DSP-3 Z-Xform

3.
z-Transform
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3. z-Transform
z-Transform
Properties of the ROC for the z-transform
The inverse z-transform
z-Transform Properties
z-Transform and LTI
Unilateral z-transform
Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU
3.1 z-Transform
X ( z) =
n
[
]
x
n
z
=
n =
n jwn
n
[
]
{
[
]
}
x
n
r
e
=
DTFT
x
n
r
n =
x[n] maybe not absolutely summable, but x[n]r-n can

be made absolutely summable if r is properly chosen.
This region of proper r consists of the regions of
convergence (ROC) of X(z) such that |X(z)|<.
X(z) becomes an analytic complex function and many
complex analysis theorems can be applied.
3. z-Transform
z-Transform
The z-transform is simply an alternative representation of
a signal:
X ( z) =
n
x
[
n
]
z
n =
= + x[2]z 2 + x[1]z + x[0] + x[1]z 1 + x[2]z 2 +

The exponent of z contains the time information we need to
identify the samples of the signal.
In many cases, we can express the sum of the finite or
infinite series for the z-transform in a close-form expression.
In such case, the z-transform offers a compact alternative
representation of the signal.
3. z-Transform
z-Transform
z-transform as a generalization of DTFT: z = rej
X ( z) =
n
=
x
n
z
[
]
n =
n j n
n
=
x
n
r
e
DTFT
x
n
r
[
]
{
[
]
}
k =
ROC: Rx- < |z| < Rx+
Inverse z-transform derived by inverse DTFT:

rn
x[n] =
2
1
jw
j n
X (re )e d = 2
X (re )(re ) d =
j
j n
1
2 j
n 1
X
z
z
dz
(
)
DTFT as z-transform evaluated on unit circle:

(if the ROC of X(z) includes unit circle.)
X ( z ) | z = e j = X ( e j ) =
3. z-Transform
j n
[
]
x
n
e
= DTFT {x[n]}
n =
Comments on z-Transform
1. The complex variable z is called the complex
frequency by z = |z|ej, where |z| is the attenuation and
is the real digital frequency.
2. ROC is an open ring: Rx- < |z| < Rx+ .
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
X ( z)
x[n]z
n =
x[n]z
n =
n
+
n =0
+ x[n]z n
n =0
x[n]
x[n]
n
x
n
r
+
[
]
n
zn
n =1
n =0 r
ROC of the x[n]r n (left sided ) : 0 r = z < Rx + <

n =1
ROC of the
n =0
3. z-Transform
x[n]
(right sided ) : r = z > Rx > 0
n
r
3. If Rx+ < Rx- then the ROC is a null space and ztransform does not exits.
Unit circle
Im
z-plane
z = ej
Im
z-plane
Rx-
Re
z = rej
Re
Rx+
3. z-Transform
4. If the ROC contains unit circle, X(z) evaluated on the
unit circle is the DTFT of x[n] (the DTFT of x[n] exists.)
X ( z ) | z = e j = X ( e j ) =
j n
[
]
e
x
n
= DTFT {x[n]}
n =
Im
z-plane
Unit circle
z = rejw
w
Re
Rx-
3. z-Transform
Rx+
Laurent Series & the z-transform:

If converges, z-transform is in general a Laurent
series.
n
|
[
]
|=
x
n
r
n =
n
<
|
[
]
||
|
x
n
z
n =
Laurent series :
n =
n =1
n
=
[
]
x
n
z
3. z-Transform
x[ n]
n
+
[
]
x
n
z
n
z
n =0
ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Finite length sequence:
x1[ n] = {1,2,5,7,0,1} = 1 [ n] + 2 [ n 1] + 5 [ n 2] + 7 [ n 3] + [ n 5]
X1 ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
= x[ n] z n = 1 + 2 z 1 + 5 z 2 + 7 z 3 + z 5
n =0
ROC1 : entire z - plane except z = 0

x2 [ n] = {1,2,5,7,0,1} = 1 [ n + 2] + 2 [ n + 1] + 5 [ n] + 7 [ n 1] + [ n 3]
X 2 ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
x[n]z
= z 2 + 2 z1 + 5 + 7 z 1 + z 3
n = 2
ROC 2 : entire z - plane except z = 0 and z =

3. z-Transform

Finite length sequence:
a n ,
x[ n] =
0,
X ( z) = a z
n
n =0
zk = ae jk ( 2 / N ) , k = 1,2 ,...,N 1
0 n N 1
otherwise
N 1
N 1
= az
( )
( )
zeros:
1 n
poles :
( N 1)th order pole at origin
For N = 16
n =0
Im
1 N
1 az
=
1 az 1
z-plane
zN aN
= N 1
z
za
ROC : entire z - plane except z = 0 15th-order
pole
3. z-Transform
Re
Unit circle
10

Right-sided sequence: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = a n , n 2
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
x[n]z
Im
Unit circle |z| = 1
n = 2
= a z + a z + (az 1 ) n
2 2
n =0
1
=a z +a z+
1 az 1
if az 1 < 1 or z > a and z
2 2
3. z-Transform
z-plane
Re
Rx- = |a|
ROC: > |z| > |a|

11

Causal sequence: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = a nu[n],
X ( z) =
x[n]z
Im
z-plane
Unit circle |z| = 1
n =
= (az 1 ) n
n =0
1
z
=
=
1
1 az
za
if az 1 < 1 or z > a
3. z-Transform
Re
Rx- = |a|
ROC: |z| > |a|

12

Left-sided sequence: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = a n , n 1
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
1
z-plane
Im
= (az 1 ) n 1 az 1
Unit circle
n =
1 m
az
za
za
(
)
(
)
(
=
=
) 1
n =
1 n
1 m
m =1
m =0
1
1
z
=
1 =
=
1
1
1 za
1 az
za
if za 1 < 1 or z < a
X ( z ) = az 1 1 +
3. z-Transform
Re
Rx- = |a|
ROC: 0 < |z| < |a|
1
, if z < a and z 0
1
1 az
13

Anticausal sequence: (Power series in z)
x[n] = a nu[n 1]
X ( z) =
n =
n =
n
1 n
[
]
(
=
x
n
z
az
m =1
Unit circle
= ( za ) = 1 ( za 1 ) m
1 m
z-plane
Im
m =0
1
1
z
=
=
1 za 1 1 az 1 z a
if za 1 < 1 or z < a
Re
= 1
Rx- = |a|
ROC: |z| < |a|
X(z) + ROC uniquely determine x[n].

3. z-Transform
14

Sum of two sequences: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = (-1/3)nu[n] + (1/2)nu[n]
( 1 / 3) n u[n ] X 1 ( z ) =
(1 / 2) n u[n ] X 2 ( z ) =
X ( z) =
1
1+ z
1
3
1
1+ z
1
3
1
1 z
1
2
1
1 12 z 1
, z > 1/ 3
, z > 1/ 2
2 16 z 1
2 z ( z 121 )
=
=
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 + 3 z ) (z 12 )(z + 13 )
Therefore, ROC = {|z| > 1/3} {|z| > } = {|z| > }

3. z-Transform
15

Im
Im
z-plane
11
22
Re
Im
1
3
z-plane
1
2
Re
z-plane
1 1
2 2
Re
ROC = |z| > 1/2

3. z-Transform
16

Two-sided sequence: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = (-1/3)nu[n] (1/2)nu[-n-1]
( 1 / 3) u[n ] X 1 ( z ) =
1+ z
1
3
(1 / 2) n u[ n 1] X 2 ( z ) =
X ( z) =
1
1+ z
1
3
1
1 12 z 1
, z > 1/ 3
1
1 z
1
2
, z < 1/ 2
2(1 121 z 1 )
2 z (z 121 )
=
=
1 1
1 1
(1 + 3 z )(1 2 z ) (z + 13 )(z 12 )
Therefore, ROC = {|z| > 1/3} {|z| < } = {1/3 < |z| < }
(there maybe cases where no ROC exists, thus no z-transform)
3. z-Transform
17

Im
Im
z-plane
1
2
Re
Im
3. z-Transform
1
3
z-plane
1
2
Re
z-plane
1 1
2 2
Re
18

Two-sided sequence: (Laurent series in z)
x[n] = (1/2)nu[n] (-1/3)nu[-n-1]
( ) u[n] X 1 ( z ) =
1 n
2
1
1 z
1
2
( ) u[ n 1] X 2 ( z ) =
1 n
3
, z > 1/ 2
1
1+ z
1
3
, z < 1/ 3
ROC = {| z |> 1 / 2} {| z |< 1 / 3} =
Therefore, no z-transform exists for this signal.

3. z-Transform
19
75
3
Two-sided sequence: x[n] = b|n|, b > 0

Consider the two - sided signal : x[n ] = b , b > 0
n
x[n ] = bn u[n ] + b n u[ n 1]
1
, z > b,
1
1 bz
1
1
Z
b n u[ n 1]
<
z
,
.
1 1
b
1 b z
1
1
(b b 1 ) z 1
n
Z
b , b > 0
=
1
1 1
1 bz
1 b z
(1 bz 1 )(1 b 1 z 1 )
Z
bn u[n ]
b2 1
z
1
=
<
<
b
z
,
b ( z b)( z b 1 )
b
1
(b b 1 ) z 1
n
If 0 < b < 1 ROC = b < z < , Z {b } =
b
(1 bz 1 )(1 b 1 z 1 )
If b > 1 ROC = , Z {b } does not exist.
n
10. z-xform
20
75
4
1
If 0 < b < 1 ROC = b < z < ,
b
2 (b + b 1 ) z 1
n
Z
b
1 (b + b 1 ) z 1 + z 2
If b > 1 ROC = ,
n
Z {b } does not exist.
10. z-xform
21
75
4
10. z-xform
22
3.2 Properties of ROC

P1: The ROC of X(z) will either be 0 rR < |z|, or |z| < rL , or, in general the
annulus (a ring), i.e, 0 rR < |z| < rL .
P2: The Fourier transform of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if the ROC
of the z-transform X(z) of x[n] includes the unit circle.
P3: The ROC does not contain any poles.
P4: If x[n] is of finite length, i.e., a sequence that is zero except for - < N1
n N2 < , then the ROC is the entire z-plane except possibly z = 0
and/or z = .
3. z-Transform
23
3.2 Properties of ROC (cont.)

P5: If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, i.e., a sequence that is zero for n < N1 < ,
the ROC extends outward from the outermost (i.e., largest magnitude)
finite pole in X(z) to (and possibly including) z = .
P6: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence , i.e., a sequence that is zero for n > N2 > -,
the ROC extends inward from the innermost (i.e., smallest magnitude)
finite pole in X(z) to (and possibly including) z = 0.
P7: A two-sided sequence is an infinite-duration sequence that is neither rightsided nor left-sided. If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC will
consist of a ring in the z-plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a
pole and, consistent with property 3, not containing any poles.
P8: P12: The ROC must be a connected region.
3. z-Transform
24

P9: If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC,
then all finite values of z with |z| > r0 will also be in the ROC.
P10: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC,
then all finite values of z with 0<|z|<r0 (possibly z=0 is also included)
will also be in the ROC.
P11: If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC,
then ROC will consist of a ring that includes the circle |z| = r0.
P12: If X(z) is rational, then its ROC is bounded by poles (for left-sided) or
extends to infinity (for right-sided).
P13: If X(z) is rational, and x[n] is right-sided, then the ROC is in the region
outside the outermost pole. Furthermore, if x[n] is causal, then the ROC
also includes z = .
3. z-Transform
25

P14: If X(z) is rational, and x[n] is left-sided, then the ROC is in the region
inside the innermost pole other than z = 0. Furthermore, if x[n] is
anticausal (x[n] = 0, n > 0), then the ROC also includes z = 0.
P15: For an stable LTI system described by LCCDE,
k=0N aky[n-k] = k=0M bkx[n-k], N must be > M, all its poles are inside
unit circle.
3. z-Transform
26

For pole - 2 :
Unit circle
Im
z-plane
1
2
-2
Re
z < 2 (2) n u[n 1]
n
z
u[n]
2
(
2
)
>
For pole 1 2 :
z < 1 2 ( 1 2 ) n u[n 1]
1
1 ) n u[ n]
z
(
>
2
2
ROC1 : z < 1 2 : {( 2) n + ( 1 2 ) n }u[n 1]

anticausal , not stable
ROC2 : 1 2 < z < 2 : ( 1 2 ) n u[n] (2) n u[n 1]
noncausal , stable
1
X ( z) =
(1 12 z 1 )(1 + 2 z 1 )
3. z-Transform
ROC3 : z > 2 : {( 1 2 ) n + (2) n }u[n]

causal , not stable
27
Common z-Transform Pairs

Sequence
[n ]
u[n ]
u[ n 1]
[n m ]
3. z-Transform
z Transform
1
1
1 z 1
1
1 z 1
z
ROC
all z
z >1
z <1
all z except 0 (for m > 0)
or infinity ( m < 0)
28
Common z-transform pairs

z Transform
1
a nu[n]
1 az 1
1
n
a u[n 1]
1 az 1
1
az
na nu[n]
(1 az 1 ) 2
1
az
na nu[n 1]
(1 az 1 ) 2
1
n
(n + 1)a u[n]
(1 az 1 ) 2
1
n
(n + 1)a u[n 1]
(1 az 1 ) 2
Sequence
3. z-Transform
ROC
z >a
z<a
z >a
z<a
z >a
z<a
29
Common z-transform pairs

z Transform
1 cos 0 z 1
cos(0 n)u[n]
1 2 cos 0 z 1 + z 2
sin 0 z 1
sin(0 n)u[n]
1 2 cos 0 z 1 + z 2
1
r
z
1
cos
0
r n cos(0 n)u[n]
1 2r cos 0 z 1 + r 2 z 2
1
r
z
sin
0
r n sin(0 n)u[n]
1 2r cos 0 z 1 + r 2 z 2
Sequence
3. z-Transform
ROC
z >1
z >1
z >r
z >r
30
Example: z-transform & DTFT

z
1
=
, ROC : z > 1
1
z 1
1 z
X 1 ( z ) has a pole, p1 = 1, on the unit circle, but converges for z > 1.
x1[n] = u[n] X 1 ( z ) =
If we evaluate X 1 ( z ) on the unit circle except at z = 1, we have

j / 2
e
1
X 1 ( e j ) =
=
,
j
1 e
2 j sin( / 2)
2k , k Z
At = 2k , X 1 (e j ) contains impulses. Area of such impulse = ?
/2
/ 2 cos '+ j sin '
e j / 2
e j '
d =
d ' =
d '
/
2
/
2
j sin '
j sin '
2 j sin( / 2)
= j
/2
- / 2
cot ' d ' +
/2
- / 2
d ' = j 0 + =
such impulse = ( )
3. z-Transform
31
Example: z-transform & DTFT

Hence the presence of a pole at z = 1 creates a problem only when
we want to compute X 1 (e j ) at = 0 because X 1 (e j ) as
0. For any other value of in [ , ]

e j / 2
1
=
X 1 (e ) =
is finite (well behaved).
j
1 e
2 j sin( / 2)
j
, 0
for , X 1 (e j ) = 1 e j
( ), = 0
or simply, considering periodicity,
1
X 1 (e ) =
+ ( + 2k )
j
1 e
k =
j
3. z-Transform
32
3.3 The Inverse z-Transform

Inspection method:
Use z-transform pairs and ROC.
Partial fraction expansion
Power series expansion: long division
Theoretical from inverse Fourier transform
complex contour integration (residue theorem)
3. z-Transform
33
3.3 The Inverse z-Transform

Inspection method:
Use z-transform pairs and ROC.
X ( z) =
1
1 z
1
2
, ROC
( 12 )n u[n ],
if ROC = {z z > 12 }
x[n ] = 1 n
( 2 ) u[ n 1], if ROC = {z z < 12 }
3. z-Transform
34
Inverse z-Transform by Partial

Fraction Expansion
Partial fraction expansion: M < N & simple poles
M
H ( z) =
bk z
k =0
N
k
a
z
k
k =0
z
=
bk z
k =0
N
M k
z M ak z N k
k =0
b0 (1 ck z 1 )
k =1
N
a0 (1 d k z 1 )
k =1
Ak
1
,
if
&
(
1
) H ( z ) z =d k
N
M
A
d
z
>
=
k
k
1
k =1 1 d k z
1
N
(
1
)
A
d
z
j
k
(1 d k z 1 ) H ( z ) = Ak +
1
d
z
1
,
j
j
k
=
If rR < z < rL h[n] =

3. z-Transform
d k < rR
Ak d k u[n]
n
Ak d k u[n 1]
n
d k > rL
35
Examples of Inverse z-transform:

2nd order z-transform
X ( z) =
Unit circle
Im
1
4
z-plane
1
2
Re
1
(1 - 12 z 1 )(1 - 14 z 1 ) , z >
ROC : z >
: includes unit circle
causal , stable
A1
A2
X ( z) =
+
(1 - 12 z 1 ) (1 - 14 z 1 )
A1 = (1 - 1 2 z 1 )X ( z ) z = 12 =
A2 = (1 - 1 4 z 1 )X ( z ) z = 14
1
=2
1
1
1
1 - 4 ( 2)
1
=
= 1
1
1
1
1 - 2 ( 4)
x[n ] = 2( 1 2 ) n u[n ] ( 1 4 ) n u[n ]

3. z-Transform
36

Fraction Expansion
Partial fraction expansion: M N & simple pole
M
H ( z) =
bk z
k =0
N
k
a
z
k
k =0
M N
z
=
bk z
b0 (1 ck z 1 )
M k
k =0
N
z M ak z N k
k =0
k =1
N
a0 (1 d k z 1 )
k =1
Ak
, ROC : 0 < rR < z < rL
1
k =1 1 d k z
Br z r +
r =0
where Ak = (1 d k z 1 ) H ( z ) z = d k
h[n] =
M N
Br [n r ] +
r =0
3. z-Transform
d k < rR
Ak d k u[n]
n
Ak d k u[n 1]
n
d k > rL
37

(
1 + 2 z 1 + z 2
1 + z 1 )
=
X ( z) =
, z >1
1
1
3 1
1 2
1
(1 - 2 z )(1 - z )
1 2 z + 2 z
2
Unit circle
ROC : z > 1 : excludes unit circle
Im
z-plane
1
2
Re
causal , not stable

1 + 5 z 1
X ( z) = 2 +
(1 - 12 z 1 )(1 - z 1 )
A1
A2
= B0 +
+
(1 - 12 z 1 ) (1 - z 1 )
(1 + ( ) ) = 9
=
(1 - ( ) )
(1 + (1) ) = 8
=
(1 - (1) )
A1 = (1 - 1 2 z 1 )X ( z ) z = 12
A2 = (1 - z 1 )X ( z ) z =1
1 2
1 2
x[n ] = 2 [n ] 9( 1 2 ) n u[n ] + 8u[n ]

3. z-Transform
38

Fraction Expansion
Partial fraction expansion: M N & di multiplicity s
M
H ( z) =
bk z
ak z
k =0
N
z
=
bk z
k =0
N
b0 (1 ck z 1 )
M k
ak z
=
N k
k =0
k =0
M N
N s
a0
k =1
1
1 s
(
1
)(
1
)
d
z
d
z
k
i
k =1, k i
N s
s
Ak
Cm
= Br z +
+
1
1
r =0
k =1, k i 1 d k z
m =1 1 d i z
r
where Ak = (1 d k z 1 ) H ( z ) z = d k
1
Cm =
( s m)!(d i ) s m
3. z-Transform
d s m
1
s
s m (1 d i w) H ( w ) w= d i 1
dw
39

z3
1
X ( z) =
, z>
=
2
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
(z - 2 )(z + 3 ) (1 - 2 z )(1 + 3 z )
ROC : z >
Im
Unit circle
: includes unit circle
causal , stable
z-plane
A1
C1
C2
+
+
1 - 12 z 1 1 + 13 z 1 (1 + 13 z 1 ) 2
1
A1 = (1 - 1 2 z 1 )X ( z ) z = 12 =
= 9 / 25 = 0.36
1 2
1
1
(1 + 3 ( 2 ) )
1
C2 = (1 + 1 3 z 1 ) 2 X ( z ) z = 13 =
= 2 / 5 = 0. 4
1 - 12 ( 13 ) 1
X ( z) =
1
3
1
2
Re
C1 =
1
2
d
(1 + 1 3 w) 2 X ( w 1 ) w=d 1 = 3 = 3 = 0.24
1! ( ( 13 )) dw
25
i
x[n ] = 0.36( 12 ) n u[n ] + 0.24( 13 ) n u[n ] + 0.4( n + 1)( 13 ) n u[n ]

n
1
1
n
n
a
u
n
,
(
1
)
[
]
a u[n ]
1
1 2
az
az
1
(
1
)
3. z-Transform
40
Inverse z-Transform by Power Series

Expansion
Power series expansion: long division to get the ztransform series:
X ( z) =
n
x
n
z
[
]
n =
= + x[2]z 2 + x[1]z + x[0] + x[1]z 1 + x[2]z 2 +

Example :
)(
)(
X ( z ) = z 2 1 12 z 1 1 + z 1 1 z 1
= z 2 12 z 1 + 12 z 1
x[n] = [n + 2] 12 [n + 1] [n] + 12 [n 1]
3. z-Transform
41

Expansion
X ( z) =
x[n]z
= + x[1]z + x[0] + x[1]z 1 + x[2]z 2 +
n =
Example :
X ( z ) = log(1 + az 1 )
z>a
(1) n +1 a n z n
=
n
n =1
n +1 a
x[n] = (1) n
3. z-Transform
(1) n +1 x n
log(1 + x) =
, x <1
n
n =1
n 1
n0
42

Expansion
1
X ( z) =
, z>a
1
1 az
1 + az 1 + a 2 z 2 +
1 az 1 1
1 az 1
az 1
az 1 a 2 z 2
a 2 z 2
x[n ] = a n u[n ]
3. z-Transform
43

Expansion
1 + 2 z 1
1 + 2 z 1
X ( z) =
=
1
2
1 + 0.4 z 0.12 z
(1 0.2 z -1 )(1 + 0.6 z -1 )
z > 0.6
1 + 1.6 z 1 0.52 z 2 +
1 + 0.4 z 1 0.12 z 2 1 + 2 z 1
1 + 0.4 z 1 0.12 z 2
1.6 z 1 + 0.12 z 2
1.6 z 1 + 0.64 z 2 0.192 z 3
- 0.52 z 2 + 0.192 z 3
3. z-Transform
- 0.52 z 2 0.208 z 3 + 0.0624 z 3
44
Inverse z-Transform by Power

Series Expansion
1 + 2 z 1
1 + 2 z 1
X ( z) =
=
1
2
1 + 0.4 z 0.12 z
(1 0.2 z -1 )(1 + 0.6 z -1 )
z < 0.2
50/3z 23 / 0.36 z 2 + 20 / 0.27 z 3 +

0.12 z 2 + 0.4 z 1 + 1 2 z 1 + 1
2 z 1 20 / 3 50 / 3 z
23 / 3 + 50 / 3 z
23 / 3 + 23 / 0.9 z 23 / 0.36 z 2
8/0.9 z 23 / 0.36 z 2
3. z-Transform
45
Inverse z-Transform by Complex

Contour Integration
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
x[n]r n
1
=
2
rn
x[n] =
2
n
jwn
(
[
]
)
x
n
r
e
n =
jw
jwn
X
(
re
)
e
dw
1
jw
jwn
X (re )e dw = 2
jw
jw n
(
)
(
) dw
X
re
re
1
=
2
1
dz
n 1
(
)
(
)
X
z
z
X
z
z
dz
=
jz 2j
n 1
n 1
[residues
of
(
(
)
)
at
]
(
)(
(
)
) z = zi
X
z
z
z
z
z
z
X
z
z
=
=
i
i
all poles { zi } in C
3. z-Transform
46
Example of Inverse z-Transform by

Complex Contour Integration
1
z >a
1
1 az
1
1
1
1
f ( z)
zn
z n 1
n 1
(
)
=
=
=
dz
dz
dz
z
z
dz
X
x[n] =
1
C
C
C
C
2j z a
2j z a
2j 1 az
2j
X ( z) =
1. n 0, f ( z ) = z n has only zeros and no poles inside C. The only pole

inside C is z0 = a. Hence x[n] = f ( z0 ) = a n
n 0.
2. n < 0, f ( z ) = z n has an nth order pole at z = 0 also inside C. Thus there

are contributions from both poles z0 = a and z = 0. For n = -1, we have
x[1] =
1
1
1
1
=0
=
+
dz
C
( z a ) z =0 z z = a
2j z ( z a )
For n = -2, we have

1
1
1
1
d
+ 2
x[2] =
dz =
2
C
2j z ( z a )
dz ( z a ) z =0 z
3. z-Transform
= 0 and so on for n < 0

z =a
47
75
8
Example 1
Consider
3 56 z 1
1
2
,
X ( z) =
=
+
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
(1 4 z )(1 3 z ) 1 4 z
1 3 z
poles : 13 ,
1
4
z > 13 .
, zeros : 0, 185
ROC : z > 13
Z
x1[n] = ( 14 ) n u[n]
1
1 14 z
Z
x2 [n] = 2( 13 ) n u[n]
,
1
2
1 13 z
1
z > ,
4
,
1
1
z > .
3
x[n] = x1[n] + x2 [n] = ( 14 ) n + 2( 13 ) n u[n]
10. z-xform
48
75
8
Example 1 (cont.)
Consider
3 56 z 1
1
2
X ( z) =
=
+
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
(1 4 z )(1 3 z ) 1 4 z
1 3 z
poles : 13 ,
If ROC = z <
1
4
, zeros : 0, 185
1
4
x1[n] = ( ) u[n 1]
1 n
4
1 z
x2 [n] = 2( ) u[n 1]
1
4
1 n
3
1 z
1
3
1
z< ,
4
1
z< .
3
x[n] = x1[n] + x2 [n] = ( 14 ) n + 2( 13 ) n u[n 1]

10. z-xform
49
Example 1 (cont.)
75
8
Consider
3 56 z 1
1
2
X ( z) =
=
+
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
(1 4 z )(1 3 z ) 1 4 z
1 3 z
poles : 13 ,
If ROC = z <
1
4
, zeros : 0, 185
1
4
x[n] = ( 14 ) n u[n 1] 2( 13 ) n u[n 1]

If ROC = 14 < z < 13
x[n] = ( 14 ) n u[n] 2( 13 ) n u[n 1]
10. z-xform
50
Example 2
75
8
Consider
4z3 + 2z + 3
X ( z ) = 4 z + 2 + 3z =
, 0< z <
z
poles : 0,
From power series definition of z - transform
2
4,
2,
x[n] =
3,
0,
10. z-xform
n = 2
n=0
n =1
otherwise
= 4 [n + 2] + 2 [n] + 3 [n 1]
51
3.4 z-Transform Properties

Linearity:
ax1[n] + bx2[n] aX1(z) + bX2(z),
ROC = Rx1 Rx2
Time-shifting:
x[n-n0] z-n X(z),
ROC = Rx except for z = 0 if n0 > 0 and z = if n0 < 0
0
x[n n0 ]
x[n n0 ]z
n =
( m + n0 )
x
[
m
]
z
m =
n0
m n0
x
[
m
]
z
z
=
z
X ( z)
m =
3. z-Transform
52
Linearity
e j 0 n + e j 0 n
x[n] = cos 0 nu[n] =
u[n]
2
1
1
1
j 0
j 0
1
,
X ( z) =
+
=
>
=
=
>
=1
ROC
z
e
ROC
z
e
1
2
2 1 e j0 z 1 1 e j0 z 1
1 (cos 0 ) z 1
1 2 (e j0 + e j0 ) z 1
=
=
j 0
j 0
1
2
2 1 (e + e ) z + z
1 2(cos 0 ) z 1 + z 2
e j 0 n e j 0 n
x[n] = sin 0 nu[n] =
u[n]
2j
X ( z) =
1
1
1
ROC1 = z > e j0 = 1, ROC2 = z > e j0 = 1
j0 1
j0 1
2 j 1 e z
1 e z
(sin 0 ) z 1
1
(e j0 e j0 ) z 1
=
=
j 0
j 0
1
2
2 j 1 (e + e ) z + z
1 2(cos 0 ) z 1 + z 2
3. z-Transform
53
Finite Duration Sequence

a n , 0 n N 1
N 1 n
1 ( az 1 ) N
n
x[n] =
X ( z ) = n =0 a z =
1 az 1
otherwise
0,
ROC = entire z - plane except z = 0 since x[n] has finite duration.
Note that : x[n] = a n (u[n ] u[n N ]) = a n u[n ] a n u[n N ] = x1[n ] + x2 [n ]
x1[n ] = a n u[n ] X 1 ( z ) =
1
, ROC1 = z > a
1 az 1
a N z N
, ROC2 = z > a
x2 [n ] = a u[n N ] = a a u[n N ] X 2 ( z ) =
1 az 1
1
, ROC = ROC1 ROC2 = z > a
X ( z ) = X 1 ( z ) X 2 ( z ) = (1 ( az 1 ) N )
1
1 az
However , the ROC is entire z - plane except z = 0. That' s because the pole a is
cancelled by a zero.
If the linear combination of several signals has finite duration, the
n
nN
ROC of its z - transform is exclusively dictated by the finite duration

nature of this signal, not by the ROC of the individual transforms.
3. z-Transform
54
Shifted Exponential Sequence

Consider the z - transform
1
X ( z) =
,
1
z4
z >
1
4
z 1
X ( z) =
,
1 1
1 4 z
X ( z ) = 4 +
z >
4
1 14 z
1
4
1 n
x
n
n
+
,
[
]
4
[
]
4
(
4 ) u[ n]
1
or X ( z ) = z 1 1 , x[n] = ( 14 ) n 1 u[n 1]
1 4 z
1
3. z-Transform
55
Finite Duration Sequence

z =1
N,
1, 0 n N 1
N 1
x[n] =
X ( z ) = n =0 1 z n = 1 z N
0, otherwise
1 z 1 z 1
ROC = entire z - plane except z = 0 since x[n] has finite duration.
Note that : x[n] = u[n] u[n N ]
X ( z ) = U ( z ) z NU ( z )
1
= (1 z )
,
1
1 z
ROC = z > 1 (ROC of U ( z )) z 0 = z > 1
N
If the linear combination of several signals has finite duration, the

ROC of its z - transform is exclusively dictated by the finite duration
nature of this signal, not by the ROC of the individual transforms.
3. z-Transform
56
Scaling in the z-domain (multiplication by an
exponential sequence):
z0nx[n] X(z/z0), ROC = |z0|Rx
z0 x[n]
n =
n
0
x[n]z
x[n](zz )
n =
1 n
x
m
[
]
z
m =
0
= X(
z
)
z0
X ( z ) Rx : rR < z < rL
X(
3. z-Transform
z
z
) ROC : rR <
< rL or z0 rR < z < z0 rL
z0
z0
57
Exponential Multiplication
Z
DTFT
X (e j ( w w0 ) )
Note : z0n x[n]
X ( z / z0 ) e jw0 n x[n]
Z
From u[n]
1
,
1
1 z
Z
z > 1 z0nu[n]
1
1
=
1 ( z / z0 ) 1 1 z0 z 1
1 cos 0 (r 1 z ) 1
,
For x[n] = r cos(0 n)u[n] X ( z ) =
1 1
1 2
1 2 cos 0 (r z ) + (r z )
n
r 1 z > 1
r n e j 0 n + r n e j 0 n
Also x[n] =
u[n] = 12 (re j0 ) n u[n] + 12 (re j0 ) n u[n]
2
X ( z) =
1
2
j 0
1
2
j 0
,
1
z > re j0 = r , z > re j0 = r
1 re z 1 1 re z
j0 1
j0 1
1
re
z
re
z )
(
2
= 2
,
j 0
j 0
2 2
1
1 (re + re ) z + r z
1 r cos 0 z 1
=
,
1
2 2
1 2r cos 0 z + r z
3. z-Transform
z >r
z >r
58
Differentiation of X(z):
If x[n] X(z), ROC: Rx
then nx[n] -zdX(z) /dz, ROC = Rx
X ( z) =
n
[
]
, analytic with Rx
x
n
z
n =
1
dX ( z )
n 1
= x[n](n)(z )
= nx[n]z n
dz
z n =
n =
dX ( z )
nx[n]
-z
dz
3. z-Transform
59
Second-Order Pole
x[n] = na nu[n] = n(a nu[n])
1
, z >a
1
1 az
d 1
Z
n
na u[n] -z
, z >a
1
dz 1 az
Z
a nu[n]
d 1 ( z )(0 (az 2 ))
az 1
=
=
X ( z ) = -z
, z >a
1 2
1
1 2
dz 1 az
(1 az )
(1 az )
az 1
1
1
a u[n] + na u[n] = (n + 1)a u[n]
+
=
, z >a
1
1 2
1 2
1 az
(1 az )
(1 az )
n
3. z-Transform
60
Third-Order Pole
x[n] = n(n + 1)a nu[n] = n((n + 1)a nu[n])
1
Z
(n + 1)a nu[n]
, z >a
1 2
(1 az )
1
d
, z > a
n(n + 1)a u[n] -z
1 2
dz (1 az )
n
( z )(2)(az 2 ))
2az 1
, z >a
=
=
1 3
1 3
(1 az )
(1 az )
n(n + 1) n
az 1
Z
, z >a
a u[n]
1 3
2
(1 az )
(n + 1)(n + 2) n
n(n + 1) n
(n + 1)a nu[n] +
a u[n] =
a u[n]
2
2
1
1
az 1
Z
, z >a
+
=
1 2
1 3
1 3
(1 az ) (1 az )
(1 az )
3. z-Transform
61
Inverse of Non-Rational z-Transform

X ( z ) = log(1 + az 1 ),
z > a , find x[ n] = Z 1{ X ( z )}.
d
1
2
X ( z) =
az
(
).
1
dz
1 + az
Form the differentiation property,
d
az 1
( z )(az 2 )
=
nx[ n] z X ( z ) =
, z >a
1
1
dz
1 + az
1 + az
az 1
Z
n 1
z
a
a
a
u[ n 1]
>
,
(
)
1
1 + az
nx[ n] = a( a) n 1 u[ n 1]
Z
n
a
Z
x[ n] = (1) n +1 u[ n 1]
log(1 + az 1 )
n
3. z-Transform
62
Conjugation of a complex sequence:
then x*[n] X*(z*), ROC = Rx
if x[n] real, X(z) = X*(z*) or X(z*) = X*(z)
X ( z) =
n
[
]
, analytic with Rx
x
n
z
n =

n
n
n
=
=
*
[
]
[
](
)
*
[
](
*)
x
n
z
x
n
z
x
n
z
= X * ( z*)
n =
n =
n =
x[n] + x * [n]
X ( z ) + X * ( z*)
Re{x[n]} =
2
2
x[n] x * [n]
X ( z ) X * ( z*)
Im{x[n]} =
2j
2j
x * [ n]
3. z-Transform
63
Time-reversal:
then x[-n] X(1/z), ROC = 1/Rx
x*[-n] X*(1/z*), ROC = 1/Rx
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
x[n]
Z
, analytic with Rx : rR < z < rL
x[n]z
n =
1
1 m
1
=
=
x
m
z
X
z
X
[
](
)
(
)
(
)
z
m =
1
1
1
1
ROC : rR < < rL or
< z<
or ROC =
z
rL
rR
Rx
Z
x * [n]
3. z-Transform
1 m
1
n
1
=
=
=
x
n
z
x
m
X
z
X
*
[
]
[
](
)
*
(
*
)
*
(
)
z*
z*
n =
m =
64
76
9
Time-expansion:
x[n / k ], if n is a multiple of k
x( k ) [n ] =
if n is not a multiple of k
0,
Z
x[n ]
X ( z ),
If
then
with ROC = R,
with ROC = R1 / k .
Z
x( k ) [n ]
X ( z k ),
Z
x[n ]
X ( z ), Rx : rR < z < rL
x( k ) [n ]
Z
x( k ) [n]z
n =
x[n / k ]z
n =
n = km
km
k
=
[
]
(
)
x
m
z
X
z
m =
X ( z ) Rx : rR < z < rL
X ( z k ) ROC : rR < z k < rL or rR
10. z-xform
1/ k
< z < rL
1/ k
65
Time-Reversed Exponential Sequence

x[n ] = a n u[ n ] = time - reversal of a n u[n ] = g[n ]
1
Z
, z>a
G( z) =
g[n ] = a n u[n ]
1
1 az
1
1
,
z
a
X ( z ) = G (1 / z ) =
<
1 a (1 / z ) 1
1
, z < a 1
=
1 az
1
a 1 z 1
1
1
1
(
)
,
z
z
a
a
=
=
<
1 a 1 z 1
1 a 1 z 1
x[n ] = a 1 ( ( a 1 ) n 1 u[ ( n 1) 1]) = a n u[ n ]
3. z-Transform
66
Convolution of sequences:
x1[n]*x2[n] X1(z) X2(z),
ROC = Rx1 Rx2
X1 ( z) =
X 2 ( z) =
n
]
, analytic with Rx1 ,
[
n
z
x
1
n =
n
]
, analytic with Rx2 .
[
n
z
x
2
n =
x1[n] * x2 [n]
x1[k ]x2 [n k ] z n
n = k =

( n k ) k
= x1[k ] x2 [n k ]z
z = X1 ( z) X 2 ( z)
k =
n =
ROC = Rx1 Rx2
3. z-Transform
67
Convolution Example
1 0 n 5
x1[n ] = {1,2,1} = [n ] 2 [n 1] + [n 2], x2 [n ] =
0 otherwise
x[n ] = x1[n ] * x2 [n ] =
1 1 1 1 1 1
-2-2-2-2-2-2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 -1 0 0 0 0 -1 1
X ( z ) = X 1 ( z ) X 2 ( z ) = 1 z 1 z 6 + z 7
Note X 1 ( z ) = 1 2 z 1 + z 2 = (1 z 1 ) 2
1 z 6
X 2 ( z) = 1 + z + z + z + z + z =
1 z 1
X 1 ( z ) X 2 ( z ) = (1 z 1 )(1 z 6 ) = 1 z 1 z 6 + z 7
1
3. z-Transform
68
Convolution Example
x1[n ] = a n u[n ], x2 [n ] = u[n ], y[n ] = x1[n ] * x2 [n ]
X1( z) = a z
n n
n =0
X 2 ( z ) = z n =
n =0
1
=
, z > a,
1
1 az
Unit circle
1
, z > 1.
1
1 z
For a < 1,
Im
z-plane
Re
z2
1
=
Y ( z) =
, z > 1.
1
1
(1 az )(1 z ) ( z a )( z 1)
a
1 1
=
, z >1
1
1
1 a 1 z
1 az
1
y[ n ] =
(u[n ] a n +1u[n ])
1 a
3. z-Transform
69
Cross-correlation of sequences:
rgh[k] = g[k]*h[-k] G(z) H(z-1),
ROC = Rg 1/Rh
g[n ]z
g[n ] G ( z ) =
Z
n =
h[n]z
h[n ] H ( z ) =
Z
n =
h[ n ]
Z
, analytic with Rg ,
, analytic with Rh .
n
1
h
n
z
=
H
z
[
]
(
), analytic with 1/Rh
n =
g[l ] * h[ l ] g[k ]h[ (l k )] z = g[k ] h[ (l k )]z ( l k ) z k

l = k =
k =
l =
= G ( z ) h[m ]z m = G ( z ) H ( z 1 ), ROC = Rg (1 / Rh )
m =
3. z-Transform
70
Convolution/Correlation Example
x[n ] = a n u[n ], 1 < a < 1
1
X ( z) =
, ROC : z > a
1
1 az
1
1
1
1
, ROC : z > a or z <
X (z ) =
1 az
a
rxx [k ] =
Unit circle
x[n]x[n k ] = x[k ] * x[k ]
Im
z-plane
1
a
Re
n =
1
1
1
=
,
1
1
2
1 az 1 az 1 a ( z + z ) + a
1
1
ROC : z > a z < = a < z <
a
a
R( z ) = X ( z ) X ( z 1 ) =
3. z-Transform
71
First difference:
x[n] x[n-1] (1-z-1)X(z),
ROC = at least Rx |z| > 0 or Rx |z| <
X ( z ) =
x[n]
n
x
n
z
[
]
, analytic with Rx,
n =
z 1 X ( z ), analytic with Rx except

x[n 1]
for possible add / delete z = 0 or .
X ( z ) z 1 X ( z ) = 1 z 1 X ( z )
x[n] x[n 1]
3. z-Transform
72
Accumulation:
y[n] = k=-n x[k] X(z)/ (1-z-1),
ROC = at least Rx |z| > 1
Y ( z)
y[n] =
x[k ]
k =
z 1Y ( z )
y[n 1] =
n 1
x[k ]
k =
(1 z )Y ( z ) y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] X ( z )

1
X ( z)
Y ( z ) =
1 z 1
3. z-Transform
73
Initial-value theorem:
if x[n] = 0 for n < 0, then x[0] = limz X(z)
x[n] = 0, for n < 0
X ( z) =
x[n]z
n =
= x[n]z
n =0
= x[0] + x[n]z n
n =1
lim X ( z ) = lim x[n]z n = x[0]

z
3. z-Transform
n =0
74
Multiplication or Modulation Theorem:
Z
x[n] y[n]
1
x[n] =
2j
1
2j
X (v)Y ( z / v)v 1dv
n 1
1
dz =
2j
X ( z )z
k n 1
x
k
z
z dz
[
]
k =
1
1
n k 1
z
dz
x
k
[
2j [n k ] = x[n]
]
=
= x[k ]
C
2j
2j
k =0
k =0
x[n]y[n]z
n =
3. z-Transform
1
= (
n = 2j
X (v)v n 1dv) y[n]z n
1
=
2j
1
=
2j
1
y[n]( z / v) dv =
C X (v)v n
2j
=
X (v) y[n]v n 1 z n dv
n =
1
X (v)v 1Y ( z / v)dv
75
Parsevals Relation:
x[n]y *[n]z
n =
n =
1
2j
X (v )v n 1dv ) y * [n]z n
1
=
2j
1
=
2j
n
y[n]( z * / v*) dv
C X (v)v n
=
1
=
2j
X (v ) y * [n]v
n =
1
n 1
1
z dv =
2j
X ( v )v
n
y
n
z
v
dv
*
[
]
(
/
)
n =
X (v )v 1Y *( z * / v*)dv
1
z = 1 x[n]y * [n] =
2j
n =
3. z-Transform
X (v)Y * (1 / v*)v 1dv
76
Parsevals Relation
n
=
x
n
y
n
z
[
]
*
[
]
n =
z =1
1
2j
x[n]y *[n] =
n =
X (v )v 1Y *( z * / v*)dv
1
2j
X (v)Y * (1 / v*)v 1dv
If the ROCs of X ( z ) and Y ( z ) include the unit circle, we can let v = e jw
1
1
x[n]y * [n] =
X
v
Y
v
v
dv
(
)
*
(
1
/
*)
C
2j
n =
1
jw
jw
jw
jw
=
X
e
Y
e
e
de
(
)
*
(
)
2j C
1
jw
jw
jw
=
X
e
Y
e
e
dw
(
)
*
(
)
1
1
2
1
E x = x[n] =
=
X
v
X
v
v
dv
(
)
*
(
1
/
*)
2j C
2
n =
3. z-Transform
jw
X (e ) dw
77
3.5 z-Transform and LTI Systems

1. Pole - zero system represente d by LCCDE :
N
a
k =0
y[n k ] = bk x[ n k ], subject to y[ 1],, y[ N ] & x[ 1],, x[ M ]

k =0
2. For an LTI system Initial rest : y[ 1] = = y[ N ] = x[ 1] = = x[ M ] = 0

3. Take Z {} of both sides :
N
M
k
ak (z Y ( z ) ) = bk (z X ( z ) ) ak z Y ( z ) = bk z k X ( z )
k =0
k =0
k =0
k =0
B( z )
A( z )Y ( z ) = B( z ) X ( z ) Y ( z ) =
X ( z) = H ( z) X ( z)
A( z )
B( z )
N ( z)
H ( z) =
: rational system. Furthermore, assume X ( z ) =
also rational
A( z )
Q( z)
B( z ) N ( z )
Y ( z) =
A( z )Q ( z )
N
3. z-Transform
78
Response of Rational LTI Systems

Suppose the system H ( z ) contains simple poles p1, p2 ,, pN and the
input X ( z ) contains simple poles q1, q2 ,, qL where pk qmk & m.
In addition, assume that the zeros of B( z ) & N ( z ) do not coincide with
the poles { pk } and {qm }, so that there is no pole - zero cancellation.
B( z ) N ( z )
Y ( z ) = H ( z ) X ( z ) =
=
A( z )Q ( z )
= k =1
N
B( z ) N ( z )
1
p
z
q
z
(
1
)
(
1
k =1
m=1 m )
k
N
L
Ak
Qm
+
m=1 1 q z 1
1 pk z 1
m
y[n ] = k =1 Ak ( pk ) u[n ] + m =1 Qm ( qm ) n u[n ] = ynr [n ] + y fr [n ]

N
Natural response : ynr [n ] = k =1 Ak ( pk ) n u[n ]

N
Forced response : y fr [n ] = m =1 Qm ( qm ) n u[n ]

L
3. z-Transform
79
Response of Rational LTI Systems

y[ n] = k =1 Ak ( pk ) n u[ n] + m =1 Qm ( qm ) n u[ n] = ynr [ n] + y fr [ n]
N
Natural response : ynr [ n] = k =1 Ak ( pk ) n u[ n]

N
Forced response : y fr [ n] = m =1 Qm ( qm ) n u[ n]
L
1. The causal LTI system is BIBO stable iff all its poles lie inside the
unit circle, i.e., pk < 1 k = 1,.., , N .
2. The input x[ n] is bounded if its poles satisfies qm 1 m = 1,.., , L.
3. The forced response y fr [ n] is bounded even when the input signal contains
one or more distinct poles on the unit circle.
4. However, if the system has poles on the unit circle and excited by
an input signal that also has a pole at the same location on the unit
circle ( becomes second or higher order pole ), the system will produce
an unbounded response (e.g., ( n + 1) qmn u[n ]).
3. z-Transform
80
77
9
Example 3
1
1
y[n 1] = x[n ] + x[n 1].
3
2
Take Z {} Y ( z ) 12 z 1Y ( z ) = X ( z ) + 13 z 1 X ( z )
Consider an LTI system : y[n ]
1 + 13 z 1
1 + 13 z 1
1
1
,
(
)
(
)
=
=
=
Y ( z) =
pole
zero
X
z
H
z
3
2
1
1
1 12 z
1 12 z
This provides the algebraic expression for H ( z ) but not the ROC.
There are two distinct impulse responses that are consistent with the difference
equation, one right - sided and the other left - sided. Two ROCs : z > 12 , z <
right - sided ROC = z >
1
2
1
2
causal, stable (ROC includes unit circle)

h[n ] = ( 12 ) n u[n ] + 13 ( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1],
left - sided ROC = z <
1
2
anticausal, unstable (ROC does not include unit circle)

h[n ] = ( 12 ) n u[ n 1] + 13 ( 12 ) n 1 u[ ( n 1) 1]
10. z-xform
81
Example 4
78
1
Suppose we are given the following information about an LTI system :

1. If the input is x1[n] = (1 / 6) n u[n ], then the output is
n
1 n
1

y1[n ] = a + 10 u[n ], where a is a real number.
3
2
7
2. If the input is x2 [n ] = ( 1) n , then the output is y2 [n ] = ( 1) n .
4
10. z-xform
82
78
1
Example 4 (cont.)
From 1. x1[n ] = (1 / 6) n u[n ] X 1 ( z ) =
1
1 16 z
, RX 1 = z >
1
1
6
n
1 n
1
1
1

y1[n ] = a + 10 u[n ] Y1 ( z ) = a
+ 10
1 1
1 1
2
3
1
1
z
2
3 z
10 + a ( a3 + 5) z 1
, RY1 = z >
=
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 3 z )
a
H ( z) =
1
1 12 z 1
+ 10
1
1 13 z 1
1
1 16 z 1
poles = 12 ,
1
2
(10 + a ( a3 + 5) z 1 )(1 16 z 1 )
=
(1 12 z 1 )(1 13 z 1 )
1
3
Since Y ( z ) = H ( z ) X ( z ), RY1 = RX 1 RH RH = z > 12 causal , stable, H ( e j )

10. z-xform
83
78
1
Example 4 (cont.)
From 2.
x2 [n ] = ( 1) n = z n
z = 1
y2 [n ] =
7
,
( 1) n = H ( z ) z n
1
=
z
4
the eiganvalue of the LTI is

(10 + a ( a3 + 5)( 1))(1 16 ( 1)) (15 + 43a ))( 76 )
=
=
H ( 1) =
3
4
1
1
( 2 )( 3 )
(1 2 ( 1))(1 3 ( 1))
7
4
a = 9
1
13
1 1
z ) 1 z 1 + z 2
3
6
6
H ( z) =
=
5
1
1
1
(1 z 1 )(1 z 1 ) 1 z 1 + z 2
6
6
2
3
1
5
1
13
y[n ] y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n ] x[n 1] + x[n 2]
6
3
6
6
(1 2 z 1 )(1
10. z-xform
84
Example 5
78
1
Consider a stable and causal system with impulse response h[n ] and rational
system function H ( z ). Suppose it is known that h[n ] contains a pole at z = 1 / 2 and
a zero somewhere on the unit circle. The precise number and locations of all
other poles and zeros are unknown. For each of the following statement, let us
determine whether we can definitely say that it is true, false, or whether
there is insufficient information given to determine if it is true or not :
(a) F {(1 / 2) n h[n ]} converges.
(b) H (e j ) = 0 for some .
(c) h[n ] has finite duration.
(d) h[n ] is real.
(e) g [n ] = n[h[n ] * h[n ]] is the impulse response of a stable system.
10. z-xform
85
Example 5 (cont.)
78
1
H ( z ) stable and causal and rational, and contains a pole at z = 1 / 2 and

a zero somewhere on the unit circle.
(1 e j0 z 1 ) p( z )
H ( z) =
, and deg( p( z )) deg( q( z )), and ROC = z > r < 1
1 1
(1 2 z ) q( z )
(a) F {(1 / 2) h[n ]} =
n
(1 / 2) h[n]e
n
jwn
n =
h[n](2e
n =
jw n
= Z {h[n ]} z =2 ,
2 is in the ROC H , so converges.

(b) H ( e j ) = 0 for some . Yes. since it has at least a zero on the unit circle.
(c) h[n ] has finite duration. No. since it has at least a pole at 12 .
(d) h[n ] is real. Insuffisient information to decide.
d 2
d
H ( z ) = 2 zH ( z ) H ( z )
dz
dz
the poles of G ( z ) are at the same locations as those of H ( z ), with the possible
exception of the origin. Therefore, since H ( z ) has all its poles inside unit circle,
so must G ( z ). It follows that g[n ] is the impulse response of a causal and stable system.
(e) g[n ] = n[h[n ] * h[n ]] G ( z ) = z
10. z-xform
86
Response of Pole-Zero Systems With

Nonzero Initial Conditions
Pole - zero system represente d by LCCDE with nonzero initial conditions :
N
a
k =0
y[ n k ] = bk x[ n k ],
k =0
subject to y[ 1],, y[ N ] & x[ 1],, x[ M ]

Suppose that the input x[n] is applied to the pole - zero system at n = 0.
The effects of all previous input signals to the system are reflected in the
initial conditions.
Assume we are interested in determining the output y[n ] for n 0, we can
use the one - sided or unilateral z - transform :
N
Z { ak y[n k ]} = Z { bk x[n k ]}
+
k =0
3. z-Transform
k =0
87
3.6 Unilateral z-transform

Can be thought of as z-transform of x[n]u[n] (rightsided), therefore ROC is always the exterior of a
circle, i.e., |z|>|a|. Hence no vagueness in finding the
inverse.
Is particularly useful in solving LCCDE with nonzero
initial conditions. (like unilateral Laplace Transform)
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
x[n 1] x[n 1]z

Z+
n =0
= x[1] + x[n 1]z ( n 1) 1

n =1
= x[1] + z
x[m]z
m =0
= x[1] + z 1 X + ( z )
3. z-Transform
88
3.6 Unilateral z-transform

For a rational function to have unilateral z-transform,
the degree of the numerator must be no bigger than
the degree of the denominator.
The properties of the unilateral z-transform: some are
the same with bilateral, some are different.
3. z-Transform
89
Different Transform Properties:
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
1. Time delay :
Z+
x[n 1] z 1 X + ( z ) + x[ 1]
x[n 1] x[n 1]z

Z+
n =0
= x[1] + z
= x[1] + x[n 1]z ( n 1) 1

n =1
m
1
+
=
x
m
z
z
X
[
]
( z ) + x[1]
m =0
x[n k ] x[n k ]z
Z+
n =0
= x[m]z
m =1
3. z-Transform
k 1
= x[n k ]z
( n k ) k
n =0
( k m )
+z
x[m]z
m =0
+ x[n k ]z ( n k ) k
n=k
= z X ( z ) + x[m]z ( k m )
k
m =1
90
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
2. Time advance :
Z+
x[n + 1] zx[0] + zX + ( z )
x[n + 1] x[n + 1]z

Z+
= x[n + 1]z ( n +1) +1
n =0
n =0
= zx[0] + z x[m]z m = zX + ( z ) zx[0]

m =0
x[n + k ] x[n + k ]z
Z+
n =0
= z
k 1
3. z-Transform
= x[n + k ]z ( n + k ) + k
n =0
x[m]z
m =0
+z
x[m]z
m =0
k 1
= z X ( z ) x[m]z k m
k
m =0
91
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
3. First (backword) difference :

Z+
x[n]-x[n 1] (1 z 1 ) X + ( z ) x[1]
4. Forward difference :
Z+
x[n + 1]-x[n] ( z 1) X + ( z ) zx[0]
3. z-Transform
92
Same Transform Properties:
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
1. Linearity :
Z+
ax1[n] + bx2 [n] aX 1+ ( z ) + bX 2+ ( z ), ROC = Rx1 Rx 2 .

2. Scaling in the z - domain :
n
Z+
+ z
z0 x[n] X ( ), ROC = z0 Rx
z0
z0 x[n]z n
n =0
z
= x[n]
n =0
z0
= X +(
z
),
z0
z
ROC =
> a z0 Rx
z0
3. z-Transform
93
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
3. Time expansion :
Z+
x( k ) [n] X + ( z k )
x[n / k ], if n = mk, m Z
x( k ) [n] =
otherwise
0,
x( k ) [n]z
n =0
= x[mk / k ]z
mk
m =0
= x[m]( z k ) m = X + ( z k )
m =0
4. Conjugation :
Z+
x * [n] X + * ( z*), ROC = Rx
x * [ n] z
n =0
3. z-Transform
= x[n]( z*) n * = X + * ( z*)

n =0
94
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
5. Convolution :
Z+
x[n] * h[n] X + ( z ) H + ( z ), ROC = Rx Rh
x[n] * h[n]z
n =0

mk
= x[k ]h[n k ] z
= x[k ] h[n k ]z ( n k ) k
n =0 k =0
k =0
n =0
k 1

m
= x[k ]z h[m]z h[n k ]z ( n k ) = X + ( z ) H + ( z )
k =0
n =0
m =0
6. Accumulati on :
+
X
( z)
Z
y[n] = x[k ]
Y + ( z) =
, ROC = Rx z > 1
1
1 z
k =0
y[n] y[n 1] = x[n]
n
Y + ( z ) z 1Y + ( z ) y[1] = Y + ( z ) z 1Y + ( z ) = X + ( z )
3. z-Transform
95
x[n] X ( z ) = x[n]z n
Z+
n =0
7. Differentiation in the z - domain :

d +
X ( z ), ROC = Rx
dz
d +
d

n
z X ( z ) = z x[n]z = z (n) x[n]z ( n +1)
dz
dz n =0
n =0
Z+
nx[n] z
8. Initial value theorem :

x[0] = lim X + ( z )
z
lim X ( z ) = lim x[n]z n = x[0]

+
3. z-Transform
n =0
96
Solutions of the Difference Equations

--- Unilateral z-transform
N
a
k =0
y[n k ] = bk x[n k ], subject to y[1],, y[ N ] & x[1],, x[ M ]

k =0
Take Z + {} of both sides :

k
M
k
k +
k +
( k m )
ak z Y ( z ) + y[m]z
= bk z X ( z ) + x[m]z ( k m )
k =0
m =1
m =1
k =0
N
M
k +
ak z Y ( z ) = bk z k X + ( z )
k =0
k =0
k
N
k
M
( k m )
+ bk x[m]z
ak y[m]z ( k m )
k =0 m =1
k =0 m =1
A( z )Y + ( z ) = B( z ) X + ( z ) + N 0 ( z )
N
Y + ( z) =
N ( z ) B( z ) +
B( z ) +
B( z ) N 0 ( z )
=
X ( z) + 0
X ( z) +
(
)
A( z )
A( z )
A( z )
A( z ) B( z )
= H ( z ) X + ( z ) + H ( z ) X IC ( z )
3. z-Transform
97
Zero-State & Zero-Input Responses

N
a
k =0
y[n k ] = bk x[n k ], subject to y[1],, y[ N ] & x[1],, x[ M ]

k =0
N ( z)
N ( z)
B( z ) +
X ( z) + 0
= H ( z) X + ( z) + 0
= YZS ( z ) + YZI ( z )
A( z )
A( z )
A( z )
Zero - State Response :
Y + ( z) =
YZS ( z ) = H ( z ) X + ( z ) =
B( z ) +
B( z ) N ( z )
X ( z) =
=
A( z )
A( z ) Q( z )
k
b
z
k = 0 k
M
k
a
z
k = 0 k
N
X + ( z)
Zero - Input Response :

YZI ( z ) =
3. z-Transform
N0 ( z)
=
A( z )
k =0 bk m=1 x[m]z
M
k = 0 ak z
N
( k m )
( k m )
[
]
a
y
m
z
k =0 k m=1
N
k
a
z
k = 0 k
N
98
Homogeneous & Particular Solutions

Assume simple poles of H ( z ) are { p1 , p2 , , p N }, i.e., A( pk ) = 0, and simple
poles of X + ( z ) are {q1 , q2 , , qL } & pk qm , & no pole - zero cancellation,
then from partil fraction expansion :
N
N0 ( z)
Dk
N
n
= k =1
=
YZI ( z ) =
y
n
D
p
u[n]
[
]
(
)
ZI
k
k
1
A( z )
1 pk z
k =1
YZS ( z ) =
Ck
Gk
B( z ) +
N
L
+
X ( z ) = k =1
k =1 1 q z 1
A( z )
1 pk z 1
k
yZS [n] = k =1 Ck ( pk ) n u[n] + k =1 Gk (qk ) n u[n]

N
y[n] = yZS [n] + yZI [n] = k =1 (Ck + Dk )( pk ) u[n] + k =1 Gk (qk ) n u[n]

N
= y h [ n] + y p [ n]
Homogeneous solution : yh [n] = k =1 (Ck + Dk )( pk ) n u[n],
N
Particular solution :
3. z-Transform
y p [n] = k =1 Gk (qk ) n u[n]

L
99
Steady-State & Transient Responses

y[n] = k =1 (Ck + Dk )( pk ) u[n] + k =1 Gk (qk ) n u[n]
N
{(C
pk , qk <1
pk , qk =1
{(C
pk , qk >1
y ss [n] =
ytr [n] =
3. z-Transform
Transient, decay
Steady-state, sustain
unbounded, blow up
+ Dk )( pk ) n + Gk (qk ) n u[n]
+ Dk )( pk ) n + Gk (qk ) n u[n]
{(C
pk , qk =1
{(C
pk , qk <1
+ Dk )( pk ) n + Gk (qk ) n u[n]
{(C
+ Dk )( pk ) n + Gk (qk ) n u[n]
+ Dk )( pk ) n + Gk (qk ) n u[n]
100
Example 6
79
5
Consider y[n ] ay[n 1] = x[n ], with x[n ] = 0 for n < 0 and y[ 1].
Take Z + {} Y + ( z ) a ( z 1Y + ( z ) + y[ 1]) = X + ( z )
1
1
+
X
z
(
)
( ay[ 1])
+
1 az 1
1 az 1
1
1
+
+
X
z
H
z
X
z
H
z
If y[ 1] = 0 (initial rest) then Y + ( z ) =
(
)
(
)
(
),
(
)
=
=
1 az 1
1 az 1
(zero initial condition response ZICR or zero - state response)
Y + ( z ) =
If x[n ] = 0 y[n ] = y[ 1]a n +1 , n 1. (zero input response ZIR)

A
A
ay[ 1]
+
Y
z
If x[n ] = Au[n ] X + ( z ) =
(
)
=
+
= YZS ( z ) + YZI ( z )
1 z 1
(1 az 1 )(1 z 1 ) 1 az 1
aA
A
A
1
1
n +1
+
1 a
1 a
A
(
)
YZS ( z ) =
X
z
y
n
a
u[n ]
(
)
[
]
1
=
=
+
ZS
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 az
1 az 1 z
1 az
1 z
ay[ 1]
YZI ( z ) =
y ZI [n ] = ay[ 1]a n u[n ]
1
1 z
n = 1
y[ 1],
y[n ] = y ZS [n ] + y ZI [n ] =
n +1
n +1
A
y[ 1]a + 1a (1 a ) n 0
10. z-xform
101
79
5
Example 7
Consider y[n ] + 3 y[n 1] = x[n ], with x[n ] = u[n ] and y[ 1] = .
Take Z + {} Y + ( z ) + 3( z 1Y + ( z ) + y[ 1]) = X + ( z ) =
1 z 1
1
1
+
Y ( z ) =
X ( z)
(3 y[ 1]) = YZS ( z ) + YZI ( z )
1
1
1 + 3z
1 + 3z
3
1
1
1
+
2
4
=
+
YZS ( z ) =
X ( z) =
1
1
1
1
1 + 3z
1 + 3z 1 z
1 + 3z
1 z 1
y ZS [n ] = 23 ( 3) n u[n ] + 14 u[n ]
+
3
YZI ( z ) =
1 + 3z 1
y ZI [n ] = 3 ( 3) n u[n ]
y[n ] = y ZS [n ] + y ZI [n ] = ( 23 3 )( 3) n u[n ] + 14 u[n ]
10. z-xform
102
Example 8
3
1
y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n], n 0, and x[n ] = ( 14 ) n u[n ],
2
2
subject to y[ 1] = 4, y[ 2] = 10.
Solve y[n ]
Take one - sided or unilateral z - transform :

3
1
Z + y[n ] y[n 1] + y[n 2]

2
2
= Y + ( z ) 23 (z 1Y + ( z ) + y[ 1]) + 12 (z 2Y + ( z ) + z 1 y[ 1] + y[ 2])
= (1 23 z 1 + 12 z 2 )Y + ( z ) + ( 23 y[ 1] + 12 z 1 y[ 1] + 12 y[ 2])
= (1 23 z 1 + 12 z 2 )Y + ( z ) + (2 z 1 1)
= (1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 )Y + ( z ) (1 2 z 1 )
Z + {x[n ]} = X + ( z ) =
1
1 14 z 1
1
1
1 2 z 1
Y ( z) =
+
1
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 z ) 1 4 z
(1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 )
+
10. z-xform
103
Example 8 (cont.)
1
1
1 2 z 1
Y ( z) =
+
1
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 z ) 1 4 z
(1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 )
+
System' s pole (natural frequency) : 12 and 1

Input' s pole : 14
Zero - state response : YZS ( z ) = H ( z ) X + ( z ) =
1
1
(1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 ) 1 14 z 1
8
3
B
C
2
3
=
+
+
=
+
+
1 12 z 1 1 z 1 1 14 z 1 1 12 z 1 1 z 1 1 14 z 1
Zero - input response : YZI ( z ) = H ( z ) X IC ( z ) =

=
+
3
1 12 z 1
Y ( z ) = YZS ( z ) + YZI ( z ) =
10. z-xform
1
1 z
1
2
1
1
(
1
2
)
z
1
1
1
(1 2 z )(1 z )
2
1 z 1
+
2
3
1 z
3
1 14 z 1
104
Example 8 (cont.)
Note Y+(z) can be separated into two parts:
zero-state response YZS(z) = H(z)X+(z) and
zero-input response YZI(z) = H(z)XIC(z),
XIC(z) can be thought of as an equivalent initialcondition input that generate the same output YZI(z) as
generated by the initial conditions. (In this example
xIC[n] = {1, -2})
The complete response y[n] is the sum of
zero-state response: {1/3(1/4)n -2(1/2)n + 8/3}u[n]
zero-input response: {3(1/2)n - 2}u[n]
10. z-xform
105
Example 8 (cont.)
1
1
1 2 z 1
Y ( z) =
+
1
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 z ) 1 4 z
(1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 )
+
1
1 12 z 1
2
3
1 z 1
3
1 14 z 1

Input' s pole : 14
Transient response : Ytr ( z ) =
1
1 12 z 1
Steady - state response : Yss ( z ) =
2
3
3
1 14 z 1
ytr [n ] = ( 12 ) n u[n ] + 3( 14 ) n u[n ]
yss [n ] = 23 u[n ]
1 z 1
2
1
3
+
3
Y ( z ) = Ytr ( z ) + Yss ( z ) =
+
+
1
1 12 z
1 14 z
1 z 1
10. z-xform
106
Example 8 (cont.)
1
1
1 2 z 1
Y ( z) =
+
1
1 1
1 1
(1 2 z )(1 z ) 1 4 z
(1 12 z 1 )(1 z 1 )
+
1
1 12 z 1
2
3
1 z 1
3
1 14 z 1

Input' s pole : 14
Homogeneous solution part : Yh ( z ) =
Particular solution part : Y p ( z ) =
+
Y ( z ) = Yh ( z ) + Y p ( z ) =
10. z-xform
1
1 12 z 1
1
1 12 z 1
3
1 14 z 1
2
3
1 z 1
2
3
1 z 1
yh [n ] = ( 12 ) n u[n ] + 23 u[n ]
y p [n ] = 3( 14 ) n u[n ]
+
3
1 14 z 1
107
Example 8 (cont.)
Y+(z) = 1/{1 (1/2)z-1} + (2/3)/{1z-1}
+ (1/3)/{1 (1/4)z-1}.
Thus y[n] = {(1/2)n + 2/3 + 1/3(1/4)n}u[n]
= Homogeneous part: {(1/2)n + 2/3}u[n]
+ Particular part: 1/3(1/4)nu[n]
= Transient response: {(1/2)n + 1/3(1/4)n}u[n]
+ Steady-state response: 2/3u[n]
3. z-Transform
108
Example 8 (cont.)
y[n] = {(1/2)n + 2/3 + 1/3(1/4)n}u[n]
= Transient response:
{(1/2)n + 1/3(1/4)n}u[n]
+ Steady-state response: 2/3u[n]
The transient response is due to poles inside the unit
circle, while steady-state response is due to poles on
the unit circle.
When the poles are outside the unit circle, the
response is termed unbounded response.
3. z-Transform
109
MATLAB implementation:
y = filter(b,a,x,xic),
where xic is computed analytically beforehand.
In practice, xic can be determined from initial
conditions of Y and X by MATLAB function filtic:
xic = filtic(b,a,Y,X), Y = [y[-1], y[-2], , y[-N]],
X = [x[-1], x[-2], , x[-M]] or
xic = filtic(b,a,Y) if X = 0.
3. z-Transform
110
Example 9
Consider the difference equation:
y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1].
(a) Determine the general form of the homogeneous solution to this equation.
(b) Determine the unique solution to the difference equation when x[n] =
(1/2)nu[n], subject to y[-1] = 0, y[-2] = -12.
(c) If the difference equation represents a system, determine the zero-state
response of the system to the input x[n] = e jw0nu[n]. What is the steady-state
response of the system?
(d) Both a causal and an anticausal LTI system are characterized by this
difference equation. Find the impulse responses of the two systems.
(e) Determine the stabilities of the causal LTI system and the anticausal LTI
system.
3. z-Transform
111
Example 9:
y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1]
(a) Determine the general form of the homogeneous solution to this equation.
general form of the homogeneous solution :

yh [n] yh [n 1] + 14 yh [n 2] = 0
Assume yh [n] = z n
z n z n 1 + 14 z n 2 = z n (1 z 1 + 14 z 2 ) = 0
characteristic equation : 1 z 1 + 14 z 2 = 0
(1 12 z 1 ) 2 = 0 z =
1
2
with multiplicity 2
yh [n] = A( 12 ) n + Bn( 12 ) n
3. z-Transform
112
Example 9: Consider the difference equation:

y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1].
(b) Determine the unique solution to the difference equation when x[n] =
(1/2)nu[n], subject to y[-1] = 0, y[-2] = -12.
Take one - sided z - transform :
) (
y[2])
Z + {y[n] y[n 1] + 14 y[n 2]} = Y + ( z ) z 1Y + ( z ) + y[1] + 14 z 2Y + ( z ) + z 1 y[1] + y[2]
(
= (1 z
)
)Y
= 1 z 1 + 14 z 2 Y + ( z ) + y[1] + 14 z 1 y[1] + 14
1
+ 14 z 2
( z ) + ( 3) = (1 12 z 1 ) 2 Y + ( z ) 3
1 + 2 z 1
Z {x[n] + 2 x[n 1]} = X ( z ) + 2 z X ( z ) + x[1] = (1 + 2 z ) X ( z ) =
1 12 z 1
+
5 1
1 + 2 z 1
3
4
2 z
Y ( z) =
+
=
+
(1 12 z 1 ) 3 (1 12 z 1 ) 2 (1 12 z 1 ) 2 (1 12 z 1 ) 3
+
1
1
(n + 1)(n + 2) 1 n
1 n
n
u
n
(
1
)(
)
[
],
( 2 ) u[n]
2
1 1 2
1 1 3
(1 2 z )
(1 2 z )
2
y[n] = 4(n + 1)( 12 ) n u[n] + 52
3. z-Transform
(n 1 + 1)(n 1 + 2) 1 n 1
( 2 ) u[n 1]
2
113
Example 9:
y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1].
(c) If the difference equation represents a system, determine the zero-state
response of the system to the input x[n] = e jw nu[n]. What is the steady-state
response of the system?
0
Zero - state zero inital state Take z - transform :
(1 z
+ z
1
4
1 + 2 z 1
X ( z)
Y ( z ) = (1 z ) Y ( z ) = (1 + 2 z ) X ( z ) Y ( z ) =
(1 12 z 1 ) 2
1
2
x[n] = e jw0 nu[n] X ( z ) =
1 2
1
1 e jw0 z 1
C
A
B
1 + 2 z 1
Y ( z) =
=
+
+
jw
1
1
2
1
2
1
(1 12 z ) 1 e jw0 z 1
(1 12 z ) (1 e 0 z ) 1 12 z
1 2
B = (1 z ) Y ( z ) z = 1
1
2
1 + 2 z 1
=
1 e jw0 z 1
z = 12
5
1 + 2 z 1
, C=
=
(1 12 z 1 ) 2
1 2e jw0
z = e jw0
1 + 2e jw0
=
(1 12 e jw0 ) 2
1 d 1 + 2w
2[2(1 e jw0 w) (1 + 2 w)(e jw0 )]
2(2 + e jw0 )
A= 1
=
=
( 2 ) dw 1 e jw0 w w= 2
(1 e jw0 w) 2
(1 2e jw0 ) 2
w= 2
1 + 2e jw0
5
2(2 + e jw0 ) 1 n
jw0 n
1 n
e
u[n]
( 2 ) u[n] +
(n + 1)( 2 ) u[n] +
y[n] =
jw0
jw
jw0 2
2
(1 12 e 0 )
(1 2e )
1 2e
1 + 2e jw0
jw0 n
jw0
jw0 n
y ss [n] =
e
H
e
e
(
)
=
jw
2
(1 12 e 0 )
3. z-Transform
114
Example 9:
y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1].
(d) Both a causal and an anticausal LTI system are characterized by this
difference equation. Find the impulse responses of the two systems.
Take z - transform :
5 1
1 12 z 1 + 52 z 1
1
1 + 2 z 1
1 + 2 z 1
2 z
+
=
=
=
H ( z) =
(1 12 z 1 ) 2
1 12 z 1 (1 12 z 1 ) 2
1 z 1 + 14 z 1 (1 12 z 1 ) 2
ROC : z > 12 causal & stable

h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n] + 52 (n 1 + 1)( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1]
= ( 12 ) n u[n] + 52 n( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1]
ROC : z < 12 anticausal & unstable
h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n 1] 52 (n 1 + 1)( 12 ) n 1 u[n]
= ( 12 ) n u[n 1] 52 n( 12 ) n 1 u[n]
(n + 1)( 12 ) n u[n]
1
1 n
1 1 2
+
1
)(
(
n
(1 2 z )
2 ) u[ n 1]
3. z-Transform
z > 12
z < 12
115
Example 9:
y[n] y[n-1] + (1/4)y[n-2] = x[n]+2x[n-1].
(e) Determine the stabilities of the causal LTI system and the anticausal LTI
system.
Take z - transform :
5 1
1 12 z 1 + 52 z 1
1
1 + 2 z 1
1 + 2 z 1
2 z
+
=
=
=
H ( z) =
1 12 z 1 (1 12 z 1 ) 2
(1 12 z 1 ) 2
1 z 1 + 14 z 1 (1 12 z 1 ) 2
ROC : z > 12 causal & stable

h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n] + 52 (n 1 + 1)( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1]
= ( 12 ) n u[n] + 52 n( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1]
ROC : z < 12 anticausal & unstable
h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n 1] 52 (n 1 + 1)( 12 ) n 1 u[n]
= ( 12 ) n u[n 1] 52 n( 12 ) n 1 u[n]
(n + 1)( 12 ) n u[n]
1
1 n
1 1 2
+
(
1
)(
n
(1 2 z )
2 ) u[ n 1]
3. z-Transform
z > 12
z < 12
116
Causality and Stability

Causality:
A causal LTI system is one whose unit sample response h[n]
satisfies h[n] = 0, n < 0.
Consequently, an LTI system is causal iff the ROC of the
system function is the exterior of a circle of radius r < ,
including the point z = .
BIBO stability:
h[n] is absolutely summable => DTFT exists
An LTI system is BIBO stable iff the ROC of the system
function includes the unit circle.
Causal & Stable:

An causal LTI system is BIBO stable iff all the poles of H(z)
are inside the unit circle.
3. z-Transform
117
Example 10
An LTI is characterized by the system function :
3 4 z 1
1
2
H ( z) =
=
+
1
2
1
1
1 3.5 z + 1.5 z
1 0.5 z
1 3z
System's pole (natural frequency) : 12 and 3, three possible ROCs
( a) The system is stable :
ROC contains uni circle 12 < z < 3, & h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n] 2(3) n u[n 1]
(b) The system is causal :
ROC = z > 3, & h[n] = ( 12 ) n u[n] + 2(3) n u[n]
(c) The system is anticausal :
ROC = z < 12 , & h[n] = ( 12 ) n + 2(3) n u[n 1]
3. z-Transform
118
Pole-Zero Cancellations
When a z-transform has a pole that is at the same location
as a zero, the pole is canceled by the zero, and
consequently, the term containing that pole in the inverse ztransform vanishes.
Pole-zero cancellation can occur either in the system
function H(z) itself or in the product of the system function
with the z-transform of the input signal H(z)X(z).
Input zero cancels system pole or system zero cancels input pole.
When the zero is located very near the pole but not exactly at the
same location, the term in the response has a very small amplitude.
One should not attempt to stabilize an inherently unstable system
by placing an input zero at the location of the unstable pole.
3. z-Transform
119
Example 11
Determine the impulse response of the system :
y[n] = 2.5 y[n 1] y[n 2] + x[n] 5 x[n 1] + 6 x[n 2]
A
B
1 5 z 1 + 6 z 2
H ( z) =
=
+
1
2
1
1 2. 5 z + z
1 0.5 z
1 2 z 1
1 5 z 1 + 6 z 2
1 5 z 1 + 6 z 2
A=
= 2.5, B =
1
1
z
1 2z
5
1
0
.
z = 0.5
=0
z =2
B = 0 indicates a zero at z = 2 cancels out the pole 2 reduced order system.

1 5 z 1 + 6 z 2
1 3 z 1
2.5 z 1
H ( z) =
=
= 1
1
2
1
1 2.5 z + z
1 0.5 z
1 0.5 z 1
h[n] = [n] 2.5( 12 ) n 1 u[n 1]
The reduced - order system : y[n] = 0.5 y[n 1] + x[n] 3 x[n 1]
Although the original 2nd order system is BIBO stable due to pole - zero
cancellation, in a practical implementation, we may encounter an instability
problem due to imperfect cancellation of the pole & zero.
3. z-Transform
120
Supplementary: Complex Analysis

Limit, Continuity, Analytic
Limit: A function X(z) is said to have the limit l as z
approaches a point z0 if X is defined in a neighborhood of z0
(except perhaps z0 itself) and if the values of X are close
to l for all z close to z0.
Continuous: A function X(z) is continuous at z0 if X(z0) is
defined and limzz0 X(z) = X(z0).
Analytic: continuous and differentiable
X(z) = u(x,y) + jv(x,y) is analytic in domain D if and only if
the first partial derivatives of u and v satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations every where in D:
u
v
= vy = ,
ux =
y
x
3. z-Transform
u
v
= v x =
uy =
y
x
121
Test for Convergence of Series

Divergence Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + converges, then lim zm = 0. Hence
m
if this does not hold, the series diverges.

Absolute Convergence :
A series z1 + z2 + z3 + is called absolutely convergent if
the series of the absolute values of the terms
z
m =1
= z1 + z2 + is convergent.
Cauchy' s Convergence Principle for Series :

A series z1 + z2 + z3 + is convergent iff for every given > 0
we can find an N such that
zn +1 + zn + 2 + zn + p < for every n > N & p = 1, 2,
3. z-Transform
122
Test for Convergence of Series

Comparison Test Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + is given and we can find a converging
series b1 + b2 + with nonnegative real terms such that
zn bn for n = 1, 2,
then the given series converges, even absolutely.
Geometric Series :
The geometric series
2
m
1
=
+
+
+
q
q
q
m =0
1
converges with the sum
if q < 1 and diverges if q 1.
1 q
3. z-Transform
123
Ratio Test
Ratio Test Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + with zn 0 ( n = 1, 2, ) has the
zn +1
q < 1 for n > N
property that for every n > some N ,
zn
(where q < 1 is fixed), then this series converge absolutely.
zn +1
1 for n > N , the series diverges.
If for every n > N ,
zn
3. z-Transform
124
Ratio Test
Ratio Test Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + with zn 0 ( n = 1, 2, ) is such that
zn +1
lim
= L, then
n z
n
(a) The series converges absolutely if L < 1.
(b) The series diverges if L > 1.
(c) If L = 1, the test fails; i.e., no conclusion is possible.
3. z-Transform
125
Root Test
Root Test Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + is such that for every
n > some N ,
n
zn q < 1
where q < 1 is fixed, then this series converge absolutely.

If for infinitely many n ,
n
zn 1,
the series diverges.
3. z-Transform
126
Root Test
Root Test Theorem :
If a series z1 + z2 + z3 + with zn 0 ( n = 1, 2, ) is
such that
lim n zn = L, then
n
(a) The series converges absolutely if L < 1.

(b) The series diverges if L > 1.
(c) If L = 1, the test fails; i.e., no conclusion is possible.
3. z-Transform
127
Power, Taylor, Laurent Series

Power series :
an ( z z 0 ) n
n =0
an
n a
n +1
ROC : z z0 < R = lim
Taylor series :
f ( z ) = an ( z z0 ) n where an =
n =0
1 (n)
1
f ( z)
f ( z0 ) =
dz
n +1
C
2j ( z z0 )
n!
Laurent series :
f ( z ) = an ( z z0 ) + bn
n
n =0
n =1
= an ( z z 0 ) +
n
n =0
1
( z z0 ) n
n = 1
n ( z z0 ) =
n
n =
n
(
z
z
)
0
n
1
f ( z)
an =
dz
2j C ( z z0 ) n +1
bn =
3. z-Transform
1
n 1
(
z
z
)
f ( z )dz
C
2j
128
Cauchys Integral Theorem

Cauchy' s Integral Theorem : If f ( z ) is analytic in a simply connected
domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
C, CCW
f ( z ) dz = 0
Independence of Path : If f ( z ) is analytic in a simply connected

domain D, then the integral of f ( z ) is independent of paths in D.
Existence of an Indefinite Integral : If f ( z ) is analytic in a simply connected
domain D, then there exists an indefinite integral of f ( z ) in D, thus
F ' ( z ) = f ( z ), which is analytic in D, and for any paths in D joining any two
points z0 and z1 in D, the integral of from to can be evaluated by
z1
z0
3. z-Transform
f ( z )dz = F ( z1 ) F ( z0 )
129
Cauchys Integral Theorem

Cauchy' s Integral Theorem for Multiplely - Connected Domain :
If f ( z ) is analytic inside a doubly connected domain D, and on its outer
C1
boundary curve C1 and C2 , then
C1 ,CCW
f ( z )dz =
C 2 ,CCW
f ( z )dz
C2
Similarly , for multiplely - connected with the most outer boundary C1
C1
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
k
C1
Ck
C2
C3
C4
3. z-Transform
130
Cauchys Integral Formula

Let f ( z ) be analytic in a simply connected domain D, then for any
point z0 in D and any simple closed path C in D that encloses z0 ,
f ( z ) f ( z0 )
dz
f ( z)
+
dz = 2j f ( z0 )
dz = f ( z0 )
C
C
z z0
z z0
z z0
or alternatively
1
f ( z)
dz
f ( z0 ) =
C
2j z z0
Note : 1. z z0 = e
2.
2
2
1
dz
j
d (e ) = jd = 2j
=
j
0
0
e
z z0
f ( z ) f ( z0 )
<
z z0
f ( z ) f ( z0 )
f ( z ) f ( z0 )
dz
dz <
C
z z0
z z0
< dz = 2 = 2
C
3. z-Transform
131
Contour Integral Formula

1.
1
dre jw
jw
jw
jw
=
=
=
(
,
(
)
z
z
re
dz
d
re
jre
dw)
dz =
0
jw
C
z z0
re
re jw
=
jdw = 2j
re jw
1
dre jw
2.
dz = n jnw
C ( z z )n
C r e
0
re jw
= n jnw jdw
r e
j (1 n ) w
e
2j
dw =
= j
n 1
r
0
3. z-Transform
n =1
n 1
132
Cauchy Residue Theorem

Cauchy Residue Theorem :
If the derivative df ( z ) /dz exists on and inside the contour C and if f ( z )
has no poles at z = z0 , then
f ( z0 ), if z0 is inside C
1
f ( z)
dz =
C
if z0 is outside C
2j z z0
0,
More generally, If the ( k + 1) - order derivative of f ( z ) exists on and inside
the contour C and if f ( z ) has no poles at z = z0 , then
1 d k 1 f ( z )
f ( z)
1
k 1
dz
=
(
1
)!
k
dz
k
2j C ( z z0 )
0,
3. z-Transform
, if z0 is inside C
z = z0
if z0 is outside C
133
Application of Cauchy Residue

Theorem
If f ( z ) has no poles inside the contour C and if g ( z ) is a polynomial with
distinct (simple) roots z1 , z 2 ,..., z n , inside C , then
f ( z)
f ( z)
1
1
=
dz
dz
n
C
C
2j g ( z )
2j ( z z k )
k =1
n Ak
1
=
dz
C
2j k =1 z z k
n
Ak
1
=
dz
C
z zk
k =1 2j
n
= Ak
k =1
3. z-Transform
134
Residue Theorem
Analytic function represente d by Laurent series :
1
n
(
)
=
f ( z ) = an ( z z0 ) + bn
c
z
z
n
0
n
(
)
z
z
n =0
n =1
n =
0
n
1
then b1 = c1 =
f ( z )dz = Re s f ( z ) or
C
z = z0
2j
f ( z )dz = 2jb1 = 2jc1
Residue Theorem : Let f ( z ) be analytic inside a simple closed path C and

on C, except for finitely many singular points (poles) z1 , z2 , , zk inside C,
then the CCW closed loop integration :
3. z-Transform
f ( z )dz = 2j Re s f ( z )
m =1
z = zm
135

DSP-3 Z-Xform

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3.

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

x[n] maybe not absolutely summable, but x[n]r-n can

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

= + x[2]z 2 + x[1]z + x[0] + x[1]z 1 + x[2]z 2 +

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC: Rx- < |z| < Rx+

Inverse z-transform derived by inverse DTFT:

DTFT as z-transform evaluated on unit circle:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC of the x[n]r n (left sided ) : 0 r = z < Rx + <

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

Laurent Series & the z-transform:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

ROC1 : entire z - plane except z = 0

ROC 2 : entire z - plane except z = 0 and z =

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC: > |z| > |a|

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Unit circle |z| = 1

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC: |z| > |a|

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

ROC: 0 < |z| < |a|

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

ROC: |z| < |a|

X(z) + ROC uniquely determine x[n].

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Therefore, ROC = {|z| > 1/3} {|z| > } = {|z| > }

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

ROC = |z| > 1/2

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

ROC = {| z |> 1 / 2} {| z |< 1 / 3} =

Therefore, no z-transform exists for this signal.

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform:

Two-sided sequence: x[n] = b|n|, b > 0

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

Z {b } does not exist.

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

3.2 Properties of ROC

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

3.2 Properties of ROC (cont.)

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

3.2 Properties of ROC (cont.)

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

3.2 Properties of ROC (cont.)

Tai-Lang Jong, EE/NTHU

ROC Examples of the z-transform: