rather by the Adi Ganga. Between the 12th and
16th centuries the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels
were more or less equally signicant. After the 16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the
Ganges.* [16] It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main ow of
the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River.
By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the
main distributary of the Ganges.* [17] One result of this
shift to the Padma was that the Ganges joined the Meghna
and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of
Bengal, together instead of separately. The present conuence of the Ganges and Meghna formed about 150 years The birth of Ganges
ago.* [44]
Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the The Late Harappan period, about 19001300 BCE, saw
lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, altering its rela- the spread of Harappan settlement eastward from the Indus
tionship with the Ganges. In 1787 there was a great ood River basin to the Ganges-Yamuna doab, although none
on the Teesta River, which at the time was a tributary of the crossed the Ganges to settle its eastern bank. The disGanges-Padma River. The ood of 1787 caused the Teesta integration of the Harappan civilisation, in the early 2nd
to undergo a sudden change course (an avulsion), shifting millennium BC, marks the point when the centre of Inshifted from the Indus basin to the Ganges
east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmapu- dian civilisation
*
tra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel. This basin. [46] There may be links between the Late Harappan
new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna settlement of the Ganges basin and the archaeological culture known as "Cemetery H", the Indo-Aryan people, and
418
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
146.5
the Vedic period.

*
This river is the longest in India. [47] During the early

Vedic Age of the Rigveda, the Indus and the Sarasvati
River were the major sacred rivers, not the Ganges. But
the later three Vedas gave much more importance to the 146.5.1
Ganges.* [lower-alpha 6] The Gangetic Plain became the
centre of successive powerful states, from the Maurya Empire to the Mughal Empire.* [9]* [48]
Religious and cultural signicance

Embodiment of sacredness
The rst European traveller to mention the Ganges was

Megasthenes (ca. 350290 BCE). He did so several times
in his work Indica: India, again, possesses many rivers
both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the
mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges.
Now this river, which at its source is 30 stadia broad, ows
from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean
forming the eastern boundary of the Gangaridai, a nation
which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants.
(Diodorus II.37)* [49] In the rainy season of 1809, the lower
channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again, and
was nearly of the same size with the upper channel; both
however suered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi
on the upper channel.
In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and
Bangladesh (then East Pakistan), after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage. The original purpose
of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to 1,100 m3 /s (39,000 cu ft/s) of water from the
Ganges to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary in order to
restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata. It was assumed
that during the worst dry season the Ganges ow would be
around 1,400 to 1,600 m3 /s (49,000 to 57,000 cu ft/s), thus
leaving 280 to 420 m3 /s (9,900 to 14,800 cu ft/s) for the
then East Pakistan.* [50] East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed
with Bangladesh. The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence they state that if the Ganges ow at
Farakka was less than 2,000 m3 /s (71,000 cu ft/s) then India
and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with
each receiving at least 1,000 m3 /s (35,000 cu ft/s) for alternating ten-day periods. However, within a year the ow at
Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making
it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water.
In March 1997, ow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped
to its lowest ever, 180 m3 /s (6,400 cu ft/s). Dry season ows
returned to normal levels in the years following, but eorts
were made to address the problem. One plan is for another
barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka.
This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilise its share
of the waters of the Ganges.* [lower-alpha 7]
Ganga Aarti oered every evening at the Dashashwamedh Ghat,

Varanasi
The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its
waters,* [51] paying homage to their ancestors and to their
gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it and letting
it fall back into the river; they oer owers and rose petals
and oat shallow clay dishes lled with oil and lit with wicks
(diyas).* [51] On the journey back home from the Ganges,
they carry small quantities of river water with them for use
in rituals (Ganga jal, literally water of the Ganga).* [52]
When a loved one dies, Hindus bring the ashes of the deceased person to the Ganges River.* [52]
The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu
mythology.* [53] Local rivers are said to be like the Ganges,
and are sometimes called the local Ganges (Ganga).* [53]
The Kaveri river of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in Southern
India is called the Ganges of the South; the Godavari, is the
Ganges that was led by the sage Gautama to ow through
Central India.* [53] The Ganges is invoked whenever water
is used in Hindu ritual, and is therefore present in all sa-
146.5. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

cred waters.* [53] In spite of this, nothing is more stirring
for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought
to remit sins, especially at one of the famous tirthas such
as Gangotri, Haridwar, Prayag, or Varanasi.* [53] The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the
few things that Hindu India, even its skeptics, are agreed
upon.* [54] Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the
Ganges.* [54] The Ganga,he wrote in his will, is the
river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs
of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a
symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, everchanging, ever-owing, and yet ever the same Ganga.* [54]
146.5.2 Avatarana or Descent of the Ganges
Descent of Ganga painting by Raja Ravi Varma
In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate

the avatarana or descent of the Ganges from heaven to
earth.* [55] The day of the celebration, Ganga Dashahara,
the dashami (tenth day) of the waxing moon of the Hindu
calendar month Jyestha, brings throngs of bathers to the
banks of the river.* [55] A soak in the Ganges on this
day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit
ten"; hara = to destroy) or alternatively, ten lifetimes of
419
sins.* [55] Those who cannot journey to the river, however,
can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body
of water, which, for the true believer, in the Hindu tradition,
takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.* [55]
The avatarana is an old theme in Hinduism with a number
of dierent versions of the story.* [55] In the Vedic version,
Indra, the Lord of Svarga (Heaven) slays the celestial serpent, Vritra, releasing the celestial liquid, the soma, or the
nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.* [55]
In the Vaishnava version of the myth, Indra has been replaced by his former helper Vishnu.* [55] The heavenly waters are now a river called Vishnupadi (padi: Skt.from the
foot of).* [55] As he completes his celebrated three strides
of earth, sky, and heavenVishnu as Vamana stubs his
toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole, and releases
the Vishnupadi, which until now had been circling around
the cosmic egg within.* [56] Flowing out of the vault, she
plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by
Dhruva, the once steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now xed
in the sky as the polestar.* [56] Next, she streams across the
sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon.* [56]
She then ows down earthwards to Brahma's realm, a divine lotus atop Mount Meru, whose petals form the earthly
continents.* [56] There, the divine waters break up, with one
stream, the Alaknanda, owing down one petal into Bharatvarsha (India) as the Ganges.* [56]
It is Shiva, however, among the major deities of the Hindu
pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of
the avatarana story.* [57] Told and retold in the Ramayana,
the Mahabharata and several Puranas, the story begins with
a sage, Kapila, whose intense meditation has been disturbed
by the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara. Livid at being
disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces
them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld.
Only the waters of the Ganga, then in heaven, can bring
the dead sons their salvation. A descendant of these sons,
King Bhagiratha, anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize
of Ganga's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades
Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to receive Ganga in the
coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. Ganga descends,
is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She
is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains
at Haridwar, across the plains rst to the conuence with
the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganga Sagar, where she meets the ocean, sinks to
the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.* [57] In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the avatarana, the source
stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi,
(Sanskrit, of Bhagiratha).* [57]
420
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
146.5.3
Redemption of the Dead
Pilgrims sitting at the Asthi Pravaha Ghat, Har ki Pauri, Haridwar
Since Ganga had descended from heaven to earth, she is

also the vehicle of ascent, from earth to heaven.* [58] As the
Triloka-patha-gamini, (Skt. triloka=three worlds, patha
=road, gamini =one who travels) of the Hindu tradition, she ows in heaven, earth, and the netherworld, and,
consequently, is a tirtha,or crossing point of all beings,
the living as well as the dead.* [58] It is for this reason that
the story of the avatarana is told at Shraddha ceremonies
for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in
Vedic rituals after death.* [58] Among all hymns devoted to
the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipers wish to breathe his last surrounded
by her waters.* [58] The Gangashtakam expresses this longing fervently:* [58]
O Mother! ... Necklace adorning the worlds!
Banner rising to heaven!
I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,
Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,
Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze
upon you.* [59]
tion Ground, or Mahashmshana.* [58] Those who are lucky

enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of
the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.* [60] If the
death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by
immersing the ashes in the Ganges.* [60] If the ashes have
been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still
gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges,
if possible during the lunar fortnight of the ancestorsin
the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin (September or October), and performing the Shraddha rites.* [60]
Hindus also perform pinda pradana, a rite for the dead,
in which balls of rice and sesame seed are oered to the
Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.* [61] Every sesame seed in every ball thus oered,
according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly
salvation for the each relative.* [61] Indeed, the Ganges is so
important in the rituals after death that the Mahabharata,
in one of its popular lokas, says, If only (one) bone of
a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges,
that person shall dwell honoured in heaven.* [62] As if
to illustrate this truism, the Kashi Khanda (Varanasi Chapter) of the Skanda Purana recounts the remarkable story of
Vahika, a proigate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed
by a tiger in the forest. His soul arrives before Yama, the
Lord of Death, to be judged for the hereafter. Having no
compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to
hell. While this is happening, his body on earth, however,
is being picked at by vultures, one of whom ies away with
a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in
ghting him o, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into
the Ganges below. Blessed by this happenstance, Vahika,
on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which
takes him instead to heaven.* [63]
146.5.4
The purifying Ganges
Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure

and purifying.* [64] Nothing reclaims order from disorder
more than the waters of the Ganges.* [65] Moving water,
as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them
away.* [65] The swiftly moving Ganges, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain
in order to not be carried away, is considered especially
purifying.* [65] What the Ganges removes, however, is not
necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away
the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.* [65]
A popular paean to the Ganges is the Ganga Lahiri composed by a seventeenth century poet Jagannatha who, legNo place along her banks is more longed for at the mo- end has it, was turned out of his Hindu Brahmin caste for
ment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Crema- carrying on an aair with a Muslim woman. Having at-
146.5. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
421
wife of Brahma, Ganga to become the wife of Shiva, and
Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own
wife. Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at
this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced
to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers
they are still thought to be with him.* [68]
Devotees taking holy bath during festival of Ganga Dashara at Harki-Pauri, Haridwar
tempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold,

the poet nally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless,
and the comforter of last resort. Along with his beloved,
Jagannatha sits at the top of the ight of steps leading to the
water at the famous Panchganga Ghat in Varanasi. As he
recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises
up one step, until in the end it envelops the lovers and carry
them away.* [65] I come to you as a child to his mother,
begins the Ganga Lahiri.* [66]
I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.
I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest.
I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.
I come undone by disease to you, the perfect
physician.
I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of
sweet wine.
Do with me whatever you will.* [66]
146.5.5
Consort, Shakti, and Mother
Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.* [67] As Brahma's partner she always travels with
him in the form of water in his kamandalu (water-pot).* [67]
She is also Vishnu's consort.* [67] Not only does she emanate from his foot as Vishnupadi in the avatarana story,
but is also, with Sarasvati and Lakshmi, one of his cowives.* [67] In one popular story, envious of being outdone
by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other. They curse each other
to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing,
the sins of their human worshippers. Soon their husband,
Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He orders Sarasvati to become the
Shiva, as Gangadhara, bearing the Descent of the Ganges, as the

goddess Parvati, the sage Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look on
(circa 1740).
It is Shiva's relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known

in Ganges mythology.* [69] Her descent, the avatarana is
not a one time event, but a continuously occurring one
in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks
and being forever tamed.* [69] Shiva, is depicted in Hindu
iconography as Gangadhara, the Bearer of the Ganga,
with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his
hair.* [69] The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual
and intimate.* [69] Shiva is sometimes called Uma-GangaPatiswara (Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and
Ganga), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's
better-known consort Parvati.* [69]
Ganga is the shakti or the moving, restless, rolling energy in
the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.* [67] As water, this moving
energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.* [67] The war-god
Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the Kashi Khand of
422
the Skanda Purana in these words:* [67]
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
Central to the goddess's visual identication is the makara,

which is also her vahana, or mount. An ancient symbol in
India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in
One should not be amazed ... that this Ganges
art.* [75] The makara has a dual symbolism. On the one
is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti
hand, it represents the life-arming waters and plants of its
of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?
environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of
This Ganges, lled with the sweet wine of comthe unknown it elicits by lurking in those waters and real
passion, was sent out for the salvation of the
fear it instils by appearing in sight.* [75] The earliest exworld by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.
tant unambiguous pairing of the makara with Ganga is at
Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed
Udayagiri Caves in Central India (circa 400 CE). Here, in
River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers,
Cave V, anking the main gure of Vishnu shown in his
*
lled with water. [67]
boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna
appear atop their respective mounts, makara and kurma (a
The Ganges is also the mother, the Ganga Mata turtle or tortoise).* [75]
(mata="mother) of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.* [66] Unlike other goddesses, she The makara is often accompanied by a gana, a small boy
has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the
Besnagar, Central India, in the
she might be as a river in nature.* [66] She is also a mother Gupta period relief from
*
left-most
frame
above.
[76]
The gana represents both pos*
to other gods. [70] She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed
*
terity
and
development
(udbhava).
[76] The pairing of the
from the re-god Agni, which is too hot for this world, and
fearsome,
life-destroying
makara
with
the youthful, life*
cools it in her waters. [70] This union produces Skanda,
arming
gana
speaks
to
two
aspects
of
the Ganges her*
or Kartikeya, the god of war. [70] In the Mahabharata,
self.
Although
she
has
provided
sustenance
to millions,
she is the wife of Shantanu, and the mother of heroic
she
has
also
brought
hardship,
injury,
and
death
by caus*
warrior-patriarch, Bhishma. [70] When Bhishma is mor*
ing
major
oods
along
her
banks.
[77]
The
goddess
Ganga
tally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in
is
also
accompanied
by
a
dwarf
attendant,
who
carries
a
*
human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body. [70]
cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for
The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, support.* [74] (See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.)
of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.* [67] As
most
such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invoca- The purna kumbha or full pot of water is the second
*
discernible
element
of
the
Ganga
iconography.
[78]
Aption (avahana) at the beginning and dismissal (visarjana)
pearing
rst
also
in
the
relief
in
Udayagiri
Caves
(5th
cen*
at the end, required in the worship of other gods. [67] Her
tury), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme
divinity is immediate and everlasting.* [67]
of the goddess matured.* [78] By the seventh century it
had become an established feature, as seen, for exam146.5.6 Ganges in classical Indian iconogra- ple, the Dashavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (seventh century), the Trimurti temple, Badoli, Chittorgarh,
phy
Rajasthan, and at the Lakshmaneshwar temple, Kharod,
Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh,* [78] (ninth or tenth century), and
Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was assoseen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the reciated with fecundity, its redeeming waters and its rich silt
maining frames. Worshipped even today, the full pot is emproviding sustenance to all who lived along its banks.* [71]
blematic of the formless Brahman, as well as of woman, of
A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer,
the womb, and of birth.* [79] Furthermore, The river godthe Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to
desses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's
be revered in anthropomorphic form.* [72] By the 5th cenpot, containing the celestial waters.* [79]
tury CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges,
now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess
of India.* [73] Hindu temples all over India had statues and Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch
*
reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves. [80] Howwashing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the ever, soon the tree cover had evolved into a chatra or parasol
gods within.* [74] As protector of the sanctum sanctorum, held by an attendant, for example, in the seventh-century
*
the goddess soon came to depicted with several characteris- Dasavatara temple at Deogarh. [80] (The parasol can be
tic accessories: the makara (a crocodile-like undersea mon- clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame
ster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the kumbha 4, but the rest has broken o.) The cover undergoes another
(an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (ninth or
tenth century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped,* [80] and
and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.* [75]
146.6. IRRIGATION
423
yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the para- The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks
sol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.* [80]
of the river. Other activities include religious discussions,
As the iconography evolved, sculptors in the central India devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women
especially were producing animated scenes of the goddess, and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are
Kumbh Mela is the most sacred
replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route debated and standardized.
*
*
of
all
the
pilgrimages.
[84]
[85] Thousands of holy men
*
to a river to bathe. [81] A relief similar to the depiction in
and
women
attend,
and
the
auspiciousness
of the festival is
frame 4 above, is described in Pal 1997, p. 43 as follows:
in part attributable to this. The sadhus are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per
A typical relief of about the ninth century
the requirements of ancient traditions. Some, called naga
that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the
sanyasis, may not wear any clothes.* [86]
river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously
endowed lady with a retinue. Following the
iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully
146.6 Irrigation
on her composite makara mount and holds a water pot. The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic
The Ganga and its tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have
bag, and a ... female holds the stem of a giant lobeen used for irrigation since ancient times.* [87] Dams and
tus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol. The
canals were common in gangetic plain by fourth century
fourth gure is a male guardian. Often in such
BCE.* [88] The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a
reliefs the makara's tail is extended with great
huge hydroelectric potential, on the order of 200,000 to
ourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both
250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could be easily
*
vegetation and water. [74]
harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganga and just 1% of the vast
potential of the Brahmaputra.* [89]
146.5.7 Kumbh Mela
146.6.1
A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the

Ganges river. Kumbh Mela at Allahabad, 2001.
Main article: Kumbh Mela

Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus
gather at the Ganges river. The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 3 years, the Ardh (half) Kumbh is celebrated
every six years at Haridwar and Prayag,* [82] the Purna
(complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years* [83] at
four places (Prayag (Allahabad), Haridwar, Ujjain, and
Nashik). The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Prayag
(Allahabad).* [83]
Canals
Head works of the Ganga canal in Haridwar (1860). photograph

by Samuel Bourne.
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during third century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the gangetic plain. Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), an advisor to Chandragupta
Maurya, the founder of Maurya Empire, included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during war.* [88]
Firuz Shah Tughlaq had many canals built, the longest of
which, 240 km (150 mi), was built in 1356 on the Yamuna
River. Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has
fallen into disrepair and been restored several times. The
Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built an irrigation canal on the
Yamuna River in the early 17th century. It fell into disuse
424
until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna
Canal, under British control. The reopened canal became
a model for the Upper Ganga Canal and all following canal
projects.* [87]
The Ganga Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks o the Ganga river in Hardwar and its conuences with the
Jumna river in Etawah and with the Ganga in Cawnpore (now Kanpur).
The rst British canal in Indiawith no Indian antecedents

was the Ganga Canal built between 1842 and 1854.* [90]
Contemplated rst by Col. John Russell Colvin in 1836,
it did not at rst elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual
architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley, who balked at idea
of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land in order to reach the drier upland destination. However, after
the Agra famine of 183738, during which the East India
Company's administration spent Rs. 2,300,000 on famine
relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the
Company's budget-conscious Court of Directors. In 1839,
the Governor General of India, Lord Auckland, with the
Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey
of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected
course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which,
in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of
CHAPTER 146. GANGES

the famine, they now deemed to be the entire Doab region.* [91]
The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short lived. Auckland's successor as Governor General, Lord Ellenborough,
appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and
for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for
the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General,
Lord Hardinge, was appointed, did ocial enthusiasm and
funds return to the Ganga canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly aected Cautley's health
and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study
contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and
Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the North-Western
Provinces, with James Thomason as Lt. Governor, and
in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General.
Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went
into full swing. A 350-mile long canal, with another 300
miles of branch lines, eventually stretched between the
headworks in Hardwar, splitting into two branches below
Aligarh, and its two conuences with the Yamuna (Jumna in
map) mainstem in Etawah and the Ganga in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map). The Ganga Canal, which required a total capital outlay of 2.15 million, was ocially opened in 1854
by Lord Dalhousie.* [92] According to historian Ian Stone:
It was the largest canal ever attempted in the
world, ve times greater in its length than all
the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt
put together, and longer by a third than even the
largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania
Canal.
146.6.2
Dams and barrages
A major barrage at Farakka was opened on 21 April

1975,* [93] It is located close to the point where the main
ow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary
Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past Kolkata. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly
branch of the river by a 26-mile (42 km) long feeder
canal, and its water ow management has been a longlingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.* [94] IndoBangladesh Ganga Water Treaty signed in December 1996
addressed some of the water sharing issues between India
and Bangladesh.* [93]
Tehri Dam was constructed on Bhagirathi River, tributary
of the Ganga. It is located 1.5 km downstream of Ganesh
Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is called Ganga after Devprayag.* [95] Construction
of the dam in an earthquake prone area* [96] was contro-
146.8. ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

versial.* [97]
425
146.7.1
Tourism
Bansagar Dam was built on the Son River, a tributary of the

Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to
Ganga, for both irrigation and hydroelectric power generaHinduism Haridwar, Prayag (Allahabad), and Varanasi
*
tion. [98]
attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the
Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help
attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges also are popular
for river rafting, attracting adventure seekers in the summer
months. Also, several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and
146.7 Economy
Patna have developed riverfront walkways along the banks
to attract tourists.* [100]* [101]* [102]* [103]
146.8
Ecology and environment
Ganga from Space

A girl selling plastic containers for carrying Ganga water, Haridwar.
The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to

the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The
Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds, potatoes, and wheat.
Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and
lakes provide a rich growing area for crops such as legumes,
chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are
also many shing opportunities along the river, though it
remains highly polluted. Also the major industrial towns
of Unnao, Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with
the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.* [99]
Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced

nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganga
basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has
been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas.
Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains,
running along the Himalayan foothills and including Rajaji
National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and Dudhwa National Park.* [104] As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), tigers
(Panthera tigris), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis),
gaurs (Bos gaurus), barasinghas (Rucervus duvaucelii), sloth
bears (Melursus ursinus) and Indian lions.* [104] In the 21st
century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, boars,
wildcats, and small numbers of wolves, jackals, and foxes.
Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the
Ganga Delta. Crocodiles and barasingha are also found in
426
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
the Sundarbans.* [9] The Sundarbands freshwater swamp may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with
ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.* [105] Threatened sal (Shorea robusta) as a climax species.* [104]
mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis).* [104]
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
The Ganga River itself supports the mugger crocodile

(Crocodylus palustris) and the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).
The river's most famed fauna is the freshwater dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica, the Ganga river dolphin,* [104]
recently declared India's national aquatic animal.* [107]
Lesser orican (Sypheotides indicus)
Fish are found in all the major rivers of the Ganga

basin, and are a vital food source for many people.
In the Bengal area common sh include featherbacks
(Notopteridae family), barbs (Cyprinidae), walking catsh
(Clarias batrachus), gouramis (Anabantidae), and milksh
(Chanos chanos).* [9] The critically endangered Ganga
shark (Glyphis gangeticus) is also found in the river and
other places in Indian subcontinent.* [106]
Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as
myna, parrots, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. Ducks
and snipes migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.* [9] There
are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The
great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and lesser orican (Sypheotides indicus) are considered globally threatened.* [104]
The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so
thoroughly eliminated it is dicult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty. There are a few small patches of
forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains
A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain,

which includes the lower Brahmaputra River. The lower
plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera, Duabanga grandiora, and Sterculia vilosa. There
are early seral forest communities that would eventually
become dominated by the climax species sal (Shorea robusta), if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most
places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.* [108] The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain,
despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained
largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about
3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one
large block, south of Varanasi, remains. There are over
forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these
are less than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi).* [108] The
fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper
plains, with the addition of a number of other species such
as the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) and the
large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha).* [108]
146.8.1
Ganga river dolphin
The Ganga river dolphin, which used to exist in large

schools near to urban centres in both the Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers, is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction. Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganga's main
tributaries.* [lower-alpha 5] A recent survey by the World
146.9. POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
427
ings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from
global warming (with consequent risks to water ow into
the Gangetic basin).
146.9
Pollution and environmental

concerns
Main article: Pollution of the Ganges

The Ganga suers from extreme pollution levels, which
The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.
Wildlife Fund found only 3,000 left in the water catchment

of both river systems.* [109]
The Ganga river dolphin is one of only ve freshwater dolphins in the world. The other four are the baiji (Lipotes
vexillifer) of the Yangtze River in China, now likely extinct;
the bhulan of the Indus River in Pakistan; the boto of the
Amazon River in Brazil; and the Araguaian river dolphin
(not considered a separate species until 2014* [110]) of the
AraguaiaTocantins basin in Brazil. There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these ve are the only dolphins who live only in
freshwater rivers and lakes.* [108]
146.8.2
Eects of climate change
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store

of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting
and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and
tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:
Temperatures are rising four times faster than
elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are
retreating at a higher speed than in any other part
of the world.... In the short term, this will cause
lakes to expand and bring oods and mudows...
In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for
Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges.
Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions
will be in peril.* [111]
People bathing and washing clothes in the Ganga.
aect the 400 million people who live close to the

river.* [113]* [114] Sewage from many cities along the
river's course, industrial waste and religious oerings
wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of
pollutants to the river as it ows through densely populated
areas.* [8]* [115]* [116] The problem is exacerbated by the
fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily
basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.* [115] The World
Bank estimates that the health costs of water pollution in
India equal three percent of India's GDP.* [lower-alpha 9]
It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses
in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to waterborne diseases.* [lower-alpha 5]
Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims
visit to take aholy dipin the Ganga, releases around 200
million litres of untreated human sewage into the river each
day, leading to large concentrations of faecal coliform bacteria.* [115] According to ocial standards, water safe for
bathing should not contain more than 500 faecal coliforms
per 100ml, yet upstream of Varanasi's ghats the river water
already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 faecal coliform
bacteria per 100 ml.* [117]* [118]
In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan
glaciers which feed the river, were at risk of melting by
2035.* [112] The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction,
as the original source admitted that it was speculative and After the cremation of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats
the cited source was not a peer reviewed nding.* [lower- the bones and ashes are thrown into the Ganga. However,
alpha 8] In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general nd- in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown
428
into the Ganga during cholera epidemics, spreading the disease. Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with
leprosy/chicken pox, people who had been bitten by snakes,
people who had committed suicide, the poor, and children
under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are oated free
to decompose in the waters. In addition, those who cannot aord the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind a lot of half burned body
parts.* [119]* [120]
CHAPTER 146. GANGES

In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1 billion over the next ve years to help save the
river.* [122] According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs. 70 billion (Rs. 70 billion, approximately US$1.5 billion) is needed to clean up
the river.* [8]
In November 2008, the Ganga, alone among India's rivers,

was declared aNational River, facilitating the formation
of a National Ganga River Basin Authority that would have
After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures
of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal co- aimed at protecting the river.* [123]
liforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5 mil- In July 2014, the Government of India announced an inlion,* [117]* [118] with observed peak values of 100 million tegrated Ganga-development project titled Namami Ganga
per 100 ml.* [115] Drinking and bathing in its waters there- and allocated 2,037 crore for this purpose.* [124]
fore carries a high risk of infection.* [115]
The incidence of water-borne and enteric diseases such
Between 1985 and 2000, Rs. 10 billion, around US$226 as gastrointestinal disease, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A
million, or less than 4 cents per person per year, were spent and typhoid among people who use the river's waters for
on the Ganga Action Plan,* [8] an environmental initiative bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an
that was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted estimated 66% per year.* [115]
river anywhere in the world.* [lower-alpha 4] The Ganga
Action Plan has been described variously as a failure Recent studies by Indian Council of Medical Research
,* [121]* [lower-alpha 10]* [lower-alpha 11] a major fail- (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that
those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
ure.* [lower-alpha 1]* [lower-alpha 2]* [lower-alpha 9]
Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in
According to one study,* [121]
the country. Conducted by the National Cancer Registry
Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shockThe Ganga Action Plan, which was taken
ing ndings indicating that the river is thick with heavy
on priority and with much enthusiasm, was demetals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer. Accordlayed for two years. The expenditure was almost
ing to Deputy Director General of NCRP A. Nandkumar,
doubled. But the result was not very appreciathe incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas
ble. Much expenditure was done over the podrained by the Ganga and stated that the problem would be
litical propaganda. The concerning governments
studied deeply and with the ndings presented in a report
and the related agencies were not very prompt to
to the health ministry.* [125]
make it a success. The public of the areas was
not taken into consideration. The releasing of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not con146.9.1 Water shortages
trolled fully. The owing of dirty water through
drains and sewers were not adequately diverted.
Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are
The continuing customs of burning dead bodies,
getting noticeably worse. Some sections of the river are althrowing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by
ready completely dry. Around Varanasi the river once had
washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle
an average depth of 60 metres (200 ft), but in some places
wallowing were not checked. Very little proviit is now only 10 metres (33 ft).* [126]
sion of public latrines was made and the open
defecation of lakhs of people continued along the
riverside. All these made the Action Plan a failTo cope with its chronic water shortages, Inure.
dia employs electric groundwater pumps, dieselpowered tankers and coal-fed power plants. If
The failure of the Ganga Action Plan, has also been varithe country increasingly relies on these energyously attributed toenvironmental planning without proper
intensive short-term xes, the whole planet's cliunderstanding of the humanenvironment interactions,
mate will bear the consequences. India is un*
[lower-alpha 4] Indian traditions and beliefs,* [lowerder enormous pressure to develop its economic
alpha 12] corruption and a lack of technical knowledge
potential while also protecting its environment
*
[lower-alpha 3] and lack of support from religious ausomething few, if any, countries have accomthorities.* [lower-alpha 5]
plished. What India does with its water will
146.11. NOTES
be a test of whether that combination is possible.* [127]
146.9.2
Mining
Illegal mining in the Ganga river bed for stones and sand for
construction work has been a long problem in Haridwar district, Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the rst
time. This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned
in Kumbh Mela area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar.* [128] On 14 June 2011, Swami Nigamanada, a 34year-old monk who was fasting since 19 February that year
against illegal mining and stone crushing along the Ganga
near Haridwar, died at the Himalayan Hospital in Jollygrant
in Dehradun, after prolonged coma in the hospital's intensive care unit.* [128]* [129] His death put a spotlight on the
activity and resulted in the intervention of the Union Environment minister.* [130]* [131]
146.10 See also

Bengal Fan
Ganga Pushkaram
Gangaputra Brahmin
Ganga in Hinduism
List of rivers by discharge
List of rivers by length
List of rivers of India
National Waterway 1 (India)
Swach Ganga (Clean Ganga) Campaign
Unnao dead bodies row
146.11 Notes
[1] Haberman (2006)
The Ganga Action Plan, commonly known as GAP, was
launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares (Varanasi)
on 14 June 1985, by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who
promised, 'We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.' The stated task was 'to improve
water quality, permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 kilometers from the Ganga's origin in the Himalayas to the Bay
of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim
and urban centres on its banks.' The project was designed
to tackle pollution from twenty-ve cities and towns along
429
its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal by intercepting, diverting, and treating their euents. With the
GAP's Phase II, three important tributariesDamodar, Gomati, and Yamunawere added to the plan. Although some
improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges's
water, many people claim that the GAP has been a major
failure. The environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta, for example, led public interest litigation against project, claiming
'GAP has collapsed.'"
[2] Gardner (2003)
The Ganges, also known as the Ganga, is one of the world's
major rivers, running for more than 2,500 kilometres from
the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most
polluted, primarily from sewage, but also from animal carcasses, human corpses, and soap and other pollutants from
bathers. Indeed, scientists measure fecal coliform levels at
thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen
in the water are similarly unhealthy. Renewal eorts have
centred primarily on the government-sponsored Ganga Action Plan (GAP), started in 1985 with the goal of cleaning
up the river by 1993. Several western-style sewage treatment plants were built along the river, but they were poorly
designed, poorly maintained and prone to shut down during
the region's frequent power outages. The GAP has been a
colossal failure, and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985.(page 166)
[3] Sheth (2008)
But the Indian government, as a whole, appears typically
ineective. Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typied by the 20year, $100 million Ganga Action Plan, whose purpose was
to clean up the Ganges River. Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure, due to the same problems that have always beset the government: poor planning,
corruption, and a lack of technical knowledge. The river,
they say, is more polluted than ever.(pages 6768)
[4] Singh & Singh (2007)
In February 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan,
an environmental project to improve the river water quality.
It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river
anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in
terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in water
quality of the river. Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may
be directly linked with the environmental planning without
proper understanding of the humanenvironment interactions. The bibliography of selected environmental research
studies on the Ganga River is, therefore, an essentially rst
step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future.
[5] Puttick (2008)
Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution. The main
source of contamination is organic waste sewage, trash,
food, and human and animal remains. Around a billion litres
of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each
day, along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals
430
(including DDT), industrial pollutants, and toxic chemical

waste from the booming industries along the river. The level
of pollution is now 10,000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing (let alone drinking).
One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases, including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and amoebic
dysentery. An estimated 80 percent of all health problems
and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses.(page 247)
There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and
other rivers, led by the Indian government's Ganga Action
Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement, corruption, and technological mistakes, but
also on lack of support from religious authorities. This may
well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested
in the idea of the Ganga's purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the
water in ritual, as well as their own authority. There are
many temples along the river, conducting a brisk trade in
ceremonies, including funerals, and sometimes also the sale
of bottled Ganga jal. The more traditional Hindu priests still
believe that blessing Ganga jal puries it, although they are
now a very small minority in vew of the scale of the problem.(page 248)
Wildlife is also under threat, particularly the river dolphins.
They were one of the world's rst protected species, given
special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd
century BC. They're now a critically endangered species, although protected once again by the Indian government (and
internationally under the CITES convention). Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years, and
they have become extinct in the main tributaries, mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation.(page 275)
[6] Thapar (1971)
The stabilising of what were to be the Arya-lands and the
mleccha-lands took some time. In the g Veda the geographical focus was the sapta-sindhu (the Indus valley and
the Punjab) with Sarasvat as the sacred river, but within
a few centuries rya-varta is located in the Gag-Yamn
Dob with the Ganges becoming the sacred river.(page
415)
[7] Salman & Uprety (2002, pp. 172, 178187, 387
391)Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of
India and the Government of the People's Republic of
Bangladesh on Sharing of the Ganga/Ganges Waters at
Farakka.
[8] The IPCC report is based on a non-peer reviewed work by
the World Wildlife Federation. They, in turn, drew their
information from an interview conducted by New Scientist
with Dr. Hasnain, an Indian glaciologist, who admitted that
the view was speculative. See: Sifting climate facts from
speculation. 13 January 2010. and Pachauri calls Indian govt. report on melting Himalayan glaciers as 'voodoo
science'". Thaindian News. 9 January 2010. On the IPCC
statement withdrawing the nding, see: IPCC statement
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
on the melting of Himalayan glaciers(PDF). IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 20 January 2010.
[9] Bharati (2006)
The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the
country's gross domestic product. With Indian rivers being
severely polluted, interlinking them may actually increase
these costs. Also, with the widely recognised failure of the
Ganga Action Plan, there is a danger that contaminants from
the Ganga basin might enter other basins and destroy their
natural cleansing processes. The new areas that will be riverfed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop
failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their
streams from the polluted Ganga basin streams.(page 26)
[10] Caso & Wolf (2010)
Chronology: 1985 *India launches Phase I of the Ganga
Action Plan to restore the Ganges River; most deem it a failure by the early 1990s.(page 320)
[11] Dudgeon (2005)
To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia's major rivers,
the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in
1985. The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to
treat the euent from all the major towns along the Ganges
and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75%. The Ganga
Action Plan built upon the existing, but weakly enforced,
1974 Water Prevention and Control Act. A government
audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited
success in meeting euent targets. Development plans for
sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73% of
the cities along the Ganges, and only 54% of these were
judged acceptable by the authorities. Not all the cities reported how much euent was being treated, and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river. Test audits
of installed capacity indicated poor performance, and there
were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities. After 15 yr. of implementation, the audit estimated
that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14% of the
anticipated sewage treatment capacity. The environmental
impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal
of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which
oset any gains from euent reductions.
[12] Tiwari (2008)
Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in
environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning. The failure of the
Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated to our traditions and beliefs. The disposal of dead
bodies, the immersion of idols and public bathing are the
part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the
notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation and
under no circumstances its water can become impure. Burning of dead bodies through wood, bursting of crackers during Diwali, putting thousands of tonnes of fuel wood under
re during Holi, immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into
rivers and seas etc. are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment. These and many other rituals
146.12. REFERENCES
need rethinking and modication in the light of contemporary situations.(page 92)
146.12 References
[1] Jain, Agarwal & Singh 2007.
431
[23] Dmowska, Renata (2003). Advances in Geophysics. Academic Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-12-018846-8. Retrieved 6
May 2011.
[24] Merriam-Webster (1997). Merriam-Webster's geographical
dictionary. Merriam-Webster. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-87779546-9. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
[25] Jain et al. pp334342.
[2] Suved 2005.
[26] Berga 2006, p. 1304.
[3] Kumar, Singh & Sharma 2005.
[27] Dhungel & Pun 2009, p. 210.
[4] Alter, Stephen (2001), Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the

Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture, Houghton Mifin Harcourt Trade & Reference Publishers, ISBN 978-015-100585-7, retrieved 30 July 2013
[28] Dhungel & Pun 2009.
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146.14
Further reading
Salman, Salman M. A.; Uprety, Kishor (2002). Main article: Bibliography of Ganges
Conict and cooperation on South Asia's international
rivers: a legal perspective (PDF). World Bank Publi Berwick, Dennison. A Walk Along the Ganges. Dencations. ISBN 978-0821353523. Retrieved 27 April
2011.
nison Berwick. ISBN 978-0-7137-1968-0.
436
Cautley, Proby Thomas (1864). Ganges canal. A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals,
North-western Provinces. London, Printed for Private
circulation.
Fraser, James Baillie (1820). Journal of a tour through
part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and
to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. Rodwell
and Martin, London.
Hamilton, Francis (1822). An account of the shes
found in the river Ganges and its branches. A. Constable and company, Edinburgh.
Singh, Indra Bir (1996),Geological Evolution of the
Ganga Plain, Journal of the Palaentological Society
of India, 41: 99137

ON THINNER ICE : signs of trouble from
the Water Tower of Asia, where headwaters feed into
all the great rivers of Asia (by GRIP, Asia Society and
MediaStorm)
Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909
Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga
Bibliography on Water Resources and International
Law. Peace Palace Library
Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source on YouTube
a documentary that follows the Ganga from the mouth
to its source in the Himalayas.
An article about the land and the people of the Ganga
The impacts of water infrastructure and climate
change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River
Basin IWMI research report
Bahar Dutt,Saving the Gangeson YouTube CNNIBN Live 5 May 2012.
The Ganges: A Journey into India (NPR)
CHAPTER 146. GANGES
Chapter 147
Ganges in Hinduism
Ganga Deviredirects here. For the Indian painter, see before descending within this universe, Ganges is known
Ganga Devi (painter). For the Indian politician, see Ganga as Bhagavat-Padi or Vishnupadi which means Emanating
Devi (politician).
from the lotus feet of Bhagavan (God). It nally settles in
Brahmaloka or Brahmapura, abode of Lord Brahma before
descending to planet Earth at the request of Bhagiratha and
In Hinduism, the river Ganga is considered sacred and is
held
safely by Lord Shiva on his head to prevent destruction
personied as a goddess Gag. It is worshipped by Hindus
of Bhumi Devi (Mother Earth). Then, the river Ganges was
who believe that bathing in the river causes the remission of
sins and facilitates Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life released from Lord Shiva 's hair to meet the needs of the
country according to Hindu mythology. In other legends,
and death) the water of Ganga is considered very pure. Pilgrims immerse the ashes of their kin in the Ganges, which Himavan fathered Parvati and Ganga.
is considered by them to bring the spirits closer to moksha.
Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of
the Ganges, including Gangotri, Haridwar, Allahabad and
Varanasi. During the Loy Krathong festival in Thailand, candlelit oats are released into waterways to honour
Gautama Buddha and goddess Ganga for good fortune and
washing away sins (ppa in Sanskrit, used to describe actions that create negative karma by violating moral and ethical codes, which brings negative consequences). Many religious people take bath in this river as it is believed that it
cleans the body as well as the mind (from sins) and make
them divine. This is the reason why people throw the ashes
of the deceased into the Ganga.
147.1 Legend
147.2
Descent To Earth
Several years later, a king named Sagara magically acquired

sixty thousand sons. One day, King Sagara performed a
ritual of worship for the good of the kingdom. One of the
integral parts of the ritual was a horse, which was stolen by
the jealous Indra. Sagara sent all his sons all over the earth
to search for the horse. They found it in the nether-world
(or Underworld) next to a meditating sage Kapila tied by
Lord Indra(the king of Swarg). Believing that the sage had
stolen the horse, they hurled insults at him and caused his
penance to be disturbed. The sage opened his eyes for the
rst time in several years and looked at the sons of Sagara.
With this glance, all sixty thousand were burnt to death.
The souls of the sons of Sagara wandered as ghosts since
their nal rites had not been performed. For the moksha of
all the sons of Sagar, Anshuman(nephew of those 60,000
son) started to pray Brahma to bring Ganga to the earth till
the end of his life, but was not successful. Then his son
Dilip did the same but did not succeed. When Bhagiratha
(Means, one who does great hard work- he got his name
from his great hard work for bringing Ganga to earth), one
of the descendants of Sagara, son of Dilip, learnt of this
fate, he vowed to bring Ganga down to Earth so that her
waters could cleanse their souls and release them to heaven.
Bhagavata Purana depicts the birth of the narmad. According to Bhagavata Purana, Lord Vishnu in one of his
incarnations, appeared as Vamana in the sacricial arena of
Asura King Mahabali. Then in order to measure the universe, he extended his left foot to the end of the universe
and pierced a hole in its covering with the nail of his big
toe. Through the hole, the pure water of the Causal Ocean
(Divine Brahm-Water) entered this universe as the Ganges
River. Having washed the lotus feet of the Lord, which are
covered with reddish saron, the water of the Ganges acquired a very beautiful pink colour. Because the Ganges Bhagiratha prayed to Brahma that Ganga come down to
directly touches the lotus feet of Lord Vishnu (Narayana) Earth. Brahma agreed and he ordered Ganga to go down to
437
438
CHAPTER 147. GANGES IN HINDUISM
Descent Of Ganga painting by Raja Ravi Varma
the Earth and then on to the nether regions so that the souls
of Bhagiratha's ancestors would be able to go to heaven.
Ganga felt that this was insulting and decided to sweep the
whole Earth away as she fell from the heavens. Alarmed,
Bhagiratha prayed to Shiva that he break up Ganga's descent.
Ganga arrogantly fell on Shiva's head. But Shiva calmly
trapped her in his hair and let her out in small streams. The
touch of Shiva further sanctied Ganga. As Ganga travelled to the nether-worlds, she created a dierent stream to
remain on Earth to help purify unfortunate souls there. She Gupta era terracotta of Ganga found at Ahichchhatra, UP now in
is the only river to follow from all the three worlds Swarga National Museum, New Delhi.
(heaven), Prithvi (Earth) and Patala (netherworld or hell).
Thus is called Tripathag(one who travels the three worlds)
in Sanskrit language.
Because of Bhagiratha's eorts, Ganga descended to Earth
and hence the river is also known as Bhagirathi and the term Upon this, the Gods prayed to Jahnu to release Ganga so
Bhagirath prayatna is used to describe valiant eorts or dif- that she could proceed on her mission. Pleased with their
cult achievements.
prayers, Jahnu released Ganga(her waters) from his ears.
Another name that Ganga is known by is Jahnavi, Story Hence the name Jahnavi(daughter of Jahnu) for Ganga.
has it that once Ganga came down to Earth, on her way to
Bhagiratha, her rushing waters created turbulence and destroyed the elds and the sadhana of a sage called Jahnu.
He was angered by this and drank up all of Ganga's waters.
It is sometimes believed that the river will nally dry up at

the end of Kali Yuga (the era of darkness, the current era)
just as with the Sarasvati river and this era will end. Next
in(cyclic) order will be the Satya Yuga or the era of Truth.
147.4. RIGVEDA
147.3 Consort, shakti and mother

Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.* [1] As Brahma's partner she always travels with him
in the form of water in his kamandalu (water-pot).* [1] She
is also Vishnu's consort.* [1] She emanates from his foot
as Vishnupadi in the avatarana story, and is also, with
Sarasvati and Lakshmi, one of his wives.* [1] In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the
wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati heap misfortune on
each other. They curse each other to become rivers, and
to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human
worshippers. Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He
orders Sarasvati to become the wife of Brahma, Ganga to
become the wife of Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless
conciliator, to remain as his own wife. Ganga and Sarasvati,
however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so
loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be
with him.* [2]
439
in Ganga theology.* [3] Her descent, the avatarana is not a
one time event, but a continuously occurring one in which
she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.* [3] Shiva is depicted in Hindu iconography as Gangadhara, the Bearer of the Ganga,with
Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.* [3]
The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.* [3] Shiva is sometimes called Uma-Ganga-Patiswara
(Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga), and
Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known
consort Parvati.* [3]
Ganga is the shakti or the moving, restless, rolling energy in
the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.* [1] As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.* [1] The war-god
Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the Kashi Khand of
the Skanda Purana in these words:* [1]
One should not be amazed ... that this Ganga
is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti
of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?
This Ganga, lled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the
world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.
Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed
River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers,
lled with water.* [1]
The Ganga is also the mother, the Ganga Mata
(mata="mother) of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.* [4] Unlike other goddesses,
she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive
though she might be as a river in nature.* [4] She is also a
mother to other gods.* [5] She accepts Shiva's incandescent
seed from the re-god Agni, which is too hot for this world,
and cools it in her waters.* [5] This union produces Skanda,
or Kartikeya, the god of war.* [5] In the Mahabharata,
she is the wife of Shantanu, and the mother of heroic
warrior-patriarch, Bhishma.* [5] When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in
human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.* [5]
The Ganga is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.* [1]
As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (avahana) at the beginning and dismissal (visarjana) at the end, required in the worship of other gods.* [1]
Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.* [1]
Shiva, as Gangadhara, bearing the Descent of the Ganga, as the

goddess Parvati, the sage Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look on
(circa 1740).
147.4
Rigveda
Ganga is mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest and theoIt is Shiva's relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known retically the holiest of the Hindu scriptures. Ganga is men-
440
CHAPTER 147. GANGES IN HINDUISM
tioned in the nadistuti(Rigveda 10.75), which lists the rivers Vashishta had requested Ganga to be their mother. Ganga
from east to west. In RV 6.45.31, the word Ganga is also incarnated and became the wife of King Shantanu on conmentioned, but it is not clear if the reference is to the river. dition that at no stage shall he question her actions or she
RV 3.58.6 says that your ancient home, your auspicious would leave him. As seven Vasus were born as their chilfriendship, O Heroes, your wealth is on the banks of the Jah- dren, one after the other, Ganga drowned them in her own
navi(JahnAvyAm)". This verse could possibly refer to the waters, freeing them from their punishment and the king
Ganges. In RV 1.116.1819, the Jahnavi and the Ganges made no opposition. Only when the eighth was born did
the king nally oppose his wife, who therefore left him. So
River Dolphin occur in two adjacent verses.
the eighth son, Dyaus incarnated, remained alive, imprisoned in mortal form and later became known in his mortal
incarnation as Bhishma (Devavrata), who is one of the most
147.5 Other Religious Associations respected characters of Mahabharata.
147.6
Notes
According to the mythology of Khandoba(form of lord

Shiva) Jayadhri, one of the seven daughters of lord Indra,
the king of gods. Jayadhri is also considered to be a best
friend of goddess Parvati.
147.7
See also
Gangaputra Brahmin a Hindu community who ociate at religious ceremonies along the river
147.8
References
[1] Eck 1982, p. 219

[2] Eck 1998, p. 146
[3] Eck 1998, p. 147
[4] Quoted in Eck 1982, p. 218
[5] Eck 1998, p. 149
Shantanu stops Ganga from drowning their eighth child, who became known as Bhishma
According to the Hindu scriptures like Skanda Purana,

the goddess Ganga is foster-mother to Kartikeya (Subrahmanya, Murugan), who was actually a son of Shiva and
Parvati.
Parvati who created an image of Ganesha out of her bodily
impurities but which has. became endowed with life after
immersion in the sacred waters of the Ganges. Therefore,
Ganesha is said to have two mothersParvati and Ganga
and hence called Dvaimatura and also Gangeya(the son of
Ganga).
The Hindu epic, Mahabharata tells that the Vasus, cursed by
Vijay Singh: The River Goddess (Moonlight Publishing, London, 1994)
147.9
External links
The Life Of Ganga

Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source a documentary
that follows the Ganges from the mouth to its source
in the Himalayas.
Chapter 148
Ghaggar-Hakra River
Not to be confused with Ghaghara River.
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent, endorheic
river in India and Pakistan that ows only during the
monsoon season. The river is known as Ghaggar before
the Ottu barrage and as the Hakra downstream of the barrage.* [2]
The basin is classied in two parts, Khadir and Bangar, the
higher area that is not ooded in rainy season is called Bangar and the lower ood-prone area is called Khadar.* [3]
Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, but also more
recent authors, have suggested that the Ghaggar-Hakra
might be the defunct remains of the mythological Sarasvati
of the Rig Veda. Recent geophysical research does not sup- Ghaggar in Haryana
port this idea. It shows that the Ghaggar-Hakra system was
not sourced by the glaciers and snows of the Himalayas, but
rather by a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers. Late
Holocene aridication subsequently reduced the GhaggarHakra to the seasonal river it is today.
148.1 Ghaggar River

The Ghaggar is an intermittent river in India, owing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the village of Dagshai
in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of
1,927 metres (6,322 ft) above mean sea level* [4] and ows
through Punjab and Haryana states into Rajasthan;* [5] just
southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of Talwara Lake
in Rajasthan.
Ghaggar river, near Anoopgarh, Rajasthan in the month of SeptemDammed at Ottu barrage near Sirsa, Ghaggar feeds two ir- ber
rigation canals that extend into Rajasthan.
148.1.1
Tributaries
The main tributaries of the Ghaggar are the Kaushalya river,

Markanda, Sarsuti, Tangri and Chautang.* [4]
The Kaushalya river is a tributary of Ghaggar river on

Main articles: Kaushalya river; Markanda river, Haryana; the left side of Ghahhar-Hakra, it ows in the Panchkula
Sarsuti; Tangri river; and Chautang
district of Haryana state of India and conuences with
Ghaggar river near Pinjore just downstream of Kaushalya
441
442
CHAPTER 148. GHAGGAR-HAKRA RIVER
Dam.* [6]* [7]

The present-day Sarsuti (Saraswati) river originates in a
submontane region in the Ambala district and joins the
Ghaggar near Shatrana in Punjab.* [8]
A dried out channel of the Sutlej known as the Naiwal channel joins it near Sadulgarh (Hanumangarh district).* [8]
Finally, near Suratgarh, the Ghaggar is joined by the dried
up Chautang river (identied with vedic Drishadvati).* [8]
148.2 Hakra River

The Hakra is the dried-out channel of a river near Fort Abbas City in Pakistan that is the continuation of the Ghaggar River in India. Several times, but not continuously,
it carried the water of the Sutlej and Ghaggar during the
Bronze Age period.* [9] Many settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation have been found along and inside the river
beds of the Ghaggar and Hakra rivers. Hakra or Hakro
Darya streamed through Sindh and its sign can be found
in Sindh areas such as Khairpur, Nawabshah, Sanghar and
Tharparkar.
Course of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) river in the fourth millennium BCE* [11]
quartzite and metamorphic rocks, while the lower terraces

in these valleys do not contain such rocks.* [16] However,
recent studies show that Bronze Age sediments from the
glaciers of the Himalayas are missing along the GhaggarAlong the course of the Ghaggar-Hakra river are many ar- Hakra, indicating that the river did not or no longer have its
chaeological sites of the Indus Valley Civilization; but not sources in the high mountains.* [17]
further south than the middle of Bahawalpur district. It has
been assumed that the Sarasvati ended there in a series of According to some paleo-environmental scientists and Arterminal lakes, and some think that its water only reached chaeologists, between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE some tecthe Indus or the sea in very wet rainy seasons. However, tonic disturbances caused a tilt in topography of Northwest
satellite images contradict this: they do not show subter- India resulting in the migration of river. The Sutlej moved
ranean water in reservoirs in the dunes between the Indus westward and became a tributary of the Indus River while
and the end of the Hakra west of Fort Derawar/Marot.* [10] the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the
Ganges. The Yamuna shifted its course eastwards, supposedly in the early 2nd millennium BCE, allegedly reaching its
current bed by 1st millennium BCE, while the Drishadvati
148.3 Palaeogeography
bed retained only a small seasonal ow. The Sutlej shifted
its channel northwards repeatedly, and was eventually capThe wide river bed (paleo-channel) of the Ghaggar river tured by the Indus system. The water loss due to these
suggests that the river once owed full of water during the movements caused the Sarasvati river to dry up in the Thar
great meltdown of the Himalayan Ice Age glaciers, some Desert.* [18]* [19]
10,000 years ago, and that it then continued through the en- However, Henri-Paul Francfort, utilizing images from the
tire region, in the presently dry channel of the Hakra River, French satellite SPOT two decades ago, found that the large
possibly emptying into the Rann of Kutch.* [12] It is sup- river Sarasvati is pre-Harappan altogether and started dryposed to have dried up due to the capture of its tributaries by ing up already in the middle of the 4th millennium BC; durthe Indus system and the Yamuna river, and later on, addi- ing Harappan times only a complex irrigation-canal network
tionally, the loss of water in much of its catchment area due was being used. The date should therefore be pushed back
to deforestation and overgrazing.* [13] According to M. R. to c 3800 BC. R. Mughal (1997), summing up the evidence,
Mughal, this happened at the latest in 1900 BCE, but other concludes that the Bronze Age Ghaggar-Hakra sometimes
scholars state that it took place much earlier * [14]* [15]
carried more, sometimes less water (for example derived
Puri and Verma (1998) have argued that the present-day
Tons River was the ancient upper-part of the Sarasvati
River, which would then had been fed with Himalayan
glaciers. The terrain of this river contains pebbles of
from the Sutlej). The latter point agrees with a recent isotope study.* [20]* [21] Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000
BCE) have been found in the river bed and not on the banks
of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which suggests that river was
148.5. ASSOCIATION WITH THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
443
certainly dried up by this period.* [22]* [23]
where the Ghaggar river bed widens.* [27]* [28]
The many archeological sites along the bed of Sarasvati

(variously given as 414 or even 600) dwarf the number of
sites so far recorded along the Indus River, which number
less (about three dozen). However, most of the Harappan
sites along the Sarasvati are found in desert country, and
have remained undisturbed since the end of the Indus Civilization. This contrasts with the heavy alluvium of the Indus
and other large Panjab rivers that have obscured Harappan
sites, including part of Mohenjo Daro. About 80 percent
of the Sarasvati sites are datable to the fourth or third millennium BCE, suggesting that the river was owing during
(part of) this period, which is also indicated by the fact that
some Indus sites are found inside the bed of the GhaggarHakra.
In later texts like the Mahabharata, the Rigvedic Sutudri (of

unknown, non-Sanskrit etymology)* [29] is called Shatudri
(Shatadru/Shatadhara), which means a river with 100 ows.
As mentioned, the Sutlej (and the Beas and Ravi) have frequently changed their courses. The Beas probably joined
the Sutlej (as in Rgveda 3.33) further downstream from
where it joins that river today. Before that time, the Sutlej is said to have owed into Ghaggar.* [9]
148.4 Ancient tributaries

Satellite photography has shown that the Ghaggar-Hakra
was indeed a large river that dried up several times (see
Mughal 1997). The dried out Hakra river bed is between
three and ten kilometers wide. Recent research indicates
that the Sutlej and possibly also the Yamuna once owed
into the Ghaggar-Hakra river bed. The Sutlej and Yamuna
Rivers have changed their courses several times.* [24]
148.4.2
Yamuna
There are no Harappan sites on the present Yamuna river.

There are however Painted Gray Ware (1000 - 600 BC) sites
along the Yamuna channel, showing that the river must have
then owed in the present channel.* [30] The sparse distribution of the Painted Gray Ware sites in the Ghaggar river
valley indicates that during this period the Ghaggar river
had already dried up.
Scholars like Raikes (1968) and Suraj Bhan (1972, 1973,
1975, 1977) have shown that based on archaeological, geomorphic and sedimentological research the Yamuna may
have owed into the Sarasvati during Harappan times.* [31]
There are several dried out river beds (paleochannels) between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, some of them two to ten
kilometres wide. They are not always visible on the ground
because of excessive silting and encroachment by sand of
the dried out river channels.* [32] The Yamuna may have
owed into the Sarasvati river through the Chautang or the
Drishadvati channel, since many Harappan sites have been
discovered on these dried out river beds.* [33]
Paleobotanical information also documents the aridity that

developed after the drying up of the river. (Gadgil and
Thapar 1990 and references therein). The disappearance of
the river may additionally have been caused by earthquakes
which may have led to the redirection of its tributaries.* [25]
It has also been suggested that the loss of rainfall in much
of its catchment area as well as deforestation and overgrazing may have also contributed to the drying up of the river. 148.5 Association with the HarapHowever, a similar phenomenon, caused by climate change,
pan civilization
is also seen at about the same period north of the Hindu
Kush, in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Some estimate that the period at which the river dried up
Complex.
range, very roughly, from 2500 to 2000 BC, with a further
margin of error at either end of the date-range. This may be
precise in geological terms, but for the mature Indus Valley
148.4.1 Sutlej
Civilization (2600 to 1900 BC) it makes all the dierence
There are no Harappan sites on the Sutlej in its present lower whether the river dried up in 2500 (its early phase) or 2000
course, only in its upper course near the Siwaliks, and along (its late phase). By contact with remnants of the IVC like
the dried up channel of the ancient Sutlej,* [26] which in- the Cemetery H culture, legendary knowledge of the event
dicates the Sutlej did ow into the Ghaggar-Hakra at that may have been acquired.
In a survey conducted by M.R. Mughal between 1974 and
sites were mapped along 300 miles of the
At Ropar the Sutlej river suddenly turns sharply away from 1977, over 400
*
Hakra
river.
[34]
The majority of these sites were dated to
the Ghaggar. The narrow Ghaggar river bed itself is bethe
fourth
or
third
millennium BCE.* [27]
coming suddenly wider at the conjunction where the Sutlej
should have met the Ghaggar river. There also is a major S. P. Gupta however counts over 600 sites of the Inpaleochannel between the turning point of the Sutlej and dus civilization on the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tribtime.
444
utaries.* [26]* [35] For ereason stated above, only 90 to

96 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus
and its tributaries (about 36 sites on the Indus river itself.)* [36]* [37]* [38] V.N. Misra* [39] states that over 530
Harappan sites (of the more than 800 known sites, not
including Late Harappan or OCP) are located on the
Ghaggar-Hakra.* [40] The other sites are mainly in KutchSaurashtra (nearly 200 sites), Yamuna Valley (nearly 70
Late Harappan sites) and in the Indus Valley, in Baluchistan, and in the NW Frontier Province (less than 100 sites).
rivers in Rigveda 10.75.05 - the order is Ganges, Yamuna,

Sarasvati, Sutudri Sutlej), Parusni, etc. - and other geological and paleobotanical ndings. This however, is disputed.
The Victorian era scholar C.F. Oldham (1886) was the rst
to suggest that geological events had redirected the river,
and to connect it to the lost Sarasvati: "[it] was formerly the
Sarasvati; that name is still known amongst the people, and
the famous fortress of Sarsuti or Sarasvati was built upon
its banks, nearly 100 miles below the present junction with
the Ghaggar.* [43]
Most of the Mature Harappan sites are located in the middle

Ghaggar-Hakra river valley, and some on the Indus and in
Kutch-Saurashtra. However, just as in other contemporary
cultures, such as the BMAC, settlements move up-river due
to climate changes around 2000 BCE. In the late Harappan period the number of late Harappan sites in the middle Ghaggar-Hakra channel and in the Indus valley diminishes, while it expands in the upper Ghaggar-Sutlej channels and in Saurashtra. The abandonment of many sites
on the Ghaggar-Hakra between the Harappan and the Late
Harappan phase was probably due to the drying up of the
Ghaggar-Hakra river.
Between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, some tectonic disturbances caused tilt in topography of Northwest India
resulting in the migration of rivers. The Sutlej moved
westward and became a tributary of the Indus River
while the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the Ganges. The water loss due to these movements caused the river to dry up in the Thar Desert,
without reaching the sea.* [18]* [19] Later Vedic texts
record the river as disappearing at Vinasana (literally,
the disappearing) or Upamajjana, and in post-Vedic
texts as joining both the Yamuna and Ganges as an invisible river at Prayaga (Allahabad). Some claim that
the sanctity of the modern Ganges is directly related
to its assumption of the holy, life-giving waters of the
ancient Saraswati.
Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found
in the bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra
river.* [22]* [23]
Because most of the Indus Valley sites known so far are actually located on the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries
and not on the Indus river, some Indian archaeologists, such
as S.P. Gupta, have proposed to use the termIndus Sarasvati Civilizationto refer to the Harappan culture which is
named, as is common in archaeology, after the rst place
where the culture was discovered.
148.6 Identication
with
Rigvedic Sarasvati
148.6.1
the
Rig Veda
Main article: Sarasvati River

The Rig Vedic hymn X 75, however, gives a list of names
of rivers where Sarasvati is merely mentioned while Sindhu
receives praise. It is commonly agreed that the tenth Book
of the Rig Veda is later than the others. Some revisionists think, ahistorically, that this may indicate that the Rig
Veda could be dated to a period after the rst drying up
of Sarasvati (c. 3500 BCE) when the river lost its preeminence.* [41]* [42]
The identication is also justied by post-Vedic literature like Mahabharata. According to Adi Parvan
of the Mahabharata(1.90.25-26),it is mentioned that
Many kings performed yaja (sacrice) in Fire altars at the bank of Sarasvati river,* [44]* [45] which
is connected with the alleged Harappan re altars at
Kalibangan, a town located on the left or southern
banks of the Ghaggar River.* [46]* [47] They are even
assumed by some to be Vedic * [48]* [49]* [50] and that
the structures may perhaps have been used for ritual
purposes.* [48]* [49]
The Mahabharata says that the Sarasvati dried up in a
desert (at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana).* [51]
According to the Mahabharata, the river dried up in
order that the Nishadas and Abhiras might not see
her.* [52] The Mahabharata also states that Vasishtha
committed suicide by throwing himself into the Sutlej and that the Sutlej then broke up in a 100 channels
(Yash Pal in S.P. Gupta 1995: 175).
The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all books of the Rigveda

except the fourth. It is the only river with hymns entirely
dedicated to it: RV 6.61, RV 7.95 and RV 7.96.It is mentioned as a divine and large river,which ows from the
mountains to the samudra,which some take as the Indian
The identication with the Sarasvati River is based on the Ocean. Talageri states that the references to the Sarasmentionings in Vedic texts (e.g. in the enumeration of the vati far outnumber the references to the Indusand The
148.6. IDENTIFICATION WITH THE RIGVEDIC SARASVATI
445
Sarasvati is so important in the whole of the Rigveda that it

is worshipped as one of the Three Great Goddesses.* [41]
However, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati
in the Rigveda is the late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to Haryana;* [53] the latter part of
the period corresponds to the common scholarly opinion of He and Jane McIntosh refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra river
the date of this text.
as Sarasvatithroughout their respective 2002 and 2008
*
*
Another reference to the Sarasvati is in the geographical books on the Indus Civilisation. [61] [66]
enumeration of the rivers in the late Rigvedic Nadistuti
sukta (10.75.5, this verse enumerates all important rivers
from the Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in
a strict geographical order), as "Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri", the Sarasvati is placed between the Yamuna
and the Sutlej, consistent with the Ghaggar identication.
It is clear, therefore, that even if the river had unmistakably lost much of her former prominence, the Sarasvati remained characterized as a river goddess almost throughout
the Rigveda.
In 2012 hydrologists dug a number of bores holes to attempt
to ascertain the ancient course of the Sarasvati River.* [54]
According to proto-historian Michel Danino, in ancient
times a mature river owed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River
valley and into the Rann of Kutch, which he identies as
the Rig Vedic Sarasvati river.* [55]
148.6.2
Geophysicist Rajesh Kocchar, after a thorough analysis of

the Vedic texts and geological environments of the rivers,
concludes that there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in
the Rigveda. The older one described in the family books of
the Rigveda, which he calls Naditama Sarasvati, drains into
a samudra. The newer one described in the tenth book of
Rigveda as well as later Vedic texts, which he calls Vinasana
Sarasvati, disappears in the sands. The Vinasana Sarasvati has been accepted by allto be the same as the
Ghaggar-Hakra river. On the other hand, the description of
the Naditama Sarasvati in the Rigveda matches the physical features of the Helmand River in Afghanistan, more
precisely its tributary the Harut River, whose older name
was Harax* vat in Avestan. Ganga and Yamuna, he takes
to be small streams in its vicinity. When the Vedic people moved east into Punjab, they named the new rivers
they encountered after the old rivers they knew from Helmand.* [67]* [68]
These views, however, have been contradicted by recent
Identication with Vedic rivers in geophysical research, which suggests that the Ghaggarrecent scholarship
Hakra system, although having greater discharge in Harap-
Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, such as orientalist Christian Lassen (18001876),* [56] philologist and
Indologist Max Mller (18231900),* [57] archaeologist
Aurel Stein (18621943), and geologist R. D. Oldham
(18581936),* [58] had considered that the Ghaggar-Hakra
might be the defunct remains of a river, the Sarasvati,
invoked in the orally transmitted collection of ancient
Sanskrit hymns, the Rig Veda composed circa 1500 BCE
to 1200 BCE. More recently, anthropologists Gregory Possehl (19422011),* [59] J. M. Kenoyer,* [60] and professional archaeological writer, Jane McIntosh, have suggested
that many religious and literary invocations to Sarasvati in
the Rig Veda were to a real Himalayan river, whose waters,
on account of seismic events, were diverted, leaving only
a seasonal river, the Ghaggar-Hakra, in the original river
bed.* [61]
river with the Vedic Sarasvati river and the Chautang with the Drishadvati river. Such scholars include
Gregory Possehl,* [59] J. M. Kenoyer,* [60] Bridget and
Raymond Allchin,* [62] Michael Witzel,* [63] Kenneth
Kennedy,* [64] Franklin Southworth,* [65] and numerous
Indian archaeologists. Gregory Possehl states:
pan times which was enough to sustain human habitation,

was not sourced by the glaciers and snows of the Himalayas
but rather by a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers.
Geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution and his team showed that in contrast to all Himalayan rivers in the region that dug out wide valleys in their
own sediments as the monsoon declined, no such valley exists between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, demonstrating that
neither the Ghaggar-Hakra nor any other Sarasvati candidate in that region had a Himalayan source.* [69]* [70] Late
Holocene aridication subsequently reduced the GhaggarHakra to the seasonal river it is today.* [71]* [72]* [73]
Other research using dating of zircon sand grains has shown
that subsurface river channels near the Indus Valley Civilisation sites in Cholistan immediately below the dry GhaggarHakra bed show sediment anity not with the GhaggerHakra, but instead with the Beas River in the western sites
and the Sutlej and the Yamuna in the eastern ones, further
weakening the hypothesis that the Ghaggar-Hakra was once
a large river, but suggesting that the Yamuna itself, or a
channel of the Yamuna, along with a channel of the Sutlej may have owed west some time between 47,000 BCE
and 10,000 BCE, well before the beginnings of Indus civilization.* [74]
446
148.7 See also

Sutlej
Ganges
Indus
148.8 References
[1]Political Economy of the Punjab: An Insider's Account.
MD Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-7533-031-7.
[2] Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani. Students'
Britannica India, Volumes 1-5. Popular Prakashan, 2000.
ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. ... The Ghaggar River rises in
the Shiwalik Range, northwestern Himachal Pradesh State,
and ows about 320 km southwest through Haryana State,
where it receives the Saraswati River. Beyond the Otu Barrage, the Ghaggar River is known as the Hakra River which
loses itself in the Thar Desert. Just southwest of Sirsa it feeds
two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. ...
[3] HaryanaOnline - Geography of Haryana Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
[4] Shanker Sharma, Hari; Kalwar, S. C. (2005).
Geomorphology and Environmental Sustainability: Felicitation Volume in Honour of Professor H.S. Sharma.
Concept Publishing Company. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-8069028-0.
[5] Sarasvati: Tracing the death of a river. Retrieved 12
June 2010.
[6] Hillsofmorni.com - Kaushalya dam
[7] Dailymail - Scam worth Rs-217 crore failed Kaushalya Dam
says CAG
[8] Sarasvati River Map, mapsondia.com, retrieved 2016-0222.
[9] Mughal 1997
[10] Valdiya, K. S. (2003). Saraswati, the River that Disappeared.
Hyderabad. pp. late 4.
[11] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (December 1991), The
Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India, Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (4): 331385,
doi:10.1007/bf00978474, JSTOR 25800603
[15] J. K. Tripathi et al., Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints,Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 8, 25
October 2004
[16] Puri, V. M. K.; Verma, B.C. (1998). Glaciological and
Geological Source of Vedic Saraswati in the Himalayas.
Itihas Darpan. IV (2): 736.
[17] Tripathi, J. K.; Bock, Barbara; Rajamani, V.; Eisenhauer,
A. (October 2004). Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical constraints. Current Science. 87 (8): 11411145.
[18] Hydrology and Water Resources of India By Sharad K. Jain,
Pushpendra K. Agarwal, Vijay P. Singh
[19] The ancient Indus Valley: new perspectives By Jane McIntosh
[20] Tripathi et al. 2004
[21] http://hakra.totallyexplained.com/
[22] Bryant 2001, p. 168
[23] Gaur, R. C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera, Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi.
[24] (see for example Studies from the Post-Graduate Research
Institute of Deccan College, Pune, and the Central Arid
Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur. Conrmed by
use of MSS (multi-spectral scanner) and Landsat satellite
photography. Note MLBD NEWSLETTER (Delhi, India:
Motilal Banarsidass), Nov. 1989.)
[25] Lal 2002, p.24
[26] Gupta, S. P. (1999). Pande G. C. (ed.), ed. The dawn of
Indian civilization. D.P. Chattophadhyaya (ed.): History of
Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, I (1).
New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
[27] Bryant 2001
[28] Yash Pal; et al. (1984). Remote Sensing of the Lost
Sarasvati River.. In Lal, B. B.; et al. Frontiers of the Indus
Civilization. p. 494. Our studies thus show that the Satluj
periodically was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that
subsequently the tectonic movements may have forced the
Satluj westward and the Ghaggar dried.
[29] Mayrhofer, Manfred. Etymologisches Wrterbuch des Altindoarischen. p. 646.
[30] V. N. Misra in Gupta 1995, p. 153
[31] V. N. Misra in Gupta 1995, p. 149
[12] Erdosy 1995, p. 215.
[32] V. N. Misra in Gupta 1995, pp. 14950
[13] http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad526e/ad526e09.htm
[33] V. N. Misra in Gupta 1995, p.155
2004
[34] M. R. Mughal in Gupta 1995

[35] Gupta 1995, p. 183
148.8. REFERENCES
447
[36] Misra, Virendra Nath (1992). Indus Civilization, a special

Number of the Eastern Anthropologist. pp. 119.
[56] Indische Alterthumskunde Christian Lassen: Geographie und

die lteste Geschichte, H. B. Koenig, 1847, p. 91
[37] Gupta 1995
[57] Sacred Books of the East, 32, 60
[38] V.N. Misra has noted that in the Indus Valley and the valleys of its main tributaries 50 Early and Mature IVC sites
were found. And 40 Early and 174 Mature IVC sites were
found at Cholistan (in Pakistan) in the Hakra valley. Parpola
Asko (eds.); et al., eds. (1994). Indus Civilization and
the Rigvedic Sarasvati. South Asian Archaeology 1993.
Helsinki. Cited from Lal 2002
[58] Oldham 1893 pp.5152
[39] in Gupta 1995, p. 144

[40] An earlier survey (Joshi; et al. (1984).The Indus Civilization. In Lal, B. B.; et al. Frontiers of the Indus Civilization.)
found 137 Early and 109 Mature sites in the valleys of the
GHR and its tributaries.
[41] http://www.hindubooks.org/dynamic/modules.php?name=
Content&pa=showpage&pid=1474&page=2
[42] http://www.dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/1343030
[43] Oldham 1893, pp.5152
p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
[64] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[45] Section XCV Archived 16 January 2010 at the Wayback

Machine.; English translation,page-203,1st paragraph
[46] Lal, BB (2002). [The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts The Homeland of IndoEuropean Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts] Check
|chapter-url= value (help) |chapter-url= missing title (help).
Puratattva. Indian Archaeological Society. pp. 15.
First para-
[48] Lal, BB (1984). Frontiers of the Indus civilization. Sir Mortimer Wheeler commemoration volume. pp. 5758.
[49] http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_rajasthan.asp;
graph

City States: Cross Cultural Approaches, Washington: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 5270, ISBN 1560987227
[63] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
[44] Mhb 1.90.26
[47] http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_rajasthan.asp;
graph
25801118
Last para-
[50] http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/
harappa-mohenjodaro.html; Second last paragraph
[51] Mhb. 3.82.111; 3.130.3; 6.7.47; 6.37.1-4., 9.34.81; 9.37.12
[52] Mhb 3.130.3-5; 9.37.1-2
[53] J. Shaer, in: J. Bronkhorst & M. Deshpande (eds.), Aryans
and Non-Non-Aryans, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge (Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 3)
1999
[54] Experts to trace roots of Saraswati River. Times of India.
23 May 2012.
[55] Michel Danino: The Lost River - On the trail of the Sarasvati
(Penguin Books, 2010). ISBN 978-0-14-306864-8.
[65] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.

and texts, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10054-2
[68] Rajesh Kocchar, The rivers Sarasvati: Reconciling the sacred texts, blog post based on The Vedic People: Their History and Geography.
[69] Giosan, L.; et al. (2012).Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan Civilization. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, USA. 109 (26). Quote: Numerous speculations
have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra uvial system, at times identied with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan
river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna
River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of
large-scale incision on the interuve demonstrates that large,
glacier-fed rivers did not ow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. .... The present Ghaggar-Hakra
valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal ows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region
during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy uvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper GhaggarHakra interuve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper
448
interuve, ne-grained oodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900
y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread uvial redistribution
of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able
to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and
explains why Harappan settlements ourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed
river.
[70] Maemoku, Hideaki; Shitaoka, Yorinao; Nagatomo,
Tsuneto; Yagi, Hiroshi (2013), Geomorphological Constraints on the Ghaggar River Regime During the Mature
Harappan Period, in Giosan,Liviu; Fuller, Dorian Q.;
Nicoll, Kathleen, Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations,
American Geophysical Union Monograph Series 198, John
Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-70443-1
[71] Madella, Marco; Fuller, Dorian (2006). Palaeoecology
and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration. Quaternary Science Reviews. 25 (1112): 1283
1301. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012.
[72] MacDonald, Glen (2011). Potential inuence of the Pacic Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline. Quaternary International. 229: 140148.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012.
[73] Brooke, John L. (2014), Climate Change and the Course
of Global History: A Rough Journey, Cambridge University Press, p. 296, ISBN 978-0-521-87164-8 Quote: The
story in Harappan India was somewhat dierent (see Figure
111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the
Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful mon-soon
rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were
channeled into commerce rather than conict. Scholars have
long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban
Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages
around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to
slowly taper o in the third millennium, at just the point that
the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this
rst urbanizationin South Asia was the initial response of
the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene
aridication. These cities were maintained for 30o to 400
years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scat-tered villages in the eastern range of
their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....'
17 (footnote) a)Liviu Giosan et al., Fluvial Landscapes
of the Harappan Civilization, PNAS, 102 (2012), E1688
E1694; (b) Camilo Ponton, Holocene Aridication of
India, GRL 39 (2012), L03704; (c) Harunur Rashid et
al., Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon
Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the
Bay of Bengal,Terrestrial, Atmospheric, and Oceanic Sciences 22 (2011), 215-28; (d) Marco Madella and Dorian
Q. Fuller, Paleoecology and the Harappan Civilization of
South Asia: A Reconsideration, Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (2006), 1283-301. Compare with the very dierent interpretations in Gregory L. PossehlPossehl, Gregory
L. (2002), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Rowman Altamira, pp. 237245, ISBN 978-0-75910172-2, and Michael Staubwasser et al., Climate Change
at the 4.2 ka BP Termination of the Indus Valley Civilization and Holocene South Asian Monsoon Variability,GRL
30 (2003), 1425. Bar-Matthews and Avner Ayalon, MidHolocene Climate Variations.
[74] Clift, Peter D.; Carter, Andrew; Giosan, Liviu; Durcan, Julie
(2012). U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene
Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River (PDF).
Geology. 40 (3): 211214. doi:10.1130/g32840.1.
148.9
Bibliography
Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of

Vedic Culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19513777-9
Erdosy, George, ed. (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-014447-5
Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995), The lost Sarasvati and the
Indus Civilisation, Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan
Kalyanaraman, S. (1012 January 1997), A project
to revive the Sarasvati river: Role of GIS, National
Seminar on Geographic Information Systems for Development Planning, Chennai: Renganathan Centre for
Information Studies.
Macdonell, Arthur Anthony; Keith, Arthur Berriedale
(1912), Vedic Index of Names and Subjects
Mughal, Mohammed Raque (1997), Ancient Cholistan: Archaeology and architecture, Rawalpini
Lal, B. B. (2002), The Sarasvati ows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture, New Delhi: Aryan Books International
Oldham, R. D. (1893). The Saraswati and the Lost
River of the Indian Desert. Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society: 4976.
Shaer, Jim G. (1995), Cultural tradition and
Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology, in Erdosy George (ed.), Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia,
Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-014447-6
Scharfe, Hartmut (1996). Bartholomae's Law Revisited. Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. XX
(Festschrift Paul Thieme): 351377.

Saraswati the ancient river lost in the desert by A. V.
Sankaran
Coordinates:
75.0176E
293546N 750103E / 29.5961N
449
Chapter 149
Kaushalya river
The Kaushalya river (Hindi: ), a tributary
of Ghaggar river, is a river in Panchkula district of Haryana
149.3
Gallery

The Kaushalya river rises in the Shivalik hills on the border
of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh State, and ows through
Panchkula district and conuences with Ghaggar river near
Pinjore just downstream of Kaushalya Dam.* [1]* [2]
Indus-Sarasvati civilisation major

sites

149.2 Identication
rivers
with
Vedic
Ghaggar river owing through

Panchkula in Haryana

River as the Sarasvati river and the Chautang river with
the Drishadvati river of Vedic period, on the banks of
which Indus-Sarasvati civilisation developed. such scholars include Gregory Possehl,* [4] J. M. Kenoyer,* [5] Bridget
and Raymond Allchin,* [6] Michael Witzel,* [7] Kenneth
Kennedy,* [8] Franklin Southworth,* [9] and numerous Indian archaeologists.
Flock
of
Cormorants
at
Kaushalya Dam

450
Migratory birds at Kaushalya

Dam, near Pinjore, Haryana (Dec. 2015)
451
25801118

Dam, near Pinjore, Panchkula district (Dec. 2015)

p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6

Dam (Dec. 2015)
[7] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.

[8] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[9] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.
Water of Kaushalya Dam

attracts local and migratory birds (June 2015)
149.6
149.4 See also
and Tangri are same
Markanda river, a tributary of Ghaggar-Hakra River
Ganges
Indus
149.5 References
[1] Hillsofmorni.com - Kaushalya dam
[2] Dailymail - Scam worth Rs-217 crore failed Kaushalya Dam
says CAG
[3] HaryanaOnline - Geography of Haryana
External links

Chapter 150
Markanda River, Haryana

Not to be confused with Markanda River, Tamil Nadu.

The Markanda river (Hindi: ) in the Haryana

state of India is a tributary of Ghaggar river, owing
through Ambala district and Shahabad Markanda town in
Kurukshetra district.* [1]* [2]
150.3
Gallery

The Markanda river is an eponymous seasonal river in
Haryana state, which is a main tributary of the Ghaggar
River.* [3]
The Markanda river originates in the Shivalik hills on the
border of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh State, and ows
along the haryana and Punjab, India border before meeting
with Ghaggar river at the conuence.* [4]

sites

150.2 Identication
rivers
with
Vedic


River (of which Tangri river is a tributary) as the Sarasvati
river and the Chautang river with the Drishadvati river
of Vedic period, on the banks of which Indus-Sarasvati
civilisation developed. such scholars include Gregory
Possehl,* [5] J. M. Kenoyer,* [6] Bridget and Raymond
Allchin,* [7] Michael Witzel,* [8] Kenneth Kennedy,* [9]
Franklin Southworth,* [10] and numerous Indian archaeologists.
150.4
452
See also

and Tangri are same

Ganges
Indus
150.5 References
[3] Shanker Sharma, Hari; Kalwar, S. C. (2005).
Geomorphology and Environmental Sustainability: Felicitation Volume in Honour of Professor H.S. Sharma.
Concept Publishing Company. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-8069028-0.
25801118
p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
[8] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
[9] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[10] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.

453
Chapter 151
Tangri river
The Tangri river (Hindi: and )
is a tributary of Ghaggar river in of Haryana state of
India.* [1]* [2]
151.3
Gallery

The Tangri river originates in the Shivalik hills on the border of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh State, and ows along
the haryana and Punjab, India border before meeting with
Ghaggar river at the conuence.* [3]

sites

151.2 Identication
rivers
with
Vedic

Possehl,* [4] J. M. Kenoyer,* [5] Bridget and Raymond

151.4
See also
Dangri, a tributary of Sarsuti, merge if Dangri and

Tangri are same
Markanda river, Haryana, a tributary of GhaggarHakra River
Ganges

Indus


Somb river
454
151.5 References
25801118
p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
[7] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
[8] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[9] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.

455
Chapter 152
Gomal River
Gomal Pass
Gomal River (Urdu:

, Pashto:
, Sanskrit: ) is a 400 km long river
in Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is mentioned in the
Rigveda as Gomat (full of water). The river lends its name
to the Gomal University in Dera Ismail Khan and the likenamed Gomal District in Paktika Province of Afghanistan.
Gomal District
Gomal University
Zhob River
South Waziristan
Paktika Province
152.1 Origin and Course of Flow

Gomal River's headwaters are located south-east of Ghazni.
The springs which form the headwaters of the Gomal's main
branch emerge above the fort at Babakarkol in Katawaz, a
district inhabited by Ghilji Pashtuns from the Kharoti and
Sulaimankhel clans, in Paktika Province.* [1] The Gomal's
other branch, the Second Gomal, joins the main channel about 14 miles below its source.* [2] The Gomal ows
southeast through eastern Ghilji country for approximately
110 miles before it merges with the Zhob River, its major
tributary, near Khajuri Kach.* [3]* [4] It is about 100 miles
from the Zhob River to the Indus River.
Within Pakistan, the Gomal river surrounds the South
Waziristan agency and forms the boundary between
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan.
From South
Waziristan, the river enters the Gomal Valley in the district
of Tank, Pakistan at a place known as Girdavi, Murtuza
which is inhabited by the Miani tribe. It is mainly here that
the water of Gomal is used to cultivate the lands in Gomal
Valley through Zam System (Rod Kohi). The river passes
then through the Damaan plain in Kulachi Tehsil and later
on through Dera Ismail Khan Tehsil, It then joins the Indus
River 20 miles south of Dera Ismail Khan.* [4]
152.3
Notes
[1]Natural Geography of Pakistan: 5- Hydrology: 5-1- Rivers:

Gomal River ECO Geoscience Database
[2] MacGregor, Charles Metcalfe (1871) Central Asia, pt. 2: A
Contribution Toward the Better Knowledge of the Topography, Ethnology, Resources, and History of Afghanistan Ofce of the Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta,
OCLC 48604589 reprinted by Barbican Publishing Co., Peterseld, England, in 1995, p. 308
[3] MacGregor, pp. 308-9
[4] Gazetteer of Afghanistan VI (Farah), fourth ed., Calcutta,
1908, p. 238
152.4
External links
http://www.khyber.org/places/2005/
TheGomalRiver.shtml
There is also a street in E-7, Islamabad called the Gomal Coordinates:

70.84611E
Road.
152.2 See also

Gomal Zam Dam
456
313653N 705046E / 31.61472N
Chapter 153
Haro River
Minor tributaries include the following rivulets.
Chanjah
Jab kattha
Pakshahi kattha
Narota
Muslimabad (Khota Qabar) kattha
Najafpur kattha
This river joins the Indus River near Ghazi Barotha Dam.
Haro River
153.1
References
Haro is the name of a river that ows through parts of

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab . Its main valley is in
[1] http://www.getamap.net/maps/pakistan/pakistan_(general)
Abbottabad District in the North West Frontier Province of
/_haroriver/
northern Pakistan, identied with the Rigvedic Arjikiya. Its
coordinates are 3346'8N and 7214'43E in DMS (De- [2] http://dawn.com/news/727899/
deepening-water-crisis-khanpur-dam-drying-up-fast
grees Minutes Seconds) or 33.7689 and 72.2453 (in decimal degrees).* [1] Famous Khanpur Dam has been built
on this river at Khanpur in the Haripur District to provide Coordinates: 3346N 7215E / 33.767N 72.250E
drinking water to the twin cities i.e. Islamabad (the capital
of Pakistan) and Rawalpindi. The decrease in inlfows of
Khanpur dam from Haro River results in water shortage in
the twin cities during summer season.* [2]
It is fed by four major tributaries:
1. The Lora Haro, rising in the Murree Hills around Lora
2. The Satora Haro, rising in the Galiat Malach hills
3. Both Lora Haro and Satora Haro merge at Dotara near
Jabri
4. The Neelan, rising in the Nara Hills
5. The Kunhad, draining the area of Siribang and
Dubran.
457
Chapter 154
Indori river
The Indori river (Hindi: ), is a rain-fed river
originates from Aravalli Range from Alwar district and
Sikar district of Rajasthan to Rewari district of Haryana and
it is the longest tributary of Sahibi River.* [1]* [2] In Delhi,
it is called the Najafgarh drain or Najafgarh Nallah.
red stone statue of Vamana Dev was found in the Sahibi

riverbed near Bawal in 2002; the statue is now displayed at
the Shri Krishna Museum, Kurukshetra. Other artifacts discovered in the Sahibi River include arrowheads, shhooks,
appearheads, awls, and chisels.* [3]
154.1 Indus Valley Civilisation Archaeological ndings

154.2
See also: Indus Valley Civilisation
Despite the fact that the present day channel through which
Identication
rivers
with
Vedic
See also: Drishadvati river

river and the Sahibi River with the Drishadvati river of
Vedic period, on the banks of which Indus-Sarasvati civilisation developed. such scholars include Bhargava* [4] The
Drishadwati River formed one border of the Vedic state
of Brahmavarta and was mentioned in the Rigveda, the
Manusmriti, and the Brahmin Granths texts.
Harrapan period earthenware (Pottery) found on the Sahibi

riverbed by INTACH-Rewari, at Hansaka village, Rewari District,
2012
154.3
Sahibi River meanders is mostly arid with seasonal rainfalls, this river and its tributaries were the site of the ourishing Indus Valley Civilization. Throughout the course of
its river bed, artifacts have been unearthed that indicates a
vibrant community. Archaeological ndings on the Sahibi
River have conrmed habitations on its banks before the
Harappan and pre-Mahabharata periods. Both handmade
and wheel-made earthernware dated from 33092709 BCE
and 28792384 BCE has been found on the banks of the
Sahibi River at Jodhpura. INTACH-Rewari found pottery
on the Sahibi riverbed at Hansaka in the Rewari district. A
458
Gallery

sites
154.6. REFERENCES
459
[4]Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati River is important to nd earliest alignment of Saraswati River, Sudhir Bhargava, International Conference, 2022 Nov. 2009,
Saraswati-a perspectivepages 114117, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Organised by: Saraswati Nadi Shodh
Sansthan, Haryana.
154.4 See also

Krishnavati river
and Tangri are same
Ganges
Indus
List of rivers of Rajasthan
List of dams and reservoirs in India

154.6 References
[1] Sahibi river
[2] Books: Page 41, 42, 43, 44, 47 (b) Sahibi Nadi (River),
River Pollution, By A.k.jain
[3] A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India from the
stone age to the 12th century, Pearson 2009, page 116
Chapter 155
Indus River
Indusand Sindhuredirect here. For other uses, see temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
Indus (disambiguation) and Sindhu (disambiguation).
The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan menThe Indus River, also called the Sindh River or Absn,
tioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu and the Iranian
Zend Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both terms meaning seven
rivers). The river has been a source of wonder since the
Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his
Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as
early as 510 BC.
155.1
Etymology and names
This river was known to the ancient Iranians in Avestan as

Hindu, in Sanskrit as Sindhu, to Assyrians (as early as the
7th century BC) as Sinda, to the Persians as Ab-e-sind, to the
Greeks as Indos, to the Romans as Indus, to the Pashtuns as
Abasind, to the Arabs as Al-Sind, to the Chinese as Sintow,
and to the Javanese as Santri. In Pali, Sndhu meansriver,
streamand refers to the Indus River in particular.* [1]
Indus River in Kharmang District, Pakistan.
is a major south-owing river in South Asia. The total

length of the river is 3,180 km (1,980 mi) which makes it
one of longest rivers in Asia. Originating in the western part
of Tibet in the vicinity of Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar, the river runs a course through Ladakh, GilgitBaltistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and then ows along
the entire length of Punjab to merge into the Arabian Sea
near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. It is the longest river
of Pakistan.
The word Indusis the romanised form of the ancient

Greek wordInds(), borrowed from the old Persian word "Hindu" which is in turn borrowed from the
Sanskrit word Sindhu.
Megasthenes's book Indica derives its name from the river's

Greek name, Inds(), and describes Nearchus's
contemporaneous account of how Alexander the Great
crossed the river. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians (people of present-day northwest India and Pakistan)
asIndi(), literally meaningthe people of the InThe river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 dus.* [2] The country of India and the Pakistani province
km2 (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual ow stands of Sindh owe their names to the river.* [3]
at around 207 km3 (50 cu mi), making it the twenty-rst
largest river in the world in terms of annual ow. The
Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, 155.1.1 Rigveda and the Indus
its left bank tributary is the Chenab which itself has four
major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including
and the Sutlej. Its principal right bank tributaries are the one namedSindhu. The RigvedicSindhuis thought to
Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal, and the Kurram. be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its
Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and text 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic
rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the
460
155.2. DESCRIPTION
461
meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river

in particular, as in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn
of Nadistuti sukta. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine
gender to all the rivers mentioned therein but Sindhuis
the only river attributed with a masculine gender. Sindhu
is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are
seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding
milk and butter.
155.1.2
Other names
In other languages of the region, the river is known as

(Sindhu Nad) in Hindi and Nepali, ( Sindhu)
in Sindhi, ( Sindh) in Shahmukhi Punjabi,
(Sindh Nad ) in Gurmukh Punjabi, ( Absin lit.
Father of Rivers) in Pashto, ( Nahar al-Sind)
in Arabic,
(seng ge gtsang po lit. Lion
River) in Tibetan, (Ynd) in Chinese, and Nilab in
Turki.
155.2 Description
The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan's
economy especially the breadbasket of Punjab province,
which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means land of ve
riversand the ve rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas
and Sutlej, all of which nally ow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the
main supply of potable water in Pakistan.
The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; the river begins
at the conuence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo
rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan
(Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailas) mountain ranges. The Indus then ows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into
Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok,
Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main
river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the
hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes
gigantic gorges 4,5005,200 metres (15,00017,000 feet)
deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It ows swiftly across
Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul
River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to
the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the
ow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is
joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot. Beyond this conuence, the river, at one time, was named the Satnad River
(sat =seven, nad =river), as the river now carried
the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the ve
Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta
to the east of Thatta.
Babur crossing the Indus River.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit

a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows
and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu
Kush ranges of Tibet, the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan.
The ow of the river is also determined by the seasons it
diminishes greatly in the winter, while ooding its banks in
the monsoon months from July to September. There is also
evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since
prehistoric times it deviated westwards from owing into
the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the
1816 earthquake.* [4]* [5]
The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or
Lion's Mouth, a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash marked by a long low line of Tibetan
chortens. There are several other tributaries nearby, which
may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but
462
CHAPTER 155. INDUS RIVER
unlike the Senge Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt.

The Zanskar River, which ows into the Indus in Ladakh,
has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before
that point.* [6]
Paleolithic sites have been discovered in Pothohar near Pakistan's capital Islamabad, with the stone tools of the Soan
Culture. In ancient Gandhara, near Islamabad, evidence of
cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered
at Mardan.
That night in the tent [next to Senge Khabab]

I ask Sonmatering which of the Indus tributaries
which we crossed this morning is the longest. All
of them, he says, start at least a day's walk away
from here. The Bukhar begins near the village of
Yagra. The Lamolasay's source is in a holy place:
there is a monastery there. The Dorjungla is a
very dicult and long walk, three days perhaps,
and there are many sharp rocks; but it its water is
clear and blue, hence the tributary's other name,
Zom-chu, which Karma Lama translates as 'Blue
Water'. The Rakmajang rises from a dark lake
called the Black Sea.
The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC,
and represent some of the largest human habitations of the
ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from
across Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach
from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej.
The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the
Pakistan, Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India.
There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in
northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the
Hindon River is located only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi.
To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found,
mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River
and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as
Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90
96 of more than 800 known Indus Valley sites have been
discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now
a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times owed into the
Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more
Harappan sites than along the Indus.
One of the longest tributaries and thus a candidate for the river's technical source is the Klachu, the river we crossed yesterday by bridge.
Also known as the Lungdep Chu, it ows into the
Indus from the south-east, and rises a day's walk
from Darchen. But Sonamtering insists that the
Dorjungla is the longest of the 'three types of water' that fall into the Seng Tsanplo ['Lion River'
or Indus].* [6]
155.3 History
Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave

culture of the early Indo-Aryans ourished in Gandhara
from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa had already been abandoned.
The word India is derived from the Indus River. In
ancient times, Indiainitially referred to those regions
immediately along the east bank of the Indus, but by 300
BC, Greek writers including Herodotus and Megasthenes
were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.* [7]* [8]
Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation 3000 BC
Main articles: Indus Valley Civilization and History of

Sindh
The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary

between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent;
this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces
Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh and
the countries Afghanistan and India. It was crossed by the
invading armies of Alexander, but after his Macedonians
conquered the west bankjoining it to the Hellenic Empire, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the
river, ending Alexander's Asian campaign. The Indus plains
were later dominated by the Persian empire and then the
Kushan empire. Over several centuries Muslim armies of
Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed
Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur crossed the river to invade the
inner regions of the Punjab and points farther south and east
155.4. GEOGRAPHY
463
155.4 Geography
Indus River viewed from the Karakoram Highway.
Indus River near Leh, Ladakh, India
155.4.1
Tributaries
Beas River
Chenab River
Gar River
Gilgit River
Gomal River
Hunza River
Indus River near Leh, India, 2014
Jhelum River
Kabul River
Kunar River
Kurram River
Panjnad River
Ravi River
Shyok River
Soan River
Suru River
Sutlej River
Swat River
Zanskar River
Zhob River
Conuence of Indus and Zanskar rivers. The Indus is at the bottom of the picture, owing left-to-right; the Zanskar, carrying more
water, comes in from the middle left of the picture.
464
155.5 Geology
The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the
second largest sediment body on the Earth at around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan
and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum,
Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from
the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to ve million
years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers
which instead owed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time.* [9] Earlier work showed that sand and
silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45
million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time.* [10] The delta of this proto-Indus
river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on
the Afghan-Pakistan border.
Fishermen on the Indus River, c. 1905
der's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region,

which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor
Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank
in his memoirs (the Baburnama). Extensive deforestation
and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills
has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growIn the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of ero- ing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor
sion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerout- vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation
ing through that area is thought to bring middle and lower works. The Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species and 147
crustal rocks to the surface.* [11]
species, 22 of which are only found in the Indus.* [13]
In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus
river had re-entered India, feeding Great Rann of Kutch,
Little Rann of Kutch and a lake near Ahmedabad known
as Nal Sarovar.* [12] Heavy rains had left the river basin
along with the Lake Manchar, Lake Hemal and Kalri Lake 155.7 Mammals
(all in modern-day Pakistan) inundated. This happened two
centuries after the Indus river shifted its course westwards
The blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista indicus minor)
following the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake.
is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River.
It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus
river. According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of
155.6 Wildlife
the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1,000 still
existing.* [14]
155.7.1
Fish
Palla sh Tenualosa ilisha of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of sh in the river
is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the
major shing centres all in the lower Sindh course. But
damming and irrigation has made sh farming an important
economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large
delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the
world's most important ecological regions. Here the river
Footbridge on the Indus River in Pakistan
turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the
sea at shallow levels. Here marine shes are found in abunAccounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexan- dance, including pomfret and prawns.
155.9. PEOPLE
465
155.8 Economy
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources
to the Punjab and Sindh plains it forms the backbone of
agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is
especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were rst built by the people of
the Indus Valley Civilisation, and later by the engineers
of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company
in 1850 the construction of modern canals accompanied
with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised
the construction of one of the most complex irrigation net- The Indus River near Skardu, in GilgitBaltistan.
works in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430
ft) long irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat.
The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi).
After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty
signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that
Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its
two tributaries the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India.* [15]
The Indus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the
Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus
River, together with their subsidiary dams.* [16] The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook
the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers extending
water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan.
Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi
standing 2,743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470
ft) high, with an 80-kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. The
Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long
and provides additional supplies for Karachi. It support the
Chashma barrage near Dera Ismail Khan use for irrigation
and ood control. for The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi
Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread
water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects
provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops
such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
155.9 People
The inhabitants of the regions through which the Indus river
passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are
diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of
Jammu and Kashmir in India, live the Buddhist people of
The Dubair Khwarr, a tributary of the Indus, near Shaikhdara, in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo-Aryan or

Dardic stock and practising Buddhism and Islam. Then it
descends into Baltistan, northern Pakistan passing the main
Balti city of Skardu. A river from Dubair Bala also drains
into it at Dubair Bazar. People living in this area are mainly
Kohistani and speak the Kohistani language. Major areas
through which the Indus river passes in Kohistan are Dasu,
Pattan and Dubair. As it continues through Pakistan, the
Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and
cultures upon the western banks the population is largely
Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranian stock. The eastern
banks are largely populated by people of Indo-Aryan stock,
such as the Punjabis and the Sindhis. In northern Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ethnic Pashtun tribes
live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash,
Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people.
The people living along the Indus river speak Punjabi and
Sindhi on the eastern side (in Punjab and Sindh provinces
respectively), Pushto plus Balochi as well as Barohi (in
Khyber Pakhtoonkha and Baluchistan provinces). In the
province of Sindh, the upper third of the river is inhabited
466
by people speaking Saraiki; which is a somewhat transi- dus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for
tional dialect of the Punjabi and Sindhi languages.
non-irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent
dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not
Indus) known as the Baglihar Project).
155.10 Modern issues
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial

pollution and global warming are aecting the vegetation
and wildlife of the Indus delta, while aecting agricultural
production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus
river may be shifting its course westwards although the
progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition,
extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
Recently, India's construction of dams on the river, which
Pakistan claims is in violation of the Indus Waters Treaty
reducing water ow into Pakistan, has caused Pakistan to
take the issue to the international courts for arbitration.
155.10.1
Eects of climate change on the

river
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store

of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting
and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and
tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
Satellite images of the upper Indus River valley, comparing waterlevels on 1 August 2009 (top) and 31 July 2010 (bottom)
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's

economy and society. After Pakistan and India declared
Independence from the British Raj, also known as Indian
Empire, the use of the waters of the Indus and its ve eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and
Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the
Bari Doab were split with the canals lying primarily in
Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply
in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply owing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility
that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks
brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the
Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control
of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej,
the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the
three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the In-
Temperatures are rising four times

faster than elsewhere in China, and
the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at
a higher speed than in any other part
of the world... In the short term, this
will cause lakes to expand and bring
oods and mudows.. In the long run,
the glaciers are vital lifelines of the
Indus River. Once they vanish, water
supplies in Pakistan will be in peril.
*
[17]
There is insucient data to say what will happen to the
Indus,says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water
advisor in South Asia.But we all have very nasty fears that
the ows of the Indus could be severely, severely aected
by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change,and
reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. Now what
does that mean to a population that lives in a desert [where],
without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the
answer to that question,he says. But we need to be
concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned.* [18]
155.11. BARRAGES, BRIDGES AND DAMS
155.10.2
467
Pollution
155.10.4
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River

have increased levels of water pollution in the river and
the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the
river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus River Dolphin. The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997.* [19]
Death of the Indus River Dolphin has also been attributed
to shermen using poison to kill sh and scooping them
up.* [20]* [21] As a result, the government banned shing
from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur.* [22]
155.10.3
2010 oods
Kabul
Mingora
Peshawar
Gilgit-Baltistan
Chilas
In
du
s
Islamabad
elam
Jh
ab
en
Ch
Qetta
Punjab
Multan
Satluj
us
Ind
Balochistan
Gwadar
New Delhi
districts with minor ooding
Karachi Tatta
Haiderabad
Sindh
districts with major ooding

completely ooded areas
500 km
2011 oods
Main article: 2011 Sindh oods

The 2011 Sindh oods began during the Pakistani monsoon
season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab.* [27] The oods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people
and 1,524,773 homes aected.* [28] Sindh is a fertile region and often called the breadbasketof the country;
the damage and toll of the oods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres
(690,000 ha; 2,700 sq mi) of arable land were inundated.
The ooding followed the previous year's oods, which devastated a large part of the country.* [28] Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe ooding in 16 districts
of Sindh.* [29]
155.11
Barrages, Bridges and Dams
In Sindh currently there are three barrages on Indus River,

Guddu barrage, Sukkur Barrage, Kotri barrage (a.k.a. Ghulam Muhammad barrage). There are some bridges on river
Indus, such as, Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta-Sujawal bridge, Jhirk-Mula Katiar
bridge and recently planned Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge over
river Indus.* [30]
Kala Bagh Barrage, Chasma Barrage, Taunsa Barrage are
also built in Punjab on Indus river.
Tarbela Dam is constructed on the Indus River, whereas,
the controversial Kalabagh dam is also being constructed
on Indus river.
Aected areas as of 26 August 2010
155.11.1
Gallery
Main article: 2010 Pakistan oods

In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains,
the Indus River rose above its banks and started ooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In Sindh, the Indus burst
its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi.* [23] In early August, the heaviest ooding moved southward along the Indus River from
severely aected northern regions toward western Punjab,
where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was
destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh.* [24] As of
September 2010, over two thousand people had died and
over a million homes had been destroyed since the ooding
began.* [25]* [26]
Video of River Indus at Kotri

Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan
155.12
See also
1974 Hunza earthquake

Chura Sharif
Ghaggar-Hakra River
468
HMS Indus, ships named after the Indus River

Indus Valley Civilisation
Indus Waters Treaty
Sarasvati River
Sind Sagar Doab
Sindhology
Sindhu Darshan Festival
Sindhu Pushkaram
Rigvedic rivers
155.13 References
155.13.1
Citations
[1] G.P. Malalasekera 2003, p. 1137.

[2] Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
[3] Encyclopdia Britannica.
[4] 70% of cattle-breeders desert Banni; by Narandas Thacker,
TNN, 14 February 2002; The Times of India
[5] 564 Charul Bharwada & Vinay Mahajan, Lost and forgotten: grasslands and pastoralists of Gujarat.
[6] Albinia (2008), p. 307.
[7] Henry Yule: India, Indies. In Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of
colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred
terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive.
New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903
[8] Was the Ramayana actually set in and around today's
Afghanistan?".
[9] Clift, Peter D.; Blusztajn, Jerzy (15 December 2005). Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after
ve million years ago. Nature. 438 (7070): 10011003.
doi:10.1038/nature04379. PMID 16355221.
[10] Clift, Peter D.; Shimizu, N.; Layne, G.D.; Blusztajn,
J.S.; Gaedicke, C.; Schlter, H.-U.; Clark, M.K.; Amjad, S. (August 2001).
Development of the Indus Fan and its signicance for the erosional history
of the Western Himalaya and Karakoram.
GSA
doi:10.1130/0016Bulletin.
113 (8): 10391051.
7606(2001)113<1039:DOTIFA>2.0.CO;2.
[11] Zeitler, Peter K.; Koons, Peter O.; Bishop, Michael P.;
Chamberlain, C. Page; Craw, David; Edwards, Michael
A.; Hamidullah, Syed; Jam, Qasim M.; Kahn, M. Asif;
Khattak, M. Umar Khan; Kidd, William S. F.; Mackie,
Randall L.; Meltzer, Anne S.; Park, Stephen K.; Pecher,
Arnaud; Poage, Michael A.; Sarker, Golam; Schneider,
David A.; Seeber, Leonardo; Shroder, John F. (October 2001). Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical
coupling facilitated by erosion. Tectonics. 20 (5): 712
728. doi:10.1029/2000TC001243.
[12] Indus re-enters India after two centuries, feeds Little Rann,
Nal Sarovar. India Today. 7 November 2011. Retrieved
2011-11-07.
[13] Indus River (PDF). World' top 10 rivers at risk. WWF.
Retrieved 11 July 2012.
[14] WWF Indus River Dolphin. Wwf.panda.org. Retrieved
2012-09-22.
[15] Tarabela Dam. www.structurae.the cat in the hat. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
[16] Indus Basin Project. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved
2007-07-09.
[17] Global warming benets to Tibet: Chinese ocial. Reported 18 August 2009. Google.com. 17 August 2009.
[18] Pulitzercenter.org
[19] SEPA orders polluting factory to stop production. Dawn.
3 Dec 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
[20] Fishing poison killing Indus dolphins, PA told. Dawn.
8 Mar 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
[21] "'18 dolphins died from poisoning in Jan'". Dawn. 1 May
2012. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
[22] Threat to dolphin: Govt bans shing between Guddu and
Sukkur. The Express Tribune. 9 Mar 2012. Retrieved 28
June 2012.
[23] Bodeen, Christopher (8 August 2010). Asia ooding
plunges millions into misery. Associated Press. Retrieved
8 August 2010.
[24] Guerin, Orla (7 August 2010). Pakistan issues ooding
'red alert' for Sindh province. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
[25] BBC News Pakistan oods: World Bank to lend $900m
for recovery. bbc.co.uk. 17 August 2010. Retrieved 201008-24.
[26] BBC News Millions of Pakistan children at risk of ood
diseases. bbc.co.uk. 16 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-0824.
[27]Pakistan oods: Oxfam launches emergency aid response.

BBC World News South Asia. 14 September 2011. Retrieved
15 September 2011.
[28] Floods worsen, 270 killed: ocials. The Express Tribune.
13 September 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
[29] Government of Pakistan Pakmet.com.pk Retrieved on 19
September 2011 Archived 24 April 2012 at the Wayback
Machine.
[30] Government to launch Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge over River
Indus next month: Sindh CM. The Express Tribune. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
155.13.2
Sources
G.P. Malalasekera (1 September 2003), Dictionary of

Pali Proper Names, Volume 1, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-81-2061-823-7.
Albinia, Alice. (2008) Empires of the Indus: The Story
of a River. First American Edition (20101) W. W.
Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-39333860-7.
This article incorporates text from a publication

now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). "* article name needed". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
World Atlas, Millennium Edition, p. 265.

Jean Fairley, The Lion River, Karachi, 1978.

Blankonthemap The Northern Kashmir Website
Bibliography on Water Resources and International
Law Peace Palace Library
Northern Areas Development Gateway
The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project
Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)
Indus Treaty
Baglihar Dam issue
Indus
Indus Wildlife at the Wayback Machine (archived 7
October 2006)
469
First raft and kayak descents of the Indus headwaters
in Tibet
Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting's project on water
issues in South Asia
Chapter 156
Jhelum River
For the Hong Kong river, see River Jhelum.
ditch measuring one Vitasti(a particular measure of length
Hydaspesredirects here. For the historic battle, see dened either as a long span between the extended thumb
Battle of the Hydaspes.
and little nger, or as the distance between the wrist and the
tip of the ngers, and said to be about 9 inches), through
Jehlam River or Jhelum River (/delm/) is a river that which the river - gone to the Nether World*- had come out,
ows in the Indian and Pakistani controlled portions of so she was given the name Vitasta by him. [2]
Kashmir, and Punjab in Pakistan. It is the westernmost of
the ve rivers of Punjab, and passes through Jhelum District. It is a tributary of the Chenab River and has a total
length of about 725 kilometres (450 mi).* [1]
156.2
History
156.1 Etymology
Verinag Water Spring-Chief Source of Jhelum River

Verinag Spring, major source of Jhelum River.
The river Jhelum is called Vitast in the Rigveda and Hydaspes by the ancient Greeks. The Vitasta (Sanskrit: , fem., also, Vetast) is mentioned as one of the major rivers by the holy scriptures the Rigveda. It has
been speculated that the Vitast must have been one of
the seven rivers (sapta-sindhu) mentioned so many times
in the Rigveda. The name survives in the Kashmiri name
for this river as Vyeth. According to the major religious
work Srimad Bhagavatam, the Vitast is one of the many
transcendental rivers owing through land of Bharata, or
ancient India.
The Sanskrit name of this river is Vitasta. The river got

this name from the mythological incident regarding the origin of the river as explained in Nilamata Purana. Goddess Parvati was requested by sage Kasyapa to come to
Kashmir for purication of the land from evil practices and
impurities of Pisachas living there. Goddess Parvati then
assumed the form of a river in the Nether World. Then
Lord Shiva made a stroke with his spear near the abode of
Nila (Verinag Spring). By that stroke of the spear, Goddess Parvati came out of the Nether World. Shiva himself The river was regarded as a god by the ancient Greeks, as
named her as Vitasta. He had excavated with the spear a were most mountains and streams; the poet Nonnus in the
470
156.3. COURSE
471
terms of the Indus Waters Treaty. India is working on a hydropower project on a tributary of Jhelum river to establish
rst-use rights on the river water over Pakistan as per the
Indus waters Treaty.* [3]
156.3
A passenger traversing the river precariously seated in a small suspended cradle Circa 1900
Course
The river Jhelum rises from Verinag Spring situated at the

foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It ows through Srinagar and the Wular
lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.
The Neelum River, the largest tributary of the Jhelum, joins
it, at Domel Muzaarabad, as does the next largest, the
Kunhar River of the Kaghan valley. It also connects with
rest of Pakistan and Pakistani Kashmir on Kohala Bridge
east of Circle Bakote. It is then joined by the Poonch river,
and ows into the Mangla Dam reservoir in the district of
Mirpur. The Jhelum enters the Punjab in the Jhelum District. From there, it ows through the plains of Pakistan's
Punjab, forming the boundary between the Chaj and Sindh
Sagar Doabs. It ends in a conuence with the Chenab at
Trimmu in District Jhang. The Chenab merges with the
Sutlej to form the Panjnad River which joins the Indus River
at Mithankot.
Jehlum Bridge, Jhelum City
Dionysiaca (section 26, line 350) makes the Hydaspes a

titan-descended god, the son of the sea-god Thaumas and
the cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris, the
goddess of the rainbow, and half-brother to the Harpies, the
snatching winds. Since the river is in a country foreign to the
ancient Greeks, it is not clear whether they named the river
after the god, or whether the god Hydaspes was named after the river. Alexander the Great and his army crossed the
Jhelum in BC 326 at the Battle of the Hydaspes River where
he defeated the Indian king, Porus. According to Arrian
(Anabasis, 29), he built a cityon the spot whence he started
to cross the river Hydaspes, which he named Bukephala
(or Bucephala) to honour his famous horse Bukephalus
or Bucephalus which was buried in Jalalpur Sharif. It is
thought that ancient Bukephala was near the site of modern
Jhelum City. According to a historian of Gujrat district,
Mansoor Behzad Butt, Bukephalus was buried in Jalalpur
Sharif, but the people of Mandi Bahauddin, a district close
to Jehlum, believed that their tehsil Phalia was named af- Jehlum as it passes a village in Tehsil Sarai Alamgir, the
ter Bucephalus, Alexander's dead horse. They say that the foreground shows a picturesque village of Punjab with
name Phalia was the distortion of the word Bucephala. The District Jehlum itself in the background.
waters of the Jhelum are allocated to Pakistan under the
472
CHAPTER 156. JHELUM RIVER
156.4 Dams and barrages

Water control structures are being built as a result of the
Indus Basin Project, including the following:
Mangla Dam, completed in 1967, is one of the largest
earthll dams in the world, with a storage capacity of
5,900,000 acre feet (7.3 km3 )
Jhelum
River
near
Bele BBQ
Rasul Barrage, constructed in 1967, has a maximum

ow of 850,000 ft/s (24,000 m/s).
Trimmu Barrage, constructed in 1939 some 90 km
from Mari Shah Sakhira town, at the conuence
with the Chenab, has maximum discharge capacity of
645,000 ft/s (18,000 m/s).
Haranpur (Victoria Bridge) Constructed in 1933 Approximate 5 km from Malakwal near Chak Nizam Village. Its length is 1 km mainly used by Pakistan Railways but there is a passage for light vehicles, motorcycles, cycles and pedestrians at one side.
Jhelum River in Azad

Kashmir, Pakistan
156.5 Canals
The Upper Jhelum Canal runs from Mangla Dam to
the Chenab.
Srinagar
(Kashmir), 1969, bridge over the Jelhum river.
Jhelum River c.
1900; photo taken by Eugene Whitehead Esq.
The Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal runs from the Rasul

Barrage to the Chenab.
The Chashma-Jhelum Link Canal runs from the
Chashma Barrage on the Indus River to the Jhelum
river downstream of Rasul Barrage. This is 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Mari Shah Sakhira town.
156.6 Gallery
View on the river at

Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir
A
Hindu
Fakiron the Banks of the Jhelum, ca. 1905
156.6. GALLERY
473
Rope
Bridge at Karli, Kashmir (1908)
Jhelum
River at Uri Kashmir (1903)
Jhelum
farabad best view (2014)
Muzaarabad
2014
River
at
Jehlum River Muzaf-
Jhelum City (2015)
(Jehlum River)
Jhelum
river,Baramullah,Kashmir,(1880s)
File:River
Jehlum, Muzaarabad
Muzaarabad (2007)
Origin of the Jhelum

(2014)
474
CHAPTER 156. JHELUM RIVER
156.8
External links
Livius.org pictures of the Hydaspes

Jhalum river water fall

at Verinag(2014)
Jhelum
River near Al-jalal kinara (2009)
Jehlum River Muzaarabad(2007
Jhelum
River
at
Jhelum City(2005)
156.7 References
[1] Jhelum River -- Encyclopedia Britannica.
2013-10-04.
Retrieved on
[2] The Nilamata Purana English Translation by Dr. Ved Kumari verses 247-261
[3] India fast-tracks work on Jhelum river hydroelectric power
project. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
Chapter 157
Kabul River
Kabul River in Behsood Bridge Area, Jalalabad - 30 July 2009
One of ve bridges that crossed Kabul River during the Second

Anglo-Afghan War (1879-1880) era. Soldiers a pictured atop the
bridge while people walk along the road in the distance and in the
right foreground people sit or squat on the bridge while soldiers ride
behind them. Bala Hissar (High Fort) is in the background just visible through the heat haze and trees. It was the locus of power in
Kabul for many centuries and the site of erce ghting during the
war. It was partly destroyed in OctoberDecember 1879 when Sir
Frederick Roberts occupied the city at the head of the Kabul Field
Force
The Kabul River (Pashto: ,Persian:

;Urdu:
Sanskrit: ), the classical Cophes
/koz/, is a 700-kilometre (430 mi) long river that
emerges in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and empties into the Indus River near
Attock, Pakistan. It is the main river in eastern Afghanistan
and is separated from the watershed of the Helmand by
the Unai Pass. The Kabul River passes through the cities
of Kabul and Jalalabad in Afghanistan before owing into
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan some 25 kilometres (16
mi) north of the Durand Line border crossing at Torkham.
The major tributaries of the Kabul River are the Logar,
Panjshir, Kunar, Alingar, Bara and Swat rivers.
Kabul River in Behsood Bridge Area, Jalalabad - 30 July 2009
Hindu Kush Range. Its largest tributary is the Kunar River,

which starts out as the Mastuj River, owing from the Chiantar glacie in Brughil valley in Chitral, Pakistan and after owing south into Afghanistan it is met by the Bashgal
river owing from Nurestan. The Kunar meets the Kabul
near Jalalabad. In spite of the Kunar carrying more water
than the Kabul, the river continues as the Kabul River afThe Kabul River is little more than a trickle for most of ter this conuence, mainly for the political and historical
the year, but swells in summer due to melting snows in the signicance of the name.
475
476
CHAPTER 157. KABUL RIVER
157.2
See also
List of rivers of Afghanistan

Rigvedic rivers
Swat River
157.3
References
[1] Arrian, John Rooke; Arrian's History of the expedition of

Alexander the Great: and conquest of Persia. J. Davis, 1813.
Buddhist caves, which have been carved into a set of clis on the
north side of the Kabul river
The Kabul River is impounded by several dams. The

Naghlu, Surobi, and Darunta dams are located in Kabul and
Nangarhar provinces of Afghanistan. The Warsak Dam is
in Pakistan, approximately 20 km northwest of the city of
Peshawar.
157.1 History
157.1.1
Expedition of Alexander the Great

into Asia
In Arrian's The Campaigns of Alexander, the River

Kabul is referred to as Kphn (Latin spelling
Cophen), the accusative of Kphs (Latin spelling
Cophes).* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
[2] Nigel Cawthorne; Alexander the Great. Haus Publishing,

2004, ISBN 1-904341-56-X. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
[3] Waldemar Heckel; The wars of Alexander the Great, 336323 B.C. Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 0-415-96855-0.
[4] Arrian, James S. Romm, Pamela Mensch; Alexander the
Great: selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius. Hackett Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0-87220-7277. Retrieved 2009-10-06.
[5] The History and Culture of the Indian People : The Vedic
age. By Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Achut Dattatrya
Pusalker, A. K. Majumdar, Dilip Kumar Ghose, Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, Vishvanath Govind Dighe Published by
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962 Page 247
[6] Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India By John Muir page 352
[7] Bosworth, C.E. (1999). Kabul. Encyclopaedia of Islam
(CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands:
Koninklijke Brill NV.
157.4
157.1.2
In Sanskrit and Avesta
External links
"Kabul River". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).

1911.
The word Kubh ( ) which is the ancient name of the

river is both a Sanskrit and Avestan word. Many of the Coordinates:
rivers of Pakistan and Afghanistan are mentioned in the Rig 72.23222E
Veda. The Sanskrit word later changed to Kbul.
157.1.3
Al-Biruni
Al-Biruni also called it the River of Ghorwand.* [7]

The Kabul River later gave its name to the region and to the
settlement of Kabul.* [7]
33550N 721356E / 33.91667N
Chapter 158
Dohan river
The Dohan river (Hindi: ), is a rain-fed river earthernware dated from 33092709 BCE and 28792384
originates from Rajasthan and ows to Rewari district of BCE has been found on the banks of the Sahibi River at
Haryana.* [1]* [2]
Jodhpura. INTACH-Rewari found pottery on the Sahibi
riverbed at Hansaka in the Rewari district. A red stone
statue of Vamana Dev was found in the Sahibi riverbed
near Bawal in 2002; the statue is now displayed at the Shri
158.1 Basin
Krishna Museum, Kurukshetra. Other artifacts discovered
in the Sahibi River include arrowheads, shhooks, appearThe Dohan river originates from Aravalli Range Mandoli
heads, awls, and chisels.* [3]
village from the western slopes of the Dohan Protected
Forest hills and ows towards north-east. The Krishnawati River, another independent River, ows north-east
for about 42 km in Rajasthan and subsequently disappears 158.3 Identication
with Vedic
in Haryana. The drainage pattern for both is dendritic.
rivers
158.2 Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological ndings

Archaeological ndings on the Sahibi River have conrmed
158.4

2012
habitations on its banks before the Harappan and preMahabharata periods. Both handmade and wheel-made
477
Gallery

sites
478
CHAPTER 158. DOHAN RIVER
158.7
External links

158.5 See also

Krishnavati river
and Tangri are same
Ganges
Indus
158.6 References
[1] Sahibi river
Sansthan, Haryana.

Chapter 159
Krishnavati river
The Krishnavati river (Hindi: ), also called
Kasaunti (Hindi: ), is a rain-fed river originates
from Aravalli Range from Alwar district and Sikar district
of Rajasthan to Rewari district of Haryana and is a tributary
of Sahibi River.* [1]* [2] This river along with many other
rivers from Aravalis made Sahibi River or Drishadwati river
as the most voluminous tributory of Saraswati river.
BCE has been found on the banks of the Sahibi River at

Jodhpura. INTACH-Rewari found pottery on the Sahibi
riverbed at Hansaka in the Rewari district. A red stone
statue of Vamana Dev was found in the Sahibi riverbed
near Bawal in 2002; the statue is now displayed at the Shri
Krishna Museum, Kurukshetra. Other artifacts discovered
in the Sahibi River include arrowheads, shhooks, appearheads, awls, and chisels.* [3]
159.1 Basin
159.3
The drainage pattern is dendritic.
159.2 Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological ndings
Identication
rivers
with
Vedic

Archaeological ndings on the Sahibi River have conrmed river and the Sahibi River with the Drishadvati river of
159.4
Gallery

2012
habitations on its banks before the Harappan and preMahabharata periods. Both handmade and wheel-made
earthernware dated from 33092709 BCE and 28792384
479

sites
480
CHAPTER 159. KRISHNAVATI RIVER
Sansthan, Haryana.

159.5 See also

Krishnavati river
and Tangri are same
Ganges
Indus

159.7 References
[1] Sahibi river
Chapter 160
Ras
Rasa (rs ) meansmoisture, humidityin Vedic Sanskrit, and appears as the name of a western tributary of the
Indus in the Rigveda (verse 5.53.9).
In RV 9.41.6, RV 10.108 and in the Nirukta of Yaska, it is
the name of a mythical stream supposed to ow round the
earth and the atmosphere (compare Oceanus), also referring to the underworld in the Mahabharata and the Puranas
(compare Styx).
The corresponding term in Avestan is Ranha. In the
Vendidad, Ranha is mentioned just after Hapta-Hdu, and
may possibly refer to the ocean (Sethna 1992).
160.1 References
Sethna, K.D. 1992. The Problem of Aryan Origins.
New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0 (chapter 4)
481
Chapter 161
Ravi River
Coordinates: 3035N 7149E / 30.583N 71.817E The 161.2.1 River course
Ravi (Punjabi: , Urdu: , Sanskrit: , ,
Hindi: ) is a transboundary river crossing Northwestern Source reach
India and Eastern Pakistan. It is one of six rivers of the
Indus System in Punjab region (Punjab meansFive Rivers
).* [2] The waters of Ravi are allocated to India under Indus
Water Treaty.
Under the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, the waters of the
Ravi and ve other rivers are divided between India and
Pakistan. Subsequently, the Indus Basin Project has been
developed in Pakistan and many inter-basin water transfers,
irrigation, hydropower and multipurpose projects have been
built in India.
161.1 History
According to ancient history traced to Vedas, the Ravi River
was known as Iravati (also spelt Eeraveti)* [3]
Pir Panjal Range
Part of the battle of the ten kings was fought on a River,

which according to Yaska (Nirukta 9.26) refers to the Iravati River (Ravi River) in the Punjab.
161.2 Geography
The Ravi River, a transboundary river of India and Pakistan,
is an integral part of the Indus River Basin and forms the
headwaters of the Indus basin. The waters of the Ravi River
drain into the Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean) through the Indus
River in Pakistan. The river rises in the Bara Bhangal, District Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, India. The river drains
a total catchment area of 14,442 square kilometres (5,576
sq mi) in India after owing for a length of 720 kilometres
(450 mi). Flowing westward, it is hemmed by the Pir Panjal
and Dhauladhar ranges, forming a triangular zone.* [4]
Source of Budhil River, in Himachal Pradesh a major tributary of

the Ravi River
The Ravi River originates in the Himalayas in the Multhan

tehsil of Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India.* [5] It
482
161.2. GEOGRAPHY
follows a north-westerly course and is a perennial river.* [2]
It is the smallest of the ve Punjab rivers that rises from
glacier elds at an elevation of 14,000 feet (4,300 m), on
the southern side of the Mid Himalayas. It ows through
Barabhangal, Bara Bansu and Chamba districts. It ows in
rapids in its initial reaches with boulders seen scattered in
the bed of the river. The Ravi River in this reach ows in
a gorge with a river bed slope of 183 feet per mile (34.7
m/km) and is mostly fed by snow melt, as this region lies
in a rain shadow. Two of its major tributaries, the Buddhu and Mai or Dhona join 64 kilometres (40 mi) downstream from its source. The Budhil River rises in Lahul
range of hills and is sourced from the Manimahesh Kailash
Peak and the Manimahesh Lake, at an elevation of 4,080
metres (13,390 ft), and both are Hindu pilgrimage sites.
The entire length of Budhil is 72 kilometres (45 mi) where
it has a bed slope of 314 feet per mile (59.5 m/km). It
ows through the ancient capital of Bharmwar, now known
as Bharmour in Himachal Pradesh. During 18581860, the
Raja of Bharmour had considered the Budhil valley as an
excellent source of Deodar trees for supply to the British
Raj. However, a part of the forest surrounding the temple
was considered sacred and declared a reserved area. The
second tributary, the Mai, rises at Kali Debi pass, and ows
for 48 kilometres (30 mi), with a bed slope of 366 feet per
mile (69.3 m/km), from its source at Trilokinath to its conuence with the Ravi. This valley was also exploited for its
forest wealth during the English period.* [6]* [7]
483
from the northern direction. The valley formed by the river
was also exploited for its rich timber trees. However, the
valley has large terraces, which are very fertile and known
as the garden of Chamba. crops grown here supply
grains to the capital region and to Dalhousie town and its
surrounding areas. One more major tributary that joins the
Ravi River near Bissoli is the Siawa. This river was also exploited for its forest resources, (controlled by the then Raja
of Chamba) originating from the Jammu region. The valley is also formed by another major tributary that joins Seul
River, the Baira-Nalla. Its sub-basin is in the Chamba district, located above Tissa. Baira drains the southern slopes
of the Pir Panjal Range. The valley has an elevation variation between 5,321 metres (17,457 ft) and 2,693 metres
(8,835 ft).* [4]* [6]* [7]
Tant Gari is another small tributary that rises from the subsidiary hill ranges of the Pir Panjal Range east of Bharmour. The valley formed by this stream is U-shaped with
a river bed scattered with boulders and glacial morainic deposits.* [7]
Boats oating beside the Ravi River in Lahore
Main Ravi River

The main Ravi River ows through the base of Dalhousie
hill, past the Chamba town. It is at an elevation of 856
metres (2,807 ft) (where a long wooden bridge existed
to cross the Ravi River).* [8] It ows into the south-west,
near Dalhousie, and then cuts a gorge in the Dhauladhar
Range, before entering the Punjab plain near Madhopur
and Pathankot. It then ows along the IndoPak border for
80 kilometres (50 mi) before entering Pakistan and joining
Kashmir valley seen from satellite. Eastern sector of snow-capped
Pir Panjal range separates Beas and Ravi River basins from the the Chenab River. The total length of the river is about 725
kilometres (450 mi).* [2]
Chenab valley
Ujh River is another major tributary of the Ravi River. Its
Another major tributary that joins the Ravi River, just be- source is in the Kailash mountains at an elevation of 4,300
low Bharmour, the old capital of Chamba, is the Seul River metres (14,100 ft), close to the Bhaderwah Mountains in
484
CHAPTER 161. RAVI RIVER

Ravi River from Lahore Siphon to Baloki headworks indicates heavy contamination of the water and sediment with
Cd, Cr, Pt and Cu. The river sediments are highly contaminated and have become secondary source for pollution
of the river water, even though some control over unauthorised discharges into the river have been checked. Hence,
measures to check metal re-mobilization from sediments
into the river ows needs attention.* [10] The worst aected
drainage is the Hadharaam drain, a tributary of the Ravi
River. It is also a trans-border problem involving both India and Pakistan. A UNDP funded a special programme
was launched in 2006 to address the issue in both countries.* [11]
Bridge of boats on the Ravi taken by unknown photographer in

1880
161.3
Vegetation
The Ravi valley in its upper reaches has Deodar, walnut,

Jammu district. After owing for 100 kilometres (62 mi), Quercus ilex, mulberry, alder, edible pine (Pinus gerit joins Ravi at Nainkot in Pakistan.
ardiana), twisted cypress (Cupressus torulosa), chinar
As the Ravi ows past Lahore in Pakistan (26 kilometres (Platanus orientalis), daphne papyracea, cedrela serata, and
*
(16 mi) below Amritsar in India) it is called The river of sisso, olive and kakkar (raus). [12]
Lahoresince that city is on its eastern bank. After passing
through Lahore the river takes a turn at Kamlia and then
debouches into the Chenab River, south of the town of Ah- 161.4 Hydrology
madpur Sial. On its western bank is the town of Shahdara
Bagh with the tomb of Jahangir and the Tomb of Noor Ja- The waters of the Ravi River are allocated to India under the
han.* [2]* [4]
Indus Waters Treaty, signed by India and Pakistan. Within
India, the river is under the jurisdiction of the riparian states
of Punjab and Himachal and non-riparian states of Haryana,
Kashmir and Rajasthan, but management is presided by the
Supreme Court of India and the Ravi Beas Tribunal, set up
According to satellite imagery studies carried out over a
in 1986 for the purpose.
period of 20 years (between 19721973 and 19911993),
the river coursing along the IndiaPakistan border meanders substantially in the alluvial plains of the Amritsar and Pre-partition utilisation
Gurdaspur districts of Punjab. This has resulted in successive damage in the Indian Territory as a result of the river
changing its course towards India. The reason attributed to
this change in the course of the river is massive river training structures/bunds constructed by Pakistan in its part of
the river, close to the old course of the river. The shift in
the course of the river is reported to be 4.8 kilometres (3.0
mi) towards India.* [9]
Change of river course
River water pollution

In the trans-boundary Ravi River owing from India to Pakistan, in urban areas of Lahore the pollution levels in the
river discharge are reportedly very high, which is attributed
to careless disposal of large amount of industrial and agricultural waste water and faulty drainage systems in both A map of the Punjab region ca. 1947 showing the doabas formed
countries.* [10]* [11] A 72-kilometre (45 mi) stretch of the by Ravi River with other rivers of the Indus River system.
161.5. INTERNATIONAL WATER-SHARING TREATY

On the Ravi River, the earliest project built was the Madhopur Headworks, in 1902. It is a run-of-the river project
(no storage envisaged) to divert ows through the Upper
Bari Doab Canal (also known as Central Bari Doab Canal)
to provide irrigation in the command area of the then unied India. Doabas formed by the Ravi River are known
as the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and the Ravi
River, and the Bari Doab or Majha between the Ravi and
the Beas River. Government of India has assessed the prepartition use in India (Punjab) as 1.821 cubic kilometres
(1,476,000 acreft).* [13]
Hydropower
485
irrigation, hydropower generation and other consumptive
uses.* [16]* [17]* [18]* [19]
A proposal for building a storage dam on the Ravi River
was initially planned in 1912, envisaging a 61 metres (200
ft) high dam. A committee later conducted a survey of the
area, but it was not until 1954 that geologists fully inspected
the project area. In 1957, a storage Dam was proposed on
the Ravi River for irrigation purposes only. The power generation aspect was not considered then. It was only in 1964
that the project was conceived for multipurpose development and submitted to Government of India for approval.
Finally, in April 1982, the project was approved for construction by the Government of India.
The project, as built now, has a 160-metre (520 ft) high
earth gravel shell dam with a gross irrigation potential
of 348,000 hectares (860,000 acres) of land and power
generation of 600 MW (4 units of 150 MW capacity
each).* [16]* [18]* [19]
The geomorpohological setting of the river basin, which
has a large number of terraces between Dhauladhar and Pir
Panjal ranges, is attributed to the truly Himalayan characteristics of the river reecting thecis-Himalayan tectonic;
structural, lithological and climatic conditions. Obviously it
is dierent from the antecedent Indus and Sutlej.* [20]
161.5
Chamera Lake and dam
International
treaty
water-sharing
The Hydropower potential of Ravi River system has been

assessed as 2294 MW.* [14] The hydropower potential developed since the 1980s is through installation of Baira Suil
Hydroelelectric Power Project of 198 MW capacity, the
Chamera-I of 540 MW capacity commissioned in 1994, the
Ranjitsagar Multipurpose Project (600 MW) completed in
1999 and the Chamera-II of 300 MW capacity in the upstream of Chamera-I commissioned in 2004.* [15]
Further information: Indus Water Treaty

The upper reaches of the main Indus River and its tributaries lie in India whereas the lower reaches are in Pakistan.
Following the partition of India in August 1947, a dispute
arose between India and Pakistan on sharing of the waters
of the Indus River Basin. The dispute was resolved with
the intervention of the World Bank and a treaty was signed
in 1960 on sharing of the Indus waters between India and
Pakistan.* [21]* [22]
Multipurpose development
The Indus System of Rivers comprises the three Western

Rivers in the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab together with
three Eastern Rivers; the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi. To
establish the ownership of these waters, an Indus Water
Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan on 1 April
1960, under monitoring of the World Bank. The treaty,
under Article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the
rivers Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab which join
the Indus River on its left bank (eastern side) in Pakistan.
According to this treaty, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by
India before they enter Pakistan. However, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which India was bound
The major multipurpose project (Irrigation, Hydropower,

Flood Control, development of Fisheries, Tourism and so
forth) built on the river is the Ranjit Sagar Dam (also known
as Thein dam as it is in Thein village). The left bank is
in Punjab and the right bank is in Jammu and Kashmir.
It is located on the main stem of the Ravi River, about
24 kilometres (15 mi) upstream of Madhopur Headworks
(built during pre-partition time). The project is an outcome
of the development plan conceived for the use of the waters of three eastern rivers allocated to India under the Indus Treaty, namely the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, for
486
system. When the treaty was under debate, India had taken
advance action to develop the three rivers, which were evenSh
yo
tually allocated to it under the treaty. According to a dir
k
a
Kabul
nh
Swat
Ku
rective of the Government of India, planning for developKabul
K
Kurram abu
l
In
Srinagar
ment of the Ravi and Beas rivers was initiated concurrently
du
s
Islamabad
with the treaty negotiations, which involved four riparian
n
a
h
Tochi
So
lam
Guma
states of Punjab, PEPSU (this was merged with Punjab
Jhe
l
b
Be
ar
na
as
nd
he
and
subsequently Punjab was divided, and additionally the
u
Amritsar
C
K
vi Lahore
j
Haryana
state was created), Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan
lu
a
t
b
a
S
R
a
en
and
Jammu
and Kashmir (J&K) within the ambit of the alCh
j
tlu
Sa
ready developed Bhakra Nangal Dam project on the Sutlej
PAKISTAN
ad
njn
River. A review of the ows in the two river systems rePa
New Delhi
vealed that prior to partition of the country and up to the
time of the signing of the Indus Treaty, 3.86 cubic kilometres (3,130,000 acreft) of water was used by major irriINDIA
gation systems such as the Upper Bari Doab Canal System
Hyderabad
(1959) and the Lower Bari Doab Canal System (1915). The
unused ow in the two river systems was assessed at 19.22
cubic kilometres (15,580,000 acreft), which was planned
to be developed by the four states of J&K, PEPSU, Punjab and Rajasthan. However, with the merger of PEPSU
The Indus River system comprising the rivers, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej,
with Punjab and subsequent bifurcation of Punjab into two
Chenab, Jhelum and Indus- a shared legacy between India and
states, a dispute arose on the allocation of Ravi and Beas
Pakistan
waters for which a tribunal was set up under the Interstate
River Water Disputes Act.* [13]* [27]
to supply water to Pakistan from these rivers until Pakistan As a counter claim to the exclusive claims of Punjab,
was able to build the canal system for utilisation of waters Haryana claims that a small part of Haryana state lying
of Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus itself, allocated to it un- north in Panchkula district* [28] is part of Sutlej river basin
der the treaty. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the area in addition to Punjab and Himachal Pradesh in India.
Western Rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus but with some Thus Haryana claims to be a riparian state of Indus river
stipulations for development of projects on these rivers in basin.
India. Pakistan also received one-time nancial compensation for the loss of water from the Eastern rivers. Since Following the reorganisation of the state of Punjab in 1966,
31 March 1970, after the 10-year moratorium, India has Haryana State was created. This was followed by a notisecured full rights for use of the waters of the three rivers cation by the Government of India dated 24 March 1976
allocated to it.* [23]* [24] The treaty resulted in partitioning allocating the surplus waters between Punjab and Haryana
in due consideration of the powers conferred by Sub Secof the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.* [25]
tion (I) of Section 78 of the Punjab Reorganization Act,
Under this treaty, the two countries also agreed to exchange 1966 (31 of 1966). The allocation was challenged in the
data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this Supreme Court by Haryana. A tripartite agreement folpurpose, treaty envisaged creation of the Permanent Indus lowed on 31 December 1981, based on the revised mean
Commission, with a commissioner appointed by each coun- annual ows from the ow series of 192160 assessed as
try.* [24] The Indus Waters Treaty is the only International 25.36 cubic kilometres (20,560,000 acreft) including
treaty that has been implemented over the last 60 years with prepartition use of 3.86 cubic kilometres (3,130,000 acre
due diligence and sincerity by both India and Pakistan, in ft) and transit losses in the Madhopur Beas Link of 260,000
spite of many wars fought between the two countries (the acre feet (0.32 km3 )vis-a-vis the gure of 19.55 cubic
treaty was not revoked either by India or Pakistan during kilometres (15,850,000 acreft) assessed in earlier allocathe 1965 or the 1971 war).* [21]* [26]
tion, which was based on the ow series of 192145. The
revised assessed surplus supplies of 17,170,000 acre feet
(21.18 km3 ) (from ow and storage) was allocated as:* [13]
Gilg
it
CHINA
Sh
y
ok
Kishen
G
anga
bra
Nu
Ku
na
r
AFGHANISTAN
Ind
Ind
us
NEP
A
Zh
ob
Ch
en
ab
r
ka
ns
Za
us
Jhelam
ARABIAN
SEA
161.6 Interstate water dispute

Even prior to the partition of India in August 1947, India
had developed projects on the river Ravi and Beas River
Share of Punjab 4.22 million acre-ft (MAF);

Share of Haryana 3.50 MAF ; Share of Rajasthan
8.60 MAF; Quantity earmarked for Delhi Water
161.7. INTERBASIN WATER TRANSFER

supply 0.20 MAF; Share of Jammu & Kashmir
0.65MAF with some specic provisions.* [13]
However, the legality of this agreement was challenged by
Punjab. This was followed by the Punjab accord signed
by the then Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi and
Sant Harchand Singh Longowal, President of the Shiromani
Akali Dal, on 24 July 1985. This accord stipulated that
The farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan will continue to get water not less than
what they are using from the Ravi Beas system as
on 1.7.1985. Waters used for consumptive purposes will also remain unaected. Quantum of
usage claimed shall be veried by the Tribunal
referred to in paragraph 9.2 below.
9.2 The claim of Punjab and Haryana regarding the shares in their remaining waters shall
be referred for adjudication to a Tribunal to be
presided over by Supreme Court Judge. The decision of this Tribunal will be rendered within
six months and would be binding on both parties.
All legal and constitutional steps in this respect
to be taken expeditiously; 9.3 The construction
of Sutlej Yamuna Link (S.Y.L.) canal shall continue. The canal shall be completed by August
1986.* [13]
Following the above accord, Ravi & Beas Waters Tribunal
(RBWT) came to be set up in April 1986, in pursuance
of paragraphs 9.1 & 9.2 of Punjab Settlement (RajivLongowal Accord, 1985) inter-alia to adjudicate the claims
of Punjab and Haryana in Ravi-Beas waters. The Terms
of Reference was set and also the time for submission of
the report. The Tribunal submitted its report on 30 January 1987. However, the report was contested as Rajasthan
also moved an application seeking explanation and guidance regarding the report of this Ravi Beas waters Tribunal,
1987. The Tribunal is further examining the matter. It
is yet to submit its further report to the Government on the
pleas submitted by the party States and the Central Government also seeking explanation/guidance on its earlier report.
In the mean time, a Presidential reference on Punjab Termination of Agreements Act, 2004 is pending before the
Honorable Supreme Court. Hence, the further hearings of
the Tribunal and its nal report are now enjoined on the
outcome of the Supreme Court hearing of the Presidential
reference.* [13]* [29]
Punjab has not allowed the construction of the Sutlej Yamuna Link (SYL) canal in its territory for transferring
Haryana share of water from the Indus river basin. The
SYL canal lying in Haryana was completed but idling for
want of water from the Sutlej River. If Haryana is interested in getting its water share as per the agreements, it can
487
construct the remaining canal via Himachal Pradesh area
bypassing Punjab area totally by tapping water directly from
the Bhakra Nangal reservoir located in Himachal Pradesh.
The Minimum drawdown level of Bhakra Nangal reservoir
and the topography in Himachal state is suitable for the SYL
(refer Google earth). Additional water from Sutlej River is
very much useful to augment drinking water supplies of ever
expanding cities like Delhi, Gurgoan, Panchkula, Chandigarh, etc. in addition to meet the agriculture and industrial
requirements in entire Haryana state.
Punjab is contemplating to construct 206 MW
Shahpurkandi dam project hydro electric project on
the Ravi river between Ranjitsagar dam and Madhopur
head works.* [30] This stretch of the river is forming
boundary between J & K state and Punjab state. Since
Punjab had unilaterally exited from the earlier water
sharing agreements, J & K state refused the project
construction. Also J & K state is going ahead with the
construction of Ravi canal originating from Basantpur to
irrigate 54,000 hectares (133,000 acres) of land in Jammu
region.* [31] This canal would draw river water by pumping
the water released downstream from the Rangitsagar
reservoir for which J & K state is not required to take
consent from Punjab as it is not bound by earlier river
water sharing agreements.* [32]
161.7
Interbasin water transfer
Transfer of surplus water from one basin to another, termed

as interbasin water transfer has been eectively implemented on the Ravi River. The surplus waters of the Ravi
River have been transferred directly rst to the Beas River
through the Ravi-Beas Link. A further link from Beas River
to the Sutlej River by the Beas Sutlej Link augments storage
of the Bhakra reservoir in India.* [33]
161.8
See also
Sapta Sindhu
Indus Waters Treaty
Ranjit Sagar Dam Project
161.9
External links
Indian climate change from Harappa period.

Indus rivers transition.
488
Cleghorn, H. (2001). Report upon the forests of the
Punjab and the Western Himalaya. Ravi River. Indus
Publishing. pp. 109112. ISBN 81-7387-120-5. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
Garg, Santosh Kumar (1999). International and interstate river water disputes. Laxmi Publications. pp. 54
55. ISBN 81-7008-068-1. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
Jain, Sharad.K.; Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P.
Singh (2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer. pp. 481484. ISBN 1-4020-5179-4.
[11] Pakistan, India Join Hands to Clean Canal. River Basin

Initiative. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
[12] Cleghorn, pp.112113
[13] Brief Note on Ravi, Beas and Sutlej system. Ravi River.
Water Resources Department, Government of Rajasthan.
[14] Base Line set up of the area (pdf). Satlu Vidyut Nigam
Ltd. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[15] Dr. Mohinder Kumar Slariya. The Other Side of Hydroelectric Power Development:-A Study of NHPC Owned
Power Projects (pdf). Government PG College, Chamba
Himachal Pradesh. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
The Indian geographical journal, Volume 60. Indian

[16] Ranjit Sagar Dam (Hydro Electric Project) 4 X 150 MW
Geographical Society. 1985. p. 188. Retrieved 14
. Punjab State Electricity Board. Retrieved 15 April 2010.
April 2010.
161.10 References
[1] Gauging Station - Data Summary. ORNL. Retrieved
2013-10-01.
[2] Ravi River. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 11 April
2010.
[3] Hastings, James (2003). Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics, Part 18. Kessinger Publishing. p. 605. ISBN 07661-3695-7. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[4] Jain, Sharad.K.; Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh
(2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer.
pp. 481484. ISBN 1-4020-5179-4. Retrieved 14 April
2010.
[5] Executive Summary of Environmental Impact Assessment
Report Bajoli Holi H. E. Project (180 MW)Chamba, Himachal Pradesh(PDF). R. S. Envirolink Technologies Pvt.
Ltd. 2010. p. 18. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
[6] Cleghorn, H. (2001). Report upon the forests of the Punjab
and the Western Himalaya. Ravi River. Indus Publishing.
pp. 109112. ISBN 81-7387-120-5. Retrieved 14 April
2010.
[7]Ravi River in Himachal. Himachal World.com. Retrieved
14 April 2010.
[8] Cleghorn, p.113
[9] Thomas, Abraham; Sharma, PK (1998). The shift of
ravi river and the geomorphological features along its course
in amritsar and gurdaspur districts of punjab. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing. 26: 57.
doi:10.1007/BF03007340.
[10] Assessment of Heavy Metals in Sediments of the River
Ravi,Pakistan (pdf). International Journal of Agriculture
& Biology. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
[17] Information on some major projects. Ranjit Sagar Dam.

Central Water Commission: National Informatics Centre.
[18] Punjab. Irrigation. India.gov.in. Archived from the
original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[19] Hydropower potential in India.
[20] The Indian geographical journal, Volume 60. Indian Geographical Society. 1985. p. 188. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[21] The Indus waters Treaty A South Asia Program. Stimson.org. Archived from the original on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[22] Water Sharing Conicts Between Countries, and Approaches to Resolving Them(PDF). Honolulu: Global Environment and Energy in the 21st century. p. 41. Archived
from the original (pdf) on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 14
April 2010.
[23] Garg, Santosh Kumar (1999). International and interstate
river water disputes. Laxmi Publications. pp. 5455. ISBN
81-7008-068-1. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
[24] Indus Waters Treaty 1960(pdf). Site Resources; World
Bank. pp. 124.
[25] Water Sharing Conicts Between Countries, and Approaches to Resolving Them(PDF). Honolulu: Global Environment and Energy in the 21st century. p. 98. Archived
from the original (pdf) on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 14
April 2010.
[26] War over water. Guardian. 3 June 2002. Retrieved 14
April 2010.
[27] water sharing Conicts within Countries(pdf). Honolulu:
Global Environment and Energy in the 21st century. 2004.
[28] Wet lands of Haryana state (page 27)" (pdf). GoI. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
161.10. REFERENCES
[29] River Water Disputes. Government of India. Retrieved

14 April 2010.
[30] Shahpur kandi HEP PSPCL. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
[31] Punjab Loses Teeth, J&K Gets a Canal Free Press Kashmir. 23 April 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
[32]Agreement between Punjab and J&K on Ranjit Sagar Dam,
etc (PDF). 1979. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
[33] Garg, p.98
489
Chapter 162
Sahibi River
The Sahibi river (Hindi: ), also called the
Sabi River (Hindi: ), is an ephemeral, rain-fed
river owing through Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi states
in India.* [1] In Delhi, it is called the Najafgarh drain or Najafgarh Nallah.
162.1 Geography
Jhajjar district in southern Haryana state; and Delhi state.

The catchment area of the Sahibi River in Rajasthan is
4,523.67 square kilometres (1,746.60 sq mi) between of
Jaipur, Alwar and Sikar Districts, between latitudes 2716'
and 2811' and longitudes 7542' and 7657'. Sabi Basin
falls in three Districts of Rajasthan namely: Alwar district (62.11%), Jaipur district (29.30%) and Sikar district
(8.59%).
Mean Annual Rainfall in Sabi Basin is 627.60 mm. Highest

The Sahibi River originates from the eastern slopes of the maximum temperature ranges from 45.45-45.99 C with a
Saiwar Protected Forest hills in Aravalli Range near Jitgarh mean value of 45.8 C, while Lowest minimum temperature
and Manoharpur in Sikar district of Rajasthan state. After ranges from 1.64-3.14 C with a mean value of 2.45 C.
covering about 157 km distance in the Rajasthan state. After gathering volume from a hundred tributaries, the Sahibi
River forms a broad stream around Alwar and Kotputli. The
main tributaries of Sabi are Sota river, Kotkasim drain and
Indori river (Indori Nallah). In some of its reaches, from 162.3 Within Delhi
Mandawar and Kotkasim to Haryana border, meandering
of the river causes bank erosion.
Main article: Najafgarh drain
It leaves Rajasthan state beyond Kotkasim in Alwar district
near village Ujauli and covers a total distance of about 222
The Najafgarh Drain or Najafgarh Nallah (nallah in
km up to Dhasa Bund.
Hindi means drain) is another name for the Sahibi River,
It enters Haryana state at Jhabua, near the city of Rewari in which continues its ow through Delhi where it is chanRewari district, after which it re-enters rst Rajasthan state nelised for ood control purposes. It is a tributary to the
near Kotkasim, and then Haryana again near the village of Yamuna River, into which it ows. The Najafgarh Drain
Jarthal. The dry riverbed near Jarthal is 2 kilometres (1.2 gets its name from the once famous and huge Najafgarh
mi) wide. During light monsoon rainfall, the river's at and Lake near the town of Najafgarh in southwest Delhi. The
sandy bottom absorbs all rainwater. During heavy rains, Najafgarh Drain is the capitals most polluted body of wathe river has dened course up to Pataudi railway station ter due to the direct inow of untreated sewage from surand branches o into two smaller streams to Jhajjar, nally rounding populated areas. Assessing the water quality of
reaching the outskirts of Delhi through Najafgarh drain and wetlands in wildlife habitats, a January 2005 report by the
ending at the Yamuna River.
Central Pollution Control Board rated the Najafgarh Drain
under category D, along with 13 other highly polluted wetlands.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]
162.2 Catchment area
Regulators at the Keshopur Bus Depot on the Outer Ring

Road are wide with thick and high embankments. A vast
The catchment area of the Sahibi River encompasses the amount of water is retained in this widened drain by closing
following cities and towns: Sikar, Jaipur, and Alwar in the Kakrola regulators under Najafgarh Road to recharge
northeastern Rajasthan state; Bawal, Rewari, Pataudi, and the local groundwater table.* [7]
490
162.6. IDENTIFICATION WITH VEDIC RIVERS
491
162.4 History
Among the nds are handmade and wheel-made pottery

dated dated to 33092709 BCE and 28792384 BCE found
*
*
Prior to 1960, the rain-fed Sahibi River entered Delhi near on the banks of the Sahibi River at Jodhpura. [10] [11]
Dhansa and spilled its overow in the Najafgarh Jheel basin, Other ndings include pottery found on the Sahibi
creating a seasonal lake. A vast area more than 300 square riverbed at Hansaka in the Rewari district by INTACHkilometres (120 sq mi) was submerged in some seasons. Rewari.* [10]* [11]
In the following decades, the Sahibi River ow reaching
A red stone statute of Vamana Dev, now displayed at the
Dhansa was channelised by digging a wide drain and conShri Krishna Museum, Kurukshetra was unearthed in 2002
necting it directly to the Yamuna River, completely draining
on the Sahibi riverbed near Bawal.* [10]* [11]
the seasonal Najafgarh Jheel.
In various other places on Sahibi riverbed, many artifacts
The Sahibi River ooded in 1977. In response, the Masani
have been found, including arrowheads, shhooks, spear*
*
barrage dam was constructed near Masani. [8] [9] Several
heads, awls, and chisels.* [10]* [11]
smaller dams have also been constructed throughout the
hills of Rajasthan to store rainwater. The construction of
dams has restricted the ow of water on the Sahibi River
with Vedic
and it is now rare for water overow from monsoon rains to 162.6 Identication
reach up the Masani Barrage.
rivers
162.5 Indus Valley Civilisation sites

in the area

Vedic period, on the banks of which in the Vedic state
Parts of Rajasthan and Haryana that Sahibi river ows
of Brahmavarta, Indus-Sarasvati civilisation or Vedic Sanskriti developed. Such scholars include Bhargava* [12] The
Drishadwati River had formed one border of the Vedic state
of Brahmavarta while other was Saraswati river. This is
mentioned in the Rigveda, the Manusmriti, and the Brahmin Granths texts also.
162.7
Bridges
Several bridges cross the Sahibi River. A bridge on State

Highway No. 14 crosses the river between Bansur and Kotputli. On State Highway No. 52, a bridge crosses the river
between Ajaraka and Dadhiya. The Masani Bridge on NHHarrapan period earthenware (Pottery) found on the Sahibi 8 crosses the river between Deli and Jaipur. A railroad
riverbed by INTACH-Rewari, at Hansaka village, Rewari District, bridge between Ajaraka and Bawal also crosses the river.
2012
through are arid and have only seasonal moonsoon rainfall,

in the past river might have held perennial ow as evident
by the presence of several Indus Valley Civilization sites
on the banks of present-day Sahibi River meanders and its
tributaries. Several sites have been found in many locations
to establish a pattern of settlement of widespread Indus
Valley Civilization along the banks of Sahibi and its tributaries. Archaeological excavation have prove that Indus
Valley Civilization people lived here before the Harappan
and pre-Mahabharata periods.* [10]* [11]
162.8
See also
Saraswati river
and Tangri are same
492
Ganges
Indus

162.10 References
[2] Blot across the Capital: Najafgarh most polluted, Sunday,
10 July 2005,The Indian Express
[3] minister raises a stink over Najafgarh jheel, 22 February
2005, The Indian Express
[4] Najafgarh basin Delhis most polluted area, 25 December
2009, The Indian Express
[5] Najafgarh drain 11th among highly polluted industrial clusters, 25 Dec 2009, The Times of India
[6] drain causes less pollution in Yamuna now, 4 July 2006, The
Indian Express
[7] to Sahibi River, Department of Irrigation and Flood Control, Government of NCT of Delhi, India. Website Last Updated : 3 May 2010, sewage drain is now called the Yamuna,
By Sonu Jain, 27 March 1999, Indian Express, CRUSADE:
Killing Delhis Lifeline, Charu Soni, 19 Aug 2006, New
Delhi. Tehelka,gone all wrong, By Sunita Narain, 5 Jun
2012, Times of India,Better management in Haryana may
solve Delhis water problems, New Delhi, 22 Mar 2012,
DHNS, Deccan herald, Sunita Narain bats for sustainable
development, Express News Service : Pune, Tue 28 February 2012, The Indian Express
CHAPTER 162. SAHIBI RIVER
[8] GROUND WATER INFORMATION BOOKLET REWARI DISTRICT, HARYANA, Contributors: Dr. Sunil
Kumar, Scientist B, Prepared under supervision of
Sushil Gupta Regional Director. Our Vision Water Security through Ground water Management. REWARI
DISTRICT HARYANA, CENTRAL GROUND WATER
BOARD, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, North Western Region, CHANDIGARH, 2007
[9] Geography of Haryana
[11] India Mapped - Sahibi river
Sansthan, Haryana.
Chapter 163
Sarayu
For the Malayalam lm actress, see Sarayu (actress).
163.2
Origin and course
The Sarayu (also Sarju; Dev. saryu- f., later

Dev. saray-) is a river that ows through the Indian
states of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. This river is of
ancient signicance, nding mentions in the Vedas and
the Ramayana. The Sarayu forms at the conuence of
the Karnali (or Ghaghara) and Mahakali (or Sharda) in
Bahraich District. The Mahakali or Sharda forms the
Indian-Nepalese border. Ayodhya is situated on the banks
of river Sarayu. Some mapmakers* [1] consider the Sarayu
to be just a section of the lower Ghaghara River.
The Sarayu forms at the conuence of the Karnali (or

Ghaghara) and Mahakali (or Sharda) in Bahraich District
at 274027N 811639E / 27.67417N 81.27750E.
It ows into the Ganges at 254436N 844001E /
25.74333N 84.66694E.
163.3
Signicance
163.3.1
Traditional
On Ram Navami, the festival that celebrates the birthday

of Bhagwan Rama, thousands of people take a dip in the The river is mentioned three times in the Rigveda. The
Sarayu River at Ayodhya.* [2]
banks of the Sarayu are the location of the slaying of
two Aryas at the hands of Indra in RV 4.30.18. It is
listed together with western tributaries to the Indus: Ras,
Anitabha, Kubha, Krumu, and the Sindhu itself as obstacles
163.1 Etymology
crossed by the Maruts in RV 5.53.9. In this verse, Purisini
appears as its epithet. At this stage of the earlier Rigveda,
it apparently was a river west of the Indus system that corresponds to Iranian Harayu (Avestan acc. Hariium, Old
Persian Haraiva, modern Har or Har), the Hari River. It
is invoked together with Sindhu and Sarasvati (two of the
most prominent Rigvedic rivers) in the late hymn RV 10.64.
Ram Paidi ghat at Ayodhya.
Later on, according to Ramayana 1.5.6, the Sarayu owed

beside the ancient city of Ayodhya, which is in the modern
day Uttar Pradesh. It was a tributary of the Gogra. This
Sarayu played a vital role for the city and life of Ayodhya,
and according to the great Sanskrit epic Ramayana, is
where Rama, the seventh Avatar of Vishnu immersed himself to return to his eternal, real Mahavishnu form, when he
retired from the throne of Kosala. His brothers Bharata and
Shatrughna also joined him, as did many devoted followers.
The Sarayu is also the river upon whose banks King Rama
was born.
The name is the feminine derivative of the Sanskrit root According to a sub-story within the Ramayana, the banks
sar to ow"; as a masculine stem, saryu- means air, of the River Sarayu is also the place where King Dashratha
wind, i.e. that which is streaming.
accidentally killed Shravan Kumar.
493
494
CHAPTER 163. SARAYU
163.6
Notes
[1]Plate 30: India, Plains : Nepal : Mt. Everest. The

Times Atlas of the World (seventh ed.). Edinburgh: John
Bartholomew & Sons, Ltd. and Times Books, Ltd. ISBN
978-0-8129-1298-2.
[2] At Ayodhya, Ram Navami celebrated amid religious harmony Indian Express, April 15, 2008.
[3] Kapoor, Subodh. Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography. p. 5. Google books. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
Rama along with Sita and Lakshmana crossing river Sarayu.
163.7
References
The Ramayana, by Ramesh Menon (2001)

It is also called the only river owing beneath the earth.
In ancient times Aciravati was one of the tributaries of the
Sarayu.* [3]
163.8
External links
163.3.2
Modern
While the Sarayu river plays an important role in RigVeda

and Atharva Veda along with Ramayana. Ayodhya, capital
of King Rama is mentioned on the banks of Sarayu river.
Sarayu river is mentioned in great details in Ramayana. Ayodhya still exists on the banks of river Sarayu in Indian
state of Uttar Pradesh. It is a tributary of the Ganges which
meets two other rivers at the conuence (sangam) in Uttar
Pradesh.
163.4 In ction
Sarayu is also the name of the river that ows by the ctional town of Malgudi created by the Indian writer R. K.
Narayan.
Sarayu is the name given to the personication of the
Holy Spirit in "The Shack" created by American Novelist
William P. Young.
163.5 See also

Saranyu
Ramayana
Hindu mythology
Chapter 164
Sarsuti
The Sarsuti river (Hindi: ), originating in
Siwalik Hills, is a tributary of Ghaggar river in of Haryana
164.3
References

[3] Valdiya, K.S. (2002). Saraswati : the river that disappeared. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. pp. 2327. ISBN
9788173714030. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
The Sarsuti is a small ephemeral stream that rises in the

Siwalik Hills of south-eastern Himachal Pradesh in India.* [3]
[4] Danino, Michel (2010). The lost river : on the trail of the
Sarasvat . New Delhi: Penguin Books India. p. 12. ISBN
9780143068648. Retrieved 4 May 2015. (Chapter 1, page
12)
It ows south-east where it is joined by two other streams,

the Markanda river and the Dangri, before joining the
Ghaggar river near the village of Rasula.* [3]
It is thereafter known as the Ghaggar. Further downstream
on the banks of the Ghaggar stands an old derelict fort
named Sarsuti.* [3]
164.4
It is believed that Sarsuti is a corruption of the word

Sarasvati and that the 68 km wide channel of the Sarsuti
Ghaggar system might have once been the Sarasvati River
mentioned in the Rig Veda.* [3]* [4]
164.2 See also

Markanda river, Haryana, a tributary of Sarsuti
and Tangri are same
Ganges
Indus
495
External links

Chapter 165
Somb river
The Somb river, also spelled Som river (Hindi: ) Possehl,* [7] J. M. Kenoyer,* [8] Bridget and Raymond
is a tributary of Yamuna in of Haryana state of India.* [1]
*
*
The Somb river originates in the Shivalik hills near Adi and 2008 books on the Indus Civilisation. [13] [14]
Badri (Haryana) in Yamunanagar district on the border of Gregory Possehl states:
Haryana and Himachal Pradesh State.
In 1875-76 Pathrala barrage at Dadupur was built where
Somb river meets Western Yamuna Canal in Haryana.* [2]

165.4
Gallery
165.2 Irrigation and Hydal Power

The Western Yamuna Canal has several check dams in
Yamunanagar district and Hydal power is generated at
Pathrala barrage.* [2] some of which are also used for the
hydel power generation.
165.3 Identication
rivers
with
Vedic
The Adi Badri (Haryana) is a forest area and archaeological

site in the foothills of Sivalik Hills in bhabar area situated in
northern part of Yamunanagar district of north Indian state
of Haryana. This is considered to be the originating point
of vedic river Sarasvati(The point where the river leaves the
mountains and enter plain land.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]

sites
165.5

496
See also
Dangri, a tributary of Sarsuti, merge if Dangri and

Tangri are same
Markanda river, Haryana, a tributary of GhaggarHakra River
165.6. REFERENCES
Ganges
Indus
165.6 References
[2] Western yaumna Canal Project
[3] Early Harappans and Indus Sarasvati Civilization, 2 Vols. by
Sharma, D P and Madhuri Sharma (ed) 2006
[4] http://www.haryanatourism.gov.in/destination/
yamunanagar.asp
[5] Release Id :118384 - Excavation in search of Saraswati
River. Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India. 25 April
2015. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
[6] http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/
Haryana-sweet-water-pools-fire-up-Saraswati-revival/
25801118
p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
[10] Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
[11] Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
[12] Erdosy 1995, p. 266.
497
Chapter 166
Sutlej
For other uses, see Sutlej (disambiguation).
to transport devdar woods for Bilaspur district, Hamirpur

district, and other places along the Sutlej's banks.
The Sutlej River (alternatively spelled as Satluj River)

(Hindi: , Punjabi: , Sanskrit :
(shatadru) Urdu:
) is the longest of the ve rivers
that ow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in
northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known
as Satadree.* [2] It is the easternmost tributary of the Indus
River.
The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under the
Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan, and are
mostly diverted to irrigation canals in India.* [3] There are
several major hydroelectric projects on the Sutlej, including the 1,000 MW Bhakra Dam, the 1,000 MW Karcham
Wangtoo Hydroelectric Plant, and the 1,530 MW Nathpa
Jhakri Dam.* [4]
166.1 History
166.2
Sources
The source of the Sutlej is near Lake Rakshastal in Tibet.

From there, under the Tibetan name Langqn Zangbo (Elephant River), it ows at rst west-northwest for about 260
kilometres (160 mi) to the Shipki La pass, entering India
in Himachal Pradesh state. It then turns slightly, heading
west-southwest for about 360 kilometres (220 mi) to meet
the Beas River near Makhu, Firozpur district, Punjab state.
North western part of Panchkula district in Haryana state
and western part of union territory Chandigarh are located
in the Sutlej river basin* [5] Thus Haryana and Chandigarh
are also riparian states of Indus river basin.
Continuing west-southwest, the Sutlej enters Pakistan about

15 kilometres (9.3 mi) east of Bhedian Kalan, Kasur DisThe Upper Sutlej Valley, called Langqn Zangbo in Tibet, trict, Punjab province, continuing southwest to water the
was once known as the Garuda Valley by the Zhangzhung, ancient and historical former Bahawalpur princely state.
the ancient civilization of western Tibet. The Garuda Valley
was the centre of their empire, which stretched many miles About 17 kilometres (11 mi) north of Uch Sharif, the Sutlej
into the nearby Himalayas. The Zhangzhung built a tower- unites with the Chenab River, forming the Panjnad River,
ing palace in the Upper Sutlej Valley called Kyunglung, the which nally ows into the Indus river about 100 kilomeruins of which still exist today near the village of Moincr, tres (62 mi) west of the city of Bahawalpur. The area to
southwest of Mount Kailash (Mount Ti-se). Eventually, the the southeast on the Pakistani side of the Indian border is
called the Cholistan Desert and, on the Indian side, the Thar
Zhangzhung were conquered by the Tibetan Empire.
Desert.
The boundaries of Greater Nepal extended westward to beyond Satluj River until the tide turned in 1809 and Kangra The Indus then ows through a gorge near Sukkur and the
king repulsed Gorkha army eastward with help from Ma- fertile plains region of Sindh, forming a large delta region
between the border of Gujarat, India and Pakistan, nally
haraja Ranjit Singh.
terminating in the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi,
Today, the Sutlej Valley is inhabited by nomadic descen- Pakistan. During oods, Indus river water ows in to Indian
dants of the Zhangzhung, who live in tiny villages of yak part of Great Rann of Kutch. Thus Gujarat state of India
herders.
is also a riparian state of Indus river as Rann of Kutch area
The Sutlej was the main medium of transportation for the lying west of Kori Creek in the state is part of the Indus
kings of that time. In the early 18th century, it was used River Delta.* [6]
498
166.5. GALLERY
166.3 Geology
499
166.5
Gallery
See also: Ghaggar-Hakra River

The Sutlej, along with all of the Punjab rivers, is thought to
have drained east into the Ganges prior to 5 mya.* [7]
There is substantial geologic evidence to indicate that prior
to 1700 BC, and perhaps much earlier, the Sutlej was an
important tributary of the Ghaggar-Hakra River (thought
to be the legendary Sarasvati River) rather than the Indus,
with various authors putting the redirection from 2500 to
2000 BC,* [8] from 5000 to 3000 BC,* [9] or before 8000
BC.* [10] Geologists believe that tectonic activity created
elevation changes which redirected the ow of Sutlej from
the southeast to the southwest.* [11] If the diversion of the
river occurred recently (about 4000 years ago), it may have
been responsible for the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) drying up, causing desertication of Cholistan and the eastern
part of the modern state of Sindh, and the abandonment
of Harappan settlements along the Ghaggar. However, the
Sutlej may have already been captured by the Indus thousands of years earlier.
There is some evidence that the high rate of erosion caused
by the modern Sutlej River has inuenced the local faulting and rapidly exhumed rocks above Rampur.* [12] This
would be similar to, but on a much smaller scale than, the
exhumation of rocks by the Indus River in Nanga Parbat,
Pakistan. The Sutlej River also exposes a doubled inverted
metamorphic gradient.* [13]
166.4 Sutlej-Yamuna Link
Sutlej Valley from Rampur c.

1857
Using inated animal skins to

cross the Sutlej River, c. 1905
Sutlej River in Kinnaur Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India
Cattle grazing on the banks of

the river in Rupnagar, Punjab, India
Main article: Ravi river

There has been a proposal to build a 214-kilometre (133
mi) long heavy freight and irrigation canal, to be known as
the Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL) to connect the Sutlej and
Yamuna rivers.* [14] The project is intended to connect the
Ganges, which ows to the east coast of the subcontinent,
with points west, via Pakistan. When completed, the SYL
would enable inland shipping from India's east coast to its
west coast (on the Arabian sea) without having to round the
southern tip of India by sea, vastly shortening shipping distances, alleviating pressures on seaports, avoiding sea hazards, creating business opportunities along the route, raising real estate values, raising tax revenue, and establishing
important commercial links and providing jobs for northcentral India's large population. However, the proposal has
met with obstacles and has been referred to the Supreme
Court of India.
Satluj River near Shahkot,

Punjab India
166.6
See also

List of rivers of Pakistan
Cis-Sutlej states
500
CHAPTER 166. SUTLEJ
166.7 References
[1] Sutlej valley. The Free Dictionary.
[2] Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, Volume 17, Part 1. p. 210, paragraph two.
[3] Archived August 31, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
[4]Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Project, India. powertechnology.com. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
[5] Wet lands of Haryana state (page 27)" (pdf). GoI. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
[6] Evolution of the Delta, the LBOD outfall system and the
Badin dhands - chapters 3 & 4 (PDF). Retrieved 22 December 2015.
[7] Clift, Peter D.; Blusztajn, Jerzy (December 15, 2005).Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after
ve million years ago. Nature. 438 (7070): 10011003.
doi:10.1038/nature04379. PMID 16355221.
2004
[9] Valdiya, K. S., in Dynamic Geology, Educational monographs published by J. N. Centre for Advanced Studies, Bangalore, University Press (Hyderabad), 1998.
[10]
Clift et al. 2012. U-Pb zircon dating evidence for

a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River.Geology, v. 40.
[11] K.S. Valdiya. 2013.The River Saraswati was a Himalayanborn river. Current Science 104 (01).
[12] Thiede, Rasmus; Arrowsmith, J. Ramn; Bookhagen, Bodo;
McWilliams, Michael O.; Sobel, Edward R.; Strecker, Manfred R. (August 2005). From tectonically to erosionally
controlled development of the Himalayan orogen. Geology. 33 (8): 689692. doi:10.1130/G21483AR.1.
[13] Grasemann, Bernhard; Fritz, Harry; Vannay, Jean-Claude
(July 1999). Quantitative kinematic ow analysis from
the Main Central Thrust Zone)NW-Himalaya, India: implications for a decelerating strain path and the extrustion of
orogenic wedges. Journal of Structural Geology. 21 (7):
837853. doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(99)00077-2.
[14] http://india.gov.in/sectors/water_resources/sutlej_link.php
Sutlej-Yamuna Link

Media related to Sutlej River at Wikimedia Commons
Chapter 167
Swan River (Islamabad)

167.1
The Soan river cutting through Pothohar
Location and geography
The Soan River is an important stream of the Pothohar region of Pakistan. It drains much of the water of Pothohar. It
starts near a small village Bun in the foothills of Patriata and
Murree. It provides water to Simly Dam, which is the water
reservoir for Islamabad. Near Pharwala Fort it cuts through
a high mountain range, a wonderful natural phenomenon
called Soan Cut. No stream can cut such a high mountain,
which proves that the Soan was there before the formation
of this range. And as the mountain rose through millions
of years, the stream continued its path by cutting the rising
mountain. Ling stream, following a relatively long course
through Lehtrar and Kahuta falls in the Soan near Sihala on
southern side of Village Gagri/Bhandar.
Islamabad Highway crosses this stream near Sihala where

the famous Kak Pul bridge is constructed over it. The Ling
Stream joins the Soan river just before the Kak Pul. Two
other famous streams, the Korang River joins it just before the Soan Bridge and Lai stream, joins this stream after
the Soan Bridge. After following a tortuous path along a
big curve, the stream reaches Kalabagh proposed Dam Site
close to Pirpiyahi where it falls into the Indus river. There is
a famous railway station by the name of Sohan and a beautiful railway bridge very close to it. This relatively small
stream is more than 250 kilometers long. Due to its mountainous course and shallow bed, it is hardly used for irrigation purposes. There are many species of sh in this river
like China Rahu, Mahasher, Snakehead, Balm and Catsh
are the main species of sh in this stream and Kingsher
birds hunt here too. In addition, there are many species
of tortoises and turtles. The marine life of this river has
been endangered due to drainage of chemicals of Sihala Industrial State and euent water of Rawalpindi city into it.
There was a time when peoples used to sh in this stream
One of the many gorges of the Soan river
with nets and hooks and bring home handsome catch but
now, not only the above species of sh have diminished but
also peoples avoid to eat Soan River's sh as it feeds on conThe Swan (Urdu Punjabi: ), Sawan or Sohan taminated water, which can cause dierent diseases. MinRiver is a river in Punjab, Pakistan.
istry of Environment must take action and treat the euent
501
502
water of Rawalpindi city before releasing it into Soan River
and also punish and ne those industrialists who are releasing chemicals and other industrial waste into the river and
destroying the beautiful marine life of Soan River.
167.2 History
The river might be the Sushoma River of the Rig Veda.
According to an important Hindu scripture Srimad Bhagavatam, the Sushoma is one of the many transcendental
rivers owing to the north of the land of Bharata.* [1]
167.3 See also

Soan Sakaser Valley
Indus River
Soan Culture
167.4 References
[1] Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Srimad Bhagavatam 5.19.1718. 2010-01-04. Retrieved 2008-01-04.

Photo of fossils found in Soan valley
CHAPTER 167. SWAN RIVER (ISLAMABAD)
Chapter 168
Swat River
This article is about the Swat river in Pakistan. For Swat 168.3 Economic signicance
valley, city or district, see Swat District. For the former
princely state, see Swat (princely state). For other uses, see Swat River plays an important role in the economy of the
Swat (disambiguation).
valley. It irrigates large areas of Swat District, Malakand
District and lower Peshawar Valley and recharge water wells
The Swat River (Pashto: ) is a peren- & springs through seepage. The river serves as a habitat for
nial river in the northern region of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa diverse species of birds & contributes to the shing industry
Province, Pakistan. The river commences in Swat Kohistan of the region. The aesthetic scenery of river attracts thouregion of Kalam with the conuence of two main tributaries sands of tourists from all over Pakistan during the summer
Ushu and Gabral and runs downstream in a narrow gorge up season.
to Baghdheri.
168.1 Etymology
The name is derived from an old Sanskrit term, Suvastu,
which means crystal clear water, like azure in colour. It
is mentioned in Rig Veda 8.19.37 as the Suvastu river.* [1]
With the passage of time, it was shortened to Swat by the
people.
168.2 Route
Swat river
Its source lies in the Hindukush Mountains, from where it

is fed by the glacial waters throughout the year and ows
through the Kalam Valley in a narrow gorge with a rushing
speed up to Madyan and lower plain areas of Swat Valley up
to Chakdara for 160 km. In the extreme south of the valley, 168.4 Hydropower Potential
the river enters to a narrow gorge and joins the Panjkora
River, at Qalangi, and nally empties into Kabul River, near River Swat has a great untapped hydropower potential
Charsadda. It is diverted near Batkhela for irrigation and which could be harnessed for green power generation.
power generation purposes.
Among them, the feasible site near Munda Headworks has
*
The Upper Swat Canal ows under Malakand through Ben- an installed generation capacity of 740 MW. [2] while othton Tunnel. Below Dargai, the upper canal is divided into ers are Asrit Kedam HPP, Gabral HPP and Matiltan HPP.
two branches, supplying Charsadda and Swabi & Mardan. There are several micro hydro-electric power projects on
The water also used for hydropower generation at Jabban canals from the Swat River which generate electricity for
local usage.
and Dargai Power Stations.
503
504
168.5 See also

Rigvedic rivers
Swat, Pakistan
168.6 References
Book: Hidden Treasures of Swat, ISBN 978-96923042-0-7
[1] Journal of Indian History by: University of Kerala Dept.
of History, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History, University of Travancore, University of Kerala, Published by Dept. of Modern Indian History, 1963
page 28
[2] http://wapda.gov.pk/vision2025/htmls_vision2025/munda.
htm

Swat Valley website
CHAPTER 168. SWAT RIVER
Chapter 169
Yamuna
For other uses, see Yamuna (disambiguation).
The Yamuna (/jmna/; Sanskrit and Hindi: ),
sometimes called Jamuna (Hindi: ; /dmna:/) is
the longest and the second largest tributary river of the
Ganges (Ganga) in northern India. Originating from the
Yamunotri Glacier at a height of 6,387 metres on the south
western slopes of Banderpooch peaks in the uppermost
region of the Lower Himalayas in Uttarakhand, it travels a total length of 1,376 kilometres (855 mi) and has a
drainage system of 366,223 square kilometres (141,399 sq
mi), 40.2% of the entire Ganges Basin, before merging with
the Ganges at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, the site for the
Kumbha Mela every twelve years. It is the longest river in
India which does not directly ow to the sea.
the river as asewage drainwith biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values ranging from 14 to 28 mg/l and high
coliform content.* [4] There are three main sources of pollution in the river, namely households and municipal disposal sites, soil erosion resulting from deforestation occurring to make way for agriculture along with resulting chemical wash-o from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and
run-o from commercial activity and industrial sites.
169.1
Course
It crosses several states, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, passing by Uttarakhand and
later Delhi, and meets its tributaries on the way, including Tons, its largest tributary in Uttarakhand, Chambal, its
longest tributary which has its own large basin, followed
by Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken. Most importantly it creBanderpoonch peak, the source of Yamuna, as seen from
ates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab reMussoorie
gion between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic
plain. Nearly 57 million people depend on the Yamuna
waters. With an annual ow of about 10,000 cubic billion metres (cbm) and usage of 4,400 cbm (of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent), the river accounts for more
than 70 per cent of Delhis water supplies. Just like the
Ganges, the Yamuna too is highly venerated in Hinduism
and worshipped as goddess Yamuna, throughout its course.
In Hindu mythology, she is the daughter of Sun God, Surya,
and sister of Yama, the God of Death, hence also known as
Yami and according to popular legends, bathing in its sacred waters frees one from the torments of death.* [2]* [3]
The water of Yamuna is of reasonably good quality
through its length from Yamunotri in the Himalayas to
Wazirabad in Delhi, about 375 kilometres (233 mi), where
the discharge of waste water through 15 drains between
Wazirabad barrage and Okhla barrage renders the river The Yamunotri temple on the river, dedicated to Goddess Yamuna.
severely polluted after Wazirabad. One ocial describes
505
506
CHAPTER 169. YAMUNA

system. Kalanag (6,387 metres (20,955 ft)) is the highest
point of the entire Yamuna basin.
The Doab, United Provinces, 1908 map
The source of Yamuna lies in the Yamunotri Glacier at

an elevation of 6,387 metres (20,955 ft), on the south
western slopes of Banderpooch peaks, which lie in the
Mussoorie range of Lower Himalayas, in the Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand, north of Haridwar.* [2] Yamunotri temple, a shrine dedicated to the goddess, Yamuna is one of
the holiest shrines in Hinduism, and part of the Chota Char
Dham Yatra circuit. Also standing close to the temple, on
its 13-kilometre (8 mi) trek route, that follows the right
bank of the river, lies the Markendeya Tirtha, where the
sage Markandeya wrote the Markandeya Purana.* [5]* [6]
Other tributaries in the region are the Giri, Rishi Ganga,

Kunta, Hanuman Ganga and Bata tributaries, which drain
the Upper Catchment Area of the vast Yamuna basin.* [7]
Thereafter the river descends on to the plains of Doon
Valley, at Dak Pathar near Dehradun. Here through the
Dakpathar Barrage, the water is diverted into a canal for
power generation, little further down where Yamuna is met
by the Assan River, lies the Asan Barrage, which hosts a
Bird Sanctuary as well. After passing the Sikh pilgrimage town of Paonta Sahib, it reaches Tajewala in Yamuna
Nagar district (named after the river itself), of Haryana,
where a dam built in 1873, is the originating place of two
important canals, the Western Yamuna Canal and Eastern
Yamuna Canal, which irrigate the states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) crosses
Yamuna Nagar, Karnal and Panipat before reaching the
Haiderpur treatment plant, which supplies part of municipal
water supply to Delhi, further it also receives waste water
from Yamuna Nagar and Panipat cities. Yamuna is replenished again after this by seasonal streams and groundwater
accrual, in fact during the dry season, it remains dry in many
stretches from Tajewala till Delhi, where it enters near Palla
village after traversing 224 kilometres (139 mi).
The Yamuna also creates natural state borders between
the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand states, and further down between the state of Haryana, Delhi and Uttar
Pradesh. Along with the Ganges to which run almost parallel after it touches the Indo-Gangetic plain, the largest
alluvial fertile plain in the world, it creates the GangesYamuna Doab region spread across 69,000 square kilometres (27,000 sq mi), one-third of the entire plain, and today
known for its agricultural outputs, prominent among them
is the cultivation of Basmati Rice. The plain itself supports
one-third of India's population through its farming.* [8]
From here it ows southwards, for about 200 kilometres

(120 mi) through the Lower Himalayas and the Shivalik
Hills Range and morainic deposited are found in its steep
Upper Yamuna village, highlighted with geomorphic features such as interlocking spurs, steep rock benches, gorges
and stream terraces. Large terraces formed over a long period of time can be seen in the lower course of the river,
like ones near Naugoan. An important part of its early
catchment area totalling 2,320 square kilometres (900 sq
mi) lies in Himachal Pradesh, and an important tributary
draining the Upper Catchment Area is the Tons, Yamuna's
largest tributary, which rises from the Hari-ki-dun valley
and holds water more than the main stream, which it merges
after Kalsi near Dehradun. The entire drainage system of
the river stretches all the way between Giri-Sutlej catchment
in Himachal and Yamuna-Bhilangna catchment in Garhwal,
indeed the southern ridge of Shimla is also drained into this Course of Yamuna, in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
169.2. HISTORY
Subsequently, it ows through the states of Delhi, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh] before merging with the Ganges at a
sacred spot known as Triveni Sangam in Allahabad after
traversing a distance of 1,376 kilometres (855 mi). Here
pilgrims travel by boats to platforms erected mid stream to
oer prayers. During the Kumbh Mela, held every 12 years,
the ghats around the Sangam are venue of large congregation of people, who take dip in the sacred waters of the conuence.* [9] The cities of Baghpat, Delhi, Noida, Mathura,
Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Kalpi, Hamirpur, Allahabad lie
on its banks. At Etawah, it meets it another important tributary, Chambal, followed by a host of tributaries further
down, including, Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken.* [3]* [10]
169.1.1
507
169.2
History
Important tributaries
Tons River, Yamuna's largest tributary, rises in the Vasudev carrying baby Lord Krishna across the Yamuna, an im20,720 ft (6,315 m) high Bandarpoonch mountain, portant legend of Bhagavata Purana
and has a large basin in Himachal Pradesh. It meets
The name Yamuna seems to be derived from the Sanskrit
Yamuna below Kalsi near Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
word yama, meaning 'twin', and it may have been ap Hindon River, originates in the Saharanpur District, plied to the river because it runs parallel to the Ganges.
from Upper Shivalik in Lower Himalayan Range, The Yamuna is mentioned at many places in the Rig Veda,
is entirely rainfed and has a catchment area of which was composed during the Vedic period between ca.
7,083 square kilometres (2,735 sq mi), traverses 400 17001100 BC, and also in the later Atharvaveda, and the
kilometres (250 mi) through Muzaarnagar District, Brahmanas* including Aitareya Brahmana and Shatapatha
Meerut District, Baghpat District, Ghaziabad, Noida, Brahmana. [11] In Rig Veda, the story of the Yamuna deGreater Noida, before joining Yamuna just outside scribes her excessive lovefor her twin, Yama, who in
turn asks her to nd a suitable match for herself, which she
Delhi.
does in Krishna. It is also said that lord shiva was the main
reason for the colour of the Yamuna river. After the death
Ken River, ows through Bundelkhand region of
of Sati Devi, lord shiva couldn't tolerate the sadness around
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, it originates near
him and used to roam here and there. And At last when he
village Ahirgawan in Jabalpur district and travels a diswent to Yamuna river, it became so black as it absorbed all
tance of 427 kilometres (265 mi), before merging with
his sorrow.
the Yamuna at Chilla village, near Fatehpur in Uttar
Pradesh, and has an overall drainage basin of 28,058 The tale is further detailed in the 16th century Sanskrit
hymn, Yamunashtakam, an ode by the philosopher
square kilometres (10,833 sq mi).
Vallabhacharya. Here the story of her descent to meet her
Chambal River, known as Charmanvati in ancient beloved Krishna and to purify the world has been put into
times, is Yamuna's longest tributary ows through Ra- verse. The hymn also praises her for being the source of all
jasthan and Madhya Pradesh, with a drainage basin spiritual abilities. And while the Ganges is considered an
of 143,219 square kilometres (55,297 sq mi) and tra- epitome of asceticism and higher knowledge and can grant
verses a total distance of 960 kilometres (600 mi), us Moksha or liberation, it is Yamuna, who, being a holder
from its source in Vindhya Range, near Mhow and sup- of innite love and compassion, can grant us freedom, even
ports hydro-power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, from death, the realm of her elder brother. She rushes
Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam, be- down the Kalinda Mountain, and verily describes her as the
fore merging into the Yamuna south east of Sohan daughter of Kalinda, giving her another name, Kalindi, the
Goan, in Etawah district, shortly thereafter followed backdrop of Krishna Leela. The text also talks about her
water being of the colour of Lord Krishna, which is dark
by another tributary, the Sindh River.
(Shyam).* [12]* [13] The river is referred as Asita in some
*
Sasur Khaderi River, known as Sasur Khaderi is a trib- historical texts. [14]
utary in Fatehpur district.
It is mentioned as Iomanes (Ioames) in the surveys of
508
CHAPTER 169. YAMUNA
Seleucus I Nicator, an ocer of Alexander the Great and

one of the Diadochi, who visited India in 305 BC, later
Megasthenes, a Greek traveller and geographer, visited India, sometimes before 288 BC, the date of Chandragupta's
death, also mention the river in his text Indica, where he described the region around it as the land of Surasena.* [15]
In Mahabharata, Indraprastha, the capital of Pandavas was
also situated on the banks of Yamuna, it is considered to the
modern day city of Delhi.
Geological evidence indicates that in the distant past the
Yamuna was a tributary of the Ghaggar River (also known
as the Vedic Sarasvati River), but that it later changed its
course eastward due to a tectonic event, becoming a tributary of the Ganges. This may have led to the Sarasvati
River drying up, the end of many Harappan civilisation settlements, and creation of the Thar desert.* [16]* [17]* [18]
However, recent geological research suggests that the diversion of the Yamuna to the Ganges may have occurred
during the Pleistocene, and thus could not be connected to
the decline of the Harappan civilisation in the region.* [19]
The importance of the GangesYamuna river basin, and the
Doab region as traditional the seat of power, can be derived
from the fact, in much of early history of India, most of
great empires, which ruled over majority of India, until the
Chalukyas King, Vinayaditya, were based in the highly fertile GangesYamuna basin, including the Magadha (ca 600
BC), Maurya Empire (321185 BC), Shunga Empire (185
73 BCE), Kushan Empire (1st3rd centuries CE), Gupta
Empire (280550 CE), and many had their capitals here, in
cities like Pataliputra or Mathura. These rivers were revered
throughout these kingdoms that ourished on their banks,
in fact ever since the period of Chandragupta II (r. 375415
CE), statues both the Ganges and Yamuna became common
throughout the Gupta Empire. Further to the South, images of the Ganges and Yamuna are found amidst shrines of
the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas (753982), as well as on their
royal seals, and prior to them, the Chola Empire too added
the river into their architectural motifs. The Three River
Goddess shrine, next of famous Kailash rock-cut Temple at
Ellora, built by Rashtrakuta King, Govinda III, shows the
Ganges anked by the Yamuna and Saraswati.* [20]
169.3 Religious signicance

Main article: Yamuna in Hinduism
The goddess Yamuna.
in which Shri Krishna is the main deity, propagated by

VallabhAcharya / MahaPrabhuji, and having a large following in India.
The river Yamuna is also connected to the religious beliefs surrounding Krishna and various stories connected
with Him are found in Hindu religious texts, especially the
Puranas, like that of Kaliya Daman, the subduing of Kaliya,
a poisonous Nga snake, which had inhabited the river and
terrorised the people of Braja.* [22]* [23] Yamuna, according to the legends, is closely related to Lord Krishna and
Mahabharata. Krishna was taken across the Yamuna on the
night of his birth. Kansa, Krishna's maternal uncle planned
to kill all his nephews, as his eighth nephew was predicted to
be his Kla. When Vasudeva, carrying Krishna in a basket,
reaches the river Yamuna, on the extremely turbulent, rainy
night of Krishna's birth, Yamuna is said to have parted to
make way for Vasudeva.
The goddess of the river, also known as Yami, is the sister of

Yama, god of death, and the daughter of Surya, the Sun god,
and his wife Saranyu.* [21] Yamuna, referred to respectfully as Yamunaji, holds a very important position in Pushti
Marga, a sect of Hinduism based on the ShuddhAdvaita, Krishna and the Gopis also used to play on the banks of the
169.4. MANAGEMENT
Yamunaji as children.
169.4 Management
The stretch of the river from its origin to Okhla in Delhi is
calledUpper Yamuna. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed amongst the ve basin states, namely
Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Delhi, on 12 May 1994 for sharing of the water of Upper Yamuna. This led to the formation of Upper
Yamuna River Board under Ministry of Water Resources,
whose primary functions are regulation of the allocation of
available ows amongst the beneciary states and also for
monitoring the return ows; monitoring conserving and upgrading the quality of surface and ground water; maintaining hydro-meteorological data for the basin; over viewing
plans for watershed management; monitoring and reviewing the progress of all projects up to and including Okhla
barrage.* [24]
509
The Nahr-i-Bahisht was later restored and extended by the
Mughals in the rst half of the 17th century, by engineer
Ali Mardan Khan, starting from Benawas where the river
enters the plains and terminating near the Mughal capital,
Shahjahanabad, the present city of Delhi.* [28]
As the Yamuna enters the Northern plains near Dakpathar
at an elevation of 790 metres (2,590 ft), the Eastern Yamuna Canal commences at the Dakpathar Barrage and
pauses at the Asan and Hathnikund Barrages before continuing south. The Hathnikund was built in 1999 and replaced the downstream Tajewala Barrage which had been
completed in 1873.
Western Yamuna Canal
Main article: Western Yaumna Canal
Built in 1335 CE by Firuz Shah Tughlaq, excessive silting
caused it to stop owing in 1750 CE, British raj undertook a three-year renovation in 1817 by Bengal Engineer
Group, in 1832-33 Tajewala Barrage dam at Yaumna was
built to regulate the ow of water, in 1875-76 Pathrala barrage at Dadupur and Somb river dam downstream of canal
were built, in 1889-95 the largest branch of the canal Sirsa
branch was constructed, the modern Hathni Kund Barrage
was built in 1999 to handle the problem of silting to replace
the older Tajewala Barrage.* [29]
Flood forecasting systems are established at Poanta Sahib,

where Tons, Pawar and Giri tributaries meet, followed
by Tajewala, Kalanaur, Haryana and Mawai before Delhi,
the river take 60 hours to travel from Tajewala to
Delhi, thus allowing a two-day advance ood warning period.* [2]* [25]* [26] The Central Water Commission started
ood-forecasting services in 1958 with the setting up of
its rst forecasting station on Yamuna at Delhi Railway
The Western Yamuna Canal begins at the Hathnikund BarBridge,India.* [27]
rage about 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Dakpathar and south
of Doon Valley. The canals irrigate vast tracts of land in the
region in Ambala district, Karnal district, Sonepat district,
169.4.1 Irrigation
Rohtak district, Jind district, Hisar district and Bhiwani district.* [29]
Once its passes Delhi, the river feeds the Agra Canal built
in 1874, which starts from Okhla barrage beyond the Nizamuddin bridge, and the high land between the Khari-Nadi
and the Yamuna and before joining the Banganga river
about 32 kilometres (20 mi) below Agra. Thus, during the
summer season, the stretch above Agra resembles a minor
stream.* [3]
The 86 km long main canal* [29] has the total length of 325
km* [30] including its branches such as Sirsa branch, Hansi
branch, Butana branch, Sunder branch, Delhi branch, along
with hundreds of major and minor irrigation channels which
are also breeding grounds for man species of birds.* [31]
Agra Canal headworks at Okhla barrage, Delhi. 1871.
The importance of Yamuna in the Indo-Gangetic Plains

is enhanced by its many canals, some dating back to as
early as 14th century CE by the Tughlaq dynasty, which
built the Nahr-i-Bahisht (Paradise), parallel to the river.
Delhi Branch The Munak canal, also called Delhi

Branch, 22 km* [32] canal was built in 1819,* [33] and
renovated in 2008,* [32] originates at Munak village in
Gharaunda tehsil of Karnal district* [34] is a branch of
Western Yaumna Canal to bring 700 cusecs water to
510
Delhi.* [29]* [31]
CHAPTER 169. YAMUNA
169.4.2
The SutlejYamuna Link
Main article: Sutlej Yamuna link canal

Sirsa Branch The Sirsa Branch, originating at Indri, is
a sub-branch of Sirsa branch of Western Yaumna Canal
which menders through Jind district, Fatehabad district and A heavy freight canal, known as the Sutlej-Yamuna Link
(SYL), is being built westwards from near the Yamuna's
Sirsa district.* [29]* [31]
headwaters through the Punjab region near an ancient caravan route and highlands pass to the navigable pars of
Barwala Branch The Barwala Branch is a sub-branch the Sutlej-Indus watershed. This will connect the entire
of Sirsa branch of Western Yaumna Canal.* [29]* [31] It me- Ganges, which ows to the east coast of the subcontinent,
with points west (via Pakistan). When completed, the SYL
anders through Barwala tehsil of Hisar district.* [29]
will allow shipping from India's east coast to the west coast
and the Arabian sea, drastically shortening shiportant comHansi Branch The Hansi Branch, built in 1825* [33] mercial links for north-central India's large population. The
and remodelled in 1959,* [33] originating at Munak village canal starts near Palla village near Delhi, and is designed
in Gharaunda tehsil of Karnal district* [34] is a branch of to transfer Haryana's share of 4.3 km3 (3,500,000 acreft)
Western Yaumna Canal that meanders through Hansi tehsil from the Indus Basin.
of Hisar district.* [29]* [31]
169.4.3
Conservation zone
Butana Branch The Butana Branch is a sub-branch of

Western Yaumna Canal that meanders through Hansi tehsil On 25 April 2014, The National Green Tribunal recomof Hisar district.* [29]* [31]
mended the Government to declare a 52-kilometre (32 mi)
stretch of the Yamuna in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh as a conservation zone. A report has been prepared by the ministry
Sunder Branch The Sunder Branch of Western Ya- of Environment and Forests (MoEF) panel and submitted
muna Canal is a sub-branch of Butana branch of Hansi to the NGA on the same day.* [35]
branch and goes to Kanwari and beyond in Hisar (district).
Jind Branch The Jind Branch is a branch of Western Yaumna Canal which menders through Jind district.* [29]* [31]
169.5
Pollution
Rohtak Branch The Rohtak Branch is a sub-branch of

Jind branch of Western Yaumna Canal and it meanders
through Rohtak district.* [29]* [31]
Bhiwani Branch The Bhiwani Branch is a sub-branch
of Jind branch of Western Yaumna Canal and it meanders through Bhiwani district and goes to Bidhwan and beyond.* [29]* [31]
Bhalaut Branch The Bhalaut Branch, originating at
Khubru village,* [30] is a sub-branch of Delhi branch of
Western Yaumna Canal that ows through Jhajjar dis- The Yamuna near the Himalayas, just as it reaches the plains, beyond Dehradun in Uttarakhand.
trict.* [29]* [31]
In 1909 the waters of the Yamuna were distinguishable
Jhajjar Branch The Jhajjar Branch is a sub-branch as clear blue, as compared to the silt-laden yellow of
of Bhalaut branch of Western Yaumna Canal that ows the Ganges.* [36] However, due to high density population
growth and rapid industrialisation today Yamuna is one of
through Jhajjar district.* [29]* [31]
169.7. GALLERY
the most polluted rivers in the world, especially around New
Delhi, the capital of India, which dumps about 58% of its
waste into the river. A recent study shows that there is 100%
urban metabolism of River Yamuna as it passes through the
National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi.* [37]
511
water reaching the river from habitations and industries.
However, in 2009, the Union government admitted to the

Lok Sabha (Indian Parliament), the failure of the Ganga Action Plan and the Yamuna Action Plan, saying that rivers
Ganga and Yamuna are no cleaner now than two decades
agodespite spending over Rs 1,700 crore to control pollution. According to a CSE ocial, these plans adopted
169.6 Causes
the Thames model, based on a centralised sewage treatment
system. This meant that huge sum of money and a 24-hour
New Delhi generates 1,900 million litres (500,000,000 US power supply were needed to manage the treatment plants,
gal) per day (MLD) of sewage. Though many attempts have while only an 8-hour power supply was available, contribut*
been made to process it, the eorts have proven futile. Al- ing to the failure of the river plans. [42]
though the government of India has spent nearly $500 mil- In August 2009, the Delhi Jal Board (DJB) initiated its plan
lion to clean up the river, the Yamuna continues to be pol- for resuscitating the Yamuna
s 22-kilometre (14 mi) stretch
luted with garbage while most sewage treatment facilities in Delhi by constructing interceptor sewers, at the cost of
are underfunded or malfunctioning. In addition, the wa- about Rs 1,800 crore.* [43]
ter in this river remains stagnant for almost nine months in
a year, aggravating the situation. Delhi alone contributes
around 3,296 MLD of sewage in the river. The government of India over the next ve years has prepared plans 169.7 Gallery
to rebuild and repair the sewage system and the drains that
empty into the river.
To address river pollution, certain measures of river cleaning have been taken by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests in 12 towns of Haryana, eight towns of Uttar
Pradesh, and Delhi, under the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP)
which has been implemented since 1993 by the National
River Conservation Directorate (NRCD) of the Ministry
of Environment and Forests. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation is participating in the Yamuna Action
Plan in 15 of the above 21 towns (excluding six towns of
Haryana included later on the direction of Supreme Court
of India) with soft loan assistance of 17.773 billion Japanese
yen (equivalent to about Rs. 700 crore INR) while the government of India is providing the funds for the remaining six
towns added later. In 2007 the Indian government's plans
to repair sewage lines were predicted to improve the water
quality of the river 90% by the year 2010.* [38]* [39]* [40]
The last barrage across Yamuna river is at Mathura for
supply of drinking water to the city. Downstream of
this barrage, many pumping stations are constructed
to feed the river water for irrigation needs.* [41] These
pumping stations are near Pateora Danda 255509N
801327E / 25.91917N 80.22417E, Samgara
254113N 804627E / 25.68694N 80.77417E, Ainjhi 254335N 804933E / 25.72639N 80.82583E,
Bilas Khadar 253135N 810243E / 25.52639N
81.04528E, Samari 252719N 811143E /
25.45528N 81.19528E, etc. (Refer to Google Earth
maps.) Depletion of the base ows available in the river
during the non-monsoon months by these pump houses is
enhancing river pollution from Mathura to Allahabad in
the absence of adequate fresh water to dilute the polluted
The Yamuna, seen from the

Taj Mahal at Agra in Uttar Pradesh
Madan Mohan temple, on the

Yamuna at Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, 1789: the
river has shifted further away since then.
'Keshi Ghat' on the Yamuna at Vrindavan in Uttar

Pradesh
The Yamuna near Allahabad

in Uttar Pradesh, just a few kilometres before it meets
the Ganges
512
CHAPTER 169. YAMUNA

Western Jamuna Canal Link
The Yamuna near Allahabad

in Uttar Pradesh, in the rainy season
169.8 Quotes on Yamuna

Simply by bathing in the Yamuna, anyone can diminish the reactions of his sinful activities.(Krishna
Book, Chap 38)
By taking bath in the Yamuna River people are liberated and become Krishna conscious.(Caitanya Caritamrita Antya 4.98 purport)
There are many devotees in Vrindavana who regularly bathe in the Yamuna, and this cleanses all the
contamination of the material world.(Srimad Bhagavatam 5.8.31)
169.10
Further reading
Fraser, James Baillie (1820). Journal of a tour through

part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and
to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. Rodwell
and Martin, London.
Haberman, David L. (2006). River of love in an
age of pollution: the Yamuna River of northern India.
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24790-6.
Schumann, A. H. (2001). Sustainable regional water management of Yamuna river basin: A case
study. International Association of Hydrological Sciences(IAHS). pp. 2532. ISBN 1-901502-51-1.
169.11
References
One should not give up the process of austerity. If

possible, one should bathe in the water of the Yamuna. This is an item of austerity. Therefore, our Krishna consciousness movement has established a center in Vrindavana so that one may bathe in the Yamuna, chant the Hare Krishna mantra and then become perfect and return back to Godhead.(Srimad
Bhagavatam 6.5.28 purport)
[1] Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P.

(2007). Hydrology and water resources of India. Springer.
p. 341. ISBN 978-1-4020-5179-1. Retrieved 26 April
2011.
The Yamuna River washed Krishna's lotus feet when

the Lord appeared in Vrindavana ve thousand years
ago. Lord Krishna sported daily with His boys and
girlfriends in the Yamuna River and consequently
that river is also caranamrita.(Srimad Bhagavatam
11.6.19)
[3] Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes

1-5. Popular Prakashan. pp. 290291. ISBN 0-85229-7602.
According to the Varaha Purana as quoted by Srila

Jiva Gosvami there is no dierence between the water
of the Ganges and the Yamuna but when the water of
the Ganges is sanctied one hundred times, it is called
the Yamuna. Similarly, it is said in the scriptures that
one thousand names of Vishnu are equal to one name
of Rama and three names of Lord Rama are equal to
one name of Krishna.(Srimad Bhagavatam 1.19.6
purport)
169.9 See also
[2] Jain, Sharad K.; Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh

(2007). Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume
57 of Water science and technology library. Springer. pp.
344354. ISBN 1-4020-5179-4.
[4] "'Ganga is the most polluted river'". The Hindu. Nov 23,
2003.
[5] Yamunotri Temple Uttarkashi district website. Archived 31
July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
[6] Nand, Nitya; Kamlesh Kumar (1989). The holy Himalaya:
a geographical interpretation of Garhwal - Yamuna Drainage
System. Daya Books. p. 49. ISBN 81-7035-055-7.
[7] General outline of rivers in Himachal @ webindia123
[8] Sharma, Deo Prakash (2006). Archaeology of Lower
Ganga-Yamuna Doab (circa 1200 B.C. to 1200 A.D.).
Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 10, 214. ISBN 81-8090033-9. "Doab is a Persian word, from Do-Ab, literally meaning 'two rivers', or land between two rivers.
[9] At the Three Rivers TIME, February 23, 1948.
[10] State of River Yamuna
Yamuna Pushkaram
[11] Vedic Index of Names and Subjects (V-208-1333-2. p. 186.
[12] Shiva, Vandana (2006). Earth democracy: justice, sustainability and peace-G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Zed Books. pp. 172173. ISBN
1-84277-777-7.
[13] Chamberlain, Gary (2008). Troubled waters: religion,
ethics, and the global water crisis. Rowman & Littleeld.
p. 18. ISBN 0-7425-5245-4.
513
[31] Delhibird.com
[32] Hindustan Times on Munak Canal
[33] Planning Commission of India: Western Yaumna Canal
[34] Jind district prole
[35] Conservation Zone recommended

[36] The Ganges and the Jumna The Imperial Gazetteer of India,
1909 v. 1, p. 23.
[15] Dahlaquist, Allan (1996). Megasthenes and Indian ReligionVolume 11 of History and Culture Series. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 386. ISBN 81-208-1323-5.
[37] Singh, Govind; Deb, Mihir; Ghosh, Chirashree. Urban

Metabolism of River Yamuna in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India.. International Journal of Advanced
Research. 4 (8): 12401248. doi:10.21474/IJAR01/1323.
[16] Ghosh, A. (1991). Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology.

BRILL. p. 214. ISBN 90-04-09264-1.
[17] Feuerstein, Georg; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (2001). In
Search of the Cradle of Civilization. Quest Books. p. 89.
ISBN 0-8356-0741-0.
[18] Frawley, David (2000). Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets
of Ancient Civilization. Lotus Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-91026137-7.
[38] Pepper, Daniel (2007-07-27). India's ush-and-forget

mind-set. SFGate.com. San Francisco Chronicle. pp.
A17A18. Retrieved 2007-07-27.
[39] CAG castigates Delhi Govt over Yamuna river pollution
. Indian Express. April 8, 2000.
[40] Daniel Pepper (June 4, 2007). India's rivers are drowning
in pollution. Fortune (magazine).
[41] list of head works (Dams,_Barrages, Weirs, Anicuts, Lifts)

[19] Clift et al. 2012. U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleison Yamuna/Ganga river. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
tocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River.
[42] Karthikeyan, Ajitha (September 2009). Failure of Ganga,
Geology, v. 40.
Yamuna projects... The Times of India.
[20] Davis, Richard H. (1999). Lives of Indian images. Princeton
[43] Inow to Yamuna to be cleaned up at last. Indian Express.
University Press. pp. 7476. ISBN 0-691-00520-6.
Aug 31, 2009. Archived from the original on January 14,
[21] Bhagavata Purana 8.13.9
2012.
[22] Dimmitt, Cornelia (1978). Classical Hindu mythology: a
reader in the Sanskrit Purnas. Temple University Press. p.
329. ISBN 0-87722-122-7.
169.12
External links
[23] Yamunashtakam Text and Translation Archived 25 June

2010 at the Wayback Machine.
[24] Upper Yamuna River Board Ocial website.
Yamuna Action Plan
[25] Rao, K.L. (1979). India's Water Wealth - Flood Forecasting

system of Yamuna. Orient Blackswan. p. 163. ISBN 81250-0704-0.
[26] Negi, Sharad Singh (1991). Himalayan rivers, lakes, and
glaciers. Indus Publishing. pp. 141142. ISBN 81-8518261-2.
[27] Flood Forecasting Network in India Ministry of Water Resources website.
[28] Woodward, David; John Brian Harley (1987). The History
of cartography, Volume 2, Part 1. Oxford University Press
US. p. 438. ISBN 0-226-31635-1.
[29] Western yaumna Canal Project
[30] India Water Portal
Chapter 170
Yavyavati
The Yavyavati is a river of ancient India, mentioned in
the Rigveda (in RV 6.27.6) and in the Pancavimsa Brahmana (25.7.2). In the Pancavimsa Brahmana the river is
associated with the Vibhinduka region (Kuru-Pancala region).* [1]
Witzel (1995) identies it with the Zhob river in northern
Baluchistan,* [2] while Talageri (2000) suggests that it is
identical to the Drsadvati.* [3]
170.1 References
[1] e.g. Witzel 1987, quoted by Talageri Shrikant, 2001.
"Michael Witzel - An examination of his review of my book
[2] Michael Witzel, Rgvedic history: poets, chieftains and
politics, in: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity.
The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, ed. G. Erdosy,
Berlin/New York (de Gruyter) 1995, 307-352.
[3] e.g. Talageri, Shrikant. (2000) The Rigveda: A Historical
Analysis, Talageri, S.: Michael Witzel - An examination
of his review of my book2001. chapter 3
514
Chapter 171
Adi Badri (Haryana)

Adi Badri is a forest area and archaeological site in the
foothills of Sivalik Hills in bhabar area situated in northern part of Yamunanagar district of north Indian state of
Haryana. The Somb river passing through here is considered to be the originating point of vedic river Sarasvati (the
point where the river leaves the mountains and enter plain
land).* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
171.4
Nearby Attractions
171.1 Location
It can be reached from Jagadhri by a 40 km long all-weather
road via Bilaspur, Haryana. The nearest village is Kathgarh,
which is situated 2 km southwest from Adi Badri. Adi Badri
has a Sarasvati kund (pond) for the worship of Sarasvati
river where evening aarti is held everyday.
Kapal Mochan Sarovar and Gau-Bacha Temple
171.2 Scientic Studies on the Origin of Sarasvati River
Kapal Mochan is an ancient place of pilgrimage for both

Hindus and Sikhs, 17 km north-east of Jagadhari town, on
the Bilaspur road in Yamuna Nagar district.* [7]
Nearby Bilaspur, Haryana (not to be confused with

Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh) in Yamuna Nagar District
which takes its name from the corrupted form of Vyas
Puri,
was the ashram of Ved Vyasa rishi where he wrote
Recent studies by Regional Remote Sensing Centre West
the
Mahabharta
on the banks of Sarasvati river near Adi
NRSC/ISRO, Department of Space, Govt. of India, JodhBadri
where
Sarasvati
river leaves Himalayas and enters the
pur has indicated AdiBadri to be closely linked with the
*
[8]
On
Jagadhari
road lies another popular religious
plains.
palaeo channel of ancient Sarasvati river.* [5]
site of Kapal Mochan.
Main article: Sarasvati river
171.3 Adi Badri Heritage Board
171.5
The new (2014) Haryana government, headed by Hindu nationalist party BJP, announced setting up of the Adi Badri
Heritage Board and its plans to revive the sacred Sarasvati
river by creating a new water channel along the supposed
path of the river.* [6]
515
References
[1] Early Harappans and Indus Sarasvati Civilization, 2 Vols. by

Sharma, D P and Madhuri Sharma (ed) 2006
[2] http://www.haryanatourism.gov.in/destination/
yamunanagar.asp
516
[3] Release Id :118384 - Excavation in search of Saraswati

River. Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India. 25 April
2015. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
[4] http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/
Haryana-sweet-water-pools-fire-up-Saraswati-revival/
[5] Conservation of Saraswati River. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 17 July 2014. Retrieved 12 May
2015.
[6] With BJP in power, the hunt for Saraswati river is on mission mode. Times of India. Apr 10, 2015. Retrieved 12
May 2015.
[7] yamunanagar.nic.in: About Kapal Mochan Temple
[8] Sarasvati Sodh Sansthan Publications 2015
CHAPTER 171. ADI BADRI (HARYANA)
Chapter 172
Banawali
Banawali (Devanagari: ) is an archaeological site
belonging to Indus Valley Civilization period in Fatehabad
district, Haryana, India and is located about 120 km northeast of Kalibangan and 16 km from Fatehabad. Banawali,
which is earlier called Vanavali, is on the left banks of dried
up Sarasvati River.* [1] Comparing to Kalibangan, which
was a town established in lower middle valley of dried up
Sarasvathi River, Banawali was built over upper middle valley of Sarasvathi River.* [2]
style chess-board pattern fortied town, measuring 200m x

500m* [4] was established during this period.* [1] This fortied area consisted of two adjascent areas, one thought to be
for ruling class and other one for common people.* [1] In the
area meant for common people, house blocks with northsouth thouroghfares cutting at right angles, which further
connected by east-west lanes,* [1] reecting urban nature of
streets. Houses, which were constructed on both sides of
lanes,were having rammed earth oor, mud plastered walls,
rooms, kitchen,toilet. Houses were having storage facilities,
similar to strong rooms found at Kuntasi* [5]
172.1 Excavation
This site was excavated by R.S. Bisht (ASI). The excavations
revealed the following sequence of cultures:* [3]
Period I: Pre-Harappan (Kalibangan)(c.2500-2300
BCE)* [1]
172.1.3
This period is represented by Bara culture, which may be

termed as post-Harappa or late contemporary Harappa.* [1]
172.2
Period IA: Pre-defence Phase
Period III (c.1700-1500/1450BCE)
Architecture
Period IB: Defence Phase

Period IC: Transitional Phase (Proto-Harappan) Archaeological Survey of India has done excavation in this
place revealed well constructed fort town of Harappan pe Period II: Mature Harappan (c.2300-1700 BCE)* [1] riod overlaying an extensive proto urban settlement of pre
*
Period III: Post-Harappan (Banawali-Bara)(c.1700- Harappan Period. [6] A defence wall was also found with a
height of 4.5 m and thickness of 6 m which was traced up
1500/1450 BCE)* [1]
to a distance of 105 m.* [1]
172.1.1
Period I (c. 2500-2300 BCE)
Houses, with rammed earthen oors, were well planned

with rooms and toilets and houses were constructed on either sides of streets and lanes.* [1]
Well planned houses constructed out of kiln burnt and

moulded bricks. Pottery consisting of vase and jar, is divided into two groups, based on general design. Pottery
assemblage is very similar to those of Kalibangan I period.* [1]
Near South-eastern area of fortication, ight of steps is

found rising from 'Lower town' to Acropolis and ASI considers this as important formation.* [7] The staircase of
'lower town' is near a bastion looking construction.* [7]
172.1.2
172.2.1
Period II (c. 2300-1700BCE)
Houses
Defence wall of more than 105 m length, 4.5 m height, 6 In a multi roomed house having kitchen and toilet, sevm width was found at this site.* [1] Well planned Harappan eral seals, weights were found, indicating the owner of the
517
518
house may be a merchant.* [4] One more bigger house revealed large number of gold beads, lapis lazuli, carnelian,
tiny weights and a 'touch stone'like stone with streaks of
gold, indicating the house belonged to jeweller or ornament
maker.* [4] Several houses in Banawali show evidence of
re altars, which were also associated with apsidal structures indicating ritualistic purposes.* [4]
172.3 Artefacts recovered

S-shaped jars, cooking vessels, ovens, tandoors, painted
earthen pots etc. Painted motifs include, peacocks, pipal leaves, tree, deer, star, sh owers, intersecting circles, checker board patterns,honey comb patterns. Harappan seals carrying pictures of Rhinoceros, wild goat,
ibex,unicorn,composite animal with tiger body. Gold, copper, bronze pieces, gold beads, copper, lapis lazuli, bangles
of shells etc.* [1]* [2] The pottery found, is comparable with
Harappan pottery in neness and pottery assemblage is very
similar to assemblage of KalibanganI.* [1]
172.4 Importance
Among two most important nds during 1987-88 are* [7]
CHAPTER 172. BANAWALI
172.6
Other observations
The earlier bricks in Banawali had the Kalibangan ratio

of 3:2:1, but later bricks had the ratio 4:2:1. One weight
was found that weigh 87.855 grams, about 100 times 0.857
gram (a more common weight in Harappa). The wall surrounding this site was probably to face oods of Sarasvati
River, and the wall collapsed due to water damage.* [5] Marine shells were found at Banawali as well as at Harappa,
Kalibangan, which are far away from sea shore and such
ndings indicate internal trade between the regions during
early Indus period.* [5] Seals were only found in lower town
and not in citadel;several small stone weights and terrecotta
plough model was also found.* [4] Large number of female
gurines are found at this site as well as at Mohenjadaro,
Harappa.* [4] A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found,
which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (a
technique that is still being used in this area).* [8]
As is the practice, most of the nds have been reburied.
However, a well of the Harappan era has been well preserved and stands as a testimony to the antiquity of the village.
172.7
See also
Rakhigarhi
Kalibangan
1. one is a burnished greyware decorated with two bucranian motis in applique, which closely resembles more
or less, similar bovine beads occurring in painting on
Pre-Harappan pots from Kot-Diji,Kalibangan etc.
1. The other one is an unbaked clay gure of an which has
deep cut criss-cross incescions on the back as well on
one side of the neck, thereby imparting it an appearance of a horse, as the former may suggest the saddle
and the latter the mane.* [7]
Other nds include ivory comb, a terracota cake with an engraved ass, human gures - both male and female, a tortoise
shell etc.* [7] Many items of gold, silver etc. have also been
found.
172.5 Decline
The decline of urban life at Banawali and Kalibangan appears to be all of a sudden.* [4]
172.8
References
[1] Archaeological Survey of India. Excavations - Banawali

. website. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
[2] fatehabad.nic.in
[3] Joshi, M.C. (ed.) (1993).Indian Archaeology - A Review,
1987-88 (PDF). Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 23
7. Retrieved 2009-11-05.
[4] Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New
Delhi: Pearson Education. pp. 152153, 171, 179. ISBN
9788131711200.
[5] McIntosh, Jane R. (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley : New
Perspectives. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 229.
ISBN 9781576079072.
[6] S.R.Rao, (1991) Dawn and Devolution of Indus Civilisation
,Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi
[7] Indian Archaeology - A Review, 1987-88, page 21-27
[8] Lal, B.B. (2002). The Sarasvat ows on : the continuity of

Indian culture. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. p.
147. ISBN 9788173052026.

Locations of Banawali and other IVC sites
519
Chapter 173
Bhagwanpura, Haryana
Bhagwanpura, Haryana, also called Bhagpura, is an archaeological site that lies on the bank of Hakra Ghaggar
channel* [1] in the Kurukshetra district of Haryana state,
India.* [2] Situated 24 km northeast of Kurukshetra, the site
is notable for showing an overlap between the late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware cultures. Painted Grey Ware is
generally associated with the Vedic people, so this area can
be said as the junction of two great civilizations of India.
Some scholars believe that the burnt bricks (square, rectangular, and wedge-shaped) from sub-period IB were not
in fact used for building houses, but for the construction of
Vedic re altars.* [6]
173.2
See also
Indus Valley Civilization
An archaeological museum at Sheikh Chilli's Tomb complex in Thanesar established by the Archaeological Survey of India consists of archaeological nds like a humped
bull-shaped carnelian pendant, terracotta beads and semiprecious stones from sites in Bhagwanpura.* [3]
Painted Grey Ware culture

Vedic period
Kuru Kingdom
173.1 Overview
173.3
Bhagwanpura shows one period of habitation, with two subperiods:* [4]

Sub-period IA: late Harappan culture (c. 17001300
BCE)
Sub-period IB: overlap between late Harappan and
PGW culture (c. 14001000 BCE)
During sub-period IA, the late Harappan people lived in
houses of burnt brick and built mud platforms to protect
against ooding. During sub-period IB, the late Harappan
pottery continued, but a new form of pottery (the PGW)
was introduced. Initially, the PGW people lived in thatched
wattle-and-daub huts, but later they began to build mudwalled houses. One large house had thirteen rooms and a
courtyard, and may have belonged to a chief. Towards the
end of sub-period IB, the PGW people began to use burnt
bricks, but no complete structures have been found. During
both phases, cattle, sheep, and pig were domesticated, but
horse bones have only been found in sub-period IB. Six oval
structures from this sub-period may have had some ritualistic use.* [5]
520
References
[1] http://www.cyclopaedia.de/wiki/Ghaggar_River
[2] India9
[3] Archaeological Museum, Thanesar. Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
[4] J.P. Joshi (1993), Excavation at Bhagwanpura 1975 - 76 :
and other explorations & excavations 1975 - 81 in Haryana,
Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab. Archaeological Survey of
India
[5] Joshi (1993)
[6] J.M. Kenoyer (2006), Cultures and Societies of the Indus
Tradition. In Historical Rootsin the Making ofthe Aryan
, R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 2149. New Delhi, National Book
Trust.
Chapter 174
Helmand River
Hirmandredirects here. For the administrative subdivi- major dam north of Kandahar.
sion of Iran, see Hirmand County.
The boundaries of the province of Helmand were once
Helmundredirects here. For the province in Afghanistan,
known as kingdom of Sakastan.
see Helmand Province.
The Helmand River (also spelled Helmend, Helmund, 174.1 History
Hirmand; Pashto/Persian: , Helmand Hrmand,,
Greek: (Etmandros), Latin: Erymandrus) is
The Helmand valley region is mentioned by name in the
the longest river in Afghanistan and the primary watershed
Avesta (Fargard 1:13) as the Aryan land of Haetumant, one
for the endorheic Sistan Basin.* [1]
of the early centers of the Zoroastrian faith in pre-Islamic
The name comes from Avestan Hatumant, literally Afghan history. But owing to the preponderance of Hindus
dammed, having a dam, cognate with Sanskrit Setumanta and Buddhists (non-Zoroastrians), the Helmand and Kabul
having a dam, which referred to the Helmand River and regions were also known as "White India" in those days.* [3]
the irrigated areas around it.* [2] The name was borrowed Sorcery was prevalent in the basin of the Helmend river,
into Greek and Latin as a compound with Eastern Iranian and the Parsi were powerful in Cabul, which is a Zoroas*raha (cf. Scythian Rha "Volga"), river. Helmand trian way of saying that the Hindu civilisation prevailed in
Province is named after the river.
those parts, which in fact in the two centuries before and
*
The Helmand River stretches for 1,150 km (710 mi). It after Christ were known as White India, [4] and remained
*
rises in the Hindu Kush mountains, about 80 km (50 mi) more Indian than Iranian till the Muslim conquest. [5] The
west of Kabul (3434N 6833E / 34.567N 68.550E), Hindu Zunbils were also located here. Some Vedic scholars
passing north of the Unai Pass,in the eastern proximities of (e.g. Kochhar 1999) also believe the Helmand valley corHazarajat, in Behsud, ows west to Daykundi and Uruzgan. responds to the Sarasvati area mentioned in the Rig Veda
It crosses south-west through the desert of Dashti Margo, as the homeland for the Indo-Aryan migrations into India,
*
to the Seistan marshes and the Hamun-i-Helmand lake re- ca. 1500 BC. [6] Six major discoveries by Italian Archaegion around Zabol at the Afghan-Iranian border (319N ologist in Swat District of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa Province
of Pakistan regarding the river have been discussed in the
6133E / 31.150N 61.550E).
book The History of Communication (published 2012).
The river remains relatively salt-free for much of its length,
unlike most rivers with no outlet to the sea. This river, managed by the Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority is
174.2 See also
used extensively for irrigation, although a buildup of mineral salts has decreased its usefulness in watering crops. Its
List of rivers of Afghanistan
waters are essential for farmers in Afghanistan, but it feeds
into Lake Hamun and is also important to farmers in Iran's
Kajaki Dam
southeastern Sistan and Baluchistan province.
A number of hydroelectric dams have created articial
reservoirs on some of the Afghanistan's rivers including
the Kajakai on the Helmand River. The chief tributary of
the Helmand river is the Arghandab River (conuence at
3127N 6423E / 31.450N 64.383E) which also has a
174.3
521
Notes
[1] History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976

- 2005 (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-20.
522
[2] Jack Finegan. Myth & Mystery: An Introduction to the Pagan

Religions of the Biblical World. Baker Books, 1997. ISBN
0-8010-2160-X, 9780801021602
[3] Vendidad 1, at Avesta.org
[4] Beyond is Arachosia, 36 schoeni. And the Parthians call
this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of
Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it
is Greek, and by it ows the river Arachotus. As far as this
place the land is under the rule of the Parthians.
[5] Avesta, translated by James Darmesteter (From Sacred
Books of the East, American Edition, 1898
[6] Kochhar, Rajesh. 'On the identity and chronology of the
gvedic river Sarasvat' in Archaeology and Language III;
Artefacts, languages and texts, Routledge (1999). ISBN 0415-10054-2.
174.4 References
Various authors.
HELMAND RIVER.
Encyclopdia Iranica (Online ed.). United States:
Columbia University.
Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia.
World Publishing company, Cleveland, Ohio. Mentor
Book edition, 1966.
Toynbee, Arnold J. (1961). Between Oxus and Jumna.
London. Oxford University Press.
Vogelsang, W. (1985). Early historical Arachosia in
South-east Afghanistan; Meeting-place between East
and West.Iranica antiqua, 20 (1985), pp. 5599.

From Wetland to Wasteland: The Destruction of the
Hamoun Oasis
CHAPTER 174. HELMAND RIVER
Chapter 175
Kapal Mochan
175.2
Kapal Mochan Mela
See also: Sarasvati river, Mahabharata, and Puranas

The place nds mention in the Puranas and the
Mahabharata,* [4] and was visited by Mahadeva, Sri
Rama and Pandavas.
There is historical Mahadev Temple, Gau Bacha Temple
and Gurdwara with ancient Pool. Every year, nearly ve
lakh pilgrims visit the place during the annual, Kapal
Mochan Mela" during November.* [5]* [6]
Kapal Mochan Sarovar and Gau-Bacha Temple
Kapal Mochan is an ancient place of pilgrimage for both

Hindus and Sikhs, 17 km north-east of Jagadhari town, on
the Bilaspur road in Yamunanagar district.* [1] It is also
called Gopal Mochan and Somsar Mochan. As per Legend, Brhmanahatya i.e. killing of Brahmin is considered as a major sin, but one who kills a Brahmin and bath
here, his Brhmanahatya sins will be washed. Nearby
Bilaspur, Haryana (not to be confused with Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh) in Yamuna Nagar District which takes its
name from the corrupted form of Vyas Puri, was the
ashram of Ved Vyasa rishi where he wrote the Mahabharta
on the banks of Sarasvati river near Adi Badri where Sarasvati river leaves Himalayas and enters the plains.* [2]
175.3
History
175.3.1
Mahadev Visit
Mahadev also visited this place after killing Brahma Ji.
175.3.2
Sri Rama Visit
In Treyta era Lord Rama came here in his Pushpak Viman

after killing Ravana, The Brahmin. From that day this pond
is called Surya Kund* [7]
175.3.3
Guru Nanak Visit
Also Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh visited this place
to share Sikh doctrines.* [8]
175.1 Demographics
As of 2001 India census,* [3] Bilaspur had a population of
9620. Males constitute 53% of the population and females
47%. Bilaspur has an average literacy rate of 65%, higher
than the national average of 59.5%; with male literacy of
69% and female literacy of 61%. 14% of the population is
under 6 years of age.
Guru Nanak Dev stopped here during one of his udasis in

1584 and have spoke to a large gathering disputing the ritual
of Sootak (the concept that a newborn baby is born impure).
According to Nanak, Sootak is there on Mind when it is
entangles in vices. Adi Granth states:

.* [9] A Gurdwara is located
with temple which commemorates his visit.* [10]
523
524
175.3.4
CHAPTER 175. KAPAL MOCHAN
Guru Gobind Singh visit
[10] G.S., Randhir (1990). Sikh shrines in India. New Delhi:

The Director of Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 4243.
Guru Gobind Singh visited Kapal Mochan after Battle of

Bhangani in 1688 and gave robes of honor (turbans) to sol- [11] Charitar 71, Charitar of Kapal Mochan, Charitropakhyan,
diers who fought this victorious war against Hill Rulers. He
Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh
also had discourse with priests of temple on Durga. He gave
Hukamnama to temple priests which is still preserved by
them. Also, Guru Gobind Singh and his soldiers get temple, rid of those people, who pollute the pond water, by
doing toilets on short distances from ponds.* [11] In Dasam
Granth, Khalsa Mahima(the praise of Khalsa) and Charitar
71 describe a few events happened during Gobind Singh's
stay at Kapal Mochan.
175.4 Nearby Attractions

Nearby Bilaspur, Haryana (not to be confused with
Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh) in Yamuna Nagar District
which takes its name from the corrupted form of Vyas
Puri, was the ashram of Ved Vyasa rishi where he wrote
the Mahabharta on the banks of Sarasvati river near Adi
Badri where Sarasvati river leaves Himalayas and enters the
plains.* [2] On Jagadhari road lies another popular religious
site of Kapal Mochan.
175.5 References
Coordinates:
77.31750E
301932N 77193E / 30.32556N
[1] yamunanagar.nic.in: About Kapal Mochan Temple

[2] Sarasvati Sodh Sansthan Publications 2015
[3] Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16.
[4] Five lakh pilgrims arrive to take part in Kapal Mochan
fair. Indian Express. November 9, 2011. Retrieved 201408-21.
[5] Lakhs throng Kapal Mochan Mela. The Hindu. November 10, 2011. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
[6] Tight security for holy dip during Kapal Mochan Mela.
Zee News. November 16, 2013. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
[7] yamunanagar.nic.in: History of Kapal Mochan
[8] The Sikh Encyclopedia: Kapal Mochan
[9] Page 472, Adi Granth, Nanak
Chapter 176
Karoh Peak
Karoh Peak, is a 1467 meters tall mountain peak in the to be remnant of Sarasvati River, that is said to originate
Shivalik Hills range of greater Himalayas range located near from Adi Badri (Haryana), was home of the Indus Valley
Morni Hills area of Panchkula district, Haryana, India, it is Civilisation.* [2]* [3]* [4]
highest point in the state of Haryana* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]
176.1 Etymology and Religious Signicance
176.5
Forests and Trecking
One can take motored transport from Chandigarh via

Panchkula to reach Chhamla-Daman-Thapli road in
Haryana. The Karoh Peak is nearly 500 meters vertical
The Karoh Peak is named the local Hindu deity,the Kroh distance from Chhamla-Daman-Thapli road and can be
or Karoh Deota. * [2]
climbed by traversing a 2 km trek via the dhanis (small settlements) of Churi and Diyothi of Bhoj Darara.* [2]* [3]
176.2 Karoh Deota Temple and Ar176.6

chaeological Site
The Karoh Deota is the presiding deity of the Karoh hill.
At the top there are three brick and mortar shrines of Karoh
deota. There are also rock sculptures placed outside one
of the shrine, that are archaeological fragments of ruined
ancient Hindu temples.* [2]
See also
Morni Hills, Panchkula district, 1267 m peak

Dhosi Hill, Narnaul - Hill of Chyavana Rishi creator
of Chyawanprash, 1170 m peak
Tosham, 240 m average elevation
Madhogarh, Haryana, 214 m average elevation
Monuments of National Importance in Haryana
176.3 Highest point in Haryana
State Protected Monuments in Haryana
At 1467 meters Karoh Peak is the highest mountain peak in

the state of Haryana. The British rulers had originally and
incorrectly recorded in The Imperial Gazetteer of India the
height of Karoh Hill to be 1499 meters. Actual measurements by the Survey of India found the actual height to be
100 feet lower and ocial height was revised down to 1467
meters.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]
National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries of Haryana

India cave temples
Caves in India
Rock-cut temples in India
Indian rock-cut architecture
Indus Valley Civilisation sites
176.4 River Basins
Highest point of Indian states and territories
It is located within the Indus river basin and Ghaggar-Hakra

River basin. The Ghaggar-Hakra River basin which is said
525
List of mountains in India

Haryana Tourism
526
176.7 References
[1] Karoh Peak (1467m)
[2] Hills of Morni. www.hillsofmorni.com. Retrieved 24
March 2016.
[3] Interesting Facts About Haryana. www.quickgs.com.
Retrieved 24 March 2016.
[4]Peakbagger. peakbagger.com. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
[5] Gazetteer of India. University of Chicago. Retrieved 24
March 2016.
[6] The Morni Hills
CHAPTER 176. KAROH PEAK
Chapter 177
Morni
Morni is a village and tourist attraction in the Morni Hills
at the height of 1267 meters in the Panchkula district of the
Indian state of Haryana. It is located around 45 kilometres
(28 mi) from Chandigarh,35 km from Panchkula city and
is known for its Himalayan views, ora, and lakes.* [1] The
name of Morni is believed to derive from a queen who once
ruled the area.
177.2
The Haryana Government has constructed the Mountain

Quail Resort for tourists,* [1] along with a motorable road
to connect the Morni Hills with the Haryana State Highway near Panchkula. Three further roads connect Morni to
Chandigarh and other nearby towns.
177.3
177.1 Geography
Overview
Accommodation
At Tikkar Taal, dormitory accommodation for campers has

been made available by Haryana Tourism.* [1]
An Indian Forest Department rest house named Lal Muniaand a PWD rest house have also been constructed to accommodate tourists and trackers. The resort includes small
playgrounds for children, along with a roller skating rink
and a swimming pool.* [1]
177.4
Morni Hill Fort
There is an old fort in the Morni area, which is now in ruins.

The hills are covered by pine trees, and are popular trekking
locations.* [1]
Sign board showing the altitude of Morni Hills
177.5
The Morni Hills are oshoots of the Shivalik range of the

Himalayas, which run in two parallel ranges. The village of
Morni lies on the mountainside, at 1,220 metres (4,000 ft)
above mean sea level. Among the spurs of the hills lie two
lakes, the larger of these being about 550 metres (1,800
ft) long and 460 metres (1,510 ft) broad, and the smaller
around 365 metres (1,198 ft) either way.
A hill divides the two lakes, the larger one is callled Tikkar
Taal which is 550 meter wide and 460 meter long* [2] and
the smaller one is called Chota Tikkar Taal (meaning the
little tikkar lake) is 365 meter wide and long,* [2] as the legend goes there is be a hidden channel linking them, as the
water level of two lakes remains roughly the same. Morni
locals look upon the lakes as sacred.* [3]
527
Tikkar Taal
528
CHAPTER 177. MORNI
177.6 Morni Hill Water Fall
List of National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries of

Haryana, India
A hill divides the two lakes, the larger one is callled Tikkar
Taal and the smaller one is called Chota Tikkar Taal
(meaning the little tikkar lake), as the legend goes there is
be a hidden channel linking them, as the water level of two
lakes remains roughly the same. Morni locals look upon the
lakes as sacred.* [2]* [3]
List of mountains in India

List of mountains by elevation
World Herbal Forest
177.10
177.7 Morni Hill
Temple Site
Archaeological
A 12th century temple exists near the tikkar taal and an

archaeological dig uncovered 12th century artifacts which
are kept there in the open.* [3]
177.8 Gallery
177.9 See also

Mohali
Geography of Haryana
References
Morni Hills View

[1] Morni hills. Haryana Tourism. 2008. Retrieved 26 July
2013.
[2] http://tourism.webindia123.com/tourism/hillstations/
Morni/index.htm Morni Hills
[3] Tikker lake
177.11
External links
Morni Hills at TripAdvisor

Morni Hills View
Chapter 178
Sarasvati Pushkaram
Sarasvati Pushkaram is a festival of River Sarasvati normally occurs once in 12 years. Saraswati River is considered
as the 'Antarvahini' (invisible river) which ows at Triveni
Sangam. This Pushkaram is observed for a period of 12
days from the time of entry of Jupiter into Mithuna rasi
(Gemini).* [1]
178.1 See also

Kumbh Mela
Pushkaram
178.2 References
[1] Roshen Dalal (18 April 2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical
Guide. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 921. ISBN 978-818475-277-9.
529
530
CHAPTER 178. SARASVATI PUSHKARAM
178.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

178.3.1
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531
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Kyhammond, Ncboy2010, Zeus Gold Asterri, SpongerJack, Odysseus1479, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, Zapzooma, DBigXray, Austin obviously,
Cold Season, Harizotoh9, Khazar2, TROLOLOLOLOLFACEUMAD?, Sbalfour, Epicgenius, Robittiget, Bard Cadarn, Fixuture, Daylight15,
W.carter, Vampette4lyf, TheBookishOne, ChuckleDuck51, Dilbet10000, K scheik, Miraclexix, TheDonD, 420noscope, The Avengers, Caveman killer, Maxwelpoon, Wikishovel, Bobby joe999 and Anonymous: 115
Mashu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashu?oldid=752170484 Contributors: Disdero, Carlossuarez46, SamEV, Mjk2357, BanyanTree,
Bjones, Str1977, Bondegezou, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Kevinalewis, John D. Croft, Anacon, Cydebot, Rquesada, RFerreira, Goldenrowley, R'n'B,
Tavix, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sumerophile, Nohomers48, Blaylockjam10, Paul Bedson, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kobitapora, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Mu (lost continent) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_(lost_continent)?oldid=756827390 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Fubar Obfusco, Shii, Tregoweth, Jpatokal, Theresa knott, Djungelurban, Omegatron, Ccady, AnonMoos, Carbuncle, Kinori, Robbot, AlainV, Lowellian,
Auric, Xanzzibar, Davidcannon, Decumanus, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Martijn faassen, MingMecca, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Jorge
Stol, Plato, Ellsworth, Kuralyov, Gary D, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, Rama, Vsmith, Mike Capp, Pedant, Mjk2357, Capnjeremy, Mikecap,
Grue, Bbartlog, Alansohn, CyberSkull, Hippopha~enwiki, Titanium Dragon, Velella, Ish ishwar, Papo1975, Bjones, Nirion, Ylem, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Mutant-biogen, Haikupoet, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Margosbot~enwiki, JYOuyang, BjKa, Str1977, President Rhapsody,
Fatmacman, Banaticus, YurikBot, Adamhauner, RussBot, Ryuuseipro, Hede2000, Duayne Kiuda, Ritchy, Lusanaherandraton, GunnarRene,
IAMTHEEGGMAN, Anchjo, Gate2Valusia, Wiki alf, Buster79, Neum, 24ip, Cleared as led, Prod, Jpai235, Bozoid, Snarius, Tryphiodorus,
Nikkimaria, Bamse, Bluezy, Attilios, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Tarret, VigilancePrime, JimPettis, Athaler, Kintetsubualo, Master Deusoma,
WARendfeld, Commander Keane bot, Bluebot, TimBentley, Thumperward, Timneu22, Emurphy42, Scwlong, Crazilla, Eliyahu S, Muinn, Vanished User 0001, Clean Copy, Ossian511, J 1982, Perfectblue97, Baphin, DianaCouture, A. Parrot, Kawayama, Caiaa, TJ Spyke, Paukrus,
Joseph Solis in Australia, Casull, BlackxxJapan, ChrisCork, RdCrestdBreegull, RCS, Urutapu, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Biruitorul, Bobblehead, NorwegianBlue, Second Quantization, Peter Gulutzan, Eban, The Fat Man Who Never Came Back, Nick Number, Orfen, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, NeilEvans, Courtjester555, Storkk, Ghmyrtle, Ltmidnight, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Omeganian,
Robina Fox, Sophie means wisdom, Chevellefan11, Singularity, ClovisPt, WLU, Giantdevilsh, Wowaconia, Tgeairn, Slash, Hans Dunkelberg, Danbrown99, Skumarlabot, Don Cuan, Gaykhatu, Noumenal, Alexb102072, Zerokitsune, KylieTastic, Aminullah, Zara1709, Squids
and Chips, JohnBlackburne, LokiClock, Pahari Sahib, 99DBSIMLR, Rangeguide, Java7837, Sean D Martin, Vaarsuvius, Tjn3wton, Plazak,
Billinghurst, Adam the Stampede, NW557Bot, Brianga, As110, Movedgood, Gojira17, SieBot, Slatersteven, Majeston, WereSpielChequers,
Winchelsea, Jchurchward, Yintan, Hawk777, Bpell, QTEng, AngelOfSadness, Goustien, Miles297, Fighting Fefnir, TypoBot, Florentino oro,
MGMario, Granite07, ClueBot, Binksternet, Snigbrook, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Boing! said Zebedee, Dekisugi, Mlas, Rokus03, Qdfesr, Thingg, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Bmac91, Richard-of-Earth, Mtdewmaniac21, AVPgojirafreak, Addbot,
533
TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion, Damaband, Dy Semikyst, Tassedethe, Lightbot, , Wikkidd, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Perfect Chaos7,
Nallimbot, Againme, AnomieBOT, XL2D, Rubinbot, Rjanag, Jim1138, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, St.nerol, GenQuest, GrouchoBot, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Seeker1234567890, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Dev93l, Citation bot 1, Trappist the monk, Pollinosisss, 20Bond09,
TrueGreatness63, Jtarheel, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Dominus Vobisdu, ZroBot, Misty MH, , Moto53, Wayne Slam,
SkookumDog, CBcleaner, ResidentAnthropologist, ClueBot NG, Yjfstorehouse, Wikibntg, Firebrand stone, Dream of Nyx, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Geronimochic, Eliskuya2, , Snow Rise, BMacZero, MrBill3, GreenUniverse, BattyBot, Mini4WD,
Khazar2, Telfordbuck, Etheriemma, Seboist, Victarion Greyjoy, Bever, Ugog Nizdast, AtticTapestry, BradleyFree, Xenxax, Monkbot, Monsterlord18, SnowGhost52, Guise, NightXenon999, Dash9Z, 124mm10, Paintman777, IzzyFuzzy, DivineMeaninglessness, Patchosan, Bender the
Bot and Anonymous: 350
Muang Then Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muang_Then?oldid=546122472 Contributors: Paul A, Pratyeka, Rms125a@hotmail.com,
Addbot, AnomieBOT, ZroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 2
Mythical continents Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythical_continents?oldid=743162521 Contributors: Feezo, Scheinwerfermann,
Huon, Juliancolton, Jack Merridew, Gubernatoria, Mx. Granger, Ngebendi, Dthomsen8, Yobot, ChildofMidnight, FrescoBot, Dream of Nyx,
MrBill3, ChrisGualtieri, Saectar, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 9
Paristan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paristan?oldid=752372079 Contributors: BD2412, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Siddiqui, Asarelah,
C.Fred, Gilliam, Bluebot, Amalas, N2e, Yaris678, Dynaow, Kotengu, Goldenrowley, Hom sepanta, Bovineboy2008, Goustien, XLinkBot,
Addbot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, MiscGezork, Erik9bot, I dream of horses, Jandalhandler, Racerx11, ZxxZxxZ, ClueBot NG, Wamiq, Paristan, Jhoki Huur e Kungi and Anonymous: 20
Pimpleia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimpleia?oldid=725425740 Contributors: Markussep, Drbreznjev, Megistias, SmackBot,
Roscelese, Cplakidas, Woodshed, R'n'B, Addbot, Dorieo, FrescoBot, MaryroseB54 and Anonymous: 1
Sacred grove Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_grove?oldid=754874832 Contributors: Shii, Vik-Thor, DopeshJustin, Shyamal,
Wetman, Ashley Y, DocWatson42, Wiglaf, Finn-Zoltan, Gary D, Pradiptaray, Dbachmann, Viriditas, Oop, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk,
Woohookitty, Cuchullain, Qwertyus, RxS, Rjwilmsi, Patrick1982, YurikBot, Pigman, GeeJo, Curtis Clark, Bloodofox, Mlouns, Epipelagic,
AdelaMae, SmackBot, pa~enwiki, Lisapollison, A. Parrot, Lucio Di Madaura, LadyofShalott, Flying Saucer, FilipeS, Goldfritha, John Foxe,
Lethargy, Picus viridis, Iulius, Uruiamme, Goldenrowley, JAnDbot, UtDicitur, Cynwolfe, AtticusX, Mahitgar, 1549bcp, Chiswick Chap, Dierk
Lange~enwiki, DASonnenfeld, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Enkyo2, Niceguyedc, Sun Creator, ShiningTor, Kaecyy, Eustress, Addbot, The Sage of
Stamford, Holt, Soupforone, Lightbot, Cuprum, Zorrobot, Yobot, Encyacht, Theonlynitin, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, FrescoBot, I dream
of horses, HRoestBot, Moonraker, Stalwart111, John of Reading, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Cwmhiraeth, ClaretAsh, Davek79, Talking.kerbau,
Masssly, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Marcocapelle, Rev.acfrancis, Rwenonah, Fdsdh1, Hallvard Indgjerd, Cerabot~enwiki, Sowlos, Muchotreeo,
Hillbillyholiday, MyNameIsJeanValjean, Bananaby2, LucSare, Alayambo, MPCaton, AsteriskStarSplat, X12-1080, Bender the Bot, Isobel
Chaveh and Anonymous: 51
Samseonghyeol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samseonghyeol?oldid=753894178 Contributors: The Anome, Ryuch, Rich Farmbrough,
Newspaperman, CJLL Wright, Wikipeditor, SmackBot, Cydebot, Alaibot, Jllm06, Bstrong, ^demonBot2, Billinghurst, Yobot, Nallimbot,
EmausBot, Gray eyes and Anonymous: 5
Thuvaraiyam Pathi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuvaraiyam_Pathi?oldid=498303567 Contributors: Sam Spade, Mjk2357, Who,
Vaikunda Raja, SmackBot, Cydebot, OrenBochman, Goldenrowley, EstherRice, Captain panda, Squids and Chips, Snigbrook, Ajackz, Erik9bot
and Anonymous: 5
Uhlanga Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhlanga?oldid=662062107 Contributors: Dominus, The Singing Badger, Dceck, GeeJo, Bluebot, Bejnar, Zyxoas, Cydebot, Alaibot, Ebyabe, Barticus88, Urco, Captain panda, STBotD, XLinkBot, Addbot, Pastafarian32, Fraulein451,
Mamelani! and Anonymous: 5
Underworld Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld?oldid=754532261 Contributors: Wesley, Tarquin, SimonP, BL~enwiki, Greg
Godwin, Carl~enwiki, K.lee, Infrogmation, D, Dante Alighieri, Tannin, Wapcaplet, TakuyaMurata, Islandboy99, Dori, Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, CatherineMunro, TUF-KAT, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Corixidae, Jeandr du Toit, Nikola Smolenski, The Warlock, Reddi, Zoicon5,
Haukurth, Jose Ramos, Hawstom, Robbot, Ktotam, Sheridan, UtherSRG, Pengo, Davidcannon, David Gerard, Nat Krause, Tom harrison,
Gracefool, Andycjp, Yardcock, Noe, Williamb, Sam Hocevar, Picapica, D6, Discospinster, Silence, Heenan73, Xezbeth, Erolos, Dbachmann,
Harry Hayeld, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Dystopos, Alansohn, DreamGuy, Velella, MPA, Cromwellt, ReyBrujo, Jheald, Oghmoir, Raga, Iisaphd, Kusma, Hyfen, Hijiri88, Stemonitis, Gordjazz, BlankVerse, Fbv65edel, -Ril-, PhilippWeissenbacher, BD2412, JIP, Jdcooper, Ketiltrout,
SteveW, Koavf, Avochelm, Marasama, Salix alba, FigmentJedi, Matt Deres, FlaBot, HiddenWolf, Mitsukai, Benjwong, Cuahl, Satanael, YurikBot, Rtkat3, 999~enwiki, Aussie Evil, Ikusawa, Pigman, Bloodofox, R.e.s., DarkFireTaker, Aldux, Vastu, Ospalh, CorbieVreccan, Maunus,
Wknight94, Open2universe, Mike Selinker, Sujanks, Locketudor, SmackBot, Bomac, Geo B, Skizzik, Unint, H2ppyme, Colonies Chris,
Royboycrashfan, Egsan Bacon, Cobain, Unknown Dragon, Fiery deluge, MartinRe, Ryan Roos, Myths1233, Taylor28, Kahuroa, Shadowy
Crafter, Onlim, RandomCritic, AJK5599, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, NJMauthor, Ace Class Shadow, MTSbot~enwiki, ShelfSkewed, Fairsing, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, BlueAg09, Umdunno, Otto4711, Chris10chan, Makwy2, PamD, Thijs!bot, E. Ripley, Scottandrewhutchins, Escarbot,
Baville, MrMarmite, Luna Santin, Goldenrowley, Gundam07th, JAnDbot, The Fifth Horseman, Instinct, Geniac, JNW, Galifardeu, Cgingold, Antmusic, Allstarecho, Zouavman Le Zouave, R'n'B, Gunkarta, Thyb0, Hundred-Man, Koven.rm, AntiSpamBot, Mamin27, Egard89,
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AlleborgoBot, Gordomono, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, BlueAzure, BBKurt, Angel David, Capitalismojo, Lifemagic, MenoBot, Martarius, Sfan00
IMG, ClueBot, Podzemnik, Mimz 06, Mspraveen, Excirial, Shamelessly Nameless, PokeWarrior, NuclearWarfare, Howdoesitee, JamieS93,
Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, SilvonenBot, ZooFari, Airplaneman, Addbot, Ronhjones, USchick, Coby1bs, Bloodkith, Glane23, Ws227, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Draqoni, Pie Crossing, Guy1890, QueenCake, AnomieBOT,
Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Srinivas, Grossmnster, Capricorn42, Nasnema, Made of nguyen, Programming gecko, Tianyamm2, Abce2, Freiheitsgedanke, Wiggles, Locobot, Am 555, Coose, Recognizance, Tylojam10, Redrose64, Bobmack89x, Krisallenno1fanindaworld, Kibi78704,
Abhingeorgegodwin, Elitedrago, Jade Harley, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Ashah peters, Gustav Ulsh Iler, Adrian Richhill, Stelercus, SatansHelper666,
Ripchip Bot, Uanfala, I'm not that crazy, BullyBulldawg, TCTCobalt, TuHan-Bot, TeleComNasSprVen, Paul Bedson, Ban123ana, Traxs7,
534
K kisses, Wayne Slam, Megawyatt, ChuispastonBot, EdoBot, Rocketrod1960, Catholic nerd, ClueBot NG, Uvonpeterson, Rudyindarto, UnderGODsHelp, Prohairesius, Ranze, Wario-Man, Kgwaugh, Dawjee, Eric Corbett, MagicatthemovieS, 67781530, Odinomnom, Evanfridley,
Ornithoptera, Tophet, Fimatic and Anonymous: 232
Lake Uniamsi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Uniam%C3%A9si?oldid=743940837 Contributors: Charles Matthews, BDD,
Nikkimaria, Guy Macon, Deor, Aymatth2, Piledhigheranddeeper, Loriendrew, Khazar2 and Bender the Bot
Venusberg (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venusberg_(mythology)?oldid=712034063 Contributors: Alansohn, Ketiltrout,
Pigman, J S Ayer, Wizardman, The Man in Question, Neelix, Mr.Slade, KnightMove, Varlet16, Sigurd Dragon Slayer, T@nn, CommonsDelinker,
TXiKiBoT, Austriacus, Krzysztofgajewski, Ksunsh01, BARTSAD, Addbot, Intelati, Alonso de Mendoza, Soenke Rahn, WikitanvirBot, TuHanBot and Anonymous: 7
Zazamanc Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zazamanc?oldid=626611372 Contributors: Bearcat, Daranz, SmackBot, RandomCritic, Alaibot, Nick Number, Waacstats, Brewcrewer, Penner Theologius Pott, Yobot, Amberwilloughby and Anonymous: 2
Heaven in Christianity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity?oldid=746587530 Contributors: Andrewa, Bender235,
Woohookitty, Pigman, Hmains, Egsan Bacon, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Tktktk, Keahapana, Cydebot, Instaurare, Fluxbot, Hyukjaes, Bonadea,
StAnselm, Til Eulenspiegel, Shark96z, Goodone121, Stormbualo, Elizium23, Editor2020, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
Cyphoidbomb, Carrite, Nikil44, Vejlefjord, Unimpeder, Canstusdis, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Iisak Lehtinen, Future777, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Alexroller, Explosionsnevermakeasound, Marcocapelle, Fuse809, Ingato83, Kwisha, SorituaNababan, MaryTanner, Dilipdalton, Soonhee88,
Love1scent, Bobboobs and Anonymous: 50
Deva (Jainism) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Jainism)?oldid=750243674 Contributors: AnomieBOT, Fixer88, Tophet, ,
Capankajsmilyo and Anonymous: 1
Entering Heaven alive Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entering_Heaven_alive?oldid=756509970 Contributors: Bluejay Young, Mike
R, DragonySixtyseven, Nickptar, Ukexpat, Mailer diablo, Sesmith, GregorB, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Orville Eastland, Crotalus horridus,
Gaius Cornelius, Lexicon, Elkman, Black Falcon, Mareklug, SmackBot, PiCo, AndreasJS, OrphanBot, Drivera90~enwiki, Kendrick7, Will
Beback, Eliyak, Gausie, Collect, HisSpaceResearch, Jaksmata, Pseudo-Richard, ExTechOp, Dadofsam, Coelacan, Keraunos, Itsmejudith,
Therealmikelvee, Tariqhaashmi, Nick Number, Escarbot, MarshBot, Noroton, Fayenatic london, ARTEST4ECHO, Bpmullins, Crimperman, Nyttend, Theroadislong, Wrad, Pax:Vobiscum, All Is One, Tdadamemd, Arion 3x3, MishaPan, Teledildonix314, Berthold Werner,
Java7837, IACOBVS, Killing sparrows, VanishedUserABC, ThomasHartman, ObjectivismLover, SieBot, StAnselm, Goustien, Vanished user
ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mild Bill Hiccup, CohesionBot, Sun Creator, HadmarWieser, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Avoided, Addbot, Blaylockjam10, Equilibrium007, Legobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, ChildofMidnight, Ruddyman11, Swashbucklingbuccaneer, Mawst, FrescoBot, Lotje, Jondray, Humilityisne, Lovejoyhealth, GoingBatty, Emshef, Willthacheerleader18, Martinglass, Khestwol, ClueBot NG, Shaad
lko, InferKNOX, Graham11, Dianakc, Arminden, Osiris, Khazar2, Dromidaon, HarJIT, SleepingSandman, Comp.arch, Bladesmulti, Tigercompanion25, Septate, Tahakhan82, Gonzales John, KasparBot, InternetArchiveBot, Iamlrs and Anonymous: 73
Fiddler's Green Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddler'{}s_Green?oldid=755690315 Contributors: SimonP, Lquilter, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Cimon Avaro, Jwrosenzweig, Bkell, The Fellowship of the Troll, Tom harrison, Gamaliel, Daibhid C, TulsaTV, Kuralyov, Discospinster, Silence, Dbachmann, Gronky, ESkog, Ogg, Foobaz, Anthony Appleyard, Visviva, Hu, Saga City, Czolgolz, Zorblek, Bacteria, Firsfron, Bjones, Masterjamie, Gemini6Ice, Ketiltrout, MarnetteD, Remurmur, Nihiltres, Alphachimp, Kasbjoernsen, Niethan, RussBot,
Pigman, Atfyfe, Clocktopus, Gadget850, Mike Selinker, Nepton, KaHOnas, Jinxs, SmackBot, Septegram, Icemuon, Autarch, SailorfromNH,
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Glennwells, Arch dude, Siddharth Mehrotra, Grinity, Ellisjudd, Altrieth, Wlashley, Strisas, Ryanstask, Thgord08, TaylorAshton, CalvertdeGrey, NewEnglandYankee, Spelemann, VolkovBot, Cananadian402, RingtailedFox, Lexein, Talisantia, Dean Kessler, Rei-bot, CanOfWorms,
Kesshaka, Mralibu, Takumidesh, Barkeep, Slatersteven, WereSpielChequers, Seedbot, FieldMarine, Fullyinvlved, Drhu, SoxBot III, Editor2020,
Mertozoro, Addbot, Jvictork, Briggadoon, , Yobot, Hohenloh, Broodingomnipresence, Julle, Farmerdave74, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Dave Ordinary, Bleent, LittleWink, Jakeukalane, Cnwilliams, Jikybebna, Tim1357, Jonkerz, FavoriteBooks, Cowlibob,
Ebe123, DARKDECLINE, Jrhtanker, , L Kensington, Chromfelge~enwiki, ClueBot NG, Andreipapenov, BalanceFish, Je1776,
Egarobar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cmbroderick, BG19bot, IluvatarBot, Lizzie97, Haymouse, BatsonDBelfry, Alexwho314, Chaypab, Ginsuloft,
Nbracken, GeeBee60, Monkbot, Billygraham2014, Kethrus, Rtejano, IrishSea777, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 199
Heaven Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven?oldid=756827063 Contributors: WojPob, Mav, Wesley, RK, SimonP, DavidLevinson,
Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, DopeshJustin, Tannin, IZAK, TakuyaMurata, Ihcoyc, Ams80,
TUF-KAT, Darkwind, Kh7, Bogdangiusca, Rob Hooft, Ghewgill, Pizza Puzzle, Quizkajer, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, DonPaolo, Mendor, IceKarma, Maximus Rex, Hyacinth, Dogface, Toreau, Hawstom, Fredrik, Altenmann, Romanm, Sam Spade, Chris5369, Rfc1394, Academic Challenger, Rholton, Roscoe x, Johnstone, Fuelbottle, Xanzzibar, Reytan, Tea2min, David Gerard, Jwinters, Dominick, DocWatson42,
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Gadum, Utcursch, Andycjp, Quadell, Albrecht, K.M.~enwiki, Kaldari, ShakataGaNai, Jossi, DragonySixtyseven, Xandar, One Salient Oversight, Husnock, Pmanderson, Zfr, Gscshoyru, Neale Monks, Jh51681, Syvanen, Naus, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Randwicked, Lacrimosus,
Esperant, Abomination, Eep, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, Venu62, Metron, DanielCD, Vacindak, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
Randee15, EliasAlucard, Triskaideka, Number 0, JoeyDay, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, ESkog, MyNameIsNotBob, Kwamikagami, NickGorton~enwiki, Hayabusa future, Mwanner, Summer Song, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Nrbelex, Dustinasby, Bobo192,
Longhair, Chessphoon, Skywalker, Elipongo, Russ3Z, Nk, Deryck Chan, Rje, Solar, Gembaser, MPerel, Polylerus, Pearle, Jonathunder, Luckyluke, Raj2004, Alansohn, Gary, Elwood00, Jaroslavle, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Greenback, Jamiemichelle, Thorns among our leaves,
Kurieeto, Wanderingstan, Hu, Fivetrees, Angelic Wraith, Wtmitchell, Velella, Rebroad, Zantastik, Amorymeltzer, Iustinus, Jakes18, Tariqabjotu, TShilo12, Hijiri88, Angr, Bacteria, Boothy443, The JPS, Woohookitty, Kzollman, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, MGTom, Je3000, MONGO,
Mpatel, Tabletop, Knuckles, GregorB, Macaddct1984, OCNative, Pictureuploader, Farhansher, Marudubshinki, Joe Roe, Paxsimius, Ashmoo,
Graham87, BD2412, FreplySpang, Pranathi, Vanderdecken, Kane5187, Rjwilmsi, Kinu, Lugnad, Nkosi, Tangotango, MZMcBride, Tawker,
HappyCamper, Afterwriting, Oliverkeenan, Notorious4life, Nandesuka, Maxim Razin, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Bladeofgrass, CDThieme,
Naraht, Randywade, SuperDude115, RexNL, Str1977, President Rhapsody, Krun, Codex Sinaiticus, Preslethe, WikiWikiPhil, Valentinian, Vanished user psdwnef3niurunuh234ruhfwdb7, King of Hearts, DaGizza, DTOx, DVdm, Antiuser, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Digitalme, Daduzi, The
535
Rambling Man, Wavelength, Sceptre, Rtkat3, Pip2andahalf, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Petiatil, Red Slash, Muchness, Conscious, Hede2000, Pigman, Vladislaus Draculea, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Clemondo, Lord Voldemort, CambridgeBayWeather, Neilbeach, Wimt, Big Brother 1984,
Amosglenn, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, BigCow, Bachrach44, Nirvana2013, Robertvan1, Grafen, ThePurpleBuddha, Bloodofox, Mike Halterman, Welsh, Rjensen, Irishguy, Seeaxid, Matticus78, GracieLizzie, Tbook~enwiki, Emersoni, Truthdowser, Alex43223, Ma3nocum, Bucketsofg, DeadEyeArrow, Tachs, Lumaga, Antley, DChapman, Max Schwarz, Wknight94, Daniel C, Smkolins, Emijrp, Closedmouth, Puritan
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536
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Heaven in Judaism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven_in_Judaism?oldid=756430733 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Andycjp,
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Liz, MagicatthemovieS, WikiEditorial101, Fariborz Davoodi, AddMore-III, Bender the Bot, Iadmc and Anonymous: 44
Hyperuranion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperuranion?oldid=744918344 Contributors: Nagelfar, Cplakidas, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Robosh, Fluxbot, Omnipaedista, Davidiad and Bender the Bot
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537
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sdij4rtltkjasdk3, Rajmaan, Aethelwolf Emsworth, Soronia09, Khanate General, Tophet, Amandanian, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 58
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, L Kensington, Donner60, Tarjeipark, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, Korrawit, Twillisjr, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil,
Thwanap, Aisforatheist, Lindae35, Vitaly repin, KingQueenPrince, BreakfastJr, Ldsvoice, MagicatthemovieS, Meteor sandwich yum, Ellinewilliams231, Dpammm, AsteriskStarSplat, Sonicdaman, Pacingpal, MB, Mia the Evangelical and Anonymous: 205
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XPTO, Walrasiad, Coinmanj, Diaa abdelmoneim, SchreiberBike, DerBorg, Addbot, Iksnyrk, LaaknorBot, Mmadoo, Ettrig, Yobot, Bunnyhop11,
Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Virtualken, PimRijkee, J04n, DrilBot, LittleWink, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot, John of Reading, ZroBot, Other Choices,
Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Qaz Janssen, WPSamson, Plantdrew, Winfredtheforth, FakirNL, Qwertyfrancis, Khazar2, DivermanAU, Bender the
Bot and Anonymous: 59
Argadnel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argadnel?oldid=674119209 Contributors: SimonMayer, The Singing Badger, YUL89YYZ, Aecis, QuartierLatin1968, MarnetteD, Pigman, GeeJo, Malcolma, Doncram, SmackBot, Bluebot, Cydebot, Alaibot, SummerPhD, T@nn, Enaidmawr, Njardarlogar and Anonymous: 2
Avalon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalon?oldid=754697508 Contributors: Mav, SimonP, Shii, Kchishol1970, Michael Hardy, Paul
Barlow, DopeshJustin, Gdarin, Ixfd64, Dori, Cimon Avaro, Wik, Steinsky, Sabbut, Topbanana, Wetman, Frodolives, Robbot, Earl Andrew,
Chrism, Rholton, Sevenstones, Premeditated Chaos, Zake, Ryanen, Mervyn, Komet, Wayland, MilkMiruku, Andromeda~enwiki, Manuel
Anastcio, Dupes, LiDaobing, Baricom, Kuralyov, Machenphile, StephenFerg, MementoVivere, Trevor MacInnis, Kate, Grstain, Discospinster,
Martinl~enwiki, Deh, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, El C, Mjk2357, Bookofjude, Brons, Viriditas, JeR, Nk, Pearle, HasharBot~enwiki, M5,
Pinar, CyberSkull, Jeltz, Rodw, SlimVirgin, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, BDD, SteinbDJ, Antifamilymang, Deror avi, Angr, Pictureuploader, Paxsimius, Cuchullain, Dimitrii, Koavf, MarnetteD, Robert Fraser, FlaBot, T smitts, Spudtater, Choess, CStyle, DVdm, Bgwhite, HJKeats, YurikBot,
Darsie, Rtkat3, RussBot, Wambo, Exterus, Scottocracy, Hydrargyrum, Shanel, Wiki alf, BrainyBroad, Fabulous Creature, Welsh, ImGz, Nutiketaiel, THB, Tawal, AnnaKucsma, JQF, NeilN, SmackBot, Tom Lougheed, Unyoyega, Bwithh, Dpwkbw, JFHJr, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand,
Coreboy, Bjmullan, Splidje, George Ho, Metallurgist, Zone46, MorganLeFay, KnowledgeLord, Dreadstar, DirtySocks85, The PIPE, LeighBCD,
Samuel Sol, Ged UK, Andrew Dalby, Ragestorm, Harryboyles, MartinTurner, AdrianLozano, Kuru, John, Kevmin, Triskell, Stoa, The Man in
Question, 16@r, Woodgreener, Dave420, Adam Keller, Nedved89, Ken Gallager, MrFish, Cydebot, CuteGargoyle, Doug Weller, DumbBOT,
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Martarius, FlamingSilmaril, Savepastry, ClueBot, Pi zero, Niceguyedc, WikiMesser, Antiquary, C628, Mhockey, XLinkBot, Abter1, Jonxwood,
NellieBly, Addbot, Pevalwen, The Sage of Stamford, Narayansg, Jojhutton, Redheylin, SupermodelMartyr, Xeninja, Krano, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Symmerhill, TaBOT-zerem, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, Meganfoxx, Are you ready for IPv6?, Bob Burkhardt,
MVLB, Chell and the cake, Alevtine, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Omnipaedista, Martek, Omar35880, Nucas, FrescoBot, Dger, HJ Mitchell, Kukuforstraws, Citation bot 1, Xxglennxx, Redrose64, Stabinavalon, Jivee Blau, A8UDI, Vrenator, Cagwinn, Kiyoweap, Brianann MacAmhlaidh,
Specs112, Lexi 360, Onel5969, GoingBatty, Winner 42, Triton Rocker, PBS-AWB, Bballdude22tm, L Kensington, Donner60, Jbsmth, TNTCABOOM, Muzikjunkie14, Freemanukem, ClueBot NG, Somewhatdazed, NordhornerII, Tehmulletman, Twillisjr, SybilleY, Dream of Nyx,
Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot, LoneWolf1992, Jellysh10, Mrt3366, SNAAAAKE!!, Almi92, Munybse,
EddieHugh, Ugog Nizdast, NottNott, Noyster, DeadpoolJenny80, AmberLeeDavis, Horseless Headman, Beckytrain, Therz98, 59GJM, 302ET,
Sweet Xeper, Sonicwave32, Alphasniper2014, ToonLucas22, Liamfrancis96, Bailie Richards, Fotonix.images, MusikBot, Macar-va-Mordo,
Mike Brosius, Gavriil Khips, JRodgyRodgy, 7, Beaver5150, Alphaterran, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 336
538
Brasil (mythical island) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasil_(mythical_island)?oldid=736918061 Contributors: Lee M, Tjunier, Morwen, Warofdreams, Wetman, Sjorford, Robbot, PedroPVZ, Hadal, Fuelbottle, Varlaam, Avsa, ALargeElk, Fergananim, CaribDigita, Bepp,
MCBastos, KrisWales, Ahkond, Bender235, STGM, Jnestorius, Martey, Foobaz, Mixcoatl, Carbon Caryatid, Imaginatorium, FeanorStar7,
Ryoung122, Cuchullain, Aranman, Pigman, Bastun, Dppowell, AjaxSmack, Salmanazar, Mopcwiki, SmackBot, Canonblack, Iancaddy, Sct72,
Ahanta, Smooth O, Ohconfucius, Fenix down, Hogyn Lleol, Thatcher, Darth Borehd, Twas Now, Nydas, KerryVeenstra, CmdrObot, Agemegos,
Cydebot, Doug Weller, Biblbroks, Thijs!bot, Artcyprus, Rhysaurus, Davidhorman, Beckerist, Manushand, Sophie means wisdom, UtDicitur, RebelRobot, Maias, Swpb, Tremilux, ClovisPt, Robheart, Ben MacDui, Numbo3, Dom Kaos, Unoquha, PeterHuntington, Laval, Lughlamhfhada,
PlanetStar, Caltas, Caidh, Goustien, Msrasnw, Danio, Bibliophylax, Denisarona, Stillwaterising, Minteoir, Hutcher, PipepBot, Crazypersonbb, Mhockey, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Mintrick, Satrughna02, Citation bot, Xqbot, Climent Sostres,
jlfr, Grammarspellchecker, Tom.Reding, RedBot, Jandalhandler, Orenburg1, Trappist the monk, Enrique Cordero, Noommos, EmausBot, Slightsmile, ZroBot, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Calabe1992, BG19bot, Corovius, Electric29, Rossrie, Ugncreative Usergname, CitationCleanerBot, Roshan220195, Robbergson, Bucabh, Vanischenu from public computers, Simonmacd, Gts-tg, Monkbot, John Nobel, Azealia911,
DivermanAU, Allahdamit, Ariaatlant1971, Pangurban999, High Heeled Jacq, Curtis Eadie and Anonymous: 79
Brittia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittia?oldid=756292609 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Wetman, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Sburke, Vegaswikian, MacRusgail, RussBot, Pigman, Botteville, Colonies Chris, Cydebot, Mcewan, Jalo, Editor2020, Addbot, Lightbot,
AnomieBOT, Dream of Nyx, Ignatius56, Narky Blert, Prinsgezinde, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 2
Buyan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyan?oldid=696050907 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Joy, Altenmann, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Kuda, Ghirlandajo, Stemonitis, Pictureuploader, Ruziklan, Alex Bakharev, Deville, Curpsbot-unicodify,
SmackBot, Nahald, Thijs!bot, Noclevername, Urco, Captain panda, Austriacus, Goustien, Keraunoscopia, DragonBot, Rossen4, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, Dinamik-bot, ZroBot, Checkingfax, Tesla220v, DrPhen and Anonymous: 14
Island of California Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_California?oldid=745627233 Contributors: SimonP, Jengod, Charles
Matthews, RickK, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Hajor, Meelar, Cyrius, Decumanus, Wighson, Sebjarod, DO'Neil, Figure, Jetre85, Dinsdagskind,
Viriditas, Hesperian, Dermar130, Rosenzweig, Eric Kvaalen, Twthmoses, Alcoved id, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, NekoDaemon, Borgx,
Hairy Dude, RussBot, NorCalHistory, Eleassar, Michalis Famelis, Tony1, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Doc Strange, Hmains, Durova, Chris the
speller, Mksword, Jmgonzalez, Zepheus, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, Arb, Thijs!bot, Keraunos, CharlotteWebb, Goldenrowley, Prigsbee, Jcmenal, Piano Bench Boy, STBot, RhymeNotStutter, Tarotcards, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Broadbot, WinTakeAll, Clintville, Jonas
Poole, Goustien, Svick, Hamiltondaniel, Piledhigheranddeeper, NuclearWarfare, Dj manton, JasonAQuest, Stepheng3, Templarion, Facts707,
Addbot, Moosehadley, LaaknorBot, Yobot, Jason Recliner, Esq., Chuckiesdad, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Ysklare, Dojodan, Antienne, LucienBOT,
Skyerise, RedBot, LairepoNite, Peteboy123, Tbhotch, Born2bgratis, Look2See1, Peterindelft, AvicBot, ZroBot, Donner60, Zsh118, ClueBot
NG, Chihuahua State, BattyBot, Theo's Little Bot, Monkbot, Eldizzino, Robot psychiatrist, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 23
Chryse (island) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryse_(island)?oldid=748417755 Contributors: Auric, Folks at 137, Varlaam, Macrakis,
D6, Guthrie, Sburke, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Bardsandwarriors, SkyWalker, Wasell, El Greco, Simon Peter Hughes, Lightmouse, Niceguyedc,
Catalographer, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Kpisimon, Yobot, Skyerise, Full-date unlinking bot, EmausBot, LIMNIOS, AnthroMimus, Spicemix, Mhiji,
Pelop, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Elaea (island) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaea_(island)?oldid=624276695 Contributors: Carlossuarez46, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Bardsandwarriors, Cydebot, Mx. Granger and Addbot
Emain Ablach Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emain_Ablach?oldid=741021770 Contributors: Dimadick, Wilhelmina Will, Escape Orbit, Hohenloh, FrescoBot, Cagwinn and Mr CSS
Fortunate Isles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortunate_Isles?oldid=753739001 Contributors: Error, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Finlay McWalter, Merovingian, Gtrmp, Macrakis, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235, Aecis, Mjk2357, QuartierLatin1968, Moilleadir, Mairi, BillC, Pictureuploader, Cuchullain, Ygmarchi, Peter G Werner, Pigman, Theelf29, GeeJo, JoanneB, Michael%Sappir, McCharles, Lambiam, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kuru, Chipmunk15, Cydebot, SteveMcCluskey, Fluxbot, Goldenrowley, Brendandh, Narssarssuaq,
WANAX, Nevermore27, 100110100, NoychoH, Captain panda, M-le-mot-dit, Deor, YKWSG, Goustien, Kerrio, Erik Henning Edvardsen,
Foofbun, Niceguyedc, Alexthekiwi, Friedlibend und tapfer, Catalographer, Editor2020, Kaldar, Addbot, CBHA, AndersBot, SpBot, Lightbot,
AnomieBOT, Mintrick, LlywelynII, Omnipaedista, Haon 2.0, LuzoGraal, Suslindisambiguator, ClueBot NG, Joefromrandb, The Gaon, DrPhen,
Dexbot, Tophet, EmDee15, Dauntlessrosie and Anonymous: 45
Hawaiki Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiki?oldid=749424934 Contributors: Rmhermen, Olivier, Cameron Dewe, Marshman,
Nickshanks, Merovingian, Srtxg, Grard, Robin Patterson, Zora, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Gadum, Mike R, Quadell, Florian Blaschke, Livajo,
Kotuku33, JW1805, Grutness, TShilo12, Angr, Marudubshinki, Stevey7788, Ashmoo, Cuchullain, Sachinabox, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29,
Evilboy, YellowMonkey, ElectricRay, Big Adamsky, RobertM525, Konstable, JedG, Iblardi, Kahuroa, Vriullop, KarlM, JohnWittle, Drieakko,
Tawkerbot2, Bubbha, Maori rahi, LarryQ, Thijs!bot, Keraunos, ClovisPt, Allstarecho, Urco, R'n'B, Alexb102072, DadaNeem, Vanished user
39948282, Squids and Chips, Station1, Euryalus, Oceantruth, Lightmouse, Cygnis insignis, Jusdafax, Koro Neil, Addbot, Jarble, Yobot, Newportm, Tearanz, Jim1138, Shech736, LucienBOT, Teinesavaii, I dream of horses, Bourguinon, Sternenmeer, Schwede66, EmausBot, Mcmatter,
ClueBot NG, Snugglbunny, BG19bot, Rabhach, MusikAnimal, BrxBrx, Loraof, Sizeont, CyberWarfare, Illuminatives, Lifted Bobcat, KalakeittoONhyv and Anonymous: 40
Hufaidh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hufaidh?oldid=743565982 Contributors: SmackBot, Risker, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Nick
Number, Wickedjacob, JL-Bot, Iohannes Animosus, Good Olfactory, Addbot, CWatchman, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot, Rumpellepmur,
Bohemian Baltimore and Anonymous: 3
Isle of the Dead (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_the_Dead_(mythology)?oldid=583643234 Contributors: Stemonitis, RussBot, Pigman, Evangelista, Alton, Alaibot, Ebyabe, Fabrictramp, Arjayay, Yobot and Anonymous: 2
Kibu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibu?oldid=743936340 Contributors: Hadal, The Singing Badger, Pearle, A2Kar, Sburke, CJLL
Wright, JPD, Chris Capoccia, GeeJo, Chris the speller, Urco, Roidhrigh, Bruceanthro, Bunnyhop11, Skyerise, ChrisGualtieri, Monkbot, Bender
the Bot and Anonymous: 2
539
Krocylea Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krocylea?oldid=713374349 Contributors: Sburke, Odysses, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Yobot,
ClueBot NG, PaintedCarpet and Anonymous: 1
Lanka Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanka?oldid=743767173 Contributors: Eloquence, Docu, Kaysov, Carlossuarez46, Chancemill,
Utcursch, Antandrus, Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Alren, Kbir1, Ogress, Grutness, Wiki-uk, BDD, Redvers, Woohookitty, Shreevatsa,
Dangerous-Boy, Prater~enwiki, Cbyneorne, Tydaj, TheRingess, Bhadani, DaGizza, Khirad, Musicpvm, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Badagnani,
Tux the penguin, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Paxse, Mairibot, Afasmit, DHN-bot~enwiki, Rama's Arrow, Huon, Radagast83, WoodElf, Ohconfucius, Valfontis, Nharipra, Bawantha, Jijithnr, Kanatonian, PONDHEEPANKAR, JForget, Cydebot, Subravenkat, DBaba, Mattisse, P.K.Niyogi,
Alphachimpbot, Ericoides, Sritri~enwiki, Magioladitis, Chanakaj, Redtigerxyz, Anasha555, DoktorMax, Vimalkalyan, AlleborgoBot, SieBot,
Made Adiputra~enwiki, Goustien, Hello71, Sphilbrick, Sfan00 IMG, DragonBot, Slreader, Singhalawap, Comingstorm, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Cminard, WikHead, Anuruddhalk, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Blackknight12,
Xqbot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Brickline, FrescoBot, Achshar, Krish Dulal, DrilBot, SpacemanSpi, Jason041, Skarmee, White Shadows,
DixonDBot, Raama, Nemesis of Reason, Theivorytower, EmausBot, ZroBot, Trinanjon, A930913, Aselaruwan123, ClueBot NG, SumerianPrince, Navops47, Widr, MediaJet, Titodutta, Gurt Posh, Marcocapelle, CitationCleanerBot, 113.129K, Risingstar12, K.shayanthan,
Justincheng12345-bot, David.moreno72, Cpt.a.haddock, Himesh84, SFK2, Krakkos, Acetotyce, Bijay Dutta, Vatasura, Vmahiwal, Gunduu,
Capankajsmilyo, OrganicEarth, Kasun buddhiks, Muvendar and Anonymous: 68
Mag Mell Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag_Mell?oldid=735560008 Contributors: PierreAbbat, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Dimadick,
Robbot, Pmaguire, Gtrmp, Mark Richards, Chinasaur, Critto~enwiki, Jossi, Kathar, Cnwb, Dbachmann, Mjk2357, Nicknack009, Alai, Angr,
JarlaxleArtemis, Bluemoose, Pictureuploader, Cuchullain, Plau, Tolley~enwiki, YurikBot, Halloween jack, CorbieVreccan, SmackBot, Jacek
Kendysz, Mintpieman, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Gil Gamesh, Ibadibam, Juhachi, Andonio, Al Lemos, Fluxbot, Rcduggan, Fmercury1980,
Katharineamy, Asarla, Walor, Goustien, Snow64, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Nakamura Mondo, Flax5, Corovius, ManaMadeleine and Anonymous: 19
Neritum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neritum?oldid=713374575 Contributors: Sburke, Odysses, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Invertzoo
and Yobot
Ogygia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogygia?oldid=747201040 Contributors: Wetman, Wjhonson, Rasmus Faber, MPF, Tom
Radulovich, Tagishsimon, Sam Hocevar, Dbachmann, JPX7, Nk, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Gerweck, Ghirlandajo, BD2412, FlaBot,
Elmer Clark, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, RussBot, Odysses, Deucalionite, S. Neuman, SmackBot, Alex earlier account, Adun12, Akhilleus, Ser
Amantio di Nicolao, Fredwords, Iridescent, Switchercat, Doug Weller, Richhoncho, Epbr123, Deective, Dsp13, Bibi Saint-Pol, T@nn, Solipsist3, Antiphus, Simon Peter Hughes, Grantsky, Pietru, ChaosNil, A Macedonian, TXiKiBoT, Martin451, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Czarnoglowa,
Duineachaidh, Goustien, Tradereddy, Velvetron, SchreiberBike, Party, Chronicler~enwiki, Addbot, Yolgnu, Jim10701, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Erud, Jsmith1000, DrilBot, ErikvanB, Eduardo P, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Dcirovic, Bamyers99, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Widr, Davidiad, Xwejnusgozo, Dwergenpaartje, Kevin12xd, PlanetEditor, ArmbrustBot, Joseph Laferriere, Vieque, Spolglans and Anonymous: 59
Onogoro Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onogoro_Island?oldid=690453988 Contributors: Shii, Bueller 007, Lowellian, Davidcannon, Bendono, Stemonitis, Koavf, Gaudio, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, The PIPE, Alaibot, Nishidani, TomorrowTime, Belovedfreak, Boneyard90,
Addbot, Mps, Mcoupal, HRoestBot, Jackson Square, Monkbot and Anonymous: 2
Panchaea Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchaea?oldid=743954830 Contributors: SteveFoerster, Bender235, Cuchullain, Mikeblas,
Deville, ProfessorPlumNY, CannedMan, Goustien, Addbot, ZroBot, BG19bot, Davidiad, Apollineo! and Anonymous: 10
Mount Penglai Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Penglai?oldid=742037980 Contributors: Kidburla, Error, Robbot, DocWatson42,
Mjk2357, EurekaLott, Bendono, Ogress, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, YurikBot, Yamara, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Neo-Jay, Ikiroid, Underbar dk,
Rigadoun, Wolfdog, Iokseng, Cydebot, John254, WinBot, Sigurd Dragon Slayer, Ebizur, Balthazarduju, Jevansen, VolkovBot, Bigemore,
Hmwith, Goustien, Hello71, Stout256, Staygyro, Wakablogger~enwiki, Lx 121, DragonFury, Inuyashafan4life, MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, LlywelynII, Citation bot, Xqbot, KazakhstanNice94, White whirlwind, Shanghainese.ua, Serols, Orenburg1, ZhBot, EmausBot, ClueBot
NG, Pittfan22, Maradox466 and Anonymous: 13
Planctae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctae?oldid=734699038 Contributors: Derek Ross, Tucci528, Timrollpickering, Gtrmp, Dmmaus, Avihu, Sburke, Kakashi-sensei, GeeJo, Jpbowen, Fram, SmackBot, GregRM, BrownHairedGirl, The Man in Question, T@nn, Goustien,
Addbot, Legobot, Oilstone, Shadowjams, Erik9bot, Doremo, Malopex, Josve05a and Anonymous: 2
Royllo Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royllo?oldid=675233631 Contributors: Dimadick, Mangoe, Lylefor, Walrasiad, SchreiberBike,
Addbot, Yobot, Kuter2005 and Anonymous: 1
Saint Brendan's Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Brendan'{}s_Island?oldid=756885481 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Dimadick, Fuelbottle, Oddharmonic, Mboverload, Adambondy, Batkins, Bender235, Nickj, Cmdrjameson, Mixcoatl, Polylerus, Pearle, Mceder,
Dabbler, Pictureuploader, Cuchullain, Elmer Clark, Rwxrwxrwx, Closedmouth, NHSavage, Salvo46, Ahanta, Robosh, JorisvS, Twas Now,
Sleepyscribbler, Dexter111344, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Chris goulet, Seaphoto, Brendandh, NE2, Matthew Fennell, Maias, Dekimasu, Rich257,
The Anomebot2, Gypsyware, Skumarlabot, Johnboru, Deor, Rei-bot, Goustien, Fratrep, Yaroslav Blanter, ClueBot, XPTO, Drmies, Ashdod,
Jcreek201, XLinkBot, Freshbakedpie, St.Trond, MystBot, Addbot, Tifoo, Mootros, Nordisk varg, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Citation
bot, Xqbot, RibotBOT, FrescoBot, Grammarspellchecker, MastiBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Enrique Cordero, BCtl, EmausBot, Willthacheerleader18, Tommaso Ferrara, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Dux Ducis Hodiernus and Anonymous: 36
Same (ancient Greece) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Same_(ancient_Greece)?oldid=713374940 Contributors: Danny, Rich Farmbrough, Lexiconius, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Odysses, Tropylium, SmackBot, Bluebot, Akhilleus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Paracel63, CommonsDelinker, Deor, Martarius, Addbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, Finn Bjrklid, ClueBot NG, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, BG19bot, ChrisGualtieri, Prohairesius and Anonymous: 6
Satanazes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satanazes?oldid=750428978 Contributors: Dimadick, Vegaswikian, Gaius Cornelius, Tuckerresearch, Mangoe, Marek69, Nick Number, Walrasiad, SchreiberBike, Yobot, AnomieBOT, John of Reading, Frietjes, Cgschmidt3169 and
Bender the Bot
540
Scheria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheria?oldid=753134762 Contributors: Camembert, Fcp, WhisperToMe, Itai, Onco p53, Lacrimosus, I-hunter, Ghirlandajo, Sburke, Albion~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, The wub, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Odysses, Pydos, SmackBot, Alex earlier account,
Chris the speller, Robertissimo, Roscelese, Akhilleus, Foxhunt king, Andrew Dalby, SashatoBot, Dr.K., Iridescent, 7aresslubnan, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Christian75, Dchristle, Thijs!bot, Racaille, Marek69, Bob the Wikipedian, JAnDbot, VoABot II, T@nn, Antiphus, Edward321,
Simon Peter Hughes, Rrostrom, Milescampbell, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Shinju, TXiKiBoT, Modal Jig, 09huwea, HiDrNick,
AlleborgoBot, Goustien, Place Clichy, Catalographer, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Az2008~enwiki, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Erud,
Omnipaedista, Lavep, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, I dream of horses, Sophie, Wikipelli, PhaiakianLandIsScandinavia, Donner60, Kittenono, ClueBot
NG, Hannaharendt, Snotbot, BG19bot, Davidiad, CC Squared12, YFdyh-bot, Makecat-bot, Greatuser, Pep marfran, Tg2345, ArmbrustBot,
HMSLavender, Donkey Kong Fanatic, Xolotloid, Eewaggoner and Anonymous: 68
Las sergas de Esplandin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_sergas_de_Esplandi%C3%A1n?oldid=754097905 Contributors: Frecklefoot, Bender235, Carbon Caryatid, Jenblower, Knyght27, JDoorjam, SmackBot, Lagringa, Hmains, Kevinalewis, TimBentley, Atacama, Sadads,
Mike hayes, Tamfang, Mksword, Cydebot, Goldenrowley, Magioladitis, Catgut, SOMMMESE, Artemis-Arethusa, DimiTalen, Phe-bot, Henry
Merrivale, Binksternet, Niceguyedc, Addbot, Kman543210, Fpittui, Mike Hayes, AvicBot, ZroBot, Cobaltcigs, Neptune's Trident, Monkbot
and Anonymous: 9
Symplegades Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplegades?oldid=739207867 Contributors: Tucci528, Ijon, Tualha, Timrollpickering,
Fuelbottle, Lupo, Macrakis, Murtasa, Paul August, Kwamikagami, Tadhgmckenna, Lectonar, WadeSimMiser, YurikBot, Gilliam, Cplakidas,
Lambiam, The Man in Question, Etc. gamma, Paste, Deective, Dilipbarad, T@nn, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Robertson-Glasgow,
VolkovBot, Bedwyr, Iw, Gerakibot, Goustien, RashersTierney, PixelBot, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Oilstone, AdjustShift, GrouchoBot, Vagrarian, Doremo, I dream of horses, Malopex, Jptmoore, FinalRapture, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 19
Thule Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule?oldid=754765165 Contributors: Andre Engels, William Avery, SimonP, Paul Barlow,
Menchi, Delirium, Gene Poole, Dwo, Charles Matthews, Nedward, Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, Kizor, Sam Spade, Merovingian, Wlievens,
Stinger503, Wiglaf, Brian Kendig, Foot, Bkonrad, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Quackor, LucasVB, Tothebarricades.tk, Kuralyov, MakeRocketGoNow,
Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, MeltBanana, Abelson, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Marcok, Thuresson, Arcadian, Bobbis, Mixcoatl, Polylerus, Ogress, Geschichte, Espoo, AmbassadorShras, Zippanova, DrGaellon, Guthrie, Ghirlandajo, Kitch,
Feezo, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Heptapod, Alan Canon, Marudubshinki, Lawrence King, Cuchullain, DePiep, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan,
Coemgenus, FlaBot, Mathiastck, MacRusgail, Hottentot, Metropolitan90, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, 999~enwiki, Petiatil, Pleonic, Kojangee, Theelf29, Philopedia, Ezeu, 3 Lwi, Botteville, Salmanazar, KingKane, Closedmouth, Baranxtu, Xaxafrad, Palthrow,
David Biddulph, Pstermeister, Howsoonhathtime, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Big Adamsky, TharkunColl, JMiall, SINGLES' BAR mitzvah, Bluebot, H2ppyme, Jsn4, Telempe, 32X, Achmelvic, Belzub, Zephyrad, Colonies Chris, Mance, Lightspeedchick, Dcondren, JesseRafe, Zen611,
Jenny Sinclair, Ceoil, Zahid Abdassabur, John, LinuxDude, Corinth, Mathiasrex, Bucksburg, James.S, Michael Bednarek, Zarniwoot, Fredwords, The Man in Question, Apcbg, Ehjort, E-Kartoel, Iridescent, Skapur, Sander Sde, TurabianNights, Harveyspeed, Vanisaac, Ko'oy,
Daedalus969, DangerousPanda, Urutapu, Hodgson, Kneipster, NumberJunkie, Cydebot, Road Wizard, Doug Weller, Georeybrooks, Thijs!bot,
Keraunos, WVhybrid, Alientraveller, Deipnosophista, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, Chubbles, Yomangani, NeilEvans, Carewolf,
JAnDbot, Maiko90, Deective, Husond, EKindig, Midnightdreary, Jay1279, Propaniac, Stuart Morrow, Froid, Snowded, ClovisPt, Beagel, Milliam, Ben MacDui, Anastasia the Innocent, Nono64, Ombudswiki, Maurice Carbonaro, Squeezeweasel, Efguerre, Stan J Klimas, Jeppe Gade,
Fjbfour, KylieTastic, Zara1709, Aladamnbama, HighKing, Sinasham, Electron101, Deor, That-Vela-Fella, WOSlinker, Steven J. Anderson,
Eniskoylu, Finngall, Sesshomaru, Kobalt64, Warheiterister, SieBot, Jaan, Faithlessthewonderboy, Martarius, Jbening, Marcusroos, Rumping,
Fyyer, Niceguyedc, Speed and Sleep, Socrates2008, Creatatron, Dekisugi, Gryfonwing, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Algkalv, Dthomsen8, SilvonenBot, Wikipire, Addbot, Hawaiibrian, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Rampage Ruins, Antique1967, LlywelynII, Citation bot, LilHelpa,
Jan olieslagers, Thaliodrin, GrouchoBot, Mario777Zelda, Figaro-ahp, Nedim Ardoa, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, AlexanderKaras, Playsmarts,
EddieA5th, Citation bot 1, Sotilas, TRBP, Trappist the monk, Leondumontfollower, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Dino51051, ZroBot, PBS-AWB, Mrfh, Acwilson9, 11614soup, Philafrenzy, HalfElfDragon, Autoerrant, Splashen, ClueBot NG, Dream of
Nyx, Anglo Pyramidologist, Quick and Dirty User Account, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Rabhach, CitationCleanerBot,
Aldrovandi6, Hmainsbot1, EntroDipintaGabbia, Wikipediow, Monkbot, Sigehelmus, TroyStopera, HeyhetAaron, DietrichVonStrife, Harpo666,
Cmike49, Debbiesw and Anonymous: 178
Tr na ng Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADr_na_n%C3%93g?oldid=755759910 Contributors: Kingturtle, Paul-L~enwiki,
Fergananim, Jossi, Dbachmann, Jnestorius, Kwamikagami, Moilleadir, Angr, JarlaxleArtemis, Pictureuploader, Cuchullain, JIP, Canderson7,
Angusmclellan, Geoduck, MarnetteD, Frelke, Penguin, Pip2andahalf, Pigman, Jedi Striker, CorbieVreccan, Wknight94, KGasso, TheQuaker,
Bluewave, Bluebot, Bjmullan, Hibernian, Torzsmokus, Zone46, HeteroZellous, Daamien, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Chuangzu, Waggers, Swoofah,
Gil Gamesh, Brainhaven, Cydebot, Ronancoghlan, Goldfritha, Thijs!bot, Al Lemos, Fluxbot, Ww.foster, NeilEvans, Modernist, Kuteni, JAnDbot, Kaobear, Robina Fox, Fmercury1980, Reece Llwyd, MLatham, Flatterworld, VolkovBot, Matushka, Asarla, Bearian, Typritc, Steven
Crossin, BenoniBot~enwiki, Lughaidh~enwiki, Martarius, Creatatron, NiciVampireHeart, 842U, Anturiaethwr, Addbot, Andrewsthistle, Annielogue, Tpacw, Fluernutter, Bhunjan, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Coalpatch, MacTire02, Enlighteningtheload, Materialscientist, Xqbot,
The Fiddly Leprechaun, Mariusblom, Krugula, ItsZippy, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Super48paul, We hope, Master of my fate Invictus, Donner60,
Odysseus1479, Yclept:Berr, ClueBot NG, Meagan19, Noahjdesclian, LespasBot, BG19bot, Tomdevine6, Tlxxxviii, Yasht101, Claomh Solais,
Ueutyi, Lesie Lolaris, Fnordson, Bard Cadarn, Rydiank, Tophet, Thatguy102, Alexanderleonov, Tr Tairngire, Bender the Bot, Drokana, Xsele
and Anonymous: 123
World mountain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_mundi?oldid=753019221 Contributors: Zundark, Leandrod, Menchi, Error, Ehn,
Andrewman327, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Utcursch, Uly, Khatores, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, Viriditas, Chirag, Wiki-uk, Keenan Pepper, Sundar2000, BanyanTree, Proski, Kurzon, Je3000, Tydaj, Mandarax, BD2412, Heah, Matt Deres, ZoneSeek, Sborsody, Bgwhite, RussBot,
Dunerat, RadioFan2 (usurped), Veledan, Aldux, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Xaxafrad, Superp, Ephilei, SmackBot, Melchoir, Zserghei, Nhansen,
Bluebot, TimBentley, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, George Ho, WSaindon, OrphanBot, Alton.arts, GVnayR, Bigturtle, Enyama,
AndyBQ, J 1982, Iridescent, Dia^, CmdrObot, Estban, Gregbard, Cydebot, Palaeologos, SueMW, Paddles, Keraunos, Sobreira, Utkarsh sawale,
Noclevername, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, Goldenrowley, Alphachimpbot, Hypershock, Magioladitis, Pharillon, ***Ria777, JaGa,
B9 hummingbird hovering, Lisamh, CommonsDelinker, Bot-Schafter, PhiloNysh, Koven.rm, 1000Faces, M-le-mot-dit, Knulclunk, Dwight83,
Funandtrvl, Redtigerxyz, TreasuryTag, Thewolf37, Je G., TXiKiBoT, Heroville, Idhem, Qxz, Andyo2000, SieBot, BotMultichill, Manway,
541
Dcattell, Astrologist, ClueBot, LAX, EoGuy, Podzemnik, Auntof6, Jo Lorib, Xme, Thingg, Certes, Editor2020, Heironymous Rowe, Good
Olfactory, Addbot, Tassedethe, Cesiumfrog, Mps, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, 1oddbins1, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, I Feel Tired,
Wiki-gcu, Chaheel Riens, FrescoBot, Polyxeros, Machine Elf 1735, Shanghainese.ua, Winterst, WQUlrich, Jonesey95, Sergel02, Jujutacular,
Trappist the monk, Leugim1972, 564dude, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Paul Bedson, Malcolm77, AvicBot, Andreditor, L0rdG1gabyt3,
Thomasberg, NC360, Rezabahman, ClueBot NG, Achillemarotta, Hour of Angels, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Wingroras,
Dmainah, Whiteram711, Harizotoh9, Mikezkinky, Liz, Gaerteuth, Monkbot, Catharsis of Mind, Owlbeard, Sayani Bandyopadhyay, Orthopraxy, Daryl Breese, Tsweidler, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 122
Mount Ararat Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ararat?oldid=755716122 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen, Danny,
Peterlin~enwiki, Delirium, Ellywa, Snoyes, , Bogdangiusca, Hike395, David Newton, Fuzheado, Haukurth, Carol Fenijn, Gutsul,
Joy, Wetman, Jerzy, Robbot, Vardion, Pigsonthewing, RedWolf, Modulatum, Hippietrail, Dmn, Xyzzyva, Mintleaf~enwiki, Cronos~enwiki,
Wwoods, Erdal Ronahi, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Ezhiki, Mboverload, Neilc, Ato, Balcer, Pmanderson, Gscshoyru, Aramgutang, Urhixidur,
Mschlindwein, Lacrimosus, Dryazan, D6, CALR, Fpga, Discospinster, Rexworth, Rich Farmbrough, Parishan, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235,
Flapdragon, JoeSmack, CanisRufus, El C, Kwamikagami, CeeGee, Bobo192, .:Ajvol:., Darwinek, Physicistjedi, Nickfraser, Gary, MrTree,
Buaidh, Mu5ti, Improv, Ricky81682, Plumbago, Agnte, Hayk, Ross Burgess, Hierarchypedia, Tony Sidaway, Ianblair23, Versageek, Drbreznjev, Siafu, Stemonitis, Sjv27~enwiki, Woohookitty, Gokhan, Sengkang, SDC, Kralizec!, Palica, BD2412, Crzrussian, Rjwilmsi, Moosh88,
Feydey, Filipvr, Tstockma, Ev, FayssalF, FlaBot, AD5673, JohnElder, Rune.welsh, NevilleDNZ, Bgwhite, Skraz, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy
Dude, Jimp, Ryz05, Ramallite, Eupator, Gaius Cornelius, Daanschr, Haemo, Maunus, Igin, KGasso, Evilbu, Carabinieri, Mursel, Elliskev, Attilios, SmackBot, PiCo, MyrddinEmrys, Hydrogen Iodide, Ominae, Unyoyega, Momirt, AtilimGunesBaydin, Renesis, Aivazovsky, JeyP, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Choalbaton, Rohnadams, J.L.Main, Jprg1966, Zinonymous, Cretanforever, Droll, Bazonka, Vekoler, Viewnder,
Colonies Chris, Hgrosser, Scwlong, Adkagansu, Tryggvia, OrphanBot, Berland, MarshallBagramyan, Gala.martin, Khoikhoi, -x-, Paul H.,
Politis, Jcspurrell, Serouj, Lambiam, Nishkid64, TA-ME, Kashk, SuperTycoon, Avitya, Johanna-Hypatia, J 1982, CrashMex, Firewall, GVP
Webmaster, Mgiganteus1, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, In defense, Dr.K., Xionbox, Politepunk, Siebrand, Iridescent, Wfgiuliano, Kaygtr, Gregory Benoit, RekishiEJ, Eassin, Musicman88, CBM, BeenAroundAWhile, Davo88, Bulgu, Lmcelhiney, 345Kai, Cydebot, Future Perfect at
Sunrise, Bellerophon5685, JFreeman, Meowy, Retau, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Telex, Ssilvers, Nessundorma, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Jm3, Headbomb, Folantin, Peter Gulutzan, Leon7, Nick Number, Klausness, Dawnseeker2000, Trengarasu, AntiVandalBot, DarkAudit, DeliDumrul,
Lardayn, Ratman28, JAnDbot, Omeganian, Ericoides, Burntnickel, FaerieInGrey, Magioladitis, P64, Scanlan, Jllm06, ROOB323, Animum,
Sammalin, Baristarim, Arenarax, Makalp, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Greg Salter, Tekleni, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Kamidanshir, Artaxiad,
J.delanoy, The Evil Knight, Numbo3, GeoWriter, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno, Free smyrnan, Incir, Gevo12321, Kansas Bear, Cometstyles, Greatestrowerever, KevCureton, Thebobman29, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Kelapstick, Seattle Skier, AlnoktaBOT, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Eve Hall,
Paulburnett, Merteuil, Ataby, VartanM, Steven J. Anderson, LeaveSleaves, DoktorDec, Amybeam, Zirowerdy, Proxyz, GuggiePrg, Cantiorix,
Farkas Jnos, Gokmenonay~enwiki, AlleborgoBot, Vahagn Petrosyan, Hrafn, SieBot, StAnselm, Zargan, Scarian, Max Shakhray, BotMultichill,
Crossheart, Barliner, Xenophon777, Infestor, Oxymoron83, Tombomp, Hobartimus, Miguel.mateo, Presidentman, Andrij Kursetsky, Vonones,
Munte21, De728631, ClueBot, Ararat73, Vacio, Der Golem, VQuakr, Sabri76, Kurdology1, PixelBot, Vknouni, Central Data Bank, Energyicecaps, Alim.kocak, Takabeg, Doprendek, Cliobella, SoxBot III, Nareg510, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Namsos, SilvonenBot, Zacharie Grossen,
HexaChord, Thebestofall007, Addbot, Asybaris01, Lihaas, Kurukafa, Roux, ChenzwBot, LinkFA-Bot, AgadaUrbanit, Tassedethe, Lightbot,
Waltloc, Amateur55, Frehley, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Cagridincyurek, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, JackieBot, BobKilcoyne, SanTomadachi, Materialscientist, E235, Mie1998, P2469, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Iness199, J04n, GrouchoBot, AntonSamuel, Mttll, Nedim
Ardoa, Headhitter, Montyofarabia, WebCiteBOT, FrescoBot, ArmenianNjteh, Hovik95, Vagrand, Suplilumas, Desertboy40, Karen01oo001,
Poliocretes, Prof.Tomson, Turk00, Monlonet, Karakar, Pantepoptes, Khio Khane, Jauhienij, Suncodel, FoxBot, Vahey4, BaldBoris, Dinamikbot, BeneharoMencey, Merlin Beaughter, Forsts23, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sahakian, Look2See1, Racerx11, Rarevogel, CanaryIslands, ZanLJackson, Nozdref, Bongoramsey, Esc2003, Chelovek84, Fanyavizuri, Knochen, Corgame3, 001,
, Gooturk, Phoenicians8, Cheers!, Frietjes, Xenophonix, Vardantinyan, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Raeal, Gob Lofa,
Ozdemura, Soue, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Konullu, Yerevantsi, CitationCleanerBot, TheShadowCrow, Maurice Flesier, Erlik.khan, Sprutt,
Mollskman, Cyberbot II, E4024, Dexbot, Mogism, Makecat-bot, GeoO, Lord of Rivendell, Armen Manukov, Efekankorpez, , MagicatthemovieS, Robevans123, Fultie771, Van.se, Tiptoethruthemineeld, Isambard Kingdom, Pampuco, KasparBot, A. Scholar (Nabu), Oatitonimly,
CheshireCat95, Vorontsov1844 and Anonymous: 314
Debate between sheep and grain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_between_sheep_and_grain?oldid=755498841 Contributors:
SamEV, Bender235, Jimp, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Daniel J. Leivick, Doug Weller, Optimist on the run, Goustien, Sineaste, Piledhigheranddeeper, LittleWink, Trappist the monk, GnomerDMCA, Mahuna2, BCtl, Mzilikazi1939, GoingBatty, Paul Bedson, Crown Prince, Frietjes,
Costesseyboy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Technomunz, Electoralist and Anonymous: 5
Debate between Winter and Summer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_between_Winter_and_Summer?oldid=739653673 Contributors: Bender235, Empoor, Woohookitty, Maunus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Khazar, Doug Weller, CommonsDelinker, Goustien,
AnomieBOT, DynamoDegsy, LilHelpa, GoingBatty, Paul Bedson, Crown Prince, Helpful Pixie Bot, Filedelinkerbot and Anonymous: 2
Ekur Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekur?oldid=743756180 Contributors: Woohookitty, Str1977, Mmcannis, Egsan Bacon, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, Headbomb, CommonsDelinker, Kimse, StAnselm, Audaciter, Dana boomer, Addbot, Lightbot, KamikazeBot, LilHelpa,
FrescoBot, Orhanersek, EmausBot, Solarra, Paul Bedson, Crown Prince, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil, Drift chambers, Glacialfox, Mogism,
BarneyRowe, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 3
Enamtila Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enamtila?oldid=742113705 Contributors: Ser Amantio di Nicolao, R'n'B, Mcb170, Paul Bedson, Staszek Lem, Helpful Pixie Bot, Drift chambers, Monopoly31121993 and Bender the Bot
Enlil and Ninlil Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlil_and_Ninlil?oldid=756354082 Contributors: Bender235, Mmcannis, Chris the
speller, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ibadibam, Doug Weller, Goustien, Muhandes, Jarble, LilHelpa, Sophus Bie, Trappist the monk, Slon02, John
of Reading, GoingBatty, Paul Bedson, Crown Prince, Helpful Pixie Bot, AK456, Robert Falkowitz, Rubbish computer and Anonymous: 1
Feather Mountain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feather_Mountain?oldid=674954879 Contributors: Ogress, Evangeline, Dcattell,
Niceguyedc, Yobot and BattyBot
542
Hymn to Enlil Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn_to_Enlil?oldid=751723467 Contributors: Bender235, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Ser

Amantio di Nicolao, Goustien, Haploidavey, Tom.Reding, John of Reading, Paul Bedson, Jenks24, Crown Prince, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot,
LouisAlain, Monopoly31121993, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 1
Jade Mountain (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade_Mountain_(mythology)?oldid=671863339 Contributors: Arthur Rubin, Egsan Bacon, Dcattell, Yobot and Anonymous: 2
Kesh temple hymn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesh_temple_hymn?oldid=755498849 Contributors: Joy, Jimp, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Doug Weller, JEH, StAnselm, Goustien, Niceguyedc, Johnuniq, Addbot, LittleWink, Tom.Reding, John of Reading, GoingBatty, Beto
Brando, Paul Bedson, ZroBot, Crown Prince, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, AvocatoBot, LouisAlain, Cocosua88,
Acleverpseudonym, Electoralist, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Ehursag Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehursag?oldid=743755970 Contributors: BD2412, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Dthomsen8, Paul
Bedson, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 1
Hursag Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hursag?oldid=744440732 Contributors: Gandalf61, Dbachmann, WoKrKmFK3lwz8BKvaB94,
DePiep, Patrick1982, Bgwhite, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Mangoe, Akhilleus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Doug Weller,
Silver seren, Mufka, Til Eulenspiegel, Rocksanddirt, Niceguyedc, SoxBot, Addbot, Laurinavicius, Arbitrarily0, FeydHuxtable, AnomieBOT,
DSisyphBot, EmausBot, Paul Bedson, Helpful Pixie Bot, Raising Abel, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 8
Kiboreia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiboreia?oldid=743936330 Contributors: Delirium, AnomieBOT, Paul Bedson, BG19bot,
Skyshadow382 and Bender the Bot
Mount Killaraus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Killaraus?oldid=666818835 Contributors: Jni, Adamsan, Kuralyov, Ardfern,
Cuchullain, Satanael, Pigman, Veledan, Commander Keane bot, Mrdallaway, Cydebot, 1g, Goustien, Addbot, Ulric1313, Pagepage~enwiki,
BattyBot and Anonymous: 2
Kunlun Mountain (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunlun_Mountain_(mythology)?oldid=751323899 Contributors: Yann,
BD2412, Arthur Rubin, Keahapana, Dcattell, Sun Creator, Dawynn, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Blaylockjam10, Yobot, Timmyshin, Hessamnia,
John of Reading, ClueBot NG, Yetisyny, Cold Season, Aethelwolf Emsworth, Okkisare, Samatict, Jerodlycett, VvbnN129 and Anonymous: 4
Lament for Ur Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lament_for_Ur?oldid=742376881 Contributors: Dpv, E. Underwood, Korg, Yoninah,
Open2universe, Cattus, Castanea dentata, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, JEH, JAnDbot, WANAX, Ericoides, Cynwolfe, R'n'B, StAnselm,
Drmies, DragonBot, Sumerophile, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Izzedine, LittleWink, Tom.Reding, Zanhe, Zoeperkoe, EmausBot, John of Reading, Outriggr, Paul Bedson, ZroBot, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Urnamma, DuchessofGuyenne, Monopoly31121993, Bender
the Bot and Anonymous: 17
List of mythical Chinese mountains Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mythical_Chinese_mountains?oldid=528825222 Contributors: Chienlit and Dcattell
Mount Meru Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Meru?oldid=748137470 Contributors: Heron, Olivier, TUF-KAT, Darkwind, Dino,
Imc, Philip Taron, RedWolf, Wereon, Eequor, Luigi30, Utcursch, Mukerjee, Bwil, Liso, Dbachmann, Art LaPella, Madler, Darwinek, Hintha,
Ogress, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Joy Doddigarla, GarciaB, Dangerous-Boy, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Spasemunki, Grafen,
Seemagoel, Arria Belli, Pawyilee, Lt-wiki-bot, Dspradau, Cmglee, Jjtanwar, Attilios, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Eskimbot, Anup Ramakrishnan,
Jprg1966, SchftyThree, Neo-Jay, Octahedron80, Colonies Chris, Rama's Arrow, Rrburke, Huon, Radagast83, Derek R Bullamore, Qmwne235,
Armyrie9, Shyamsunder, RandomCritic, Hvn0413, Satbir Singh, MTSbot~enwiki, Dan Gluck, Sameboat, Maleabroad, Nmadhubala, Sarvagnya, Grammatical error, Neelix, Dgianotti, Doug Weller, Satori Son, Sry85, John254, Alphachimpbot, Indian Chronicles, JAnDbot, VoABot
II, STBot, Gunkarta, Leo144e, J.delanoy, Abecedare, Skumarlabot, Zerokitsune, LeMaster, Kaustubhjavle, Feethefour, VolkovBot, GrahamAsher, Harshavardhan83, SieBot, Rajeshontheweb, Loggy1983, LADave, Moonraker12, Wmpearl, Mankar Camoran, Gantuya eng, Vinay
Jha, Qadean, Martarius, Shruti14, Serebriany, Ssriram mt, Alexbot, Thingg, Gaura79, Ism schism, Addbot, NjardarBot, Kalafakal, Tassedethe, Zorrobot, , Mps, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tangopaso, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Givbataska, Apsmanuel, ArthurBot, DSisyphBot, J04n,
RibotBOT, Joaquin008, Kenfyre, Full-date unlinking bot, Lionslayer, Dinamik-bot, Rain drop 45, EmausBot, Rohitajitse q, Felix505, Billjohnsonwalko, Awewe, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Joshua Jonathan, , Bonq~enwiki,
Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Cpt.a.haddock, Green Tree 1000, UY Scuti, Sridharbsbu, Kalakannija, Kevjiangba, XXTROLLER99Xx, ToonLucas22,
Abdulgoswami, Capankajsmilyo, Draupadi12, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, God's Godzilla and Anonymous: 77
Mount Buzhou Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Buzhou?oldid=542814874 Contributors: Bearcat, SmackBot, Philg88, Goustien,
Dcattell, MystBot, Addbot, Yottamol, Anna Frodesiak, Stoigniew and TuHan-Bot
Mount Meru (Buddhism) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Meru_(Buddhism)?oldid=733466129 Contributors: Shantavira,
Dbachmann, Chobot, Deeptrivia, Sentausa, Smaines, Pawyilee, NielsenGW, Gilliam, Bluebot, Neo-Jay, RandomCritic, Eu.stefan, Ghostexorcist, Satori Son, Alphachimpbot, Ekabhishek, Naniwako, Zerokitsune, Catadromous, Mouse is back, Moonraker12, Gantuya eng, ClueBot,
Versus22, Gzhanstong, Materialscientist, Aoidh, Tyq44, EmausBot, Myo Thein Oo, Joshua Jonathan, Andanat, Vatchara and Anonymous: 15
Mount Nisir Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nisir?oldid=742534862 Contributors: Hopp, Bgwhite, Gardar Rurak, Arthur Rubin,
Jason947, CmdrObot, Ibadibam, Doug Weller, Greensburger, The Anomebot2, Tiptoety, EoGuy, Drmies, Alexandersaro, Sumerophile, Addbot,
Bastion Monk, Luckas-bot, John of Reading, Michele.Tusa, VANGUARD6, Joshuajohnson555, Ayad.Y, BattyBot, Packer1028, Mugsalot,
Mount Potalaka Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Potalaka?oldid=627238520 Contributors: Dimadick, Bearcat, Ogress, CFynn,
Malcolma, Joseph Solis in Australia, Ph0kin, Nick Number, Tengu800, Wwbread, Zanhe, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and
Anonymous: 3
Mount Qaf Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Qaf?oldid=756168877 Contributors: Woohookitty, Chris the speller, Cydebot,
NSH001, Zandweb~enwiki, Goustien, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Xufanc, DrilBot, ZxxZxxZ, LouisAragon and Anonymous: 4
Niafjll Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C3%B0afj%C3%B6ll?oldid=732148108 Contributors: Haukurth, Kwamikagami, Gene
Nygaard, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Ciacchi, Sigo, Goldenrowley, Alphachimpbot, KarBOT, Goustien, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Erik9bot,
ZroBot, Rezabot and Juvrud
543
Old Babylonian oracle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Babylonian_oracle?oldid=747073197 Contributors: Ser Amantio di Nicolao,

Nick Number, R'n'B, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Paul Bedson, Helpful Pixie Bot, MauchoBot, PhnomPencil and Bender the Bot
Mount Olympus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Olympus?oldid=755432022 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Stephen Gilbert, Andre Engels, Christian List, Graft, Montrealais, Olivier, Seldon~enwiki, AdSR, Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Tgeorgescu, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier,
Stan Shebs, TUF-KAT, Corixidae, Raven in Orbit, Hike395, RodC, WhisperToMe, Xevi~enwiki, Joy, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Michael Glass,
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Piewalker, Dbachmann, Paul August, Jnestorius, CanisRufus, Lkrory21, Mjk2357, Summer Song, Triona, Deanos, Markussep, Bobo192, Bill
the Greek, Func, WoKrKmFK3lwz8BKvaB94, Giraedata, Franl, Darwinek, Chuckstar, Espoo, Larcher~enwiki, Alansohn, Gary, Blahma,
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will eat me, OrphanBot, Berland, Xiner, Dharmabum420, YankeeDoodle14, Krich, NaeRey, Black Carrot, Spiritia, Salonica84, Lambiam,
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KokomoNYC, Waggers, Ryulong, Fluppy, Odedee, Courcelles, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Emote, Ko'oy, JForget, Joey80, Tschel, Iokseng, Cydebot, MC10, DrunkenSmurf, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Fafabiofo~enwiki, Joshrulzz, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Sobreira, John254, Edal,
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Catgut, Allstarecho, Japo, Milance, Shoester, JaGa, Simon Peter Hughes, Drm310, NatureA16, MartinBot, Anaxial, Gazza Innit, J.delanoy,
Pharaoh of the Wizards, Gotyear, Jellyturtle, Svetovid, Rgoodermote, Ginsengbomb, Cop 663, It Is Me Here, JFKennedy, Comp25, NewEnglandYankee, Sd31415, Nineteenninetyfour, Mufka, Inn8, Greatestrowerever, Treisijs, Ahtih, Idioma-bot, Speciate, VolkovBot, Macedonian,
Je G., Amikake3, Whisper moon, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Mitsver, Kritikos99, Auent Rider, E.asphyx, JayC, Qxz, Clarince63, Brietyler7, BotKung, Wiae, Persiana, Icy dreemz, Enviroboy, Turgan, Ceranthor, HiDrNick, Jellysh84, Doc James, Avinesh, SieBot,
Ttony21, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Jjw, Dangerousnerd, Oxymoron83, Goustien, KPH2293, Hobartimus, Miguel.mateo, Presidentman, Archmil, Burnsr77, Mtolymp4532, ImageRemovalBot, Athenean, Smashville, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Matdrodes, Drmies, Mezigue,
CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Puchiko, Athang1504, Excirial, Jusdafax, Zaradhustra, Estirabot, Dilashna, Klaaskam, Yayaya1, Doprendek, Thingg, Escapingreality, Versus22, Apparition11, NERIC-Security, Scxnwa, DumZiBoT, Theiasophia, Barosaurus Lentus, XLinkBot, Pichpich, PauloHelene, SilvonenBot, PL290, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Olympian Zeus, Vemisis, AVand, Ronhjones, Asybaris01, Mr. Wheely Guy,
Glane23, Favonian, ChenzwBot, West.andrew.g, Stefan08, Bgura's puppy, Lightbot, Apteva, Funnyduds, Bermicourt, Waltloc, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Washburnmav, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Danny.boryca, Ulric1313, Alexikoua,
Materialscientist, Kalamkaar, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Acebulf, Purplebackpack89, DSisyphBot, YuinWiki, Willimin, Maddie!, AbigailAbernathy, Coretheapple, Omnipaedista, Eudemis, Goldmetalboss, GhalyBot, Shadowjams, AlexanderVanLoon, Samwb123, 69bigboy69, FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, MGA73bot, Wione, Arcanewizard, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Arctic Night, Abductive, 10metreh, Rushbugled13, Jschnur,
Ethelbert 28, Footwarrior, Full-date unlinking bot, Vrenator, Clarkcj12, 69mehard, BeneharoMencey, 98myfriend, Reach Out to the Truth,
Taterpumkin, Kyleforsyth, Doombot69, Wikislemur, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, Nerissa-Marie, Dewritech, Racerx11, Tuppie4,
Winner 42, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Rubeata, Indianaperry, Hedgehogboy1, Atsunaga, Bamyers99, Sjpapa, Gay Lord Mykonos, Donner60, Pun,
Tot12, DASHBotAV, Morgis, Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, Omarm816, Mjanja, Emilymilhench25, I know greek, Hermes the Wise, Mgpolitis, HMSSolent, Mastonc, Dom Maelzer, Gob Lofa, BG19bot, Flax5, Hallows AG, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Geraldo Perez, Evilemperorzorg,
Drift chambers, Gorthian, Soerfm, Enkinisi, Lolojore, Vericalshow, Tonicproundness, Hockey1719, Justincheng12345-bot, SupernovaExplosion, Cmclain20, Ljuba brank, EuroCarGT, VicGuy, Esszet, Mirinbrah, Maddyandrachel, JYBot, Dmorgan 1993, Webclient101, Lugia2453,
Nikostrd, Mboesch, Nigroball, Manul, N0n3up, Crow, Dingusmuncher, Mr. Smart LION, Vieque, SantiLak, Happy Attack Dog, Lor, Peter238,
Amortias, KH-1, Snowman325, FreeatlastChitchat, YeOldeGentleman, Troller2169, RetroReapa, Cwp3004, CAPTAIN RAJU, Glide08, CLCStudent, Muntele, Kontam, DatGuy, Willarocks, Leschnei, Perlareyes1, Chrissymad, Hoskibs4397, Baxtlog, Tre6616 and Anonymous: 607
Self-praise of Shulgi (Shulgi D) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-praise_of_Shulgi_(Shulgi_D)?oldid=745798937 Contributors:
BD2412, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Iridescent, 1g, R'n'B, Addbot, Tom.Reding, GoingBatty, Paul Bedson, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil,
Electoralist and Bender the Bot
Sierra de la Plata Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_de_la_Plata?oldid=695886228 Contributors: Steinsky, DJ Clayworth,
Xanzzibar, Eb.hoop, Grutness, Mtiedemann, Guthrie, TShilo12, FlaBot, NekoDaemon, GeeJo, SmackBot, MTSbot~enwiki, Goldenrowley,
Dentren, Funandtrvl, SieBot, Phe-bot, Goustien, DumZiBoT, Finalnight, Pmgram, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Xqbot,
Erik9bot, ZroBot, Dream of Nyx, Vejlenser, Hmainsbot1, Sietecolores and Anonymous: 10
Song of the hoe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_of_the_hoe?oldid=742854673 Contributors: BD2412, Str1977, Mmcannis, Ser
Amantio di Nicolao, Amandajm, R'n'B, Goustien, EoGuy, Tassedethe, Tom.Reding, Paul Bedson, Michaelmas1957, Uzma Gamal, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Tdimhcs, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 2
Teide Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teide?oldid=756367582 Contributors: Fnielsen, Yann, Ellywa, Jdforrester, Andres, Hike395,
Paul-L~enwiki, Pumpie, Robbot, RedWolf, Mervyn, David Edgar, Fuelbottle, Anthony, DarkHorizon, Fabiform, DocWatson42, MPF, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Avihu, D6, Brianhe, Vsmith, Byrial, Bender235, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, Dvgrn, Alansohn, Keenan Pepper, Avenue, Suruena, BLueFiSH.as, Ghirlandajo, Stemonitis, Firsfron, Woohookitty, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Palica, Ryoung122, BD2412,
Sherpa~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, FlaBot, CalJW, Mark J, Mrnatural, Ravenswing, RobotE, Eraserhead1, RussBot, Spaully, Hydrargyrum,
Gaius Cornelius, Gadget850, JustAddPeter, Bob247, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Allens, AndrewWTaylor, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Unyoyega, Gilliam, Hmains, Honbicot, Chris the speller, MalafayaBot, Droll, Afasmit, Viewnder, Modest Genius, Tamfang, Chlewbot, Coeinfreak, Michael Bednarek, GVP Webmaster, Mgiganteus1, Martinp23, Rock4arolla, Childzy, MTSbot~enwiki, Echeyde~enwiki, Stifynsemons, Scohoust, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot, Miguel303xm~enwiki, Cydebot, Christian75, FDV, Thrapper, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Kaaveh
544
Ahangar~enwiki, Mountolive, IrishPete, Cjs2111, Kleomarlo, JAnDbot, Plantsurfer, Ericoides, Dapsv~enwiki, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Hamiltonstone, Allstarecho, DerHexer, Jonomacdrones, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, GeoWriter, Biglovinb, Mr Clingford, Greatestrowerever, Treisijs, Squids and Chips, VolkovBot, Seattle Skier, Clegs, TXiKiBoT, Trekmaniac, Dmottl, Yovinedelcielo, THORtenerife, Rastrojo, Areedef, Johnthepcson, Mmarulla, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, The way, the truth, and the light, Flyer22 Reborn, Mikiwikipikidikipedia,
OKBot, Presidentman, Skistar, Stfg, Prof saxx, Ocdcntx, Gubernatoria, ClueBot, EoGuy, TIY, Drmies, Fossiliferous, Regibox, Niceguyedc,
Kylegouveia, Detroiterbot, Doloco, Rhatsa26X, RayquazaDialgaWeird2210, Snurre86, The Volcanologist, Addbot, The Geologist, Asybaris01,
BepBot, Arjuno3, Soupforone, Tide rolls, Matzeachmann, Waltloc, Margin1522, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Gongshow, Kulmalukko, AnomieBOT,
Archon 2488, Rubinbot, DaniTenerife~enwiki, Piano non troppo, 2deseptiembre, Citation bot, Eumolpo, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Fotopanorama~enwiki, W. Edlmeier, Seylerc, GrouchoBot, Resident Mario, Chris.urs-o, Venerock, Fotaun, LucienBOT, Originalwana, Diwas,
Sandcat01, Micromesistius, Tom.Reding, RedBot, MastiBot, Cnwilliams, BeneharoMencey, Swotch, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Spokroppa,
Teide ian, Racerx11, Peaceray, Daniel Tenerife, CanaryIslands, Stormchaser89, ZroBot, Ploync, Subtropical-man, Dohn joe, Heralder, Beneharo86, Jrsfa, ChuispastonBot, JamesDawn, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Thomas123x, 7spqr, Chester Markel, Wdchk, Delusion23, Cntras, Drlectin, BG19bot, Wasbeer, AvocatoBot, David.moreno72, Darylgolden, Cyberbot II, Hannahlouise mickleburgh, 360-vr, Hmainsbot1, Mogism,
MarioZelda128, Airfoxuk, MarchOrDie, El Foes, Mstyslav Chernov, UY Scuti, Obahn, Helle7, Oddaaron00, CaradhrasAiguo, CoolCookieCroc,
Mainframe98, BU Rob13, GreenC bot, GazetoBic, Alas, Jvwho and Anonymous: 212
Temples of Mount Hermon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temples_of_Mount_Hermon?oldid=742865949 Contributors: Delirium,
Charles Matthews, Zero0000, Giraedata, BD2412, RussBot, Gilabrand, Hugo999, Vituzzu, Sean.hoyland, Editor2020, Yobot, FrescoBot,
Supreme Deliciousness, IRISZOOM, John of Reading, Paul Bedson, BG19bot, Firkin Flying Fox, Hmainsbot1, Pluto2012, Vanquisher.UA,
Adni, Manuheu, Tenthmaronite, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 6
Anahita Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahita?oldid=740240978 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Taxman, Quadell, Rich Farmbrough,
Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Wareh, John Vandenberg, Echuck215, Kober, Mikenassau, Zereshk, Woohookitty, Sburke, Uncle G, Rjwilmsi,
Koavf, AlisonW, DaGizza, Bgwhite, RussBot, Pigman, Eupator, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Gadget850, Ninly, Fastifex, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Hmains, Hebel, Robth, Colonies Chris, Stevenmitchell, Fullstop, Paul S, Ged UK, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Houshyar, Novangelis, Hu12,
CBM, ShelfSkewed, Julian Mendez, DumbBOT, Ameliorate!, Missvain, Khorshid, Movses, Jj137, Magioladitis, T@nn, Posuur, Kateshortforbob, Rrostrom, Anoushirvan, Redtigerxyz, CWii, Rayis, TXiKiBoT, Synthebot, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, WikiJedits, Addbot, USchick, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Zara-arush, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Eleph23, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, J04n, Xashaiar, Sahehco,
Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Orijentolog, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Kibi78704, Jonkerz, Lotje, Rain drop 45, Esoglou, EmausBot,
ZxxZxxZ, ZanLJackson, ZroBot, YusuF, Tanbircdq, Phoenicians8, Snotbot, Dream of Nyx, Titodutta, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot, Fotoriety, BattyBot, Khazar2, Vanamonde93, Monkbot, , KasparBot, Happybirthdaybob and Anonymous: 54
Celadon (river) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celadon_(river)?oldid=632826208 Contributors: Paul August, Sylvainremy, Egsan Bacon, Skier Dude, Rlendog, Beach drifter, Jenks24, Hyperdoctor Phrogghrus, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 1
Gihon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gihon?oldid=751608643 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Llywrch, IZAK, DavidA, Alexander.stohr,
Ogress, Wyatts, LordAmeth, Deror avi, SDC, BD2412, Koavf, Bhadani, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Deucalionite,
Bluezy, SmackBot, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Salmar, Quizman1967, Andrew Dalby, LinuxDude, Shilonite, A. Parrot, Civil
Engineer III, SkyWalker, Mellery, Tony lion, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, JustAGal, BehnamFarid, Marokwitz, Dsp13, Albmont, Baristarim, Urco, Pinea, Elphion, SieBot, Izady, Til Eulenspiegel, Soonerzbt, Addbot, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Legobot II, AnakngAraw,
AnomieBOT, Fatepur, Xqbot, FrescoBot, CapitalMan98, Tim1357, Kromholz, EmausBot, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, Twillisjr, Joshuajohnson555, Chugiak, Mamilina and Anonymous: 29
Hubur Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubur?oldid=742337533 Contributors: Kaz, DreamGuy, Woohookitty, BD2412, Str1977, Bloodofox, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, A. Parrot, StAnselm, Goustien, Piledhigheranddeeper, SchreiberBike, Elegend, Alonso de Mendoza, Naomib1996,
John of Reading, Paul Bedson, Pbmaise, Helpful Pixie Bot, Roboskiye, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Iardanus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iardanus?oldid=756377214 Contributors: William Avery, Wetman, Markussep, Sylvainremy,
Pigman, Hmains, Rie, Schmloof, Goustien, Addbot, Omnipaedista, AvicAWB, Mogism, Mr. Lunt and Anonymous: 1
ngr Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dfingr?oldid=546987919 Contributors: Gene Nygaard, Closedmouth, Sardanaphalus,
Ciacchi, Radagast83, Cerdic, Lars951, Jalo, COBot, Addbot, Holt, Xqbot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot, -sche and Anonymous: 1
River Malvam Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Malvam?oldid=648284919 Contributors: Simon Burchell, Gene93k, Antiquary,
Yobot, Wiooiw, Zev Brook and BattyBot
Pahruli Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahruli?oldid=719728640 Contributors: Dubbin, Arjayay, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Inbamkumar86
and Anonymous: 2
Pishon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pishon?oldid=751507032 Contributors: Llywrch, IZAK, DavidA, Sheridan, Brockert, Mubli, D6,
Nabla, Fr3d, Kuratowski's Ghost, Deror avi, SDC, Qwertyus, Patrick1982, Cowabunga5587, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, EamonnPKeane,
Urij, Nowa, Deucalionite, SmackBot, Bluebot, Bejnar, Andrew Dalby, The Man in Question, Civil Engineer III, Rwammang, Tony lion,
Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, Rocker85~enwiki, RebelRobot, Albmont, Urco, STBotD, Jameslwoodward, Elphion, Autodidactyl, Redrocker,
Til Eulenspiegel, Cyfal, Soonerzbt, Joshnstine, MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, MastiBot, EmausBot, Katherine, ZroBot, Rheal lamothe, Twillisjr, IkarusZmedieval, Melcous, Realbeaverlookalike and Anonymous: 24
Sambation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambation?oldid=677563004 Contributors: Bogdangiusca, Steinsky, Aharon, Adinas~enwiki,
Joyous!, Dceck, Cromwellt, Josephf, Cuchullain, Pigman, Gardar Rurak, Hongooi, DameonW, Jiddisch~enwiki, Netziv, JJ211219, Cydebot,
Gierszep, Chesdovi, R'n'B, JhsBot, YonaBot, Goustien, Kathleen.wright5, John J. Bulten, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Yairbritam, Ethine, Isarra, BobJones11, Davidbena, KasparBot and Anonymous: 14
Sarasvati River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_River?oldid=751724639 Contributors: Stevertigo, Paul Barlow, Stan Shebs,
Jmoyer, Genie, AnonMoos, Robbot, Lupo, Meursault2004, Hagedis, Falcon Kirtaran, Grant65, Ragib, Utcursch, Hillel, Rosarino, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Murtasa, Dbachmann, Bender235, Alren, Kwamikagami, Bookofjude, Pearle, Anthony Appleyard, SlaveToTheWage,
Arthena, Wiki-uk, Riana, Goldom, RainbowOfLight, Sumit Dutta, Woohookitty, Batten8, Tabletop, Clemmy, Dangerous-Boy, Julo, Machaon,
545
Graham87, Cuchullain, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Tushti, Gurch, DaGizza, Bgwhite, RussBot, Hornplease, Guruduttmallapur, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, SEWilcoBot, Grafen, Number 57, Rudrasharman, Chopper Dave, Tianicita, WIN, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Magicalsaumy, Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Skizzik, Westsider, TimBentley, UdayanBanerjee, Droll, Rama's Arrow,
ISKapoor, OrphanBot, Fullstop, Megalophias, Bejnar, Shyamsunder, Edwy, RandomCritic, Jijithnr, Rayeld, JoeBot, SanjayMohan, Basawala,
Ikonoblast, Richard Keatinge, Yaris678, Viscious81, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Headbomb, JustAGal, Strausszek, Macaddict10, Escarbot,
P.K.Niyogi, Flibjib8, Darklilac, Ekabhishek, Bakasuprman, Hemendra, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, JamesBWatson, Sindhutvavadin, Tuncrypt,
Mowglee, Abecedare, Fowler&fowler, Ian.thomson, Zerokitsune, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Raji.srinivas, Vinni pool, Catherinej4,
Scheibenzahl, Roland zh, Leastupon, Bkn, Vdhillon, Hindutashravi, SieBot, Til Eulenspiegel, Belinrahs, Dunnob, Sitush, 3rdAlcove, Explicit,
Vinay Jha, ClueBot, Tripping Nambiar, Lartoven, Ankithreya, Anamdas, Aitias, Sudip Regmi, Editorofthewiki, Dthomsen8, Ism schism,
Saraswathigirl, Museofasia, Santasa99, Addbot, Pietersz~enwiki, LaaknorBot, Blaylockjam10, Paknur, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Symmerhill, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Obersachsebot, Sgaur, RibotBOT, Suneet87, Chandan Guha, Verbum Veritas, Rishi 143, Io Herodotus, Kenfyre, SpacemanSpi, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Jai bhatt, Trappist the monk, Curryfranke, Diannaa, TjBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, AlphaGamma1991, GoingBatty, Mkbdce, Mkbdtu, Hiranyabahu, Fungsuk, Merushikhar, Dcirovic,
Vikramaditiya, Rudrasharmen, ZroBot, NothingImpossible, Bhurshut, RegardsfromMe, ClueBot NG, Raghith, Frietjes, BishuYadav, Titodutta,
BG19bot, Island Monkey, MKar, PhnomPencil, Electroenthusiast, Ajay.78503, Jogi don, Solomon7968, Benzband, Gorthian, Joshua Jonathan,
Gyanvigyan1, Cnbhkine, Achowat, ThanMore, BattyBot, Laodah, Ashrafar13, ChrisGualtieri, Rockin It Loud, Mithunrkumar, Hmainsbot1,
Frosty, Indoscope, Jyotsna Devi, Aizen123, Bladesmulti, Filedelinkerbot, StratMan001, Darkknight2149, Avantiputra7, Kautilya3, Hunc, BodduLokesh, Jairakumar, Heritagexpert, Nisha rawat, Capankajsmilyo, Mr Potto, Az9104, NicoDiAngelo11, WilliVerse, Sghosh 2015, Crawford88, Redgummybear15, Boomer Vial, Thecutehero, EllenMcGill, Ak.ak123, I wear my sunglasses at night, TS123, Ashish.singh8912 and
Anonymous: 178
Sillas River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sillas_River?oldid=726490352 Contributors: Delirium, SoWhy, Pravinjha, Shyamsunder,
Postcard Cathy, Christopher Kraus, Hugo999, StAnselm, Od Mishehu AWB, Chaosdruid, Addbot, Queenmomcat and Bogdan Nagachop
Styx Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styx?oldid=754429130 Contributors: The Epopt, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels,
Christopher Mahan, Rmhermen, Christian List, SimonP, Hephaestos, Tucci528, Ubiquity, Kosebamse, Jpatokal, TUF-KAT, Bogdangiusca,
Andres, Lukobe, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Fibonacci, Samsara, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, GPHemsley, Francs2000, JorgeGG, Robbot,
Romanm, UtherSRG, Blashyrk, Snobot, Brian Kendig, Anville, Dsmdgold, Yekrats, Bacchiad, Ellsworth, Neutrality, Robin Hood~enwiki, Ukexpat, Guppynsoup, Eep, Haiduc, Rich Farmbrough, Frehorse, Dbachmann, Paul August, Snow steed~enwiki, SElefant, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Art LaPella, Aaronbrick, Smalljim, Polluks, Richi, Polylerus, Tom Yates, Frodet, Andrew Gray, WikiParker, Immanuel Giel,
BDD, The JPS, Doctor Boogaloo, Kmg90, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, JFields, Ccson, The wub, FlaBot, Nihiltres, RexNL, Gurch, VolatileChemical, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Sceptre, Rsrikanth05, Bovineone, Jirrupin, Ravenous, DHowell, Haoie, Deucalionite, Ormanbotanigi, Cerejota, Nescio, Elkman, Bantosh, Lt-wiki-bot, Bbreon, Che829, Allens, Paul Erik, Amberrock, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, KocjoBot~enwiki,
Brossow, Gilliam, Portillo, Keegan, Baa, Cornake pirate, DHN-bot~enwiki, Nedlum, Darth Panda, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep, clown will
eat me, Onorem, Rrburke, Thomas Graves, Show0591, Downwards, Wybot, CoeurDeLion, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Axem Titanium, Scetoaux, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, The Man in Question, Optimale, Peyre, Joey-Merl, Yhager, OS2Warp, Wolfdog, Rwammang,
CWY2190, Palendrom, Meddling, ShizuokaSensei, PamD, Epbr123, N5iln, Marek69, Pfranson, Fru1tbat, D. Webb, MalcolmSpudbury, Modernist, ClassicSC, Rnorve, JAnDbot, Deective, Epein, Xando18, PhilKnight, Cynwolfe, Acroterion, Dudshan, Magioladitis, Pedro, VoABot
II, T@nn, Davidjk, Koolman435, Froid, Hekerui, Catgut, Waltke, NomadSoul, Esanchez7587, Zachary crimsonwolf, Oderus, LedgendGamer,
J.delanoy, Nev1, Aoosten, Ina kulot, Jxspectre87, Mirey~enwiki, Ivan Scott Warren, Thesis4Eva, Tatrgel, 83d40m, Jsalvado, Malik Shabazz,
VolkovBot, Delvebelow, Macedonian, TXiKiBoT, RelinquishedSanity, DeeKenn, Java7837, Red Act, Rei-bot, JhsBot, MarshallKe, CO, Cantiorix, EmxBot, SieBot, Zquiza, Weeliljimmy, Gerakibot, Flyer22 Reborn, Laladuh, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Bardenite, Escape Orbit, Martarius, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Alvaroduck, The Thing That Should Not Be, Unbuttered Parsnip, Styxo, Drmies, Scottxcore, ChandlerMapBot, Excirial, Estirabot, Okiefromokla, Tnxman307, Dustpelt96, Catalographer, Michielodb, RadicalxEdward, Savabubble, Dtpeck, Glavkos,
Addbot, Man with one red shoe, Fluernutter, Rejectwater, Favonian, ChenzwBot, Keds0, OlEnglish, MuZemike, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Washburnmav, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Dburg2332, Xqbot, Sionus, Capricorn42, Nikofeelan, GrouchoBot, JukeJohn, The Interior,
Elrovjxhsudghhgdx, Shadowjams, Logonalump, FrescoBot, Fortdj33, Tghm1801, DrilBot, Hoo man, RedBot, Trec'hlid mitonet, Xeworlebi,
Dinamik-bot, Groundhog68, , Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Jdudar5, PBS-AWB, Suslindisambiguator, DASHBotAV, Johnydfor3, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, Muon, Widr, Pbmaise, Seekquaze111, Newyork1501, BG19bot, Servranckx, Davidiad, Soluna soul, Warsilver,
Toliste65, Jlm97jlm, Peanutssh, Md219, W.D., Raphael The Archangle, Gre regiment, Frosty, Lemnaminor, Itc editor2, Bever, M1sf1t actual,
Noyster, Lakdfhia, HMSLavender, Isambard Kingdom, Kashley727267, Sirgored, SireWonton, Iotacist, Pingu654, Jakeacts and Anonymous:
311
Vaitarna River (mythological) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaitarna_River_(mythological)?oldid=755588994 Contributors: Anthony Appleyard, BD2412, SmackBot, Ohconfucius, JzG, Dl2000, Mato, Alaibot, Ekabhishek, Redtigerxyz, Harshavardhan83, Charlesdrakew,
SieBot, Indu, Addbot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Tassedethe, Alexi02, Yobot,
, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, PigFlu Oink, Evanh2008, Sanshlistha
m, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, MKar, Fifthman, Siriventi, Cpt.a.haddock, Srihari madhavan, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 5
Acheron Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheron?oldid=756523682 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Rmhermen,
Enchanter, Tucci528, TUF-KAT, Andres, Jallan, Zoicon5, Mythrandia, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Finlay McWalter, UtherSRG, Ninjamask,
Gtrmp, Wikibob, Ketil, DO'Neil, Bacchiad, OldakQuill, Lydgate, MichaelD, Ellsworth, Sam Hocevar, Haggen Kennedy, Eyrian, Number 0,
Dbachmann, Zaslav, Mandramas, Markussep, Reinyday, Redf0x, Joshbaumgartner, DreamGuy, Wyvern, Sburke, YannisKollias, EnSamulili,
Matijap, Marudubshinki, Sjakkalle, Ukdan999, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, 2ct7, YurikBot, RussBot, Pigman, Dforest, MakeChooChooGoNow, Deucalionite, Menelaos, Lt-wiki-bot, SmackBot, Kimon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Davewild, Wakuran, Hmains, Sadads, A. B., Cplakidas, Fuhghettaboutit, SashatoBot, Saccerzd, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Nareek, Richard L. Peterson, The Man in Question, Mallaccaos, MTSbot~enwiki, Menswear, Eickenberg, Tarynmu18, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Jeromebustos, JavaEnabled, T-1, Faigl.ladislav, GentlemanGhost, RoboServien, JimScott, D. Webb, JAnDbot, Fanxy, SiobhanHansa, Elizabennet, T@nn, Jllm06, Lajagt, Dcroe05, CommonsDelinker, Nev1, MercuryBlue, Uncle Dick, DorganBot, Deor, VolkovBot, Dr Steven Plunkett, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Mostafazizi, EmxBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Ichi TK, BenoniBot~enwiki, Finetooth, Eebahgum, EoGuy, Shoemoney2night, Cyucheng, Panellet, Phso2, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Bustacaptx, DerBorg, PeterAS, Starstriker7, Addbot, Tanhabot, Egan86, Ahorstm, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, J04n, Omnipaedista,
546
, Steve Quinn, Alltat, RedBot, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot, Giorgi13, SporkBot, Polisher of Cobwebs, Tot12, Frietjes,
Wbm1058, Dainomite, Gre regiment, RobAdams8832, CAPTAIN RAJU and Anonymous: 97
Cocytus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocytus?oldid=753629684 Contributors: The Anome, Andre Engels, Shsilver, Atlan, Tucci528,
DopeshJustin, Angela, Bogdangiusca, Emperorbma, Mirv, Square1ace, UtherSRG, GreatWhiteNortherner, Snobot, DocWatson42, TOttenville8, Bacchiad, Ellsworth, Sam Hocevar, El-Ahrairah, Dbachmann, RoyBoy, Jojit fb, SnowFire, Maikeru, Kelly Martin, Sburke, Daniel
Lawrence, Aloerman, FlaBot, Mitsukai, YurikBot, Shimirel, Hairy Dude, Royalbroil, Deucalionite, Mieciu K, Drboisclair, Deville, SmackBot,
DracoLord Haven, Kimon, DarkAdonis255, Reycount, Tenka Muteki, Tragic Taco, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, The Man in Question,
Arctic-Editor, Archiesteel, DangerousPanda, Cydebot, EdenMaster, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Headbomb, D, AntiVandalBot, Ingolfson,
T@nn, Klausok, Cocytus, LittleOldMe old, MercuryBlue, Ja 62, Barbaking, Erik the Red 2, EmxBot, Lethesl, ClueBot, Gits (Neo), Narom,
Niceguyedc, Excirial, Uhhlive, Catalographer, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, ColinMB, Erutuon, Legobot, Heisenbergthechemist, Ayrton Prost, JackieBot, Xqbot, Erud, Omnipaedista, Masterknighted, Virgilio Marone, Whisky drinker, Axel Kockum, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Calidum, Ctrt12,
Biggs Pli, Gre regiment, Mark viking, DivermanAU and Anonymous: 71
Eridanos (river of Hades) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridanos_(river_of_Hades)?oldid=713373996 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
Andre Engels, Mic, SebastianHelm, Bogdangiusca, Wikiborg, Roepers, Wetman, Robbot, Jhi, Jor, DocWatson42, Jyril, Mboverload, Anthony
Appleyard, Maqs, Sburke, -Ril-, BD2412, Chronographos, Todd Vierling, Deucalionite, Lt-wiki-bot, Felicity4711, Jamie C, XSG, Maksim-bot,
SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, The Man in Question, Amakuru, Lavateraguy, Thijs!bot, Deective, T@nn, NatureA16, MercuryBlue,
Caspian blue, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Abyca, Rei-bot, Tom Meijer, SieBot, AS, Iw, Susurrousone, PipepBot, Estirabot, Catalographer,
Addbot, Hagfet1, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Omnipaedista, GregKaye, PBS-AWB, Davidiad, Lemnaminor, Library Guy and Anonymous: 14
Lethe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethe?oldid=756916455 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, The Anome, Ed Poor, Rgamble, Karen
Johnson, Apollia, Tucci528, Delirium, Kosebamse, Kingturtle, Bogdangiusca, Jallan, Lfh, Eugene van der Pijll, Gtrmp, Herr Klugbeisser,
Lethe, Dmmaus, Bacchiad, Ctachme, Ellsworth, Dmilosev~enwiki, Eyrian, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Number 0, Dbachmann, Paul August, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Jonathan Drain, Ociallyover, HasharBot~enwiki, Jason One, Gunter.krebs, Njaard, Hu, Caesura, Woohookitty,
Sburke, Chupon, Qwertyus, Jclemens, Ccson, ElKevbo, Bigfan~enwiki, WriterHound, EamonnPKeane, Alma Pater, Blueaster, Gaius Cornelius,
NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Expensivehat, Deucalionite, Bota47, Raveled, SmackBot, Malkinann, Unyoyega, BiT, Hmains, Chris the
speller, Nbarth, Colonies Chris, Dantadd, Wybot, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mircea, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Jmgonzalez, Michael Greiner, Gclinkscales, Iridescent, JoeBot, Igoldste, Opblaaskrokodil, Fordmadoxfraud, Revolus, EdenMaster, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul,
SGGH, Julia Rossi, AngelVigilante, Kedi the tramp, Tadramgo, Armagion, MegX, Magioladitis, T@nn, Beklemmt, Mrathel, Oren0, R'n'B,
Nev1, Mayneverhave, Eirein, STBotD, DorganBot, JLStamper, FeralDruid, VolkovBot, Abyca, Redskinfan325, Mia noi, Natg 19, Ashnard,
Thanatos666, Pefstath, Why Not A Duck, AlleborgoBot, Richard1608, SieBot, Gerakibot, Phe-bot, Hxhbot, Undront, KathrynLybarger, Pearbo,
Terence Kuch, SalineBrain, Plastikspork, Shoemoney2night, Drmies, Rosuav, Emarcus, Patricio Paez, Catalographer, Editor2020, Lisette79,
Six string brad, Jaimicus, Skynity, Addbot, Ttrese, Xaledeib, Omnipedian, AnnaFrance, Hierroneous, Yobot, Hcnebono, Adeliine, Mintrick,
Antique1967, Jfxnaradzay, J04n, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, Bquinn42, D'ohBot, Jonesey95, RedBot, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot,
ScottyBerg, JSquish, ZroBot, Amodio11, Suslindisambiguator, DBigXray, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Dan653, Exercisephys, BluishPixie, PatheticCopyEditor, Khazar2, Ewqtree, Gre regiment, Killuminator, Pincrete, Kennethaw88, Shankarsivarajan, Eenelson6 and Anonymous: 137
Phlegethon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegethon?oldid=745550129 Contributors: Tucci528, Ixfd64, Bogdangiusca, Charles
Matthews, DocWatson42, Bacchiad, Gdr, Ellsworth, El-Ahrairah, Yaz0r, Eyrian, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, Fiveless, Falcorian, Marasmusine, Pgilman, FlaBot, Mordicai, Digitalme, Kummi, YurikBot, GeeJo, Deucalionite, SmackBot, DarkTemplarFury, Egsan Bacon, SashatoBot,
Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anemos~enwiki, Sir Fastolfe, Courcelles, Escarbot, Goldenrowley, Canadian-Bacon, Leuko, Robert hareland, Gwern,
Misarxist, Captain panda, M-le-mot-dit, Erik the Red 2, AlleborgoBot, EmxBot, SieBot, ClueBot, Mr. Laser Beam, Turgonofgondolin, Alexbot,
Catalographer, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, Btdonovan, Chzz, Tassedethe, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, Xqbot, Erud, 98windows, Omnipaedista, DarkFlemy, Redrose64, Carrjones, Orphan Wiki, Immunize, Opnelrisnoena, ClueBot NG, Antiqueight, Davidiad, Khazar2, Gre regiment, Missmistysherrie, Kcim2000, Glenn J. Craig and Anonymous: 50
Nadistuti sukta Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta?oldid=687252935 Contributors: Everyking, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Riana, Dangerous-Boy, Pranathi, Gbalaji82, Srkris, Nharipra, Cydebot, Viscious81, Nick Number, Sindhutvavadin, SpArC, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Lilaac, Gracefoo, Nirjhara and Anonymous: 4
Rigvedic rivers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers?oldid=754862131 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Utcursch, Hillel,
Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Riana, Ketiltrout, Szhaider, Rudrasharman, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gilliam, Tamfang, Megalophias,
IronGargoyle, Aarandir, CPAScott, Iridescent, Rayeld, Eluchil404, Nobleeagle, Cydebot, Nick Number, Leolaursen, Appraiser, Sindhutvavadin, David Eppstein, Satya Venugopal, Artacoana, Intothere, Pahari Sahib, Ponyo, WereSpielChequers, Chimesmonster, Rossen4, Addbot, Misaq Rabab, Download, Jarble, Legobot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Idot, AnomieBOT, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Ulric1313, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, Roy.samarendra, LucienBOT, Edithran, EmausBot, John of Reading, Sarpasarpeti101, ZroBot, Mar4d, Aldrasto11, Dream of Nyx,
Nirjhara, Jogi don, Nakashchit, Quenhitran, Tigercompanion25, Rais khan IAS, Kautilya3, MuslimArab and Anonymous: 41
Beas River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_River?oldid=754234834 Contributors: Llywrch, Ahoerstemeier, Davidzuccaro, Robbot, Ankur, Filemon, Alan Liefting, Sukh, Per Honor et Gloria, Wikiacc, Jamadagni, LeeHunter, Dbachmann, Bender235, DS1953, Darwinek, PWilkinson, Minghong, Grutness, Ricky81682, LRBurdak, Dave.Dunford, Woohookitty, Dangerous-Boy, John Hill, BD2412, Kbdank71, Ahsen, Bhadani, Gprasadh, Shauni, DaGizza, YurikBot, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Srini81, Shreshth91, Moe Epsilon, Reduxtion,
Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Py, Hmains, Jprg1966, Baronnet, Hongooi, Rama's Arrow, Abulfazl, Mircea, Shyamsunder, Aarandir, Jijithnr,
SriniG, Geog, Ganeshbot, Montanabw, Cydebot, Languagehat, Hebrides, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Young Pioneer, Missvain, Nick Number, Deipnosophista, Robzz, Ekabhishek, Pancho Fierro~enwiki, Gekedo, Sushant gupta, The Anomebot2, Eldumpo, J.delanoy, Veeresh1976,
Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Fundamental metric tensor, TXiKiBoT, LeaveSleaves, Roland zh, SieBot, BotMultichill, Lucasbfrbot, Sitush, Finetooth,
Faithlessthewonderboy, Apuldram, DragonBot, Tonkawa68, Jotterbot, Svens Welt, Apparition11, Bilsonius, MystBot, Marklar2007, Albambot,
Addbot, Betterusername, Persian194, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, EryZ, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, RibotBOT, Chandan Guha, AlexanderVanLoon, Samu84sandeep, BenzolBot, Lilaac, Rayshade, MastiBot, FoxBot, NortyNort, Chhora,
Ahivarn, Ripchip Bot, Pcbali, EmausBot, John of Reading, AvicBot, ZroBot, Akerans, Anir1uph, Ppyoonus, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG,
Chschris2011, Frietjes, , Helpful Pixie Bot, DJ Arpit, AnsarParacha, Rohit9verma9, GPR87, Mkrana24, Yowanvista, CitationCleanerBot, Godissupreme, Anbu121, CeraBot, 93rdzorro, BrightStarSky, Neelkamala, Raulcaeser, Vanamonde93, Jupitus Smart, AmyNorth,
547
Julliedon, Prymshbmg, Ainalhala, Gronk Oz, Epicurious The Great, Vrkpatnaik, Midriharipriya, Kautilya3, Barthateslisa, KasparBot, InternetArchiveBot, Asim285 and Anonymous: 69
Bhagirathi River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagirathi_River?oldid=747252212 Contributors: Skysmith, SEWilco, Nichalp, Tom
Radulovich, Mukerjee, AmarChandra, Alren, Kwamikagami, PhilHibbs, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Darwinek, Grutness, Wiki-uk, Riana, Priyatu, Kbdank71, Bhadani, RobyWayne, Bgwhite, WriterHound, Msemwall, Sankarson, NawlinWiki, Supten, SameerKhan, Priyanath, Hmains,
Betacommand, Tribhuwan, Bejnar, Pizzadeliveryboy, Dr.saptarshi, Shyamsunder, CPAScott, Ganeshbot, RobotG, Ekabhishek, Magioladitis,
Avjoska, Sodabottle, The Anomebot2, MetsBot, Fowler&fowler, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Safemariner, Bovineboy2008, Marcus334, !dea4u,
Roland zh, Lucasbfrbot, Wilson44691, Omkirinaga, OKBot, Finetooth, Plastikspork, Ssriram mt, Chaosdruid, Good Olfactory, Addbot,
Queenmomcat, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Urdangaray, LilHelpa, J04n, Chandan Guha, FrescoBot, Suksum, DrilBot, NortyNort, Lotje,
Premchanda, EmausBot, AvicBot, Midas02, SporkBot, Ppyoonus, NIKHILESH9, Frietjes, WikiYesh, Anbu121, Abitoby, Bijay Dutta, InternetArchiveBot and Anonymous: 31
Chautang Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chautang?oldid=756476683 Contributors: Eugene van der Pijll, Dbachmann, Dgorsline, Oneliner, Rjwilmsi, Bhadani, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gjs238, Shyamsunder, Rayeld, The Anomebot2, Guru-45, Carriearchdale, Yobot, Chandan Guha, Erik9bot, EmausBot, Josve05a, Y-barton, KLBot2, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Kautilya3, Thecutehero, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 2
Chenab River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenab_River?oldid=754037440 Contributors: Llywrch, Ahoerstemeier, Tobias Conradi,
Camerong, Carlossuarez46, Hemanshu, Sukh, Utcursch, Roisterer, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Bender235, El C, Darwinek, Bawwa, Denniss, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Dangerous-Boy, John Hill, Kbdank71, Ahsen, Koavf, Bhadani, Sasanjan, Goudzovski, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Siddiqui, Mjsabby, Szhaider, Pratheepps, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Imz, Clpo13, Yamaguchi , Srkris, Hmains, Rama's Arrow, Plasmid,
Abulfazl, Dreadstar, Airwolf, Bejnar, Mircea, Shyamsunder, Aarandir, Ckatz, Iridescent, Basawala, Hebrides, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Yaminjanjua, Anupam, Marek69, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Deective, MER-C, Khagolsan, Sushant gupta, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
Fconaway, Ahsaniqbal 93, Kraftlos, Idioma-bot, Deor, Realman007, Fundamental metric tensor, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Sankalpdravid, Aymatth2, LeaveSleaves, Roland zh, SieBot, Blago Tebi, Chahal k, Finetooth, Apuldram, Kurumban, Alexbot, Coinmanj, Rao Ravindra, Jotterbot,
Nvvchar, Devinder0007, Mhockey, Apparition11, Good Olfactory, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Talha, , Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, AnomieBOT, Josephguillaume, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Johnxxx9, Doorvery far, RibotBOT, Wikireader41, Chandan Guha, Lilaac,
Rayshade, NortyNort, RjwilmsiBot, Sarpasarpeti101, ZroBot, Ppyoonus, Sexymax15, Itrcpk, Titodutta, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, CitationCleanerBot, YFdyh-bot, BrightStarSky, Hmainsbot1, Mutafaf, Epicgenius, Migoshi, Ngrewal1, Awaisdev, AmyNorth, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Prymshbmg, Hijigne, Kautilya3, KasparBot, Sadaketmalik2015, Seminario, Salah ud din omer, Jn045, DRMOOMOO420, Beinghanshyam and Anonymous: 70
Dangri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangri?oldid=753246789 Contributors: Gjs238, The Anomebot2, Yobot, InternetArchiveBot and
Thecutehero
Drishadvati river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drishadvati_river?oldid=749025203 Contributors: The Anome, Bishonen, Dbachmann, Tabletop, Dangerous-Boy, Ketiltrout, Rsrikanth05, SmackBot, Jab843, TenPoundHammer, Mike1901, Rayeld, Sudhirkbhargava, DadaNeem, Miniapolis, Denisarona, Sitush, Niceguyedc, Dthomsen8, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Serols, Orenburg1, Vinay84, Caksu, John of Reading, Aldrasto11, Y-barton, ClueBot NG, BishuYadav, Avgr8, BG19bot, WohooUser, Jyotsna Devi, Melcous, Prymshbmg, Kautilya3, GeneralizationsAreBad, Buerish, Shahidrehan85, Happygolucky2005, BoatFloater, ValdostaTeacher, Asman786, LBR1009, LightningScout, Livetoedit1123, Kronos1011, RJ04OAK, Mpule11, Namishkhosla457, Angus McPherson extreme, Benjaminhills, Rschatens, Sempai22, Bhavvaland200, Jworr14, Billnye35, KerryJBrown2, Tm121523, Daddondale, Bobyboert, Rocketteam, Gruwella, FeckingShite, Thedirtdude, Sanah
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Shubhanshu02 and Anonymous: 28
Ganges Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges?oldid=755296468 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Paul Drye, The Anome, Eclecticology,
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548
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Ganges in Hinduism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_in_Hinduism?oldid=754737717 Contributors: N-true, Ragib, Kwamikagami, Hintha, Mdd, Wiki-uk, Riana, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Benbest, Dangerous-Boy, Koavf, Rejithcr, TheRingess, LjL, Dcastor,
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549
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Ghaggar-Hakra River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River?oldid=753697128 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Dale Arnett,
Utcursch, Mukerjee, Hillel, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Pearle, Anthony Appleyard, Riana, RJFJR, Ghirlandajo,
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Kaushalya river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaushalya_river?oldid=742367722 Contributors: Dgorsline, Rjwilmsi, The Anomebot2,
CommonsDelinker, Yobot, Thecutehero and Bender the Bot
Markanda River, Haryana Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markanda_River%2C_Haryana?oldid=742518487 Contributors: Rjwilmsi,
Nihiltres, Gjs238, The Anomebot2, TJRC, Certes, Rehman, Yobot, Uanfala, Thecutehero and Bender the Bot
Tangri river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangri_river?oldid=742864804 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, Gjs238, The Anomebot2, TJRC,
Yobot, Thecutehero and Bender the Bot
Gomal River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_River?oldid=748490133 Contributors: Moondyne, Dbachmann, Bender235, Dpv,
Rjwilmsi, Siddiqui, Aelfthrytha, Hmains, Bluebot, Bejnar, Mircea, Meco, Myasuda, Cydebot, Magioladitis, Khagolsan, Memphis train, The
Anomebot2, Olaf Studt, VolkovBot, Phe-bot, Od Mishehu AWB, Mhockey, MystBot, Addbot, Chakrabortydeepro, Poloplayers, Yobot, Bob
Burkhardt, RibotBOT, Tahir mq, Dabamizan48, Ripchip Bot, John of Reading, Look2See1, Drustaz, Khestwol, Sulemankhail, Curiouscat1,
Rubbish computer, Power22, KasparBot and Anonymous: 5
Haro River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haro_River?oldid=744312486 Contributors: Dbachmann, Darwinek, Woohookitty, BD2412,
Szhaider, Aelfthrytha, Od Mishehu, Hmains, Mircea, Missvain, The Anomebot2, Khalid Mahmood, VolkovBot, Pahari Sahib, SieBot, BOTarate,
Addbot, LaaknorBot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Aashah86, Xqbot, Tahir mq, Crusoe8181, Aldrasto11, Khuramonline, Waas341, Farhadali1005 and
Anonymous: 6
Indori river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indori_river?oldid=715249738 Contributors: Jokulhlaup and Thecutehero
Indus River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River?oldid=756728196 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zundark, Andre Engels, William
Avery, SimonP, Olivier, Lorenzarius, D, Dante Alighieri, Gdarin, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Angela, Darkwind, Andres, Cherkash,
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Hadal, Dina, Pablo-ores, Albatross2147, Crculver, Mintleaf~enwiki, Hagedis, Tom Radulovich, Mishac, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Per Honor et
Gloria, Aalahazrat~enwiki, Bobblewik, Supaluminal, Utcursch, Sohailstyle, J. 'mach' wust, Antandrus, Beland, Rdsmith4, Mschlindwein, Hillel,
Trevor MacInnis, Esperant, Mike Rosoft, Perey, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, Pasquale, Rich Farmbrough, Spundun, Florian Blaschke, Berkut,
Dbachmann, Paul August, MarkS, Bender235, ESkog, Egalitus, CanisRufus, Zscout370, MBisanz, El C, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Femto,
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OwenX, Woohookitty, Ghane, Mr Tan, Camw, MONGO, Schzmo, Dangerous-Boy, GregorB, John Hill, Hughcharlesparker, Wayward, Palica,
Matilda, Raguks, Graham87, BD2412, Kbdank71, Dpv, Ahsen, Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, Ikh, Durin, Karma Thief, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Vuong
Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Mishuletz, AdnanSa, Darcyj, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Nivix, RexNL, ChongDae, CJLL Wright, Chobot, DaGizza,
Moocha, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Vyzasatya,
Rsrikanth05, Srini81, NawlinWiki, Kantokano, Grafen, Siddiqui, Joel7687, Stallions2010, Romarin, Bota47, Mjsabby, Szhaider, Ms2ger, AjaxSmack, Crisco 1492, Boivie, Rudrasharman, Closedmouth, Ketsuekigata, Scriber~enwiki, Extraordinary, Will R Turner, Xaxafrad, Pratheepps,
WIN, Katieh5584, That Guy, From That Show!, SpLoT, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Unschool, David Kernow, Yusufkhan, KnowledgeOfSelf,
Waqas.usman, Pgk, C.Fred, Korossyl, Jagged 85, Tarzenda, Frymaster, Kintetsubualo, Aivazovsky, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Chris the speller,
Bluebot, Ian13, Sandycx, Jprg1966, CSWarren, Viewnder, Baronnet, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Rama's Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
DRahier, JRPG, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Krsont, Addshore, Abulfazl, SundarBot, Cribananda, Decltype, Zdravko mk, The unbearable brightness
of beam, Nmpenguin, Shahkhan, Bejnar, Drunken Pirate, Andrew Dalby, Ohconfucius, Apalaria, Mircea, Unre4L, Carnby, J 1982, Kipala,
Benesch, Shyamsunder, Green Giant, Aarandir, Ckatz, JHunterJ, Korovio, Luokehao, Meco, Deepak D'Souza, MTSbot~enwiki, Skinsmoke,
Hu12, BranStark, Spartian, Shoeofdeath, Geog, Ehsankiani, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, RaviC, Ghaly, Thetrick, SkyWalker, Sooku, Mattbr,
550
Primeboy, JohnCD, Ibadibam, Neelix, Myasuda, Equendil, Jac16888, Cydebot, Ramitmahajan, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Vargob, Ferretsnarf,
Legacystrike, Tawkerbot4, JodyB, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Islescape, Sarfraz777, Dpall, Anupam, Marek69, Esowteric, OrenBochman,
Nick Number, Escarbot, Pie Man 360, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Robzz, Peterwinn, Tigeroo, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Samar, Ekabhishek, Bakasuprman, MER-C, Attarparn, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, AtticusX, Khalidkhoso, CTF83!, Tinucherian,
Sindhutvavadin, Alishehzad, Prester John, JaGa, Philg88, Khalid Mahmood, BeckyLadakh, Pax:Vobiscum, Hbent, Rickard Vogelberg, Al,
S3000, Atulsnischal, Jackson Peebles, Salvager, SI4, Cody6, Kevinsam, Nkadambi, Rettetast, R'n'B, Sikh-history, AlexiusHoratius, Nono64,
AgarwalSumeet, LedgendGamer, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Asif110, Eliz81, PC78, Lantonov, Katalaveno,
Juliancolton, DH85868993, Nomi887, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Pclift, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Haim Berman, Je G., Indubitably, KindGoat, Abid Khan Seengharay (Yousafzai), Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Pahari Sahib, Suprah, Sudipta.dasgupta, Vipinhari, Uch, Martin451, Sniperz11, LeaveSleaves, Andrewrost3241981, Natg 19, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Azhar aslam, Kmhkmh, Kotai~enwiki, Adam.J.W.C.,
Falcon8765, Turgan, Onceonthisisland, AlleborgoBot, Tvinh, Roland zh, Junoon53, Vsst, EmxBot, Arjun024, Sojharo, SieBot, Zip600001,
Tiddly Tom, Lemonash, Smsarmad, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, SPACKlick, CutOTies, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Vmrgrsergr, Fratrep,
Adam Cuerden, Jacob.jose, Motyka, ImageRemovalBot, Atif.t2, Apuldram, ClueBot, UrsusArctosL71, Tanmay110, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Matdrodes, Saddhiyama, Khanpride, Niceguyedc, Raawais, Arunsingh16, Siyal1990, Jfdavis668, Xinjao, DragonBot, Takeaway, Jusdafax, PixelBot, Gtstricky, Wiki dr mahmad, Rao Ravindra, World, Jotterbot, Tangverse, Koppoliy, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Chaosdruid,
Thingg, Mhockey, Burner0718, Apparition11, Ashixamo, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, Drm 1976, Dthomsen8, P30Carl, Mfarooqtariq, Mm40,
Jbeans, Seneca13, Bgag, Addbot, Shree90, Misaq Rabab, Ronhjones, Njaelkies Lea, Cuaxdon, Fluernutter, NjardarBot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Talha,
AndersBot, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Kahasabha, Numbo3-bot, Paknur, Issyl0, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Geronimo81, Gail, Ben Pirard, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Shannon1, Yobot, 2D, Now05ster, Siddharthssj4, Pectore, R.steenhard, Ata Fida Aziz, KamikazeBot, Pk5abi, , AnomieBOT,
Jim1138, Neptune5000, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Maxis ftw, Thecalculator98, Rockoprem, RajeshUnuppally, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II,
Ali944rana, Antonioga, Gigemag76, Johnxxx9, Almabot, J04n, Doorvery far, Armbrust, Nayvik, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, SassoBot, The
Interior, Brickline, Chandan Guha, Verbum Veritas, Shadowjams, AlexanderVanLoon, Rahul1365, Nagualdesign, FrescoBot, Originalwana,
Io Herodotus, Gbondmg42, Massagetae, Teckgeek, Hussain Ahmad Faizy, K.Khokhar, Ahmer Jamil Khan, Lilaac, Citation bot 1, Taeyebar,
Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rayshade, HRoestBot, Rushbugled13, King Zebu, Hamtechperson, Kraj35, Golden Penguin, FoxBot, TobeBot,
Lotje, Fox Wilson, Harut8, Irfannaseefp, Rain drop 45, Diannaa, Pownerus, Akgravgaard, Brumon, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Balablitz, User Team,
Policysukz, DRAGON BOOSTER, CalicoCatLover, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Mzr20, Dadaist6174, Katherine, Racerx11, Junebug696, Toutvientapoint, Khalid69, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Sheeana, Djembayz, Mekong2, AvicBot, HiW-Bot, ZroBot,
Mar4d, Bm1996, Khaqanamin, Makecat, Mdmday, Sindhulogy, Rajadevjani, Tolly4bolly, Cyberdog958, L Kensington, Lesto101, Donner60,
Drustaz, ChuispastonBot, NTox, 97, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, Khestwol, ResearchRave, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven,
Ramtejvarma, Powstini, LogX, Adair2324, Teepusultan, Frietjes, Bolori, Babanwalia, Prabhat1729, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Ani23390,
BG19bot, Khahori, Woodszack, Vagobot, PhnomPencil, Mysterytrey, Uhlan, Frze, Jogi don, Onewhohelps, Jeena1986, Gorthian, Carlstak, Tangerinehistry, Jayadevp13, Tanu21, Lieutenant of Melkor, Khahori01, Kriteesh, Dav subrajathan.357, Jeremy112233, David.moreno72, Athira
Rajkamal, Pratyya Ghosh, Kalyanisuresh, Mdann52, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, Farvartish, GoShow, AzseicsoK, NitRav, Propaganda Charisma,
JYBot, EagerToddler39, BrightStarSky, Sminthopsis84, 331dot, Souparnikaachu1, Kiranpaul143, Delljvc, Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Ulfrik
Stormcloak, Cptcha, WBRSin, Joemanderson75, Seasonsinthesun, Scoodlypoopin, Obaid Raza, Hillbillyholiday, Nirmaladvani, Capitals00, Billy
Boy 69, Raviteja338, HistoryofIran, Ribena786, Hoppeduppeanut, Guykom, Flat Out, LouisAragon, Babitaarora, Sushilmishra, Coolgama, Saladin1987, Ugog Nizdast, Nikhilmn2002, Kevinsydong1, TheodoreIndiana, Visakha veera, Bladesmulti, PJDF2367, JaconaFrere, Ashyboy67,
Ezequial mendoza3, Monkbot, Nestwiki, Prymshbmg, Rd1walker, Esiymbro, BethNaught, Thundermann, Shuaib Qureshi, UsmanKhan, Hijigne, SheriIsInTown, ReneVermeulen, Chaitanyaanand1, A.stationary.traveller, Crystallizedcarbon, Kautilya3, Sherlybobs, Vigneshdm1990,
Rawfey, Alicia Florrick, Nishtiaqrana, BodduLokesh, Morningwood4, Arvansages, D= Im lonely =D, SamaaNews, Power22, Human3015,
Randhwasingh, Aplesoce, Conradjagan, Weirdo103, Ankush 89, Tiger7253, KasparBot, AusLondonder, Aizaz Nabi Bhatti, Mascot2244, Deepanshu1707, Spidersmilk, Filpro, Goodly2016, Gforg9, Totilla roll, GreenC bot, ~MMAKB~, Lezela, TouristerMan, Bender the Bot, Navin
Pasari, Quinton Feldberg, Dxrsam, Watanejan and Anonymous: 902
Jhelum River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum_River?oldid=755085197 Contributors: Llywrch, Ahoerstemeier, Tobias Conradi,
Camerong, Sukh, Bobblewik, Sam Hocevar, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Mani1, Egalitus, Bobo192, Smalljim,
Darwinek, Idleguy, MPerel, Polylerus, Ricky81682, Edoderoo, Angr, Tabletop, Dangerous-Boy, John Hill, Yaqoob, Ahsen, Criticforaday,
TheRingess, FlaBot, Chobot, DaGizza, YurikBot, Deeptrivia, Akamad, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, Siddiqui, Stallions2010, Mjsabby, Szhaider, Nlu, Malekhanif, Pratheepps, Trickstar, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Spasage, Magicalsaumy, Hmains,
Rama's Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Abulfazl, Mion, Mircea, Shyamsunder, Green Giant, Aarandir, Sifaka, Sinaloa, Twas Now, CmdrObot, Timtrent, Funnyfarmofdoom, Cydebot, Synergy, Arvind Iyengar, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Anupam, Danianjan, Amitprabhakar, Nick Number, Molvi333, Widefox, Dr. Blofeld, Myasinilyas, Wahabijaz, JAnDbot, Deective, Samar, MER-C, Magioladitis, VoABot II, The Anomebot2,
Adamiow, Miltong, Mangochutney, JaGa, Khalid Mahmood, CliC, Smartinfoteck3, Fconaway, We are here, STBotD, Idioma-bot, Je G., Fundamental metric tensor, Webkami, TXiKiBoT, ReshmiD, Mahaexp, LeaveSleaves, Azhar aslam, Kmhkmh, Gorbyc, Mallerd, Pjoef, Imranbashir,
Roland zh, SieBot, Smsarmad, Hello71, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Askarii, Sitush, Finetooth, ImageRemovalBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc,
Shovon76, Tonkawa68, Muhandes, Jotterbot, Vinayak.razdan, Apparition11, Mustafa mughal, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Jafeluv, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Talha, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Bendwiththetrend, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Shuaibkamili,
Vanderchames, AnomieBOT, Mahmudmasri, Xqbot, Johnxxx9, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Chandan Guha, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Totalserg,
Teckgeek, Lilaac, D A R C 12345, RedBot, Elitedrago, Yunshui, 777sms, Xishan01, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Khalid69,
TuHan-Bot, AsceticRose, SporkBot, Chaudharyadil, Prakashfromnepal, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Babanwalia, Widr, Titodutta, Faran511, J991,
Compfreak7, Tangerinehistry, Mehrajmir13, Buddhafollower, Ppkelkar, TejasDiscipulus2, MathewTownsend, Bigsean00300, KSNagra, BrightStarSky, ISoham, Yaaim, TwoTwoHello, Irul 901, Frosty, Akshey25, Mouliric, Jjkkkk, Acha bacha1, Tiefkuehlfan, Awaisdev, AddWittyNameHere, JaconaFrere, Filedelinkerbot, Prymshbmg, Indrajitdas, Owais Khursheed, Jin khatama, Anonimeco, Awanpatti king, Santy2525, Sargodha
vynz, MBlaze Lightning, Kasif the great, GSS-1987, Ksinghchahal, Wasiq 9320, Fenrir77, Shubhendre, Asim285 and Anonymous: 107
Kabul River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabul_River?oldid=744455652 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, PDH, Bumm13,
Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Enric Naval, Darwinek, Grutness, DorisAntony, Woohookitty, Dangerous-Boy, Koavf, Chobot,
YurikBot, Wavelength, Siddiqui, Jpbowen, Szhaider, Py, Gilliam, Hmains, Qudratullah, Flyguy649, Mircea, Green Giant, The Man in Question, Don Alessandro, Norm mit, Rayeld, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Deective, Pancho Fierro~enwiki, Khagolsan, The Anomebot2, Dr Pukhtunyar
551
Afghan, Khalid Mahmood, Enaidmawr, Intothere, Idioma-bot, AlnoktaBOT, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, BotKung, SieBot, Phe-bot, OKBot,
Denisarona, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sabri76, Mhockey, TheNewPianist, KabuliTajik, Dupree3, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Misaq Rabab, LaaknorBot,
Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, , Amirobot, Jim1138, JackieBot, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, NisarPakistani, FazelFazly, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, Massagetae, MastiBot, Cnwilliams, NortyNort, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, Look2See1, ZroBot,
Mar4d, ChuispastonBot, Khestwol, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lo Ximiendo, Solomon7968, Fareed30, Library Guy, KasparBot, NotAnOmbudsman, Skippydang, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 35
Dohan river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dohan_river?oldid=754815382 Contributors: Jaguar, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Jokulhlaup, Crow, InternetArchiveBot and Thecutehero
Krishnavati river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnavati_river?oldid=739554261 Contributors: Shyamsunder, Yobot, Me, Myself,
and I are Here, Jokulhlaup, Crow, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Thecutehero and Anonymous: 1
Ras Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras%C4%81?oldid=573371329 Contributors: Hillel, Dbachmann, Dangerous-Boy, Ketiltrout, Rayeld, Ermeyers, MegX, Zerokitsune, Sarayuparin, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, RedBot and Dorium
Ravi River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_River?oldid=755351852 Contributors: Danny, Kaal, Jredmond, Rorro, Sukh, Per Honor
et Gloria, Utcursch, Sohailstyle, Mike Rosoft, 2 sluts invade rural America, Jamadagni, Dbachmann, Bender235, DS1953, Darwinek, Grutness, Alai, Ceyockey, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Marudubshinki, Kbdank71, Ahsen, Chobot, Siddhant, Wavelength, Shreshth91, Voyevoda, Stallions2010, Szhaider, Pratheepps, Trickstar, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Imz, Devanampriya, Srkris, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris
the speller, TimBentley,
~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Rama's Arrow, Khalil Sawant, Tamfang, Abulfazl, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Ashinpt,
Mircea, Shyamsunder, Aarandir, Rayeld, RaviC, Amalas, Jac16888, Cydebot, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Chshoaib, Amitprabhakar, Escarbot, Dr.
Blofeld, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, MER-C, Pancho Fierro~enwiki, Khagolsan, Sushant gupta, The Anomebot2, CommonsDelinker, Doctorbabur,
KylieTastic, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Guthrum, Fundamental metric tensor, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, LeaveSleaves, Roland zh, SieBot, Lightmouse,
Finetooth, VsBot, Niceguyedc, Tonkawa68, Nvvchar, Shinningstar55, Indopug, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Zorrobot, S M
Lee, Luckas-bot, Shannon1, Yobot, Nallimbot, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, DumcaKing, Johnxxx9, RibotBOT, Chandan Guha, Verbum Veritas, K.Khokhar, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Trappist the monk, CalicoCatLover, Cricobr, John of Reading,
Silver Penguin, Tommy2010, Sarpasarpeti101, ZroBot, Sreeshankarlal, Mar4d, H3llBot, SporkBot, Asksachinsaini, Irfan0552007, Someonepakistani, Watercolor121, JanetteDoe, Llightex, Islamisgr88, Frietjes, Babanwalia, Sexymax15, Widr, Kwdt2, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Titodutta, Stingray225, FlyingOnFloor, Andron35, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, RotlinkBot, Neelkamala, Faizan, Raviteja338, Binnys18303,
Nattynab, Awaisdev, Ithinkicahn, Prymshbmg, BethNaught, Hijigne, CAPTAIN RAJU, GreenC bot, Hiya2005, Bender the Bot, Asim285 and
Anonymous: 62
Sahibi River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahibi_River?oldid=744660123 Contributors: The Anome, Utcursch, Tabletop, Bgwhite,
Ohconfucius, Sudhirkbhargava, Ekabhishek, Magioladitis, Atulsnischal, Hugo999, Sitush, Finetooth, EoGuy, A.Savin, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
LilHelpa, Jonesey95, John of Reading, Y-barton, Barrodrajesh, BishuYadav, BG19bot, Solomon7968, PaintedCarpet, Comatmebro, Siddhartha.naha, South seas navigator, MichaelAAustin, Matthewirvine-dejong, Mitillidie, Negashek, Jokulhlaup, Robert4565, Davids.jmnj,
Pichanmoesix, Thecutehero and Anonymous: 9
Sarayu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarayu?oldid=741078690 Contributors: Utcursch, Mukerjee, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough,
Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Wiki-uk, Shreevatsa, Dangerous-Boy, Raguks, TheRingess, SMC, Bhadani, Latka, Musicpvm, Apeman, Sandyiit,
SmackBot, Kahuzi, Hmains, Rama's Arrow, Bejnar, Shyamsunder, Shivashree, Jijithnr, Rayeld, Ssuresh~enwiki, GingerLeader, Woudloper,
JamesAM, Nick Number, Ekabhishek, Kaobear, Longhairandabeard, Faizhaider, Sindhutvavadin, The Anomebot2, Ian.thomson, NewEnglandYankee, Sarayuparin, Quickest, Signalhead, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Kjramesh, Sarayuvivek2003, Darkicebot, Addbot, Shyamalleonard,
Flewis, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Project.93, Chandan Guha, Lilaac, SpacemanSpi, Dazedbythebell, TRYPPN, Dcirovic, Truthman2-2010,
SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Krishna2107, Veera Dheera Sooran, WilliVerse, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 33
Sarsuti Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarsuti?oldid=733939530 Contributors: Gjs238, The Anomebot2, Yobot, AnomieBOT, BG19bot,
Cpt.a.haddock, Eshwar.om and Thecutehero
Somb river Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somb_river?oldid=742854499 Contributors: Dgorsline, Rjwilmsi, The Anomebot2, CommonsDelinker, Yobot, Ks-M9, Thecutehero and Bender the Bot
Sutlej Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej?oldid=756881928 Contributors: Danny, Disdero, Slawojarek, Robbot, Sukh, Per Honor et
Gloria, Nograpes, Mike Rosoft, Venu62, Jamadagni, Dbachmann, Bender235, Pt, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Anthony Appleyard, Keenan Pepper, Firsfron, John Hill, Matilda, JIP, Ahsen, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, BjKa, KX675, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Fabartus, Siddiqui, Saberwyn,
Szhaider, AjaxSmack, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Imz, BoBo, Py, Devanampriya, Srkris, Hmains, TimBentley, Skookum1, Rama's Arrow,
Tsca.bot, MJCdetroit, Abulfazl, Megalophias, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mircea, AB, Shyamsunder, Aarandir, RandomCritic, Vijeth, CmdrObot,
Randhirreddy, Amalas, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Amitprabhakar, Muaddeeb, Peterwinn, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek,
Pancho Fierro~enwiki, Magioladitis, Sushant gupta, Rich257, The Anomebot2, Eldumpo, R'n'B, Fconaway, Ahtih, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot,
Fundamental metric tensor, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Rei-bot, LeaveSleaves, Natg 19, Sop8thefood, Roland zh, SieBot, BotMultichill, Smsarmad, Poonamestate, Finetooth, RegentsPark, Apuldram, ClueBot, Yoshi Canopus, Niceguyedc, DragonBot, LeoFrank, Alexbot,
Tonkawa68, Sun Creator, SchreiberBike, C628, Mhockey, Johnuniq, AlanM1, Qxwwxq, WikHead, Monfornot, Good Olfactory, Albambot,
Addbot, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Talha, Zorrobot, S M Lee, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Sanyambahga, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, Materialscientist, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Bihco, Cookiemohnsta, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Chandan Guha, Skcpublic, Citation bot 1, Rayshade,
Tahir mq, NortyNort, Innotata, EmausBot, Scotteaton92, Jujhar.pannu, Dcirovic, ZroBot, Mar4d, Puskarbiswas, Spicemix, Dharmendrak11,
Prakashfromnepal, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tangerinehistry, Legolover26, Dhavalbhatt16, Anbu121, Cyberbot II, Cpt.a.haddock, ISoham, Mogism, Makecat-bot, Seasonsinthesun, Md fayazuddin khan, AmyNorth, Monkbot, Prymshbmg, Esiymbro, Narky Blert, Jombiecutter,
Ankush 89, KasparBot, Parmar-ajn, Spitefulchant, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 80
Swan River (Islamabad) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_River_(Islamabad)?oldid=724206085 Contributors: Bender235,
Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, Siddiqui, SmackBot, McGeddon, C.Fred, Hmains, Mircea, Harej bot, Thijs!bot, Danianjan, Nick Number, Samar,
The Anomebot2, Khalid Mahmood, Amirtaj, Momers, Pahari Sahib, Technopat, Moonriddengirl, Boing! said Zebedee, Auntof6, Mhockey,
XLinkBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Legobot II, LilHelpa, Mcoupal, Chandan Guha, FrescoBot, Chjunaid, Innotata, Mean as custard, WikitanvirBot,
552
Hameedullah36, Mar4d, ClueBot NG, Teepusultan, Umair matyal, Kirananils, Nickzlapeor, Riazbukhari, Ainalhala, Kinetic37, Shoaibhassanphotography, Plutowuto, Markangle11, GeeAichhBee and Anonymous: 11
Swat River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swat_River?oldid=753198541 Contributors: Delirium, Rosarino, Discospinster, Bdk, RHaworth, Chirags, Eubot, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Siddiqui, Szhaider, SmackBot, Waqas.usman, Spasage, Hmains, Alakazou1978~enwiki, Mircea,
Haligonian1, Salimswati, Shahabsalim, Ikonoblast, Ntsimp, Mohammad salim khan swati, Alaibot, Fayenatic london, Ekabhishek, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Shahroze, Sarfarosh2, Maproom, Intothere, VolkovBot, Pahari Sahib, Noor Aalam, Chhandama, ClueBot, StigBot,
SoxBot, Mhockey, Addbot, WuBot, Ketabtoon, HerculeBot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, YBG, Drawnones434, LucienBOT, FoxBot,
Look2See1, QadeemMusalman, Kilopi, Isruma, , ClueBot NG, , BG19bot, Drsaeed90, Dildarswat, Adilswati, Ejunaidkhan,
Syeda Bushra Ahmad, Power22, KasparBot, Muhammad Numan MN and Anonymous: 23
Yamuna Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamuna?oldid=751960153 Contributors: Youssefsan, Ahoerstemeier, Andres, Imc, Kaal,
Paul-L~enwiki, Wetman, Carlossuarez46, Billranton, UtherSRG, Netoholic, 20040302, Per Honor et Gloria, Finn-Zoltan, Utcursch, Jam2k,
AmarChandra, Rich Farmbrough, Virendra, Dbachmann, Bender235, Alren, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Dralwik, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Kbir1,
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Mythological Places

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Mythological Places

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Mythological places

Other hypothetical locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In Old Norse texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 The myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.1 Relationship to myth of Llys Helig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.2 Physical evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3 Origins of the myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.1 Analogies in other legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4 Cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.2 Music and art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1 Irish mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.2 Welsh mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3 Continental Celtic mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3 In visual culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 Chryse and Argyre

15.5 Appearances in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.3 Medieval romance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.5 Known inhabitants and traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.6 Modern fantasy and other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.2 In English and Scots texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.1 Early sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.1.2 Location of Hyperborea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.1.3 Later classical sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.1.4 Ancient identication with Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.2.1 Physical appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.2.2 From east to west: Celts as Hyperboreans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.2.3 Abaris the Hyperborean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.3 Modern interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.4 Identication as Hyperboreans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.5 Hyperborean Indo-European hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.6 Hyperborea in modern esoteric thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.7 Cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.1 Scientic origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.2 Kumari Kandam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24 List of mythological places

26.1 History of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.1.1 Augustus Le Plongeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.1.2 James Churchward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.1.3 Modern claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2.1 Geological arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2.2 Archaeological and genetic evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2.3 Troano Codex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .