THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

From the Amazon rain forest, to the desert plains of the Australian outback, from the
gentle hills of Bordeaux, to the congested streets of New York City and Hong Kong, the
human race communicates through a highly complex system of vocal sounds known as
language.Language is at the core of communication. We use it to question, to
command, and to define and describe. It is the most powerful and adaptable of the
communication tools for expressing truth and preserving meaning, whether vocally or
through written symbols.
The world at one time shared a single language; however, thousands of languages (and
cultures) exist today, each with its own distinct vocabulary and sounds. Despite this
diversity, all languages remain the same in structure and purpose. This lesson briefly
reviews three major characteristics common to language.

OBJECTIVES

Identify specific systems of language

Analyze different conventions of language

Understand ambiguities of language in communication

VOCABULARY

00:00/00:01

ambiguous

obscure; no definite meaning

linguistics

the sounds that act as building blocks

morphology

study of words and their structure

phonology

study of sounds

pragmatics

the branch of linguistics that studies language use rather than lan
structure

semantics

the branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of language

symbol

something that represents something else

syntax

grammatical arrangement of words and phrases

LANGUAGE IS SYSTEMATIC
When a person speaks, he or she transmits or "encodes" thoughts and ideas through
vocal sounds produced in the voice box. These sounds are combined to form units of
meaningwords and word parts. Words are combined to form larger unitsphrases,
clauses, sentences, and discourses. The effective speaker does none of this randomly.
In order to communicate his message, he (often unconsciously) uses a set of
established patterns that act as the "rules" of the language he is speaking. Several
separate but interacting systems work simultaneously to perform the function of
language.
Phonology. The phonology of a language is the set of sounds that act as building
blocks of meaning. In and of themselves, sounds have no meaning. The sounds for
/a/, /b/, and /t/ are only sounds by themselves. Working as a system, however, sounds
of a language group together in predictable patterns to build units that can carry
meaning. Thus, the consonants /b/ and /t/, when combined with the vowel /a/, make
"abt," "atb," "tba," "bta," "tab," and "bat." This simple example shows you that while
sounds can be combined in innumerable, seemingly arbitrary ways, the rules of a
language determine the acceptable ways for sounds to be combined in order to build
units of meaning. In this case, English uses "tab" and "bat," but none of the other
combinations.
Morphology. The second system, morphology, is the set of patterns or "rules" that
govern the behavior of the smallest units of meaning in a languagemorphemesall of

which make up the lexicon of the language. These can be whole words or word parts.
For example, the word "bookshelves," while one word, is made up of three morphemes:
book, shelf, and "es." The first two morphemes are independent words joined into a
compound. The "es" (pronounced /z/) is a suffix that means "more than one" or plural.
This example also shows how language systems influence each other. When the plural
is added to "bookshelf," the /f/ of "shelf" changes to /v/ (requiring use of the voice box)
and in turn the plural is voiced as /z/, not /s/. Here, morphology is influencing phonology.
Syntax. The third language system, syntax, is the set of patterns or "rules" that
governs the arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Words are
arranged in a particular order to reflect their relationship to one another. In English,
sentences are usually ordered subject-verb-object (SVO) as in the sentence: "Bill hit the
ball." When English word order changes, meaning often changes as well as in: "The ball
hit Bill." However, "The hit Bill ball" or "Bill the hit ball" are not acceptable in English.
Many languages do not rely as heavily on word order to communicate meaning, instead
using morphemes to show the subject-verb-object relationship. In some languages, "Bill
hit the ball" and "The ball hit Bill" could mean the same thing.
Semantics. Semantics is the language system governing meaning, i.e., the
relationships of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences to specific objects, events, or
experiences. The rules of semantics help us to see that since words have specific
meanings, we can be fairly certain that when we go to a restaurant and order a
hamburger, the waitress will not bring us a salad instead. She will bring a cooked
portion of ground meat, usually beef, on a bun. This is because the English word
"hamburger" refers to a specific object. If it did not, who knows what you might get for
dinner!
The relationships between words and their meanings tend to shift and change over
time. Meat now refers to "animal flesh." The word "prevent" once meant "to allow" but
has shifted to refer to just the opposite. The widely used word "google" was made up by
a nine-year-old boy as the name of an extremely large number.
This tendency for word meanings to shift and change is one reason why dictionaries
came into being. These texts traditionally have played an important role in standardizing
the definitions of words and in helping speakers of a language use words and definitions
in common. Effective communicators exercise responsibility when they, like a good
dictionary, use words correctly by representing their meanings accurately.
Pragmatics. Pragmatics is the language system that governs the communication
situationthe context and its role in clarifying the meaning of words. Consider the

following example. If someone said: "I'm going to kill you," you would more accurately
interpret what is meant by considering who the speaker is in relation to you. If the
speaker were a stranger with a gun in a dark alley, it might be correct to assume that
"kill" means "the taking of life." However, if the speaker is a friend at camp, you might
interpret "kill" to be a playful comment or joke that actually means, "I'm going to pay you
back for putting that snake in my pillow." In this case, the social relationship (friend vs.
enemy) and the physical setting (dark alley vs. camp) help to guide the interpretation.
This information is necessary not because "kill" can be defined in any way a speaker
wishes, but rather because the word refers to more than one ideaone literal, the other
metaphorical.
The physical and the social setting are not the only factors that make up the context
surrounding language. Because language reflects culture, the accurate interpretation of
words at times requires consideration of factors unique to the culture of the speaker.
Consider, for example, a dinner invitation by a couple from Latin America. The hostess
tells everyone to come at 7 p.m. Among those invited is a guest from North America. On
the night of the dinner, the gentleman hurries home from work to shower and dress for
the dinner. He arrives at the home of the Latin American couple a little after 7 p.m. To
his surprise, the hostess greets him still dressed in her house clothes and has yet to
begin preparations for the meal.
In many Latin American countries, a 7 p.m. dinner hour is not to be treated as a
reference to a precise time on the clock. It instead might mean 88:30 p.m. The North
American guest's failure to interpret time as "in the ballpark" and not "to the minute"
causes him to misunderstand the hostess's message.

LANGUAGE IS CONVENTIONAL
Language speakers use the language systems described above in different ways. For
example, when talking about the exact same thing, speakers of Turkish and German
use different sounds to form different words and follow different rules for word order and
interpretation. They do not follow the same conventions (agreed-upon ways of
speaking) and consequently do not communicate effectively outside of their home
languages unless they use a common language.
In many countries, people are taught English as a second language to use in
communicating with others from around the world. Sometimes the transition to this
common system can present communication problems. The following examples

demonstrate how misunderstandings occur when words from one language are
translated literally to another language.

Found in a Tokyo car rental shop: "When passenger of foot heave in sight, tootle
the horn. Trumpet him melodiously at first, but if he still obstacles your passage
then tootle him with vigor."

Majorcan shop: "English well talking. Here speeching American."

LANGUAGE IS AMBIGUOUS
Even when language conventions are observed, clear communication is still a
challenge. People can use the same sounds, words, and sentence structures and still
talk past each other. Sometimes words are simply used incorrectly. Vaguely defined
terms and poorly understood or intentionally altered definitions wreak havoc on
communication.
Other words are ambiguoushaving very broad meaning or multiple definitions.
Consider, for example, the word religion. This very broad term generally refers to the
worship of God or a god. However, the context of a conversation often influences how
people use the term. A group of Christians talking together might actually use the term
in a much more specific way to refer to things like church on Sunday, giving to the
needy, or reading the Bible. As long as people agreed to use the term according to this
sense, they would communicate clearly.
Consider, however, what would happen if a Christian, an atheist, and a Jew used a
broad term like religion in a conversation together, each to refer to his or her own
specific belief system. Miscommunication would almost certainly occur. To the Jewish
religious member, religion might represent reading the Torah, going to synagogue,
eating kosher foods, and observing the Sabbath and other important days. To the
atheist, religion might mean a system of oppressive rules. To specifically refer to each
other's belief systems in conversation, the speakers would need different termswords
like Judaism, Christianity, and atheism. Moving from a general term to more specific
words would help to clarify meaning. In the example above, context influenced
how religion was used and understood, indicating that the relationship between the
word and the idea or concept to which it refers is not always clear-cut.

This might help!

In the diagram to the left, the boy's thoughts

relate to two things, an object and a word that
names the object--"puppy." If he were to use the
word "dog," most people would understand it to
refer to the same object; however, "dog" can also
refer to a worthless or unattractive person, so
chances are, he could be misunderstood were he
to say "Sheila is a dog" instead of "Sheila is a
puppy."
Linguists use a commonly accepted model
called the Triangle of Meaning2 to try to describe
this ambiguity. The triangle expresses the
relationships between one's thoughts, the words used to express them, and the objects,
ideas, or concepts to which words refer. A speaker can have a clear understanding of
the meaning he wishes to convey, but since words are not permanently "glued" to the
things they name or describe, what the speaker intends to say and how he is
understood can differ.
Another factor that influences ambiguity in language is what communication specialists
describe as levels of abstraction. If a word refers broadly to a general concept, the word
is considered abstract. If a word precisely describes or identifies a specific object, the
word can be considered concrete.
Consider, for example, the list of terms on the abstraction ladder shown on the right. On
the top rung is the word "sports," referring to a general idea; therefore, it is a "high-level
abstraction."

Down a rung is the word "football." Football is

a less abstract or more general term than
sports. It specifies what kind of sport is being
described.
Down another rung is the term "American
football." This reduces the abstraction level
further. We are not talking about British football
(which is actually soccer) or Canadian football,
but American football.
The next rung contains the term "Denver
Broncos." This word is even more specific.
Finally, on the bottom rung is the name "John
Elway," quarterback for the Denver Broncos
from 1983 to 1998. John Elway is a concrete
term. It specifically identifies its meaning.
Getting Around Ambiguity. Since words at
times have multiple definitions, based on how they have been used over time, and since
context influences how words and their meanings are used and understood, language
has the potential to be quite ambiguous. In fact, from the standpoint of sounds, and their
relationships to meaning, language can indeed seem quite arbitrary. The effective
communicator, however, has the responsibility to understand context sufficiently well to
select words that clearly communicate his or her intended meaning and to avoid
deliberately misusing words by changing their definitions. If these responsibilities are
not fulfilled, communication breakdown can occur. Lewis Carroll comments on this
ethical aspect of communication in the following dialogue that takes place between Alice
and Humpty Dumpty, taken from Through the Looking Glass.3
"There's glory for you," said Humpty Dumpty.
"I don't know what you mean by 'glory,'" Alice said.
Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. "Of course you don'ttill I tell you. I meant
'there's a nice knock-down argument for you!'"
"But 'glory' doesn't mean 'a nice knock-down argument,'" Alice objected.
"When I use a word," Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather scornful tone, "it means just what
I choose it to mean-neither more nor less."

"The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many different
things."
"The question is," said Humpty Dumpty, "which is to be masterthat's all."
Alice was much too puzzled to say anything, so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began
again. "They've a temper some of themparticularly verbs; they're the proudest.
Adjectives you can do anything with, but not verbshowever, I can manage the whole
lot of them! Impenetrability, that's what I say."
"Would you tell me please, what that means," said Alice.
"Now you talk like a reasonable child," said Humpty Dumpty, looking very much
pleased. "I mean by impenetrability that we've had enough of the subject, and it would
be just as well if you would mention what you plan to do next. So I suppose you don't
mean to stop here all the rest of your life."
"That's a great deal to make one word mean, "Alice said in a thoughtful tone.
"When I make a word do a lot of work like that," said Humpty Dumpty, "I always pay it
extra."
Alice objects to Humpty Dumpty's fabricated definitions for "glory" and "impenetrability,"
as well as his claim that he can do whatever he wishes with language. Alice's questions
and comments illustrate that she expects Humpty Dumpty to obey the rules of clear,
effective communicationthe conventions of language. Words have a defined range of
established meanings which need to be observed. If everyone took Humpty Dumpty's
approach to language, communication would quickly break down. The effective
communicator knows that when he or she uses a word, it does not mean "just what [he
or she] choose[s] it to mean." It means something more than his private, personal
experience, something definite, neither more nor less.

Bucharest hotel: "The lift is being

fixed for the next day. During that
time we regret that you will be
unbearable."

Moscow hotel: "You are welcome

to visit the cemetery where
famous Russian and Soviet
composers, artists, and writers
are buried daily except
Thursday."

In an East African newspaper: "A

new swimming pool is rapidly
taking shape since the
contractors have thrown in the
bulk of their workers."

In a Rhodes tailor shop: "Order

your summers suit. Because is
big rush we will execute customers in strict rotation."

Outside a Hong Kong tailor shop: "Ladies may have a fit upstairs."

The Coca-Cola name in China was first read as "Kekoukela," meaning "Bit the
wax tadpole" or "female horse stuffed with wax," depending upon the dialect.
Coke then researched 40,000 characters to find a phonetic equivalent "kokou
kole," translating into "happiness in the mouth."

In a Copenhagen airline ticket office: "We take your bags and send them in all
directions."

When KFC entered the Chinese market, they discovered that their slogan
"finger lickin' good" was translated as "eat your fingers off."

When Gerber started selling baby food in Africa, they used the same packaging
as in the United States, with the smiling baby on the label. Later, they learned
that in Africa, companies put the pictures on the labels of what's inside since
many people can't read.

Detour sign in Kyushi, Japan: "Stop: Drive sideways." 1

While the previous illustrations present humorous communication difficulties, other such
problems are often serious and more significant. All such problems underscore the
challenge of using language conventions correctly to promote effective communication.
Just as speakers of separate languages must learn a common tongue in order to
converse, speakers of the same language must agree to use words, phrases, and
sentences in similar ways if they wish to be clearly understood. In the United States, a
population of 300,000,000 people must learn and use spoken and written Standard
American English if they wish to communicate effectively with each other. Much of a
person's education is focused on learning to use these conventions, which require use
of dictionaries, thesauri, grammar/usage handbooks, and interaction with other
Standard English speakers.

LET'S REVIEW!
In this lesson, you looked at three characteristics of language. You also studied several
types of rules or elements that make up the design and meaning of language.
1

http://www2.corvallis.k12.or.us/chs/staff/curtise/cultural_misunderstandings.htm or http://anotherlanguage.com/funny.htm,

captured July, 2003. The site has listed each of the quotes as "unknown source."

C.K. Ogden, and I.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1923).

Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass. Urbana, Illinois (USA): Project Gutenberg. Etext #12. First Release: Feb 1991,

ID:13.

ASSIGNMENT 2

LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SETTINGS

Which would you be most likely to hear at home upon waking up in the morning:
"Mornin'! Sleep OK?"
Or
"Good morning, (your name). I trust you rested well."
Both statements perform essentially the same function, but one seems more
appropriate to home while the other is what you might expect to hear at school or
work. The example demonstrates that certain settings or contexts require the use of
specific styles of communicating. The ability to recognize which language style is
appropriate for which context will have an impact on whether or not we effectively
communicate.
We make changes in our vocabulary according to the impression we wish to make and
the formality of the situation. If the Declaration of Independence had begun: "Listen
here, we're fed up and we aren't going to take any more of this rot," it could never have
achieved the effect it has had. It is a formal document and needed the formal language
that was used when it was written.
This lesson examines three language styles influenced by social settings: formal
language in the public setting, informal language in the private setting, and technical
language in an occupational setting.

OBJECTIVES

Identify characteristics of oral language and analyze standards for using informal, formal,
and technical language appropriately.

Demonstrate appropriate uses of informal, formal, and technical language.

VOCABULARY
colloquial

ordinary or familiar speech that is appropriate for informal or cas

idioms

fixed and often colorful expressions whose meaning cannot be un

the combined meanings of individual words

jargon

technical language

FORMAL LANGUAGE
Most languages have two distinct styles: formal and informal, reflecting our daily
movement back and forth between public and private settings. Formal language is also
considered "standard language." It functions as a common tool that people from a
variety of regions and/or social and ethnic groups can use to communicate effectively.
Thus, in the United States, the "melting pot," Standard American English provides a
common way for a student from the mountains of West Virginia and a student from
Boston to understand a professor. Likewise, the talk show host on a national syndicated
radio program will get his point across more effectively if he refrains from using words or
pronunciations that are particular to a certain region or social group.
Standard language is generally characterized by conformity to a common set of
grammatical rules. It tends to avoid regional or social features such as slang words,
local idioms, or regional accent. A standard version of a language is generally used in
formal settings such as business meetings and classrooms. Its written form appears in
published works or papers written in the course of one's education. Much of the
emphasis in traditional language arts classes is focused on mastering this standard
form.
Spoken standards of the same language may vary
from country to country. For instance, American
Standard English differs from the standard form used
in England, called Received Pronunciation. In
England, for example, a person who is out of work is
referred to as "redundant," whereas in the United States, the person is said to be
"unemployed." These standards also differ in pronunciation. When pronounced by a
Briton, words like garage, filet, and schedule are only vaguely recognizable to an
American.

INFORMAL LANGUAGE
A second type of language is known as informal language, most appropriate for use in
the home and with friends. While formal language generally has only one form, informal
language has many forms, including colloquial language, regional or social dialects, and
slang.
Colloquial Language. Colloquial language is familiar speech that is appropriate for
informal or casual settings. For example, the statement He was sort of loud is
considered colloquial. The sentence contains the phrase sort of, which is not Standard
English. In formal language, the sentence might read, He was loud, or He was rather
loud.
Regional and social group dialects are generally characterized by regional or social
word choices, grammar, and pronunciations. For instance, many people from Boston
not only pronounce words differently, they have a particular vocabulary and grammar.
Bostonian rules of pronunciation insist that you drop the /r/ sound in certain
situations. Where is pronounced wheah; disappear is pronounced disappeah, and so
on. The vocabulary of the Boston dialect includes distinct words and phrases such
as bobos (boat shoes), calm ya livva (calm down), chowdahead (idiot), and wicked
good (excellent). The grammar of the Boston dialect allows for a negative positive (I
think Joey is a chowdahead. Oh, so don't I!), which is not acceptable in American
Standard English.
The use of regional and social group
dialects establishes rapport among
people from the same community
and allows for greater selfexpression. However, dialects are not
always an appropriate means of
communication in a formal setting or
in a situation where there are people
from different regions or groups.
Slang. Slang is another aspect of informal language. It is characterized by brevity,
novelty, and exaggeration. Slang is generally not acceptable in formal settings but is
widely used in informal contexts. Generally, slang is not simply regionally based, but
can vary among social groups within a region. Unlike the distinct vocabulary of a dialect,
slang can crisscross regions as long as it is used within similar social groups.

African-Americans from Harlem (in New York City) originally used the slang
word cool during the early part of the twentieth century. Most Americans within the
context of informal conversation now use the word. Other examples of American slang
include mike (microphone), chick (girl/ woman), dude (boy/man), chill (don't get upset),
and hanging out (not engaged in any particular activity).

TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
Another type of language style is technical language. Technical language, also
called jargon, is characterized by a vocabulary particular to an occupation. Technical
language enables the people who speak it to communicate efficiently with each other
while working.
For example, a soldier might speak of putting on BDUs while preparing for combat. His
vocabulary is specific to his occupation. His fellow soldiers understand his terminology
and respond accordingly. However, if the soldier were to use the term BDU in a different
context (in a conversation with his grandmother) he might have some difficulty
communicating. If his grandmother did not have military experience, she would not
understand that BDU is a military acronym for "Battle Dress Uniform."
Technical language is highly specialized and appropriate only for occupational contexts.
A competent communicator avoids jargon when speaking to people outside his/her
profession.

LET'S REVIEW!
Languages work within particular social settings. This lesson helped you identify and
explain the nature of formal, informal, and technical language. It also assisted you in
knowing how and when to use a particular style of language in a particular culture.
(Formal

and Informal speech refer to the way a person uses the

vocabulary, grammar rules, phonetics etc, depending on the context
he/she is at the moment.
For instance, if a person is at school, receiving a class, he/she should
use a Formal speech.
If that same person leaves school and goes out with his/her friends
to eat, he/she would switch automatically to a more informal Speech
to make him/herself understood.)

ASSIGMENT 4

THE FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

Language has a profound influence on our thoughts, attitudes, and perceptions. It

shapes and reflects our understanding of the world. We use language to define,
evaluate, influence, and reflect our life experiences.

OBJECTIVES

Define how language influences our thoughts, attitudes, and perceptions.

VOCABULARY
abstract

not concrete; difficult to understand

connotation

implied meaning

ROLES OF LANGUAGE
Define. We use language to define experiences, people, relationships, feelings, and
thoughts. When we call someone a "genius" or a "millionaire," we are defining who he
or she is. Likewise, when we refer to a job as "bad" or "good," we are defining our work
experience. We admit we are frightened or we tell others how happy we are when we
are expressing our feelings.

Evaluate. When we refer to someone as a "genius"

or a "millionaire," we not only define who he or she
is, but we also evaluate his or her qualities. Calling
someone a "genius" is an evaluation of mental
capabilities. "Genius" has a
positive connotation because it describes the
person as intelligent rather than average or
ignorant.
Influence. The labels we attach to people and the
words we use to describe objects influence our
perception of them, the perception of others, and
our behavior toward them. Self-fulfilling prophecy is
a primary example of the capability of language to
influence.
For example, a child who is told that he is "smart" by those close to him may grow up
perceiving himself as intelligent and will act in ways that might be perceived as
intelligent by others.
Another example of the ability of language to influence perception is found in speech
style. Whether or not a person uses slang words or poor grammar influences the way
others perceive him or her. In a business setting where formal language is usually
expected, a person who uses poor grammar is perceived as uneducated. However, if
formal language is used in a get-together with close friends, a person might be
perceived as aloof or overly reserved.
Reflect. Language also has the ability to reflect attitudes and thoughts. For example, a
confident person may speak in a manner that is powerful. He or she might refrain from
using language that hedges ("I guess we should...") or is hesitant ("Well, uh, I'm not
really sure if...") and instead employs language that is assertive ("We should...") and
decisive ("I don't like...").
Likewise, when we think highly of a person or are attracted to an individual, it is
reflected in our language. For example, when we love someone, we tend to use words
with positive connotations to describe that person, such as "He's wonderful" or "She's
the smartest woman I know."

PROBLEMS WITH LANGUAGE

While language serves to perform the functions just described, a communicator can
unwittingly cause communication "malfunctions." In their book, Understanding Human
Communication, Ronald Adler and George Rodman have identified several ways of
using language that often contribute to communication problems. 4 We will discuss seven
of these: equivocal language, relative terms, overly abstract language, disruptive
language, emotive language, evasive language, and irresponsible language.
Equivocal Language. Equivocal is an adjective meaning "open to more than one
interpretation." Therefore, equivocal language does not have one definitive meaning.
Consider, for example, the many possible meanings of the sentence, "I'll call you
sometime." It could mean "I'll call you some time in the near future." It could also
mean "I don't really intend to call you, but I'm showing that I have friendly intentions
toward you." Sometimes clarity is offered through the context of the conversation. At
other times, it can lead to misunderstandings.
Relative Terms. Relative terms take on precise meaning when compared to something
else. If they are used without explanation, they can result in communication problems.
For example, a man from Texas offered his friend from Pennsylvania some "mild" salsa.
The man from Pennsylvania dipped his corn chip into the salsa and ate it. Immediately,
he grabbed a glass of water and drank it. To the Texan, the salsa was mild in
comparison to other salsas that he had eaten. To the man from Pennsylvania, who had
never eaten Tex-Mex food, the salsa was very hot.
Overly Abstract Language. Abstract language is language that can be too general or
broad to be understood clearly. For example, suppose April's teacher tells her to "Get
with the program, or you won't pass the class." "Get with the program" does not tell April
what specific area of her academic performance needs to be improved. It could mean
that she needs to focus on test-taking.; it could mean that she needs to be more
responsible about getting homework done on time. The statement is not clear, and
therefore it is not very helpful to April for improving her academics.

Disruptive Language. People tend to confuse

perceptions for facts. In reality, perceptions are
personal interpretations of the facts. Confusing
facts with perceptions can lead to problems that
may cause a disruption in the communication
process, or disruptive language. Consider the
statement, "That outfit is not your color. It makes
you look pale." The statement is presented as
factual. There is no admittance of a personal
opinion.
Disruptive language can be avoided by qualifying
opinions and inferences. "That outfit is not your
color. It makes you look pale," might be better
stated, "I don't care for that color on you." The
phrase "I don't care for" identifies the statement as an opinion, not fact.
Emotive Language. Emotive language uses words that are emotionally charged.
These terms are commonly called "fighting words."
For example, the word conspiracy is considered a negative term in our society. When it
is linked to words that describe groups of people listening to the comment, it can
become an inflammatory reference. If someone were to refer to a movement by a group
of people to be a conspiracy, the people working for the movement would feel insulted.
The link can be damaging to their cause, even if the use of the word wasn't based upon
facts.
Evasive Language. Evasive language is purposely indirect. It avoids communicating
directly by using words or phrases that have more than one meaning. For example,
suppose an employer asks an employee why he was late four out of the last six work
days. The employee responds, "I had to go to some appointments." The employer may
assume that the employee's appointments were medically related. In truth, the
employee had a breakfast "appointment" with a friend and several "appointments" with
potential employers. The employee's language was evasive. Purposely, it led the
employer to believe something that was not true.
Irresponsible Language. Irresponsible language conveys the unwillingness of the
speaker to take responsibility for his or her feelings, thoughts, and behavior. For
example, "You made me feel incapable," blames the listener for the speaker's feelings.
It shifts responsibility for behavior from "I" to "you." A more responsible version of the
sentence might read, "I felt incapable when you told me I wasn't doing the work

correctly." Irresponsible language might also shift blame from "I" to "it." For instance,
"The traffic made me late" or "The dog ate my homework." Although it may be true that
traffic caused a delay or the dog did chew on your paper, using language that shows a
willingness to take responsibility for actions shows maturity.
It is important to note that we should use language carefully. For each of these
"troublesome language" issues, seeking clarification, along with remembering the key
points of competent communication (make the communication truthful, kind, and
necessary), will help keep the "troublesome" out of communication.

TUTOR: We run into problems with language in a number of different ways. See if you can
identify the troublesome language in this political debate. POLITICIAN 1: My policies have
worked, and theyve resulted in positive growth! TUTOR: Thats equivocal language. It can be
interpreted in many different ways. POLITICIAN 2: I disagree. Its clear you havent gotten the
message from the community! TUTOR: This is abstract language. Politician 2 isnt being specific
about what message Politician 1 should be getting. POLITICIAN 1: Ive talked to my
constituents and they know that my new proposals will bring us back from the brink of
economical destruction. TUTOR: Emotive language such as brink of economic destruction is
intended to draw upon the listeners emotion rather present a factual argument. POLITICIAN 2:
Your policy will raise taxes. I have never endorsed a bill that raises taxes across the board.
TUTOR: Politician 2 is using evasive language. He is inferring that he is substantially against
raising taxes, but never endorsing such a bill does not mean that he never voted yes on a large
tax hike. POLITICIAN 1: It is the severity of the economic situation that makes this small tax
increase necessary. We all need to sacrifice a little. TUTOR: Politician 1 is not taking
responsibility for his decision to raise taxes making it seem like he has no choice in the matter.
This is a good example of irresponsible language.

https://my.learnbest.com/media/g_com_2015/2/tut_problems_with_language.mp4

T'S REVIEW!
In this lesson, you learned about four different functions of language: to define, to
evaluate, to influence, and to reflect. You were also introduced to seven common
problems associated with "troublesome" language.

ASSIGNEMENT 5

PROJECT: USING RESPONSIBLE LANGUAGE

Showing that you can act responsibly may come down to the difference
between I and you. Why? Using language that indicates you take responsibility for your
feelings and thoughts will show others that you are a competent communicator. One
way that you can use your words responsibly is by using what Julia Wood calls Ilanguage instead of You-language. 5I-language is often more appropriate and less likely
to cause offense. Consider the following example.

OBJECTIVES

Distinguish between I-language and You-language.

Instructions:
Convert the You-language statements into more responsible I-language statements.

Example:
You-Language: You made me nervous when you frowned at me.
I-Language: I felt nervous when you frowned at me.
Change the the following "You-language" statements into "I-language"
statements. Submit your work.
1. You-Language: You make me frustrated when you forget to take out the trash.
I-Language:

2. You-Language: Dad, you embarrass me when you tell jokes to my friends.

I-Language:

3. You-Language: When you are late, you make me wonder if I should trust you with
more responsibilities.
I-Language:

4. You-Language: When you wear that suit and those sunglasses, you look like you're in
the FBI.
I-Language:

Adapted from Julia T.Wood,"You- and I-Language," Communication in Our Lives (CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning,

2003), 135-6.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

When we are communicating, we generally think through what we want to say. But do
we give as much consideration to the gestures we make that accompany what we say?
Sometimes we say a lot without uttering a word. We smile, frown, and nod our heads in

an assuring manner, or side-to-side designating disagreement, often without a

conscious effort. We call this nonverbal communication.

OBJECTIVES
Identify and analyze effective use of nonverbal skills and strategies.

VOCABULARY
spatial

having to do with space

INTERPRETING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal messages lend insight into what a person is thinking and feeling. They can
tell us if a person is sad or angry, if a person is confident or intimidated, or if a verbal
message should be believed. Nonverbal messages account for about 70 percent of our
communication. Therefore, competent communication requires an understanding of how
to interpret and respond properly to nonverbal
messages.
The following are examples of how we use
nonverbal communication.
1.

Edward was taking his dog for an evening walk

when a truck pulled up alongside him. A pizza
delivery driver rolled down the window and called
out to Edward, "Excuse me, where is Green Ridge
Drive? I've been driving around and around this
neighborhood and can't seem to find it." Edward
pointed his finger up the road, and the driver
turned his head to look in that direction. Edward
told the man, "You go up this street, and it's the
second street on the left."

2.

Olivia and Bridget had been in the same Calculus study group for just a few weeks.
Olivia thought Bridget seemed nice enough, but the two did not spend much time talking

together outside of their study group. During the study session the day before, Bridget
realized she'd forgotten her calculator in her locker. Olivia, getting ready to head to the
snack machine, offered to go get it, since Bridget's locker was along the way. Bridget
leaned toward Olivia to whisper her locker combination in Olivia's ear. Olivia, who was not
expecting this, reacted by leaning away from Bridget to prevent Bridget from getting any
closer.
3.

Mitchell wanted to surprise his wife, Ruth, for her birthday. He got together thirty of their
friends and family members to surprise Ruth when the couple arrived home after a trip to
the store. When Ruth walked in the front door, everyone yelled, "Surprise!" Startled, Ruth
jumped back a step and put her hand over her mouth. Realizing what was going on, she
then smiled and gave everyone a hug.

4.

Lynn looked out into the vast expanse of blue sky. Below, she could see clusters of tiny
buildings and the outline of the highway that cut through the open fields and farmland.
Beside Lynn stood her commanding officer, Lieutenant Walters. He reached for the latch
and threw open the cargo door of the plane. Lynn checked the straps of her parachute
one last time and then gave Walters the "thumbs up" sign.

Each of these examples captures a different style of nonverbal communication. All of

the examples have direct translations that are understood by almost everyone within our
culture.
In the first scenario, we see how Edward's pointed finger clarified his verbal message
and guided the driver in the correct direction. In the second situation, we see how
nonverbal communication sometimes replaces verbal communication. Olivia backed
away from Bridget to convey that Bridget had intruded into her space.
At Ruth's surprise birthday party, we see the role facial expressions play in the
communication process. Ruth's startled look conveyed to everyone at the party that she
had been surprised. Her smile conveyed that she was happy that she had friends who
cared. Ruth had a conversation with her friends without uttering a word.
The fourth situation illustrates the use of hand gestures to communicate words or
phrases. Lynn's fist with extended thumb meant, "okay."

CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is, by definition, communication without words. It includes
such "wordless" behavior as hand gestures, facial expressions, eye movements,
clothing, spatial relationships, and vocal volume. By nature, nonverbal communication
is communicative, ambiguous, relational, multi-channeled, and culturally influenced,
somewhat like its verbal counterpart that we just studied.
Communicative. Ruth's reaction to the unexpected presence of thirty of her friends in
her living room was unintentional. She did not think, "I'm surprised," and then
consciously move her hand over her mouth and open her eyes wide. She performed
these actions subconsciously. Nevertheless, her nonverbal behavior clearly
communicated her feelings and thoughts. Whether nonverbal behavior is intentional or
unintentional, it communicates a message. Because it often arises from our
subconscious, nonverbal communication is considered to be more transparent than
verbal communication.
Even nonverbal behavior that is not intended to communicate, does communicate. For
instance, a group of friends is discussing current events. One of the friends, who is
Caucasian and from Mississippi, brings up the topic of race relations in the South. One
of the other friends, who is African American, decides to listen silently. He's curious to
see what direction the conversation will go. However, his silence is perceived as
disapproval, not curiosity, and the group changes the subject. Though intending not to
take part in the conversation, the man's nonverbal behavior controlled the conversation.
As the example shows, silence, one of our most powerful communications, can be
interpreted as approval, as disapproval, or a hundred other meanings depending upon
the context as well as the relationships among the participants.
Ambiguous. A smile, a furrowed brow, and a turn of the head each communicate a
message without using words. However, the message that some nonverbal behavior
conveys is not easily understood. A smile might convey happiness, or it could convey
satisfaction due to negative behavior. A furrowed brow could convey concern or
determination. A turn of the head could mean that the person is angry or upset, or it
might even mean that the person has smelled something that is not pleasing. Similar to
verbal communication, nonverbal communication can be ambiguous, its meaning not
always apparent.

Although nonverbal communication may give us

insight into a person's feelings or thoughts, it is
sometimes misinterpreted. Studies have shown
that while some people are more skillful at
decoding nonverbal messages than others, most
people have some difficulty accurately interpreting
even simple facial expressions such as fear,
sadness, and interest without a broader context.
Relational. Nonverbal communication is often
termed, "the relationship language." It conveys
emotions and attitudes in a manner that is often
more effective than words. Consider, for instance, two people who love one another.
They stand close together, they look into each other's eyes for long periods, or they hold
hands. By doing so, they are expressing their feelings for each other in a manner that is
more meaningful and concrete than just saying, "I love you." Likewise, avoiding eye
contact and turning away from someone are nonverbal behaviors that communicate a
strained relationship.
Multi-Channeled. In the communication process, an individual is both a sender and a
receiver simultaneously. A person can receive messages while he is in the process of
sending one. The messages that are received by a person while he is speaking are
usually nonverbal messages. When we talk to our friends, we might receive messages
about their interests by watching their facial expressions and body language. Unlike
verbal messages, which are most commonly received through hearing and sight
(reading), nonverbal messages can be received through many channels: sight, hearing,
smell, taste, and touch. The smell of a friend's perfume may communicate just as
important a message as the look on her face or what she says.
Culturally Influenced. As with verbal communication, nonverbal communication is
guided by cultural norms. For example, in the United States it is customary to greet
someone with a handshake. However, in some European countries, such as Belgium, it
is customary to greet someone with a kiss on the cheek.
Nonverbal communication rules reflect the values of the culture. The Japanese culture
uses many nonverbal behaviors to communicate respect for others. This attitude is
demonstrated by bowing upon greeting someone. Subordinates and younger individuals
greet authority figures and elderly persons by bowing deeply at the waist to convey
respect. Reaching out to shake someone's hand instead of bowing would be considered
improper because traditional Japanese people prefer to refrain from casual contact. For

a man of inferior status to touch a man of higher status would be construed as rude
according to
traditional
Japanese
customs.
Gestures often
vary in meaning
from culture to
culture. More
subtle gestures
or body
language such
as eye contact
and the
distance
between two people can also vary in meaning also. In the United States, standing close
to a stranger in line or in an elevator would convey a "pushy" attitude, an invasion of
personal space. However, in some European countries and in parts of Latin America,
this behavior is common and simply signals a desire to communicate.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NONVERBAL AND

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Do you "talk" with your hands? Do they make large gestures when you are talking about
something that is fascinating or humorous to you? Do you pound your fist on the table
when you're talking about something that angers you? People who "talk" with their
hands demonstrate many of the ways that nonverbal behavior relates to verbal
communication.
Complementing. Nonverbal behaviors are often used to complement, emphasize, or
amplify verbal communication. Frowning while we tell someone that we're sorry
emphasizes what we're saying. Hugging someone while saying, "I love you" adds to the
verbal message.
Repeating. Nonverbal behavior may also repeat the meaning of a verbal message.
When we wave while saying "good-bye" or "hello," we are repeating the verbal message

with a nonverbal behavior. We might also nod our heads "yes" or shake our heads "no"
to repeat a verbal message.
Regulating. Nonverbal behavior may coordinate or regulate verbal interaction. For
instance, a speaker might raise his hand to signal that he wishes to finish his point
without further interruption. He might also raise his voice and increase his rate of
speech to signal that he wishes to continue. When the speaker is finished, he might
then signal another person that it is her turn to talk by making direct eye contact,
nodding his head, or lifting his hand slightly upturned in her direction.
Accenting. When we change the tone or volume of our voices to emphasize certain
words, we are using accenting. Accenting is a combination of nonverbal and verbal
actions. For instance, we might stress the word "no" in the sentence, "No, I don't want
gravy on my meat," to emphasize the meaning. Other examples of accenting may
include pounding the fist while verbally expressing anger and pointing at someone
during a confrontation. It could also emphasize encouragement. For example, if Janice
wanted to encourage Fran to sit down, she might emphasize the word, "Please," as she
gestures with an open, upturned hand in Fran's direction. The open, upturned hand
reflects openness and friendship whereas a closed hand or downturned hand can
reflect control.
Substituting. Nonverbal behavior may also replace words. Instead of telling someone
to be quiet, a person might place a finger vertically over closed lips. A teacher can often
convey the need for silence simply by turning to look at her
students.
In order for nonverbal behavior to effectively substitute for
a word, its meaning must be precise. A person might smile
when someone asks her how she is feeling, but a smile
can mean many things. Nonverbal behavior, such as that
used by Lynn in the earlier scenario, can adequately
substitute for words. Lynn did not need to further explain to
her commanding officer that she was ready to jump. The
"okay" sign was sufficient.
Contradicting. Finally, nonverbal behavior may contradict
verbal communication. For example, a friend might say that she feels "fine" while her
shoulders are slumped and she has a painful look on her face. This is known as a
mixed message. Some mixed messages are easy to interpret and others are not. Mixed
messages can lead to communication problems.

REVIEW!
In this lesson, you studied the five characteristics of nonverbal communication. You also
observed the six different ways that verbal and nonverbal communications relate to one
another.

THE FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

You know that you use nonverbal communication frequently, but how does it help you
communicate? This lesson introduces you to the five functions of nonverbal
communication, demonstrating the powerful role that nonverbal communication can play
in different settings.

OBJECTIVES

Identify and analyze effective use of nonverbal skills and strategies.

VOCABULARY

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION CLARIFIES

RELATIONSHIPS
People manage their relationships through verbal and nonverbal communication.
Although verbal communication is important to maintaining a relationship, nonverbal
communication helps clarify a relationship. It does so by conveying levels of intimacy,
favor or disfavor, power, and gender.
Intimacy refers to "closeness." We are more intimate with our close friends than we
might be with an acquaintance. This intimacy or closeness can be expressed by such
nonverbal behaviors as cupping a hand and whispering a secret into a friend's ear,
making direct eye contact when speaking, or standing with a relaxed body posture.
Standing at a distance, avoidance of eye contact, and tense body posture often convey
lack of intimacy.

Consider the example of Bridget and Olivia.

Olivia and Bridget had been in the same calculus study group for just a few weeks. Olivia
thought Bridget seemed nice enough, but the two did not spend much time talking together
outside of their study group. During the study session the day before, Bridget realized she'd
forgotten her calculator in her locker. Olivia, getting ready to head to the snack machine, offered
to go get it, since Bridget's locker was along the way. Bridget leaned toward Olivia to whisper
her locker combination in Olivia's ear. Olivia, who was not expecting this, reacted by leaning
away from Bridget to prevent Bridget from getting any closer.

Bridget demonstrated a certain level of comfort with Olivia as she leaned in to whisper
her locker combination in Olivia's ear. However, in response, Olivia reacted by backing
away, a signal for Bridget to respect her personal space and a clarification of their
relationship.
Nonverbal behaviors can also convey favor or disfavor. For instance, suppose Sarah
views her teacher favorably because she thinks that he treats her fairly. She might
express her "liking" by greeting him with a smile. She might also seek out his advice.
However, if for some reason she began to dislike her teacher, she might avoid being in
his presence as much as possible and decrease eye contact.
Nonverbal communication can also be an expression of power. We assert ourselves
through body language in given situations. For example, an employer might express his
power by wearing expensive clothes, initiating handshakes, and working out of a large
office. People with less power and dominance might wait to be touched before touching,
wear clothing that does not attract special attention, and be more reserved in their
behaviors.
Nonverbal communication also clarifies relationships by reflecting gender. Men and
women tend to express themselves differently. Generally, men use more dynamic
gestures and speak at a louder volume. They also demand more personal space. Many
women, on the other hand, speak more softly, do not require as much personal space,
and will more likely respect the personal space of others.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION REGULATES

INTERACTION
Written verbal communication is regulated in part by punctuation. For example, as you
know all too well, the end of a declaration is indicated by a period. An exclamation is
indicated by an exclamation mark, and a question is indicated by a question mark.
When you are talking with someone face to face, how do you tell the difference between
a question, a declarative sentence, and an exclamation? How do you know when it is

time to respond and when it is time to listen? Nonverbal behaviors such as facial
expressions, hand gestures, and body posture function as cues. Nonverbal
cues enable us to regulate interaction without words. Suppose we want to join a
conversation. We might convey our desires by making eye contact with the speakers.
Our attentive gazes are cues to the speakers to talk to us.
Nonverbal behaviors also regulate the duration of interactions. A conversation is not
usually finished by someone announcing, "Okay, we've talked long enough." Nonverbal
cues such as looking at a watch, shifting restlessly from foot to foot, and tapping a finger
indicate to others that we are ready to end the conversation.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION INCREASES

PERSUASIVE POWER
Have you ever had the opportunity to shake the hand of a congressman, a celebrity, or
an important member of your community? How did it affect your feelings toward the
person? Most likely, the handshake heightened your opinion of the individual and
increased his or her ability to persuade you.
Nonverbal behaviors such as dress, eye contact, vocal tone, and facial expressions
directly influence a person's appeal. In turn, the more appealing a person is, the more
persuasive he or she may become. For example, if a classmate speaks to you in a gruff
tone, you are not likely to give him some money for a soda. However, if the same
person approaches you with a gentle tone, you are more likely to give him what he asks
for.
Nonverbal behaviors that increase a person's persuasive power are usually intentional.
People often adjust their behavior to give others a favorable impression. One technique
that teachers, conference speakers, and other authority figures use often is to speak
while standing. When one person is at a higher elevation than another, the position
often conveys authority and can increase a person's persuasive power. Direct eye
contact also can increase our ability to persuade. People are less likely to turn down a
request from someone with whom they make eye contact than with someone who
averts their eyes. Eye contact establishes a relationship and promises trust.
Eye contact expresses other things as well. It can communicate interest and attention in
what someone is saying, or it can reveal emotions. An intense stare can communicate
affection, anger, or fear, while less intense eye contact can reflect care and concern. 6

Communication scholar Dr. Roel Vertegaal, of Queens University, has found evidence to
suggest a strong link between the amount of eye contact people receive and their
degree of participation in group communications. He found that frequent eye contact
appears to increase the number of times a person will participate when he or she is part
of a group conversation. Vertegaal's further studies are seeking to determine what type
of "gaze" (looking at a person's eyes and face) is required to have this effect.
Vertegaal's study may have strong implications on the use of teleconferencing and
conversations through the use of video cameras and whether or not true eye contact
can be made through a video screen. 7

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION REVEALS

DISCREPANCIES
Have you ever carefully studied a person's body language to try to decide if he or she
was telling the truth? Did facial expressions change? Did his or her voice sound
different? Did legs or hands twitch nervously?
Several nonverbal behaviors are related to deception. When people tell a lie, they worry
about getting caught. The possibility of discovery may make them have thoughts of
guilt, bringing on feelings of nervousness. Feeling nervous or guilty can result in
nonverbal behavior such as twitching hands or legs, stiff body posture, and shifting eyes
or eyes that look away entirely. Generally, someone who is lying will avoid eye contact.
However, practiced liars often overcompensate for twitching hands or legs by appearing
abnormally relaxed. Some even slouch. Someone who is lying might also stare or
reduce the times that he blinks in order to appear truthful.
Discrepancy in verbal and nonverbal messages is often the first clue that someone is
lying. For instance, suppose Jill tells a friend that she is moving across the United
States. While stiffening up a bit and frowning, the friend tells her that they'll have great
fun writing back and forth. Jill's friend's look of sadness is inconsistent with her
statement, which might lead Jill to believe that she is lying about her feelings. In cases
like this, sometimes people will be tempted to "lie" to make us feel better about a
change in our relationship with them, as was the case with Jill's friend. However,
because nonverbal behaviors are generally unintentional, they are trusted more than
verbal communication.
A discrepancy in verbal messages and nonverbal messages is not always an indication
of deception, nor is it always abnormal behavior. Detecting deception purely by
observing behavior can be as difficult as mind reading. Nonverbal behavior can give us

insight into a person's thoughts or feelings, but it cannot tell us exactly what he or she is
thinking. When most people see the flashing lights of a police car behind them, they get
nervous. Their palms might sweat and they might stutter when they answer the police
officer's question, "Do you know how fast you were going?" Their answer might be an
honest one, but their nonverbal behavior might falsely appear to reflect lying.
In order to accurately assess whether or not a person is lying, a person must have a
working knowledge of the other individual's normal behavior patterns. Generally, we can
tell with much more accuracy if people we are closest to are telling the truth or lying
because we know their normal behaviors.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION MANAGES

IMPRESSIONS
Consider for a moment the clothes that you are wearing and the way your hair is styled.
What made you choose to put on that shirt rather than another? What made you comb
your hair to the side rather than part it in the middle? Your answers to these questions
are more than likely based on your motivation to present a certain image of yourself.
Ginny, for example, wanted to present a scholarly presence at her college interview.
She put on one of her nicest business suits, fixed her hair conservatively, and walked
into the dean's office with confidence. She shook the dean's hand, complimented him
on the college facilities, and assured him with a smile and nod that, "This is where I
want to study medicine. How can I make that happen?" In her dress, body language,
and words, Ginny assured the dean that she was serious about attending his college.
Other nonverbal behaviors used to manage impressions include vocal tone or pitch,
body posture, facial expressions, and gestures. When a woman lowers her voice to
speak to a group of peers, she may be trying to enhance her impression as an authority
figure. When a young man stiffens his body and braces his feet in front of someone he
considers an adversary, he may be managing an impression of strength, hostility, or
protectiveness. When a young girl smiles a lot and uses gestures that convey
excitement, she may be presenting a "happy" or "fun" image to friends.
The appropriate use of nonverbal behavior can greatly affect our personal and
professional relationships. For example, a firm handshake is an important gesture in the
business world. It conveys confidence, respect, and assertiveness. If the handshake is
overpowering, however, it might convey a need to control. Direct eye contact is also an
important professional behavior. It conveys integrity and attention.

LET'S REVIEW!
This lesson listed five functions of nonverbal communication. These functions
demonstrate the powerful role that nonverbal communication can have in a given
setting.
6

J.C. Pearson, R.L. West, and L.H. Turner, Gender and Communication, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark,

1995) 121.

Queen's News Center, Queen's University (Nov. 2002) http://qnc.queensu.ca/story_loader.php?id=3ddbf3e2dbc64,

captured July 6, 2003.

TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

In this lesson you'll take a look at seven types of nonverbal messages and learn about
how these types display different ways to send nonverbal messages.

OBJECTIVES

Identify and analyze effective use of nonverbal skills and strategies.

VOCABULARY
chronemics

nonverbal communication that involves time

disfluences

pauses such as "ah" or "hmmm"

haptics

nonverbal behavior that involves touching

monochronistic

tending to schedule only one activity at a time

paralanguage

vocal nonverbal language

polychronistic

tending to schedule several activities at the same time

proxemics

nonverbal communication that involves space

BODY MOVEMENTS
Body movements can be divided into five major categories: emblems, illustrators,
regulators, affect displays, and adaptors.
Emblems. Gestures or body movements that directly translate into a word or phrase
are emblems. For example, the "thumbs up" sign is the symbol for "good" and making a
circle with the thumb and forefinger is translated "okay." Emblems are culture-specific,
taking on meanings according to countries, regions, or groups. The sign for "okay" in the
United States has very different connotations in other countries. In France, to show
someone a thumb and forefinger in the shape of a circle tells the person that he or she
is worthless or a "zero." What is an affirmation in one country can become an insult in
another.
Illustrators. By definition, illustrators demonstrate the verbal messages they
accompany. Waving a hand to say "hello" is an example of an illustrator. Illustrators are
also used to communicate dimensions or direction. When asked to describe the length
or width of an object, a person might hold out her hands or separate her thumb and
forefinger to illustrate the measurement.
Regulators. Regulators control or coordinate the flow of communication. Holding up
one hand might tell a person to stop talking, while making direct eye contact might tell
him that it is his turn to speak. Looking at a watch or gazing off into the distance might
tell a person that we wish to leave the conversation.
Affect displays. These nonverbal strategies communicate emotions, attitude, and
physical state. They are movements of the face, limbs, and body that are generally
unintentional. For example, slumped shoulders and a lowered chin communicate
sadness or extreme fatigue, while a smiling face, dynamic arm movements, and an
erect body convey happiness, excitement, or good health.

Adaptors. These are used to satisfy a physical or emotional need. A girl twirling a
strand of hair when she is nervous or scratching her head while she is thinking is using
adaptors. Adaptors may also involve touching other people or objects. Some people
doodle or manipulate small objects, such as keys or zippers, when they are nervous.
Others deal with their nervous feelings by touching those with whom they are speaking.
Still others shake a foot to release pent-up energy, impatience, or nervousness.
View the demonstration below to see body movements in action.
2008 Glynlyon, Inc.

Body Movements
Body movements can be divided into five major categories: emblems, illustrators,
regulators, affect displays, and adaptors. Click on an image for a definition of each
catagory.

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AND EYE MOVEMENTS

While a variety of body movements play a role, the face does most of the work of
"communicating" nonverbally, being capable of more than a thousand distinct
expressions.

Facial expressions include the movements of the mouth, cheeks, chin, nose, forehead,
and eyes. However, different areas of the face are used to express different emotions.
For example, happiness is usually expressed clearly in the cheeks, mouth, and eyes,
whereas disgust is seen most clearly in the mouth area.
Six basic emotions may be expressed in the face: happiness, fear, anger, surprise,
disgust, and sadness. Facial expressions that reflect positive emotions such as
happiness and surprise are much easier to identify than negative emotions such as
anger, disgust, and sadness. Like most nonverbal behavior, facial expressions can be
manipulated to conceal true emotions. The four most commonly used techniques to
manage facial expressions are intensification, de-intensification, neutralization, and
masking.
Intensification. People intensify their facial expressions when they wish to exaggerate
feeling; for example, they might act surprised when they receive a gift after they had
discovered it hidden away a few weeks before the presentation.
De-intensification. When we de-intensify facial expressions, we are "playing down" our
feelings. For example, we may smile quietly at a friend's embarrassing situation when
we really want to laugh hysterically because of the comedy of the situation.
Neutralization. Neutralizing involves erasing any show of emotion from our faces.
Players in a chess match might neutralize their facial expressions by keeping a straight
face, or a nondescript one. Masking hides or replaces true facial expressions with false
ones. If a person smiles even when he or she is sad, he or she is masking true feelings
with false facial expressions.
Eyes have often been referred to as the "window to the soul" because they play an
important part in facial expression. Eyes can communicate feelings of anger, interest,
happiness, love, and surprise. They can communicate phrases such as "You're in
trouble," "Come over here," and "I am so excited for you." They can also communicate
favor. For instance, when we like someone, we look directly at him or her, expressing a
desire to communicate. If we don't "like" someone very much, we might avoid eye
contact with him or her. Studies have shown that infants are drawn to their mothers'
eyes. They look to them for security and attention; when their mothers' eyes are hidden,
infants will usually cry.
While eye contact is an important communication tool, staring is generally interpreted as
rude behavior in Western culture. This is because eye contact affects what researchers
call psychological distance. People often increase their psychological distance on an
elevator by looking at the ceiling or staring absently at the door in front of them. Lack of

eye contact with an individual standing only two inches away somehow makes that
person feel as if the other person is farther away.

SELF-PRESENTATION
The way we look has a great influence on the way others relate to us. Lawyers and
business executives understand the importance of clothing and grooming. In court, a
defendant needs to portray an image of an upstanding, ethical, and credible person, not
the stereotype of the person committing the crime for which he or she is accused. A
business executive understands that a first impression, if not effective, may be his or
her only impression.
Many young adults use self-presentation to make statements about who they are or
who they are becoming. From team sports jackets to multi-colored hair, they are trying
out cultural responses while establishing independence for themselves. The main
drawback of independent self-presentation is that a large part of self-presentation
depends upon the receiver's perceptions. We tend to dress and groom ourselves
according to groups in which we are seeking acceptance. An independent style of dress
may be appropriate among peers, but it may hinder a young adult in seeking the job he
or she wants. Therefore, a competent communicator will consider the receiver and
make adjustments to communicate more effectively.
Clothing and grooming convey information about economic status, cultural background,
moral standards, and social intent. Wearing formal attire or uniforms can project an
image of power and status, causing people to respond to an individual with greater
respect. On the other hand, wearing casual attire may communicate a more relaxed
image to strangers.

Artifacts are accessories that identify or decorate. For example, a woman's wedding ring
identifies her as a married woman, while her gold earrings and bracelets decorate her
body. Artifacts such as crosses and the Star of David identify the wearers with certain
religious groups. These artifacts may have positive connotations for members of the
same group while possibly having negative connotations for those who don't share the
wearer's beliefs.

PERSONAL SPACE
The study of the way humans use space is known as proxemics. One aspect of
proxemics is personal space. According to the studies of anthropologist Edward Hall,
personal space may be categorized into four zones: intimate, personal, social, and
public.8
In North American culture, the intimate zone stretches from the skin out to
approximately eighteen inches. Those welcomed within a person's intimate zone are
trusted and liked by the individual. Close friends, spouses, and family members may
reaffirm their intimacy by interacting within
this zone.
The personal zone generally refers to the
"personal space" that most people maintain
between themselves and people with whom
they interact on a personal, as opposed to
an intimate, basis. The distance of the zone
is from eighteen inches to about four feet or
the length of one's arm. Generally, friends
and family members are allowed within this
space.
The social zone stretches from four feet to twelve feet. More formal or impersonal
interactions such as business meetings, "small talk," and counseling sessions usually

occur within this range. In most office settings, the social zone is respected by placing
desks at least seven feet apart.
Finally, the public zone ranges from twelve to twenty-five feet or more. Interaction within
the public zone is generally restricted to formal communication. Because of the
distance, interpersonal communication is very difficult. Speakers, musical performers,
and teachers interact with listeners within this zone.
Communication researchers have identified several factors that influence our choice to
communicate with someone within a specific zone: status, culture, topic, gender, age,
and personality. Managers tend to communicate with subordinates within the social
zone. The distance communicates the manager's higher status, making him
"untouchable" to the subordinate.
As with most forms of communication, cultural norms guide a person's choice of space
communication. For example, people in the United States shake hands with people they
meet for the first time. They stand further apart when talking with one another than do
Europeans and Middle Easterners. This reflects a desire to reserve personal space for
close friends and relatives. In some European countries, however, acquaintances may
be greeted with a hug or a kiss on the cheek. Personal and even intimate zones are
measured differently among cultures.
The topic of conversation also influences the distance between people. When two
friends discuss the private details of an event, they usually stand within each other's
personal zone. When discussing less personal topics such as sports or current events,
people tend to remain at the far end of the personal zone or in the social zone.
Usually, men require more personal space than women; therefore, they communicate at
greater distances. Men also are more likely to enter a person's space as a sign of
control.
Age is another major influence affecting a person's choice of space communication.
Adults are less likely than children to invade someone's personal space. Children will
run up to friends and whisper secrets in their ears without realizing that they have
entered a zone that most adults would consider forbidden to all except a spouse.
Finally, personality influences a person's choice of space communication. People who
are considered extroverts tend to require less personal space than people who are
introverts. Likewise, controlling individuals are more likely to interact with people "at
arm's length" or further, except when they want to be aggressive toward someone.

Territoriality is another aspect of proxemics. Territoriality involves claiming an area

through occupation. A person's territory may or may not be universally recognized. For
instance, a student might have a favorite place to sit in the classroom or cafeteria. This
territory is not personal property; however, the occupant may guard it as if he or she
owned it. Occupants sometimes guard territory because a particular seat or place in line
communicates status or social standing. Guarding territory usually involves nonverbal
behaviors, such as positioning and gestures, which convey annoyance.

TOUCH
The study of touch communication is termed haptics. Touch is one of the most basic
means of communication. To the newborn child whose vision is not clear and whose
mind cannot apply meaning to the tender words of its mother, touch is the main channel
by which love and security are communicated. Without the right amount and kind of
touch, a baby might not grow to its fullest potential. Communication researchers have
connected lack of touch to the development of several physical and mental health
problems such as schizophrenia, eczema, asthma, and physical deterioration.
According to Drs. Stanley Jones and Elaine Yarbrough, there are five different types of
touch: 9
1.

positive effect

2.

playfulness

3.

control

4.

ritual

5.

task-related

Positive effect touching helps us communicate emotions to one another in a positive

manner. This kind of touching is reserved for those closest to us. We are able to

express love, support, and appreciation. It is used minimally in public in most

relationships, but is one of the most powerful means of nonverbal communication when
it is used.
Playful touching can convey affection, friendship, or aggressiveness. We may gently
push a friend on the shoulder to tease him or prompt a reaction. Tickling would also fall
into this category, along with a shoulder embrace and arm linking. Playful touching is
the second most personal means of touching and tends to lighten communication. In
fact, playful touching is often used to lighten or end a serious conversation.
Touch is also used to influence or control. We may touch a person, without saying
anything verbally, to ask him or her to move over. We might also touch someone lightly
to gain his or her attention.
Ritualistic touching is based upon greeting people and saying goodbye. It is low on the
scale of touching for most people. We shake hands in our Western culture to say hello
and goodbye. Hugs, kisses, or a touch on a shoulder or hand may also be used in
ritualistic touching. The purpose of task-related touch is to perform a job rather than
convey interpersonal involvement. A dentist holding a patient's jaw is an example of this
type of touch.
The interpretation of touch can be influenced by cultural norms. For instance, it is
customary for men in the United States to refrain from touching each other except for
playful or polite touches such as a "high-five" or a handshake. Southern European and
Latin American men touch each other a great deal more. For instance, a hearty
embrace between two men is not uncommon in Brazil or Italy. In China, members of the
same sex hold hands to convey friendship.

TIME
The study of how humans use time is known as chronemics. The way a person uses or
organizes time can communicate several messages. For example, a manager who
keeps an employee waiting and a professor who arrives late to class may be
communicating to his subordinates that he is of a higher status. Their time is not as
important as his. In reverse, when an individual consistently arrives on time, it can send
a message to others that the individual respects their time.
"Time is money, and money is time" reflects the attitude of many Americans about the
use of time; however, many cultures do not share this attitude. Cultures such as those

of Latin America have a different orientation to time. They might schedule several
different events all at the same time. For example, in an Arabian culture, a business
meeting might be scheduled for 7 p.m., but so might dinner. Cultures that schedule
more than one activity at a time are known as polychronistic, while cultures that only
allow for one event at a time are known as monochronistic. The United States is
considered monochronistic.
Cultural orientations to time also involve punctuality. In traditional Latin American
countries, tardiness is not considered rude. A guest might arrive an hour past the time
indicated on an invitation to dinner and still be considered polite. On the other hand,
some cultures such as those of Britain and the United States expect people to be
punctual.
The amount of time that we spend talking to another person may also convey a
message. For example, if we speak briefly to a friend, he might interpret our behavior
negatively. He might equate the brevity of the conversation with hard feelings or
indifference. Spending long periods of positive conversation with people for whom we
care affirms feelings of love or appreciation.

PARALANGUAGE
Emphasis. Paralanguage is the study of nonverbal, vocal messages. It involves how a
message is said, not what is said. Aspects of paralanguage include stress, tone, speed,
pitch, and volume. Paralanguage is typically illustrated by asking a person to alter the
meaning of a sentence through stressing different words. For example, consider how
stressing different words changes the meaning of the sentence:
You look really nice.
You look really nice.
You look really nice!

The first version emphasizes the word you, leading us to interpret it, "You, and no one
else, look really nice." The second version may be interpreted, "You look the best I've
ever seen you." The third version may be interpreted, "You look amazing!" Emphasis
influences interpretation. Without it, the meaning is unclear, a problem that crops up in
e-mail and other forms of written communication. Generally, the more senses involved,
the clearer the message.
Disfluences. Paralanguage can also change the meaning of a verbal message by
adding pauses and disfluences. Disfluences are words such as "ah" and "hmm."

Consider, for instance, the sentence: "I don't think we should." When we add pauses
and disfluences, the meaning is altered: "I...uh...don't...think...we...uh...should." The
meaning becomes less definite. Paralanguage can either reinforce or contradict verbal
messages, depending upon use.

T'S REVIEW!
In this lesson, you observed seven types of nonverbal communication. These types
display the variety of ways to send nonverbal messages.
8

Edward T. Hall, "System for the Notation of Proxemic Behavior," American Anthropologist 65 (1966): 1003-1026.

Stanley Jones, and A. Elaine Yarbrough, "A Naturalistic Study of the Meanings of Touch," Communication Monographs 52

(1985): 19-56.

PROJECT: ETHICS AND IMPRESSIONS

Nonverbal communication is a powerful tool for sending impressions, including expressions of
friendliness, disapproval, power, and competence. The impression a person sends may or may
not actually reveal the true person underneath. This project allows you to pause and consider
points at which sending impressions might cross over the line to become ethically questionable
behavior.

OBJECTIVES

Analyze the impact of nonverbal communication on personal impressions.

Instructions:
Answer the questions below to consider the power of nonverbal communication on
personal impressions.

COMPETENT NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Given the complexity of nonverbal communication, how does a person use it

effectively? This lesson provides important principles for increasing communication
competence.

OBJECTIVES

Identify and analyze effective use of nonverbal skills and strategies.

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

Competent nonverbal communication involves interacting with others in a manner that is
appropriate for the situation, the individual, and the task. The key to communicating
competently is choosing appropriate behavior, and this involves knowledge,
observation, and perception. Gaining knowledge about which nonverbal behaviors are

appropriate in various social and professional situations will help us become more
competent communicators.
Knowledge. Increasing knowledge of appropriate nonverbal behavior comes by
observation. Books on effective nonverbal behavior can help, but our best information
source is the interaction we have with friends and family. Within this study, we can offer
some general guidelines.
The interpretation of specific nonverbal behavior can vary from individual to individual.
For instance, we might tell you through the text that touching people communicates
positive emotions. However, if you don't notice an individual's reactions to touch, you
might not realize that he doesn't like to be touched. If touch has negative connotations
for that individual, your interaction with him might be more effective if you refrain from
touching.
Observation. Observing others' nonverbal
behavior is especially important to communicating
competently in a professional setting. Watching the
way a manager interacts with subordinates can
help employees develop strategies for effective
communication. For instance, most managers favor
confident employees who treat them with respect.
Giving a manager a firm handshake, making direct
eye contact, and interacting with him or her in the
social zone will convey confidence, integrity, and
respect.
Perception. Interpreting the nonverbal behavior of
others in order to respond to them appropriately can be difficult. Therefore, special
attention must be paid to context and individual behavioral patterns. When, where, who,
and what all lend insight to the meaning of nonverbal behavior.
For example, suppose you are giving a product presentation to the marketing
department of the small publishing company where you work. In the middle of your
presentation, you notice that one of the new marketing interns is not paying attention to
you. Instead, she is looking around the room, resting her head in her hands, and
checking her watch frequently. You are not sure if, or how, you should respond. Do you
pause your presentation and ask if she has any questions? Should you ask her to pay
attention? To determine an appropriate response, you need to take into consideration
the social context (your relationship to the person), the physical context (who and what
the surroundings are), and how this person normally behaves. She might normally be

very attentive, but perhaps she is simply tired or overwhelmed as a new employee.
Observe her behavior and, if necessary, use your skills as a verbal communicator to
seek clarification from her about her nonverbal communication.
Choosing nonverbal behavior that is appropriate for the situation, the individuals
involved, and the task at hand will help you to become a more competent
communicator. Gaining knowledge of appropriate behavior by observing others and selfmonitoring will help you to utilize effective nonverbal strategies.

LET'S REVIEW!
A key to competent communication is choosing an appropriate behavior for each
situation. Here, you learned that this behavior involves knowledge, observation, and
perception.

THE LISTENING PROCESS

At some point in life, you've probably heard the old adage: We have two ears and one
mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we speak. That age-old advice, attributed
to the Greek philosopher Epictetus, really isn't far off. According to a study of a mixed
group of adults, high school students, and college students, we spend approximately 56
percent of our time listening, 23 percent speaking, 13 percent reading, and 8 percent
writing. 10Clearly, the bulk of our
communication time is spent
listening.
Listening involves more than dealing
with auditory signals. Listening is an
essential aspect of communication.
As you read further, you will learn to
identify specific kinds of listening and
their functions and consider ways to
improve listening skills to become a
more competent communicator.

OBJECTIVES

Identify and demonstrate use of the listening process components.

VOCABULARY
auditory

having to do with hearing

passive

not active

syntax

grammatical arrangement of words and phrases

LISTENING VS. HEARING

Take a minute, stop reading, and listen to what is going on around you.
What sounds did you notice? Did you hear people talking nearby, birds chirping outside,
an air conditioning unit switching on, a TV or radio playing in the background? You
probably heard many different sounds. You may have noticed some of the sounds
before you stopped to listen, while you may have heard others only when you focused
on your environment. It's amazing how many sounds we "tune out" until we focus on the
variety of sounds around us.
In order for your brain to deal effectively with the information that it receives from your
senses, it must choose to receive certain stimuli while ignoring others, as you may have
done while listening to your environment. You chose to ignore certain stimuli (including
this text you have been reading) so that you could pay close attention to what you were
hearing. Likewise, as you read this sentence, you are blocking out some sounds so that
you can be mindful of what you are reading.
Listening is the process of selecting, understanding, evaluating, responding, and
remembering auditory signals. It is different from hearing. Hearing is the passive
reception of sound by the eardrum. We don't have to consciously exert energy to hear.
Sound is being transmitted automatically to our brains. We can hear a multitude of
sounds at once; however, we can only listen effectively to one sound at a time. Think
of listening as "internal" and hearing as "external."

LISTENING STYLES

Not every situation presents the same listening needs. We don't need to take notes
while listening to a friend, but in order to do well in a class, we need to take notes on the
teacher's lecture. To be an effective listener, we must be able to adjust our listening
styles according to the situation. In this lesson, we will discuss the different types of
listening styles:
informational listening
critical listening
empathic listening

OBJECTIVES

Identify and demonstrate types of listening and when they are appropriate.

VOCABULARY
divulge

reveal

mnemonics

a short rhyme, phrase, acronym, or other mental technique used to ease t

memorization

INFORMATIONAL LISTENING
The main purpose of informational listening is to seek understanding of the thoughts or
concepts being presented. Informational listening, also called deliberate listening, is
used in a variety of settings. Getting directions to the nearest gas station, learning about
a friend's summer vacation, hearing a lecture on the history of the Civil War, and sharing
ideas during a class discussion all require
informational listening.
Effective informational listening requires
competence in several areas: attention,
organization, clarification, and recall. To understand
what a speaker is saying, we need to pay close
attention. This means that we must focus on the
thoughts and feelings that the speaker is
expressing. If we become distracted or begin to
daydream, we risk missing out on important details.
In order to understand and retain the information
we have heard, we must organize it. Organizing
enables us to make sense of messages that do not
convey information in a systematic fashion.
For example, a friend might tell you how much she likes Emily, the new foreign
exchange student staying with her family for the semester. She might begin by telling
you that Emily is from England and has a dry sense of humor. Then she might tell you
that Emily is always eager to talk about what life is like in London. Finally, she might tell
you that Emily never gets tired of playing soccer with her little brother. In order to
understand, you might reconstruct the information as: your friend likes the new foreign
exchange student, Emily, because she has an interesting sense of humor, likes to share
stories about her life abroad, and participates in family activities.

We might not be able to organize all the information that we receive while listening to
someone. In that case, we need to request clarification. Asking the speaker questions
will help us understand what he or she is saying. It will also convey that we are listening.
Listeners who ask questions encourage a speaker to divulge more information that
might not otherwise be shared.
Effective use of memory is important to informational listening as well because it
enables us to understand and retain important information for future use. Sometimes we
will need to memorize information in order to use it effectively. One simple method of
memorizing is to repeat information several times. Repeating a person's name at least
six times, for example, will help retain the information. Another effective means is to
attach the information to something already known. For example, to remember a
woman named Robin, who just introduced herself, we might notice that she has red hair
and identify it with a bird called a "robin." The robin has a red or orange crest. The next
time we meet the woman, seeing her red hair should trigger "Robin."
One of the most effective techniques is called mnemonics. It is the use of a short
rhyme, phrase, acronym, or other mental technique to ease the task of memorization.
For example, many music students are taught "Every Good Boy Does Fine" to
remember the notes on the lines on the treble clef, EGBDF. The technique can be used
in reverse as acronyms also. For example, to remember the three listening styles in this
sectioninformational, critical, and empathicwe can remember ICE, the first letter of
the name of each style. Together, they spell a word we know and enable us to recall the
concepts more easily.

CRITICAL LISTENING
A second kind of listening style is critical listening, useful for analyzing or judging what
we have heard. Critical listening employs many of the same skills as informational
listening, but it includes evaluating what is said. Critical listening tests the merit of a
message by gathering information, evaluating the speaker's credibility, and questioning
the speaker's evidence and reasoning. Before we can evaluate a speaker and his
message, we must first listen carefully to what he is saying. Keeping an open mind
before we have all the data will help us to evaluate fairly. If we listen only to part of a
speaker's message, we might come to the wrong conclusion about his views.
Suppose we are listening to a political candidate give a speech on taxes. In the first
couple of minutes, the candidate states that he would like to increase federal spending
on the military. Before he can explain his position, we stop listening and judge him to be
a typical "big-government" politician who wants to raise taxes. However, the candidate

continues to state that he would like to provide for the funding by cutting the budget on
social programs. His approach takes on new meaning. We must gather information
about the speaker's evidence, reasoning, and emotional tactics before questioning and
accurately evaluating his message.
Evaluating the speaker's credibility involves judging a speaker's believability. Speakers
who have experience in or detailed knowledge of a certain subject are considered more
credible than those who have little or no experience with the subject on which they are
speaking. Suppose an environmental activist group has a movie actor, an environmental
scientist, and a spokesperson testify before a congressional committee on the effects of
nuclear waste on the environment. Which speaker do you think the committee members
would consider the most credible? The scientist's education and experience would
generally make him more qualified to speak on the subject of the environment than the
actor or the spokesperson.
A speaker's character can also affect his credibility. A speaker who seems honest and
impartial is more believable than one who has a vested interest in the listener's
response. When deciding which restaurant to visit, we might be more likely to believe a
friend's opinion than an advertisement. A friend stands to gain nothing financially from
our attendance, unlike the restaurant that paid for the ad.
Once a speaker is deemed credible, it is then necessary to evaluate his message. In
order to discriminate between truth and error, we must question a speaker's evidence
and reasoning. A speaker's evidence should be judged on its quality and its quantity. If
the speaker cannot support his thesis with a significant amount of reliable evidence, his
message is not to be trusted. Speakers who rely on emotion or use faulty reasoning
should be questioned about the reliability of their information. The phrase "everyone is
doing it" is an example of an appeal based on faulty reasoning. Watch out for allinclusive phrases like "everyone," "no one," "always," and "never." These terms are
often red flags, signifying exaggeration or faulty reasoning.

EMPATHIC LISTENING
Empathic listening is characterized by support, comfort, and sympathy. When we
empathize with someone, we identify intellectually with his or her thoughts or feelings.
Empathic listening is different from informational and critical listening in that its goal is to
help the speaker rather than the listener. We use empathic listening to help a friend deal
with a personal problem, to comfort in time of distress, and to support in a difficult
situation.

Empathic listening involves examination of a situation from the speaker's perspective,

evaluation of the circumstance and need, offer of support, and concern about the
outcome. In order to identify with someone else's thoughts or feelings, we must look at
things from his or her point of view. Examination of the speaker's perspective enables
the listener to vicariously experience what he or she is expressing.
Before we engage in examination of the perspective, we must first understand the
speaker's message. There are two ways to check or enhance understanding of the
speaker's perspective: questioning and paraphrasing.
Questioning. Questioning or asking the speaker for clarification will help us better
understand his or her point of view. "How did that make you feel?" or "What did you
mean when you said you wanted to quit?" or "How are you doing?" are examples of
questions that check or enhance our understanding of the speaker's perspective.
Paraphrasing. Paraphrasing enables us to check our ability to empathize by reflecting
the speaker's thoughts and feelings. Paraphrasing, by definition, is rewording. When we
paraphrase, we use our own words to restate what someone has said. In this way, the
speaker may verify if we understand, or correct us if we don't. Consider the way Kris
attempts to paraphrase John in the following example:
John: I think I'm in a lot of trouble.
Kris: You think you're in a lot of trouble? Why?
John: I haven't been very responsible with my money, and it's all going to come back to haunt
me.
Kris: So, you've been spending your paycheck on things you don't need?
John: Yeah, I guess you could say that.
Kris: How much do you owe?
John: I've lost track. I owe my parents a bunch of money, and I've used up my savings account
that was supposed to be for college.
Kris: Being in debt can be really depressing. You feel the weight of it dragging you down.
John: I know I won't be in debt forever. I just need some self-control.
Kris: Sounds like that will definitely help!

This example illustrates the functions of paraphrasing and emotional support. First,
notice that Kris was able to facilitate discussion by paraphrasing. He rephrases John's
initial concern and asks him to explain the reason for it. This encourages John to share
his concerns more in depth, which results in more empathizing by Kris. Toward the end
of the conversation, Kris echoes John's apparent feelings of defeat by saying that debt
can feel like a "heavy weight" that is almost impossible to "get out from underneath."
John corrects Kris's understanding of his point of view without feeling as if he is being
wrongly judged, but rather that he is being supported.

Paraphrasing can take on several different forms: questioning for clarification prior to
paraphrasing, content paraphrasing, feelings paraphrasing, and a combination of
content and feelings paraphrasing. In real life, we often combine both content and
feelings when we paraphrase. Let's look at an example to discover how they all work
together.
Statement from Speaker: "When I took the exam last week, I really felt I had aced it. I got it
back today with a note on it to see my teacher. He said that I failed the test and that it was
obvious I didn't understand the unit."
Question from Listener: "What do you think went wrong?"
Content paraphrase from Listener: "Let me see if I am understanding what you said. Your
teacher believes you don't understand the unit, but you think you grasped it."
Feelings paraphrase from Listener: "It sounds like you are confused and embarrassed by the
differences between what you thought the unit was about and what your teacher expected."
Combination paraphrase from Listener: "Let me see if I understand what you are saying and
feeling. You thought you nailed the test, but you missed the main points the teacher wanted.
You are confused about what you missed and embarrassed that you disappointed your teacher.
Is that right?"

Notice the focus on facts in the content paraphrase and the focus on underlying
emotions in the feelings paraphrase. The context and the needs and comfort level of the
participants determines which paraphrase is used. Paraphrasing can become annoying
to the speaker if it is not used effectively. Don't repeat everything a speaker says.
Use paraphrasing:
when you need to clarify a message that could have several meanings with content or

feelings;
when the person's statement is crucial to the rest of his or her message;
when the message is long or complex, and summing it up will aid in understanding the

message;
when the message is given in a very emotional state, and clarity is needed to ensure

that the emotions expressed are what the speaker intended.

Evaluating. Evaluation is another aspect of empathic listening. While evaluation is

central to critical listening, it can actually detract from our efforts to offer support via
empathic listening. Communication expert Julia Wood has observed that even positive
criticisms, such as "I think you're right to do that," may cause the speaker to withdraw.
Sometimes it's best to reserve judgment until the speaker has requested it; and then it
should be constructive, not a personal attack. 11

Constructive criticism offers suggestions for improvement or advice without

unnecessary offense. "Brown looks horrible on you" is an example of criticism that could
unnecessarily hurt someone. It offers no suggestion for improvement, just criticism. It
would be more constructive to say, "I think you look attractive in blue. It accentuates
your eyes."
Feedback. Paraphrases and constructive criticisms are forms of supportive feedback.
They are sincere expressions of care and sympathy that focus on the speaker's goals.
However, support can also involve questioning, which helps the listener understand the
speaker and the speaker to understand himself and solve his own problems.
Suppose a friend of Mike's tells him, "I can't talk to my older brother." Mike might
respond with the question, "What seems to be the problem?" His friend replies, "He's
always telling me what to do and how to act. He makes me feel so inferior." When Mike
asked his friend to explain his reasons, Mike was directing him to examine the situation
in more detail. By examining the circumstances surrounding his interaction with his
brother, he might discover how to improve the situation.
Asking the right questions can be difficult. Some questions can sound judgmental, such
as, "Why did you do that?" or "What were you thinking?" Judgmental questions may
cause the speaker to withdraw, eliminating the opportunity to support. Before asking the
speaker any questions, we must have the speaker's interests in mind. We shouldn't ask
questions that are focused primarily on ourselves.
11

Julia Wood, Communication in Our Lives (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2000).

LISTENING ETHICS
Deciding which listening style to use can pose some difficulties, especially when the
speaker is not being truthful. Consider the situation in which a friend is telling you about
a difficult situation. Her basketball coach (who is also your coach) has just asked her to
leave the team because her grades are low. You listen to her in an empathic manner by
reserving judgment and focusing on her need for support. However, as your friend
continues to talk about her situation, you notice that she is distorting the truth. She is
retelling events in a way that makes her look innocent, when in fact she was at fault and
probably needs to leave the team and concentrate on her class work.

Do you think it is ethical to use an empathic listening style when the speaker is being
dishonest? In other words, will you let her deception, intentional or not, go unchecked;
or will you change listening styles and ask critical questions without being asked?

LET'S REVIEW!
This lesson instructed you concerning three types of listening styles: informational,
critical, and empathic. You saw that effective listening requires adjustments to listening
styles according to the situation.

LISTENING PROCESS STAGE 1: SELECTING

The first stage in the listening process is selection. At the beginning of this section, you
were asked to stop reading and listen to sounds around you. Some of the sounds that
you noticed may have seemed new to you. However, they weren't new to you
subconsciously; your eardrums were transmitting the vibrations to your brain all along.
They were new to you because, until you focused on them, you had not selected them.

Selection may be influenced externally by loud

or repetitious sounds or internally by motives or
expectations. These influences can be strong
enough to create misunderstandings. Consider
the following example.
Lisa called Melissa during the holiday break.
However, Melissa was so busy, she forgot to return
the call. Melissa expected Lisa to be angry about it.
When they met at school after the break, Lisa said,
"It kind of annoyed me that you didn't call back, but I
figured you were busy with family, so it's no big deal."
However, Melissa, expecting Lisa to be angry, heard
only the first half of the sentence ("It kind of annoyed
me that you didn't call back . . .") and spent the rest
of the day feeling terrible about her friend's supposed
annoyance.

Had Melissa monitored her tendency to listen

selectively based on her expectations, she would
have been a more effective listener and would have saved herself some grief.

LISTENING PROCESS STAGE 2: UNDERSTANDING

The second stage, understanding, occurs when we grasp the meaning of a message.
Understanding involves organizing the speaker's expressed thoughts and emotions
according to grammatical and pragmatic rules.
For instance, if a stranger approaches you on the street and says, "I agree," you won't
understand what he means. You don't know the context of his message. "You agree
about what?" you might ask. However, if your friend responds with an "I agree" to your
statement that drivers on the freeway need to slow down, you will understand exactly

what he means. You know what he is saying, not only by his syntax and emotional
tone, but also by the context in which he is speaking.

LISTENING PROCESS STAGE 3: EVALUATING

Once the meaning of a message is understood, it is then evaluated, or judged. We
evaluate messages for different reasons, though mostly to determine their truthfulness
and their underlying intent.
Suppose that you are a police officer. You pull a car over for speeding. Behind the wheel
is a young woman with tears in her eyes. She pleads with you to let her off with a
warning. When you ask her why, she tells you that she's just received news that her
father has been in a serious accident and she needs to get to the hospital as soon as
possible. To determine whether or not to write her a ticket, you must evaluate her
message. Is this girl's father really in the hospital? Is she lying to get out of a ticket?
Your evaluation of a message may be influenced by several factors such as
stereotyping and implicit personality theory. For example, as a police officer, you might
have experienced that some people in this situation are tempted to lie. If you weren't
careful, you might conclude that the girl's tears are feigned and her story about her
father is a lie when, in fact, it is true. Stereotyping in this situation could result in a
disastrous mistake.
To make sure our evaluations of people are as accurate as possible, we should engage
in perception checking: gather valid information and monitor any self-serving bias before
making a final judgment.

LISTENING PROCESS STAGE 4: RESPONDING

Responding is the fourth stage in the listening process; it is also the most demonstrative
through its use of feedback. It conveys to the speaker how little or how much the
listener is interested in what the speaker is saying.
Feedback can be either verbal or nonverbal. Positive feedback made while the speaker
is still talking might include an alert posture, direct eye contact, appropriate facial
expressions, head nods, and supportive phrases such as "go on" and "uh-huh." Positive
feedback made after the speaker has stopped talking might include requests for

clarification such as, "Why do you think Barbara is confused?" or "How are you going to
deal with the problem?"
Feedback might also include empathic statements such as, "I know you meant well,"
and challenges such as, "According to my calculations, your plan will not increase
productivity." Slouching, yawning, lack of eye contact, and no verbal interaction are
forms of negative feedback, which may convey disinterest in the speaker's thoughts.

LISTENING PROCESS STAGE 5: REMEMBERING

The final stage in the listening process is remembering. Listening experts have
estimated that, immediately after we hear information, we retain only half of it. The
amount of information we retain steadily decreases as time goes on, until we are left
with only a basic impression of what was said. These basic impressions or ideas are
systematic reconstructions of what was actually said.
For instance, if we heard a talk on listening, we might only remember the idea that
taking notes during a lecture will help us be better listeners. This is a basic impression,
not a reproduction of the speaker's words in whole or in part. It is our reconstruction,
formed partially by fact and partially by perception. What we remember from a
conversation or a lecture can be a distorted version of what was actually said. That is
why it is important to take notes when we need to retain a large amount of information.

Effective listening requires effort and diligence. As previously discussed, listening is not
a passive activity. It takes energy to select, understand, and respond appropriately to
messages. Effective listening is a learned skill, not one that develops naturally.
Listening barriers can affect all aspects of the listening process. The key to becoming a
more competent listener is recognizing and overcoming listening barriers. We will
examine six common listening barriers and how to overcome them:
environmental distractions

 information overload
daydreaming
overconfidence
inaccurate perceptions
non-listening behaviors

OBJECTIVES

Identify and demonstrate specific kinds of listening such as critical, informational

(deliberative) and, empathic types.

SIX COMMON LISTENING BARRIERS

Environmental distractions. Environmental distractions include noise, temperature, air
quality, and physical well-being. The sound of a siren or a baby crying can make it
difficult to pay close attention to what a speaker is saying. Extreme temperatures or a
room filled with cigarette smoke might also distract our attention. The easiest way to
deal with environmental distractions is to remove them or move away from them. If the
loud conversation in a restaurant makes it difficult to concentrate on the speaker,
moving to another table or outside the restaurant might help.
Information overload. Information overload occurs when a person receives more
information than he can handle at one time. The problem occurs most frequently in
academic settings when large amounts of information are presented in small amounts of
time. For instance, a detailed two-hour lecture on the anatomy of the human brain would
overload many listeners.
Sometimes multiple information sources can contribute to information overload. For
example, a parent might not know who to listen to first when her children all talk at once
in an attempt to recount an incident.
Information overload can be reduced by focusing attention on one source for limited
amounts of time. The mother who insists that her children take turns talking or the
teacher who breaks up a lecture into smaller bites can both help lessen the possibility of
information overload.

Daydreaming. Daydreaming is a common barrier to effective listening. We've all

allowed personal concerns or preoccupations to distract us from listening attentively to a
friend, teacher, or family member. When a speaker starts to talk about things that don't
interest us or says something that triggers another thought in our minds, we begin to
think of other concerns such as an upcoming test,
an outing with friends, or a favorite television show.
Daydreaming is necessary at times. It allows us to
relax and reflect on recent events. For some
people, it is a creative or problem-solving time.
However, it is not good to daydream while a friend
pours her heart out, while attending a lecture, or
while we are being given instructions.
Daydreaming can be avoided by focusing on what
the speaker is saying. Aids to focusing include
direct eye contact with the speaker and positive
verbal feedback such as paraphrasing and
questioning.
Overconfidence. Listening requires effort, unlike its passive counterpart, hearing. If you
view listening as an easy exercise rather than a strong effort involving understanding,
evaluation, and recall, you will merely hear, not listen. Assuming that you already know
what the speaker has to say can make you a poor listener as well. Avoid an
overconfident attitude by considering every opportunity to listen as an opportunity to
learn something new. Listen attentively to everything that the speaker has to say and try
to retain as much as possible. Taking notes is an effective way to stay focused and
reinforce the key points of the speaker.
Inaccurate perceptions. Listening and perception are two sides of the same coin. Both
enable us to understand and interpret verbal messages. Furthermore, the way we
perceive someone will have an effect on the way we listen. For example, many people
don't listen very closely to people whom they perceive as talkative, whereas someone
speaking softly draws their attention.
Our perception of someone can also affect what we hear. If we believe that all
politicians are against programs for the disadvantaged, we might not hear a senator say
that he is proposing more federal spending for the homeless. We will listen more
effectively if we keep an open mind and suspend judgment until the speaker is finished.
Non-listening behaviors. Non-listening behaviors are habits that limit our ability to
listen effectively.

Pseudo-listening is the most common form of non-listening. When we pseudo-listen, we

are pretending to be listening, but we are thinking of other things. Pseudo-listeners
mask their inattention by giving seemingly positive nonverbal feedback. They might nod
their heads, make direct eye contact, and even maintain an alert posture. Pseudolistening may be avoided by focusing on the speaker's message and eliminating or
ignoring any distractions.
Monopolizing is another form of non-listening. Monopolizing is also known as "hogging
the stage." Stage hogs interrupt other speakers in order to focus the conversation on
themselves. Monopolizing reflects a lack of concern for other people. To avoid falling
into the habit of monopolizing, monitor how often you interrupt and why. Not all
interruptions are an attempt to monopolize the conversation; however, if a person's
interruptions frequently begin with phrases such as, "When I was in the..." or "In my
experiences..." or "If you ask me...," he or she might be a "stage hog."
Selective listening is sometimes necessary in order to listen effectively. For instance, air
travelers must selectively listen for announcements over the airport intercom about their
flights. There is no need to fully listen to every announcement. In an interpersonal or
formal setting, however, selective listening can be a hindrance to effective listening. If
we only "tune in" to a speaker when he talks about a topic in which we're interested, we
might miss out on opportunities to learn or to support a friend. Selective listening may
be caused by uncomfortable conversation or one in which we find no topic of interest. In
interpersonal interactions, selective listening can be avoided by making an effort to
listen to everything the speaker has to say.
Ambushing is listening for the sake of attack. If we listen to a speaker solely for the
purpose of accusation, we are not genuinely interested in their well-being. We must
check our tendencies to be an ambush listener by taking the speaker's perspective and
focusing on his or her communication goals.
Defensive Listening is the last form of non-listening. When we listen defensively, we
become preoccupied with the speaker's motivations. Innocent comments are interpreted
as personal attacks. Evaluating comments within their intended context may curb
defensive listening. Do not jump to conclusions. Wait for the speaker to finish talking
and then ask for clarification if needed.

PREPARING TO LISTEN
If we pay attention to all the verbal and nonverbal communication around us, it will
erode our understanding of the message. We need to use selective listening strategies
in order to accurately interpret the communication.
Be ready to listen. First, we need to get ourselves physically and mentally ready to
listen. We need to be aware of the context of the communication. If we are in a
classroom and the teacher is talking about a project we have to do, our attention will be
drawn to the assignment. We may want to take notes, clarify the assignment if it isn't
understood, and focus on the message given, while blocking out other distractions in
and outside of the room. For tools, we may need to gather pencils and paper. Posture
will also aid our preparation, so we sit upright in our chairs to keep alert.
Be an attentive listener. Even if the context requires that we become involved in a
discussion, while the other speaker is talking, we need to pay attention to them.
Otherwise, we might be thinking about what we need to say next. It is difficult to focus
on being a listener, especially when we may be asked to participate.
However, we have to shut out the distraction of that voice or noise in our heads that is
telling us what to say next. Our message and the speaker's message will overlap, and
we may miss critical pieces of the speaker's message.
Hear the whole message. Too often, something a speaker says triggers an emotion or
thought that is important to us, and we prepare to respond. Instead, we have to restrain
ourselves and focus on hearing the whole message. Our responses might be quite
different once the whole message is heard.
Apply the best listening skills. Listening is much like reading. When we are reading a
text such as this lesson, we have to concentrate on details, which requires us to read at
a slower pace. However, when we are reading a fiction novel for pleasure, we might
read at a faster pace, skimming some of the details to get to the action in the story.
When we are listening for pleasure (for example, our favorite TV programs or music),
we can afford to daydream a bit or let it run in our minds as background. However, if the
information is important, it requires our exclusive attention, and we need to listen for the
details.

PROJECT: LISTENING STRATEGIES

Are you listening or just hearing? This project allows you to figure out the difference
firsthand.

OBJECTIVES
Apply listening strategies in a variety of contexts.

Instructions:
Select an information-based program on television or the radio approved by your
teacher. (Public television or radio talk shows offer numerous selections.)
Watch or listen to fifteen minutes of programming while relaxing on your bed, a couch,
or the floor. Feel free to play music in the background or work on other activities. Then,
for the next fifteen minutes, eliminate distractions and focus intently on the program.
After the entire thirty minutes is up, write down the differences between the strategies
you used during the first fifteen-minute segment and the second fifteen-minute segment.
Then give answers for the following questions:
1.

What was different in your behavior during each fifteen-minute segment?

2.

Did you change your posture in the second fifteen minutes? How?

3.

Which of the four strategies did you use in the first segment? The second segment?

4.

How did the differences in approach to listening affect how much you remember from
each segment?