FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CORROSION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

BMM 4803

PROJECT REPORT
Corrosion in Subsea Heating Jacket
GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME

MATRIC NO

TAI JEN SENG

MA13068

YEO ZHE MING

MA13049

TAN KING HSIUNG

MA13133

FONG WEI JUN

MA13094

CHONG CHOW YEUNG

MA13161

TOH ZHEN YI

MA13160

SUBJECT LECTURER: DR. YULI PANCA ASMARA

ABSTRACT
In this project, we were tasked to design a subsea heating jacket for gas pipelines. The heating
system is detrimental to the whole operation of the drilling platform. The heating system
functions to heat up the pipeline and the wellhead to the target temperature so that it can avoid
risky start up conditions, melt away wax formations, and avoid hydrate formations. The system
is expected to operate using mainly water with an estimated 1.5% of seawater, and at
temperatures well above 100C. The requirement for designing this heating system is to make
sure it has at least 25 years of expected life time, during which no replacements or maintenance
are permitted. Based on these given conditions, we proposed a subsea heating system by
considering all the possible corrosions and the counter-measures to prevent them.
Keywords: Corrosion, subsea heating jacket, 25 years.

INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is a naturally occurring phenomenon that surrounds our daily life, from rusting of
nails, pipes, cars, and various metal components. The definition of corrosion is the deterioration
of metals or other materials by reacting with its environment to a more chemically-stable form,
such as its oxides, hydroxide, or sulfide. The gradual destruction of the material is usually
through chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with the component found in its environment;
water, oxygen, or Sulphur. The most common form of corrosion is rust, or the formation of
iron oxides, occurs though an electrochemical process.
Corrosion costs billions and billions of dollars annually to both prevent and to fix the after
effects. It is damaging to a countrys economy, and also wastes our already limited resources.
The high cost to counter corrosion problems is not just tied to the part replacement of corroded
sections, but also the indirect costs that it brings [1]. The following are a few examples:
1. Lost production during a shutdown. For example, in U.K. it costs 5000 pounds per day in
the year 1977 to take a 400kV transmission line out of service to deal with corrosion
damage [2].
2. High maintenance costs. For example, in the U.S., the gas utilities spent 1.7 billion U.S.
dollars in new piping and 2.2 U.S. billion dollars in repairs, renovations and replacements
in 1989. Of this, most repairs were for corrosion leaks, third party damage and material
defects [3].

3. Warranty claims. Because of corrosion to their cars, the Ontario Rusty Ford Owner
Association obtained substantial compensation from the courts (K R Trethewey, J
Chamberlain). Another automaker, Subaru of America recalled 285.000 front wheel drive
cars manufactured during 1980-1986 for inspection and rust proofing. The recall were made
because of the corroding of rear suspension as a result of the use of deicing salt on the
streets [4].
Corrosion is especially impactful in the oil and gas industry, considering the potential effects
of failures to the environment and to the workers, corrosion prevention in oil and gas industry
usually takes up 3% of the countrys GDP per annum. This is due to the fact that the materials
are expected to perform for long periods of time under naturally corrosive environments. For
example, hot and humid conditions, corrosive chemicals including acids, and subsea conditions.
In this study, the focus is on the designing of a subsea heating system with an expected lifespan
of 25 years. To accomplish this, all the possible factors of corrosion is identified and taken into
consideration. Corrosion in a subsea environment is inevitable, however, as engineers, we can
delay it so that the system can operate safely and reliably throughout its expected lifespan.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Corrosion is a major economic problem which affects all segment of production, processing,
and transportation of many commercial products and equipment for most industrialized
countries [5]. With the support of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) as
mandated by the US congress, A breakthrough 2-year study in 2002 by the U.S. Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA), showed that $276 billion, corresponding to 3.1% of the US
gross domestic product (GDP) was the annual estimated direct cost of corrosion in the country
[6]. In Japan, total corrosion cost directed to metallic and inorganic surface finishing of 1997
was 3.9 trillion yen which is 1.54 times that of 1975 estimate, 2.6 trillion yen and compared
with the GPN growth rate of 3.0 fold during the same period, the corrosion cost ratio increase
between 1997 and 1975 is somewhat smaller than expected [7]. Surface organic coating
accounts for major share in corrosion cost which is approximately one half both 1997 and 1975
whereas metallic coating and inorganic processing comprises about 25% of total cost [8].
In oil and gas industry, Carbon dioxide (CO2) corrosion is one the most studied form
of corrosion in oil and gas industry and this is generally due to the fact that the crude oil and

natural gas from the oil reservoir or gas well usually contains some level of CO2.[8] The major
concern of oil and gas industry with the CO2 corrosion is that CO2 corrosion able to cause
failure on their equipment such as the main downhole tubing and transmission pipelines which
can disrupt the oil and gas production. For the work done result over the past few decades, the
basic CO2 corrosion reaction equation have been proven out and well understood by many
researchers and the major chemical reactions include CO2 dissolution and hydration to form
carbonic acid as shown in equations (1) and (2). [8]
CO2 (g) CO2 (aq)

(1)

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

(2)

Besides from carbon dioxide, oxygen, and H2 S contaminations, downstream processes also
encounter corrosion due to naphthenic acids and aromatic carboxylic acids in very high
temperatures. In addition, certain units that absorb and strip the hydrocarbon stream with
corrosive agents face the effects of concentrated corrodants which should also be a key issue
to address [9].
Treatment by using appropriate corrosion inhibitors was one of the major solution to
cope with corrosion-related problems triggered by widely varying processing conditions and
concentrations of salts and water at different stages of the oil and gas production processes.
Depending on their mechanism of action or composition, these chemical substances can be
classified as barrier or film-forming, neutralizing, scavenging and other miscellaneous
inhibitors [10]. Concentrated acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), carbonic acid and the
numerous SOx acids, which include sulfuric (H2SO4), sulfurous (H2SO3), thiosulfurous, among
others cause a large fraction of corrosion cases [11]. In order to manage the corrosive action of
these acids, neutralizing inhibitors such as ammonia, sodium hydroxide, morpholine and
several amines, alkylamines, and polyamines are added to the system to decrease the
concentration of the hydrogen ion in the environment [12].
Furthermore, long distance pipelines play a vital role in oil and gas industry on land
and offshore. A well often produces water along with crude oil. The presence of water as well
as dissolved gases such as CO2 and H2S was the serious issues that cause the internal corrosion
of pipelines and also the distribution of water and oil inside the pipeline has a great influence
on the corrosion rate.[13] According to the study on internal corrosion of a subsea multiphase
pipeline, the corrosion rate of the internal subsea pipeline (X65 steel) increased with increasing
PCO2 and velocity.[14] The corrosion rate first increased and then decreased with increasing

temperature and peaked at approximately 65 then continuously decreased afterwards.

Besides that, Flow induced corrosion seems to be the main cause of leakages that occur locally
at the horizontal subsea pipeline near an elbow section. Combined effect of pitting corrosion
and erosive flow increases corrosion rate along the flow direction resulting in teardrop-shaped
pits. [15]
Besides that, the type of corrosion occurs in seawater consist of the drill pipe corrosion.
The drill pipe is probably the most severe treated compare to other equipment. It is because
when the drilling equipment drill a well at the offshore, the stress is not only exerting on the
rig structure but the drilling equipment too. The drill pipe also exposed to drilling mud and
formation fluids, therefore it will be subjected to stress corrosion and erosion. But the drill pipe
probably will suffer from the fatigue failures from the deep corrosion pits that caused by
oxygen, which from the mud itself or being stacked in a wet condition even the joints of the
drill pipe is made from high strength steel. Some coating with baked resins or fusion bonded
epoxies is coat in the drill pipe in order to prevent the corrosion happens on the drill pipe or
slowdown its rate of corrosion. But the problem is, once the coating is vanished, it will double
up the corrosion rate of the drill pipe.
There are several reasons why the corrosion rate in subsea is higher compare to the
place which is shallow places. The first reason is the temperature, where the temperature
decrease with the increase of water depth. Calcareous deposits are the cathodic protection
polarization process. The deposits are critical in the cathodic protection process because it helps
to reduce the current required from the anodes. But with the decrease of temperature, it will
affect the ability of calcareous deposits form. Therefore, when the temperature decrease, the
cathodic protection will decrease. It will slow down the formation that requires higher levels
of cathodic protection current to help in decrease the corrosion rate. So with the low
temperature, the corrosion rate will increase compare the higher temperature region. Besides
that, the electrical conductivity of seawater increase with the temperature increase. Therefore,
in the subsea the temperature in low, the electrical conductivity low too. With the low electrical
conductivity, the amount of cathodic protection current will be low. With the low of cathodic
protection current, more current is required but the available current is low, so it require more
anodes and the corrosion rate will increase.
By using the thermal sprayed coatings, it can reduce the corrosion rate of a subsea
pipeline. This thermal sprayed coating is low cost but if provide good corrosion protection in

a wide range of temperature and conditions. Beside coatings, using sacrificial protection for
corrosion is one of the method that wisely use in the oil and gas industry. Zinc was the chosen
material to use as a sacrificial for pipelines offshore. Zinc is cheap, easy to cast and able to
operate in seawater or seabed sediments. But now, aluminium anodes were chosen as the
sacrificial anode because it is lighter and can be operated more efficiently. Aluminium anodes
same like the zinc, it also able to operate in seawater or seabed sediments. Due to the high
demand of aluminium in the oil and gas industry, the price of aluminium in the market become
more competitive.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The impact of corrosion on the oil and gas industry can be studied in terms of its effect on both
capital and operational expenditures, and health, safety and the environment. It is widely
known that corrosion is a costly problem and typically costs roughly 3% of GPD for developed
and developing countries [16].
Since the focus on this title is the subsea heating jacket, the factors that can contribute to the
corrosion of the system need to be identified and studied. This can include the properties of the
material of choice, the temperature of the surrounding environment, the pH of the surrounding
environment, and any other conditions that can cause severe corrosion and lead to catastrophic
failures.
Next, the counter measures of corrosions need to be studied so that the best can be chosen for
the system. Considering that there are many types of counter measures for corrosion, a
thorough study is needed to fully understand the advantages and disadvantages of each method
so that the optimal choice can be made for this particular system. The choice will be made
based on availability, effectiveness, and cost.

PURPOSE
This projects serves as a platform for our group to put our knowledge into practice. This project
will help us better understand the work of a corrosion engineer, covering everything regarding
designing a system to function reliably throughout its expected lifespan without repairs or
replacements. It allows us to identify the threat of corrosion in the current oil and gas industry

and apply the correct counter measures depending on the condition of the environment to
prevent or delay the corrosion in the most cost effective way.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this project is to first, study the various factors that can contribute to the
corrosion of the heating jacket in a subsea environment. By identifying the factors of corrosion,
the correct counter measure for each factor can be studied and chosen for this application.
The second objective is to design a subsea heating jacket with expected lifespan of 25 years
without any replacement of parts or maintenance. The rate of corrosion are required to be
estimated and predicted before the system can be designed.

DISCUSSION
Corrosion types

Figure 1: Possible corrosion in an oil and gas platform.

Evaluation of corrosivity include:

CO2-content.
H2S-content.
Oxygen content and content of other oxidizing agents.
Operating temperature and pressure.
Acidity, pH.
Halogenide concentration.

Erosion/Scouring
Loss of wall thickness due to removal of material from fluid flow, particularly if the fluid
contains solid particles, prior to separation. The most common strategy to prevent damage
caused by scouring is to place stones on the seabed around foundations known as Rock
Dumping. The rock will be able to adapt to changing seabed levels and occurring depressions
will be filled in which result in progressive failure will not occur.
Galvanic Corrosion
The corrosion rate of unprotected carbon steel in deep waters mainly depends on the oxygen
content. Since there is continuous replacement of the seawater even at great depths, the oxygen
content never reaches zero. At the concerned depths from 0 to 3000 meters, an oxygen content
of 2-6 ppm in the water is usually present. The expected water temperature is from 10 C at
sea level to 2 C at the seabed
Wherever dissimilar metals are coupled together in piping systems, a corrosivity evaluation
shall be made. If galvanic corrosion is likely to occur, the dissimilar materials shall either be
electrically isolated with an isolating spool or the more noble material shall be internally coated
close to the coupling. The potential difference or voltage between biofilm-covered stainless
steel and carbon steel is approximately 1 volt in seawater. This represents a high driving force
for any type of corrosion. As soon as corrosion initiates, the stainless steel will depolarize
slightly causing a smaller voltage, but rapid galvanic corrosion is still possible.
The galvanic corrosion was eliminated by installing sacrificial anodes along the caisson.
Stainless steel covered with biofilm (A) provides a much higher current of 200 mA/m2.

Localised Corrosion
Localised corrosion with very high corrosion rates can occur when the corrosion product film
does not give sufficient protection, and this is the most feared type of corrosion attack in oil
and gas pipelines. The line had been in operation for several years without problems, but
changes in the well composition over time led to more aggressive conditions, resulting in
unacceptably high corrosion rates. In order to control the corrosion in pipelines, it is important
to understand the underlying corrosion mechanisms and be able to predict whether localised
corrosion will be initiated and how it can be prevented.
When corrosion products are not deposited on the steel surface, very high corrosion rates of
several millimetres per year can occur. The corrosion rate can be reduced substantially under
conditions where iron carbonate (FeCO3) can precipitate on the steel surface and form a dense
and protective corrosion product film. This occurs more easily at high temperature or high pH
in the water phase. When H2S is present in addition to CO2, iron sulphide (FeS) films are
formed rather than FeCO3, and protective films can be formed at lower temperature, since FeS
precipitates much easier than FeCO3
The corrosion rate in gas condensate pipelines can be substantially reduced by increasing the
pH of the water phase. The technique is called pH stabilisation and it has been used successfully
in several gas condensate pipelines. Corrosion rates below 0.1mm/year have been achieved,
even with CO2 partial pressures higher than 10bar. The reduction in corrosion rate is based on
a pH increase in the water phase, which enhances the precipitation of protective corrosion
product films on the steel surface. The stabilisation technique is well suited for use in
combination with glycol as hydrate preventer, because the pH stabiliser will remain in the
regenerated glycol. This means that there is no need for continuous renewal of the pH stabiliser.
Most pH stabilizer used nowadays are Monoethylene glycol (MEG).
Microbial Corrosion
Entire length of the pipeline assembly is pressure tested using either fresh water or seawater
before natural gas or oil is transported through new pipelines. It is the final quality assurance
test before the pipeline is put into operation. In order to ensure structural integrity, the pressure
test is usually held for a specific amount of time, from between 1 day and 100 days, before the
pipeline is placed into operation. The water used for pipeline flooding and hydro-testing testing
is vulnerable to attacked by potential source of microbial infection, Acid Producing Bacteria
and Slime Forming Bacteria containing natural concentrations of SRBs (Sulphate Reducing

Bacteria). A wide range of negative impacts including microbiological induced corrosion,

formation of biofilms and slime, production of highly hazardous hydrogen sulphide gas (H 2S),
formation of Extracellular polymeric layer (creates bypasses of untreated water) and damage
of equipment and components if the pipelines are left untreated. Therefore, ultraviolet light
treatment is introduced. The hazardous biocides from the process can be fully eliminated by
using UV disinfection with a filtration package and food grade oxygen scavenger as the
primary technique for controlling bacterial growth. Indirectly, it significantly improving the
environmental profile of the project and lowering operational costs.
The pipeline is water-filled and hydrostatically pressure tested to confirm structural integrity
during the pre-commissioning process. The bacteria developed are controlled, minimized or
eliminated with a class of materials known as biocides. The biocides are targeted to damage
the cell wall or disrupt the process of protein synthesis, therefore biocides must come in contact
with the microorganism to be effective. The fluids are pumped through ultraviolet light sources
where the UV light passes through the liquid media (water) and the bacterias cell wall.
Exposure to UV light disrupts the organisms DNA, rendering it unable to reproduce as shown
is Figure 2.

Figure 2: UV light passes through the cell wall of the

bacteria

The ultraviolet light is utilized to disinfect pre-commissioning fluids for hydrostatic testing
stages of pipeline. Ultraviolet light is an effective and environmental-friendly method to control
bacteria. The bacteria have the potential to cause undesirable corrosion in pipelines and
equipment such as pitting corrosion as shown in Figure 3. One anaerobic form of bacteria is
sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). These particular bacteria reduce sulfate ion to sulfide which

can lead to the accelerated corrosion of metal components through the formation of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). In addition to its potential health hazards, even in small concentrations, transport
and processing of H2S containing fluids through pipelines and facilities not specifically
designed to be H2S resistant can lead to excessive corrosion or even catastrophic failure.

Figure 3: Corrosion and pitting

For closed systems, the effect of biofilm may be eliminated by adding disinfectants. Biocides
can be used in process, injection water systems etc. to prevent bacterial growth and possible
microbiologically induced corrosion problems.
Hydrate formation
In oil and gas industry, the formation of gas hydrates in subsea pipelines is seen as a serious
issue as it can lead to corrosion in the pipelines. Gas hydrates formation and plugging of
pipelines is becoming a very serious matter in oil and gas industry due to the exploration and
development moving to more extreme location. In order to control the corrosion in pipelines,
it is important to understand the corrosion mechanisms predict the possibility of corrosion as
well as the prevention method [17].
Gas hydrates formation
Gas hydrates are crystalline solids formed by synergies of gas and water molecules, particularly
at high pressure and low temperature condition [18]. During the formation of gas hydrates, the
gas molecules (guests) are stuck in water cavities (host) that are composed of hydrogen bonded
water molecules. Example of natural gas molecules include ethane, propane, and methane.

Shut-in gas in piping are particularly prone to serious hydrate problems, especially if water is
present. Subsequent equilibration of the tubular and its contents with cold zones of the wall can
lower the temperature into the hydrate-formation region. Hydrate nuclei form from the films
of water on the tubular walls. The subsequent crystallization can result in large plugs of hydrate
tens or hundreds of meters long.
Table 1: List of possible guest/ non guest molecules in gas hydrate formation [19].
Hydrocarbon guests

Non- hydrocarbon guests

Hydrate

nonforming

species
Methane

Carbon dioxide

n-Pentane

Ethane

Carbon monoxide

n-Hexane

i-butane

Oxygen

n-Octane

Propane

Nitrogen

N-Heptane

i-penthane

Hidrogensulfid

n-nonane

Cyclo-propane

Sulfur dioxide

n-decane

Methylcyclopropane

Argon

n-undekane

Cyklo-butane

Krypton

n-dodecane

Cyklo-pentane

Xenon

n-Tridecane

Cyclo-hexane

Dimethylether

n-Hexadecane

Benzene

Hidrogen

n-Pentadecane

Methylcyklopentane

Acetone

n-Heptadecane

2,3-Dimethyl-1-butn

Etylene

n-Oktadecane

2,2-Dimethylbutn

Propylene

n-Eikozane

2,2-Dimethylbutn

Propylene

n-Eikozane

For the past few years, countless attempts have been done to prevent gas hydrate formation in
subsea pipelines. Currently the most common methods used are water removal (dehydration),
keeping pressure below the hydrate equilibrium at operating temperature, heating gas to
temperature above hydrate equilibrium and lastly applying inhibitors [20].

Direct Electrical Heating System

Traditional methods of clearing pipelines of wax and hydrate deposits are by use of chemical
inhibitors. This method is expensive and represents a risk to the environment should leakage
occur. Electrical heating is therefore attractive.
The Direct Electrical Heating System consists of a feeder cable installed piggy back to the
pipeline subject to be heated. This feeder cable is connected to one end of the pipeline and a
return cable is connected to the other end. The feeder and return cables are connected to the
topside dedicated power supply equipment through a cable riser section. All cables are based
on field proven underwater and offshore cable technology.
The direct heating system is based on the fact that an electric alternating current (AC) in a
metallic conductor (i.e. cable/pipe etc.) generates heat. In the direct pipe heating system, the
pipe to be heated is an active conductor in a single-phase electric circuit, together with a single
core power cable as the forward conductor, located in parallel with and close (piggy-back)
to the heated pipe. The heating system is supplied from the platform power supply, from which
two riser cables provide the electric power to the heating system
The evaluation of technical feasibility and cost estimates have been completed for a 50 Hz
direct resistive heating system. The electrical rating of the system depends on the heat
requirement, pipe material and the pipe length. The feasibility of the concept has been verified
through full scale subsea tests. Results from the measurements are used to determine the
characteristics parameters of the system on fields in the North Sea. The study includes both
carbon steel, duplex steel and martensitic steel (13%Cr.). The heat requirement mainly depends
on the thermal conductivity of the pipe insulation and seabed soil / gravel, and in the case of
melting plugs, the heat capacity of the pipe, thermal insulation and the hydrate must also be
taken into consideration. A temperature rise of approximately 20 degrees C above sea
temperature is necessary to prevent plugs in pipelines during planned shut-downs or reduced
flow rate.
Inhibitors
In this report, we will focus on inhibitors since it is the most common method used to prevent
and minimize gas hydrate formation.
Chemical inhibitors are generally classified as:

i.

Environmental inhibitors

ii.

Thermodynamic inhibitors

iii.

Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors

i. Environmental inhibitor
Environmental inhibition is a more environmentally friendly method as it does not cause harm
to the environment. This type of inhibition includes the aforementioned methods such as drying
the gas before it is cooled or heating the gas to temperature above hydrate equilibrium [17].

ii. Thermodynamic inhibitors (TDI)

This inhibitor is most common used nowadays. Example of this inhibitor are methanol, glycol
and mono-ethylene-glycol. By using these inhibitors, the hydrate formation boundary will shift
to higher pressure and lower temperature by associating with the water molecules and
preventing their arrangement into a hydrate lattice [21]. During this process, the inhibitors form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules in water solution, thus reducing the free water molecules
that able to undergo hydrate formation.

Figure 4: Pressure- temperature diagram for a typical natural gas hydrates [20].
Hammerchmidt equation can be used to estimate the hydrate depression temperature for
thermodynamic inhibitor in the aqueous liquid.

= 100

Where

(3)

is sub-cooling in F

is the required concentration of inhibitor in aqueous solution

is constant, depending on the type of solution

is the inhibitors molecular weight

The molecular weights and K values are shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Physical constant of some selected inhibitors [20].

Component

Molecular weight

K value

Ethylene glycol

62.07

2700

Methanol

32

2335

Diethylene Glycol (DEG)

106.12

4000

Triethylene Glycol (TEG)

150.17

5400

The molecular weight will have more significant effect in determining the performance of
inhibitor. Those with smaller molecular weight will have better inhibitor performance.
The advantages of thermodynamic inhibitor include [22]:

Proven application

Recycling possibilities

Availabilities

Ability to interact with any hydrocarbon

Disadvantages include:

High concentration of inhibitor is needed

Toxicity

Incur considerable loses due to their volatility and lead to high cost

iii. Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitor

There are two known groups of low dosage hydrate inhibitor:
i.

Kinetic inhibitor (KHIs)

ii.

Anti-agglomerant inhibitor (AAs)

Kinetic inhibitors are water soluble polymer and usually consists of other small organic
molecules to enhance efficiency. Unlike thermodynamic inhibitors, kinetic inhibitors do not
shift the gas hydrate formation equilibrium but slow down the hydrate formation speed [19].
They delay hydrate nucleation and crystal growth however the delay time is depending on the
degree of subcooling, which is the temperature difference between hydrate dissociation
temperature and the operating temperature at given pressure [20]. Examples of kinetic
inhibitors are polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinycaprolactam (PVCaP).
The advantages of kinetic inhibitor include:

Low cost

Non toxic

Environmentally friendly

Low dosage required

Disadvantages are as following:

Does not stop hydrate formation, merely slowing it

Only applicable for temperature below 10C

Time dependent

May react with other chemical inhibitor

Anti-agglomeration inhibitor also does not stop gas hydrate crystal formation. However, it will
halt the agglomerations of hydrate crystal to form large hydrate plugs. The hydrate particles
will stay dispersed in the hydrocarbon phase and will not plug the pipeline. Anti-agglomerant
cause emulsification of hydrates to hydrocarbon liquids and therefore they have no pressure
and temperature limits [19]. Compared to kinetic inhibitor, they are more dependent on time
and the degree of sub cooling of the system [20].

Hydrogen Sulfate Corrosion

Sulphate removal is an important part of ensuring that injection and production wells
remain free of barium and strontium scale, which would otherwise precipitate if untreated
seawater was injected. When seawater is removed of sulphate, it prevents scale build-up in the
reservoir and well. Thus, it increases productivity, reduces equipment corrosion, prevents
reservoir souring, and assists in maintaining reservoir permeability. The most common way to
remove sulphate from seawater is with Nano filtration membrane technology. Nano filtration
membranes were introduced to separate divalent ions from monovalent ions in water solutions.
Nano filtration membrane as a membrane that has a sodium chloride permeability that is
proportional to the sodium chloride concentration to a power greater than 0.4. These
membranes reject less than 50% of sodium and chloride when operating on seawater (Eriksson
et al. 2005). Bowen et al. (2002) confirm the smoother surface of GEs membrane compared
to that of RO membranes. Lower surface roughness is a desirable property in a sulfate removal
water injection application as it leads to decreased fouling, which in turn has an impact on
membrane performance, chemical cleaning requirements and membrane longevity. Orecki et
al. studied surface water treatment by Nano filtration. They used a composite membrane,
AFC30, with cross-flow and transmembrane pressure between 1025 bar in their experiments.
They concluded that the use of Nano filtration for treating surface water can remove completely
total organic carbon (TOC) and reduce the sulphate content by approximately 9099%, the
carbonate content by 82% and the monovalent salt content by approximately 4055%.
Furthermore, their study demonstrated a significant reduction in inorganic carbon (62.8%),
electrical conductivity (68.4%) and total hardness (85.2%).
GEs Seawater Sulfate Reducing Membrane (SWSR) is Nano Filtration membrane
developed for seawater sulfate removal. It is built on GE's robust DK membrane platform,
which has been used for over 30 years in some of the most challenging applications. The SWSR
Nano filtration membrane features a 300 Dalton Molecular Weight cut-off and is an absolute
barrier for any suspended matter including particles, colloidal silica, and bacterial matters. In
addition, it can prevents strontium and barium sulfate scale in injection wells and optimized
for use in seawater while providing superior hydrodynamics, which result in longer membrane
life. In addition, it has superior hardness and sulfate removal properties and can be combined
with RO membrane arrays in order to provide low TDS water with specific divalent ion
concentrations. GEs SWSR membrane removes sulfate to drastically reduce scale and
corrosion in the injection well, which can reduce oil recovery and plug the well. It also has
exceptional fouling resistance due to its three-layer membrane design and smooth surface. It

can be optimized for use in seawater while providing superior hydrodynamics, resulting in
longer membrane life. For example, GEs new SWSR membrane significantly exceeded
Petrobras required sulfate removal threshold of 99.5% with reported removal levels exceeding
99.8%.

Chlorine Corrosion

Figure 5: Subsea Water Injection and Treatment system

Subsea water Injection and Treatment (SWIT) can be utilized for all oil fields where seawater
is used for pressure maintenance and drive mechanism. Injection of seawater into an oil
reservoir is a recognized method of enhancing productions and increasing the recoverable
volume of oil in place. Traditionally, the methods for seawater treatments are operator
intensive to run, heavy and expensive and treatment plants that are costly. Moreover,
injection volumes are limited by several factors and require valuable topside well slots that
should preferably be used for production. The SWIT technology overcomes these restrictions
by placing equipment on the seabed and is suitable for both new and mature fields. Inorganic
particles down to 10m can be removed from the raw seawater. A patented stillroom concept
is the key element in the removal process. The removal process does not use any filters, which
eliminates clog up, and there is no required maintenance for a continued operation of up to
two years.
SWIT process involves few steps to completion. Electro-chlorination is step one in
which applied in topsides water treatment systems for years. This technique provides robust

and controllable generation of sodium hydrochloride from incoming salt water by electrolysis.
A lengthy residence time within the still room allows for a maximum chlorine-to-seawater
ratio and contact time. Second step is innovative. SWIT employs diamond-coated electrodes
that preferentially generate hydroxyl radicals that kills remaining bacteria or other organic
matter in the water to be injected. The third step includes the injection ion of biocide, a type of
chemical used frequently to control the formation of biofilms, which may remain after the first
two steps. Testing shows that the rate of biofilm build-up is significantly less than with raw
seawater, hence less biocide is required than with a topsides system.
In addition, the seawater sterilization is in a two-stage process. The first stage of
sterilization is electrical generated hypochlorite that enables the chlorine to work properly.
The second stage is a new and patented technology utilizing electro-chemically generated
hydroxyl radicals for sterilization. Moreover, hydroxyl radicals work instantly are 2.5 times
more bactericidal and fungicidal than chlorine and have proven extremely effective for this
sterilization process. The whole sterilization process is designed for a minimum of 2 years
continuous operation without intervention. Apart from that, SWIT system also provides for
a periodic shock dosing with biocide similar to conventional topside systems. However, due
to superior sterilization, the biocide requirements are reduced and the dosing intervals may
be extended significantly. The replenishing of chemicals is every two years and is handled in
sealed containers with no exposure to personnel. SWIT bring advantages such as providing
purer and better quality water than traditional systems; for offshore fields, no seabed
pipelines or long deviated wells are required. Apart from that, it reduces environmental
impact due to less chemical usage and significantly lower power requirements. Moreover, all
the topsides components such as lift pumps, filtration systems, chemical injection skids, deaeration towers, booster pumps, injection pumps are not required, but only requires electrical
interface topsides. SWIT wells can be drilled directly above the area where the water is to be
injected. Therefore, injection wells are required on the platform thus freeing up slots for
production wells

Material
The following key factors apply to materials selection:
1. Primary consideration shall be given to materials with good market availability and
documented fabrication and service performance.

2. The number of different material types shall be minimized considering costs,

interchangeability and availability of relevant spare parts.
3. Design life.
4. Operating conditions.
5. Experience with materials and corrosion protection methods from conditions with similar
corrosivity.
6. System availability requirements.
7. Philosophy applied for maintenance and degree of system redundancy.
8. Weight reduction.
9. Inspection and corrosion monitoring possibilities.
10. Effect of external and internal environment, including compatibility of different materials.
11. Evaluation of failure probabilities, failure modes, criticalities and consequences. Attention
shall be paid to any adverse effects material selection may have on human health,
environment, and safety and material assets.
12. Environmental issues related to corrosion inhibition and other chemical treatments.
13. For main systems where materials/fabrication represent significant investments and/or
operational costs, an LCC analysis shall be basis for material selection
CONCLUSIONS
Corrosion is an unavoidable occurrence and can lead to devastating effect if left untreated. Its
impact to the oil and gas industry is especially high as countless type of corrosion is bound to
happen and it affect the safety of the structure and cost of maintenance. To maintain 25 years
of service for subsea pipeworks, we suggested many ways to counter each possible corrosion.
For erosion or scouring, we suggest using rock dumping method to layer the seabed as
foundation to provide scouring protection. We will install sacrificial anodes to prevent galvanic
corrosion mainly using aluminium anodes. To encourage the precipitation of Iron carbonate
and iron sulfide, we use PH stabilisation technique to allow protective film to form over steel
to reduce localised corrosion. Microbial corrosion is removed by utilising either biocides or
ultraviolet light treatment. Furthermore, the problem of hydrate formation can be overcome
with direct electrical heating system or by using inhibitors. Moreover, the nano filtration
membrane technology is utilised to remove sulfate from seawater. Last but not least, corrosion
by chlorine is reduced by sterilizing seawater by subsea water injection and treatment.

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