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StainlesssteelWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Stainlesssteel
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Inmetallurgy,stainlesssteel,alsoknownasinox
steelorinoxfromFrenchinoxydable,isasteelalloy
withaminimumof10.5%[1]chromiumcontentby
mass.
Contents
1 Description
2 Properties
2.1 Oxidation
2.2 Acids
2.3 Bases
2.4 Organics
2.5 Electricityandmagnetism
2.6 3Dprinting
3 Types
3.1 Grades
3.2 Comparisonofstandardizedsteels
4 Standardfinishes
5 Applications
5.1 Architecture
5.2 Bridges
5.3 Monumentsandsculptures
5.4 Other
6 Maintenance
6.1 Duringinstallation
6.2 Routinemaintenance
6.3 Maintenancetools
7 Recyclingandreuse
8 Healtheffects
9 History
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Externallinks
StainlesssteelcladdingisusedontheWaltDisney
ConcertHall
Description
Stainlesssteeldoesnotreadilycorrode,rustorstainwithwaterasordinarysteeldoes.However,itisnot
fullystainproofinlowoxygen,highsalinity,orpooraircirculationenvironments.[2]Therearedifferent
gradesandsurfacefinishesofstainlesssteeltosuittheenvironmentthealloymustendure.Stainlesssteelis
usedwhereboththepropertiesofsteelandcorrosionresistancearerequired.
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Stainlesssteeldiffersfromcarbonsteelbytheamountofchromium
present.Unprotectedcarbonsteelrustsreadilywhenexposedtoair
andmoisture.Thisironoxidefilm(therust)isactiveandaccelerates
corrosionbyformingmoreironoxideand,becauseofthegreater
volumeoftheironoxide,thistendstoflakeandfallaway.Stainless
steelscontainsufficientchromiumtoformapassivefilmof
chromiumoxide,whichpreventsfurthersurfacecorrosionby
blockingoxygendiffusiontothesteelsurfaceandblockscorrosion
fromspreadingintothemetal'sinternalstructure.[3]Passivation
occursonlyiftheproportionofchromiumishighenoughand
oxygenispresent.
Stainlesssteelisusedforcorrosion
resistanttoolssuchasthisnutcracker
Properties
Oxidation
Highoxidationresistanceinairatambienttemperatureisnormally
achievedwithadditionsofaminimumof13%(byweight)
chromium,andupto26%isusedforharshenvironments.[4]The
chromiumformsapassivationlayerofchromium(III)oxide(Cr2O3)
whenexposedtooxygen.Thelayeristoothintobevisible,andthe
metalremainslustrousandsmooth.Thelayerisimpervioustowater
andair,protectingthemetalbeneath,andthislayerquicklyreforms
whenthesurfaceisscratched.Thisphenomenoniscalled
passivationandisseeninothermetals,suchasaluminiumand
titanium.Corrosionresistancecanbeadverselyaffectedifthe
componentisusedinanonoxygenatedenvironment,atypical
examplebeingunderwaterkeelboltsburiedintimber.
Whenstainlesssteelpartssuchasnutsandboltsareforcedtogether,
theoxidelayercanbescrapedoff,allowingthepartstoweld
together.Whenforciblydisassembled,theweldedmaterialmaybe
tornandpitted,aneffectknownasgalling.Thisdestructivegalling
canbeavoidedbytheuseofdissimilarmaterialsforthepartsforced
together,forexamplebronzeandstainlesssteel,orevendifferent
typesofstainlesssteels(martensiticagainstaustenitic).However,
twodifferentalloyselectricallyconnectedinahumidenvironment
mayactasavoltaicpileandcorrodefaster.Nitronicalloysmadeby
selectivealloyingwithmanganeseandnitrogenmayhaveareduced
tendencytogall.Additionally,threadedjointsmaybelubricatedto
preventgalling.Lowtemperaturecarburizingisanotheroptionthat
virtuallyeliminatesgallingandallowstheuseofsimilarmaterials
withouttheriskofcorrosionandtheneedforlubrication.
Stainlesssteel(row3)resistssalt
watercorrosionbetterthan
aluminumbronze(row1)orcopper
nickelalloys(row2)
Stainlesssteelisnotcompletely
immunetocorrosioninthis
desalinationequipment
Acids
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Stainlesssteelisgenerallyhighlyresistanttoattackfromacids,butthisqualitydependsonthekindand
concentrationoftheacid,thesurroundingtemperature,andthetypeofsteel.Type904isresistantto
sulfuricacidatroomtemperature,eveninhighconcentrationstype316and317areresistantbelow10%,
and304shouldnotbeusedinthepresenceofsulfuricacidatanyconcentration.Alltypesofstainlesssteel
resistattackfromphosphoricacid,316and317moresothan304Types304Land430havebeen
successfullyusedwithnitricacid.Hydrochloricacidwilldamageanykindofstainlesssteel,andshouldbe
avoided.[5]
Bases
The300seriesofstainlesssteelgradesisunaffectedbyanyoftheweakbasessuchasammonium
hydroxide,eveninhighconcentrationsandathightemperatures.Thesamegradesofstainlessexposedto
strongerbasessuchassodiumhydroxideathighconcentrationsandhightemperatureswilllikely
experiencesomeetchingandcracking,especiallywithsolutionscontainingchloridessuchassodium
hypochlorite.[5]
Organics
Types316and317arebothusefulforstoringandhandlingaceticacid,especiallyinsolutionswhereitis
combinedwithformicacidandwhenaerationisnotpresent(oxygenhelpsprotectstainlesssteelundersuch
conditions),though317providesthegreatestlevelofresistancetocorrosion.Type304isalsocommonly
usedwithformicacidthoughitwilltendtodiscolorthesolution.Allgradesresistdamagefromaldehydes
andamines,thoughinthelattercasegrade316ispreferableto304celluloseacetatewilldamage304
unlessthetemperatureiskeptlow.Fatsandfattyacidsonlyaffectgrade304attemperaturesabove150C
(302F),andgrade316above260C(500F),while317isunaffectedatalltemperatures.Type316Lis
requiredforprocessingofurea.[5]
Electricityandmagnetism
Likesteel,stainlesssteelisarelativelypoorconductorofelectricity,
withlowerelectricalconductivitythancopper.Othermetalsin
contactwithstainlesssteelinadampenvironmentmaysuffer
galvaniccorrosion.eventhoughthestainlessmetalmaybe
unaffected.
Ferriticandmartensiticstainlesssteelsaremagnetic.Annealed
austeniticstainlesssteelsarenonmagnetic.Workhardeningcan
makeausteniticstainlesssteelsslightlymagnetic.
Poorselectionofmaterialscancause
galvaniccorrosiontoothermetalsin
contactwithstainlesssteel
3Dprinting
Some3Dprintingprovidershavedevelopedproprietarystainlesssteelsinteringblendsforuseinrapid
prototyping.Oneofthemorepopularstainlesssteelgradesusedin3Dprintingwouldbe316LStainless
steel.Duetothehightemperaturegradientandfastrateofsolidification,stainlesssteelmanufacturedvia
3Dprintingtendstohavemorerefinedmicrostructures.Thisinturnresultsinbettermechanicalproperties.
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However,stainlesssteelisnotusedasmuchasmaterialslikeTi6Al4Vinthe3Dprintingindustry.Thisis
becausestainlesssteelmanufacturedviathetraditionalmethodstendstobemoreeconomically
competitive.
Types
Therearedifferenttypesofstainlesssteels:whennickelisadded,
forinstance,theaustenitestructureofironisstabilized.Thiscrystal
structuremakessuchsteelsvirtuallynonmagneticandlessbrittleat
lowtemperatures.Forgreaterhardnessandstrength,morecarbonis
added.Withproperheattreatment,thesesteelsareusedforsuch
productsasrazorblades,cutlery,andtools.
Significantquantitiesofmanganesehavebeenusedinmany
stainlesssteelcompositions.Manganesepreservesanaustenitic
structureinthesteel,similartonickel,butatalowercost.
Stainlesssteelsarealsoclassifiedbytheircrystallinestructure:
Pipesandfittingsmadeofstainless
steel
Austenitic,or200and300series,stainlesssteelshaveanausteniticcrystallinestructure,whichisa
facecenteredcubiccrystalstructure.Austenitesteelsmakeupover70%oftotalstainlesssteel
production.Theycontainamaximumof0.15%carbon,aminimumof16%chromiumandsufficient
nickeland/ormanganesetoretainanausteniticstructureatalltemperaturesfromthecryogenic
regiontothemeltingpointofthealloy.
200Seriesausteniticchromiumnickelmanganesealloys.Type201ishardenablethrough
coldworkingType202isageneralpurposestainlesssteel.Decreasingnickelcontentand
increasingmanganeseresultsinweakcorrosionresistance.[6]
300SeriesThemostwidelyusedaustenitesteelisthe304,alsoknownas18/8forits
compositionof18%chromiumand8%nickel.[7]304maybereferredtoasA2stainless(notto
beconfusedwithAISIgradeA2airhardeningalloytoolsteelcontainingabout5%
chromium).Thesecondmostcommonaustenitesteelisthe316grade,alsoreferredtoasA4
stainlessandcalledmarinegradestainless,usedprimarilyforitsincreasedresistanceto
corrosion.Atypicalcompositionof18%chromiumand10%nickel,commonlyknownas
18/10stainless,isoftenusedincutleryandhighqualitycookware.18/0isalsoavailable.
Superausteniticstainlesssteels,suchasAlleghenyLudlumalloyAL6XNand254SMO,exhibit
greatresistancetochloridepittingandcrevicecorrosionbecauseofhighmolybdenumcontent(>6%)
andnitrogenadditions,andthehighernickelcontentensuresbetterresistancetostresscorrosion
crackingversusthe300series.Thehigheralloycontentofsuperausteniticsteelsmakesthemmore
expensive.Othersteelscanoffersimilarperformanceatlowercostandarepreferredincertain
applications,forexampleASTMA387isusedinpressurevesselsbutisalowalloycarbonsteelwith
achromiumcontentof0.5%to9%.[8]Lowcarbonversions,forexample316Lor304L,areusedto
avoidcorrosionproblemscausedbywelding.Grade316LVMispreferredwherebiocompatibilityis
required(suchasbodyimplantsandpiercings).[9]The"L"meansthatthecarboncontentofthealloy
isbelow0.03%,whichreducesthesensitizationeffect(precipitationofchromiumcarbidesatgrain
boundaries)causedbythehightemperaturesinvolvedinwelding.
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Ferriticstainlesssteelsgenerallyhavebetterengineeringpropertiesthanausteniticgrades,buthave
reducedcorrosionresistance,becauseofthelowerchromiumandnickelcontent.Theyarealso
usuallylessexpensive.Ferriticstainlesssteelshaveabodycenteredcubicandcontainbetween
10.5%and27%chromiumwithverylittlenickel,ifany,butsometypescancontainlead.Most
compositionsincludemolybdenumsome,aluminiumortitanium.Commonferriticgradesinclude
18Cr2Mo,26Cr1Mo,29Cr4Mo,and29Cr4Mo2Ni.Thesealloyscanbedegradedbythepresence
of chromium,anintermetallicphasewhichcanprecipitateuponwelding.
Martensiticstainlesssteelsarenotascorrosionresistantas
theothertwoclassesbutareextremelystrongandtough,as
wellashighlymachinable,andcanbehardenedbyheat
treatment.Martensiticstainlesssteelcontainschromium(12
14%),molybdenum(0.21%),nickel(lessthan2%),and
carbon(about0.11%)(givingitmorehardnessbutmaking
thematerialabitmorebrittle).Itisquenchedandmagnetic.
Duplexsteelstainlesssteelshaveamixedmicrostructureof
austeniteandferrite,theaimusuallybeingtoproducea50/50
mix,althoughincommercialalloystheratiomaybe40/60.
SwissArmyknivesaremadeof
Duplexstainlesssteelshaveroughlytwicethestrength
martensiticstainlesssteel.
comparedtoausteniticstainlesssteelsandalsoimproved
resistancetolocalizedcorrosion,particularlypitting,crevice
corrosionandstresscorrosioncracking.Theyarecharacterizedbyhighchromium(1932%)and
molybdenum(upto5%)andlowernickelcontentsthanausteniticstainlesssteels.
Thepropertiesofduplexstainlesssteelsareachievedwithanoverallloweralloycontentthansimilar
performingsuperausteniticgrades,makingtheirusecosteffectiveformanyapplications.Duplex
gradesarecharacterizedintogroupsbasedontheiralloycontentandcorrosionresistance.
LeanduplexreferstogradessuchasUNSS32101(LDX2101),S32202(UR2202),S32304,
andS32003.
Standardduplexis22%chromiumwithUNSS31803/S32205knownas2205beingthemost
widelyused.
SuperduplexisbydefinitionaduplexstainlesssteelwithaPittingResistanceEquivalent
Number(PREN)>40,wherePREN=%Cr+3.3x(%Mo+0.5x%W)+16x%N.Usuallysuper
duplexgradeshave25%chromiumormoreandsomecommonexamplesareS32760(Zeron
100viaRolledAlloys),S32750(2507)andS32550(Ferralium),.
HyperduplexreferstoduplexgradeswithaPRE>48andatthemomentonlyUNSS32707
andS33207areavailableonthemarket.
Precipitationhardeningmartensiticstainlesssteelshavecorrosionresistancecomparableto
austeniticvarieties,butcanbeprecipitationhardenedtoevenhigherstrengthsthantheother
martensiticgrades.Themostcommon,174PH,usesabout17%chromiumand4%nickel.
Grades
Thereareover150gradesofstainlesssteel,ofwhich15aremostcommonlyused.Thereareanumberof
systemsforgradingstainlessandothersteels,includingUSSAEsteelgrades.
Comparisonofstandardizedsteels
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ENstandard
ENstandard
Steelno.k.h.sDIN
Steelname
SAEgrade
UNS
1.4109
X65CrMo14
440A
S44002
1.4112
X90CrMoV18
440B
S44003
1.4125
X105CrMo17
440C
S44004
440F
S44020
1.4016
X6Cr17
430
S43000
1.4408
GX6CrNiMo1810
316
S31600
1.4512
X6CrTi12
409
S40900
410
S41000
S30100
1.4310
X10CrNi188
301
1.4318
X2CrNiN187
301LN
1.4307
X2CrNi189
304L
S3043
1.4306
X2CrNi1911
304L
S30403
1.4311
X2CrNiN1810
304LN
S30453
1.4301
X5CrNi1810
304
S30400
1.4948
X6CrNi1811
304H
S30409
1.4303
X5CrNi1812
305
S30500
X5CrNi309
312
1.4841
X22CrNi2520
310
S31000
1.4845
X5CrNi2520
310S
S31008[10]
1.4541
X6CrNiTi1810
321
S32100
1.4878
X12CrNiTi189
321H
S32109
1.4404
X2CrNiMo17122
316L
S31603
1.4401
X5CrNiMo17122
316
S31600
1.4406
X2CrNiMoN17122
316LN
S31653
1.4432
X2CrNiMo17123
316L
S31603
1.4435
X2CrNiMo18143
316L
S31603
1.4436
X3CrNiMo17133
316
S31600
1.4571
X6CrNiMoTi17122
316Ti
S31635
1.4429
X2CrNiMoN17133
316LN
S31653
1.4438
X2CrNiMo18154
317L
S31703
1.4362
X2CrNi234
2304
S32304
1.4462
X2CrNiMoN2253
2205
S31803/S32205
1.4501
X2CrNiMoCuWN2574 J405
S32760
1.4539
X1NiCrMoCu25205
N08904
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1.4539
X1NiCrMoCu25205
904L
N08904
1.4529
X1NiCrMoCuN25207
N08926
1.4547
X1CrNiMoCuN20187 254SMO
S31254
Standardfinishes
Standardmillfinishescanbeappliedtoflatrolledstainlesssteeldirectlyby
therollersandbymechanicalabrasives.Steelisfirstrolledtosizeand
thicknessandthenannealedtochangethepropertiesofthefinalmaterial.
Anyoxidationthatformsonthesurface(millscale)isremovedbypickling,
andapassivationlayeriscreatedonthesurface.Afinalfinishcanthenbe
appliedtoachievethedesiredaestheticappearance.
No.0:Hotrolled,annealed,thickerplates
No.1:Hotrolled,annealedandpassivated
No.2D:Coldrolled,annealed,pickledandpassivated
No.2B:Sameasabovewithadditionalpassthroughhighlypolished
rollers
No.2BA:Brightannealed(BAor2R)sameasabovethenbright
annealedunderoxygenfreeatmosphericcondition
316Lstainlesssteel,withan
No.3:Coarseabrasivefinishappliedmechanically
unpolished,millfinish
No.4:Brushedfinish
No.5:Satinfinish
No.6:Mattefinish(brushedbutsmootherthan#4)
No.7:Reflectivefinish
No.8:Mirrorfinish
No.9:Beadblastfinish
No.10:Heatcoloredfinishwiderangeofelectropolishedandheatcoloredsurfaces
Applications
Stainlesssteelsresistancetocorrosionandstaining,lowmaintenanceandfamiliarlustremakeitanideal
materialformanyapplications.Thealloyismilledintocoils,sheets,plates,bars,wire,andtubingtobe
usedincookware,cutlery,householdhardware,surgicalinstruments,majorappliances,industrial
equipment(forexample,insugarrefineries)andasanautomotiveandaerospacestructuralalloyand
constructionmaterialinlargebuildings.Storagetanksandtankersusedtotransportorangejuiceandother
foodareoftenmadeofstainlesssteel,becauseofitscorrosionresistance.Thisalsoinfluencesitsusein
commercialkitchensandfoodprocessingplants,asitcanbesteamcleanedandsterilizedanddoesnotneed
paintorothersurfacefinishes.
Stainlesssteelisusedforjewelryandwatcheswith316Lbeingthetypecommonlyusedforsuch
applications.Itcanberefinishedbyanyjewelerandwillnotoxidizeorturnblack.
Somefirearmsincorporatestainlesssteelcomponentsasanalternativetobluedorparkerizedsteel.Some
handgunmodels,suchastheSmith&WessonModel60andtheColtM1911pistol,canbemadeentirely
fromstainlesssteel.Thisgivesahighlusterfinishsimilarinappearancetonickelplating.Unlikeplating,
thefinishisnotsubjecttoflaking,peeling,wearofffromrubbing(aswhenrepeatedlyremovedfroma
holster),orrustwhenscratched.
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Someautomotivemanufacturersusestainlesssteelasdecorativehighlights
intheirvehicles.
Architecture
Stainlesssteelisusedforbuildingsforbothpracticalandaestheticreasons.
Stainlesssteelwasinvogueduringtheartdecoperiod.Themostfamous
exampleofthisistheupperportionoftheChryslerBuilding(pictured).
Somedinersandfastfoodrestaurantsuselargeornamentalpanelsand
stainlessfixturesandfurniture.Becauseofthedurabilityofthematerial,
manyofthesebuildingsretaintheiroriginalappearance.Stainlesssteelis
usedtodayinbuildingsbecauseofthisdurabilityandthefactitisa
weldablebuildingmetalthatcanbemadeintoaestheticallypleasingshapes.
AnexampleofabuildinginwhichthesepropertiesareexploitedistheArt
GalleryofAlbertainEdmonton,whichiswrappedinstainlesssteel.
Type316stainlessisusedontheexteriorofboththePetronasTwinTowers
andtheJinMaoBuilding,twooftheworld'stallestskyscrapers.[12]
The630foothigh(190m),
stainlessclad(type304)
GatewayArchdefinesSt.
Louis'sskyline
TheParliamentHouseofAustraliainCanberrahasastainlesssteelflagpole
weighingover220tonnes(240shorttons).
TheaerationbuildingintheEdmontonCompostingFacility,thesizeof14
hockeyrinks,isthelargeststainlesssteelbuildinginNorthAmerica.
Bridges
TheHelixBridgeisapedestrianbridgelinkingMarinaCentrewith
MarinaSouthintheMarinaBayareainSingapore.
CalaGaldanaBridgeinMinorca(Spain)wasthefirststainlesssteel
roadbridge.
SantFruitosPedestrianBridge(Catalonia,Spain),archpedestrian
bridge.
PadreArrupeBridge(Bilbao,Spain)linkstheGuggenheimmuseum
totheUniversityofDeusto.[13]
Monumentsandsculptures
ThepinnacleofNewYork's
ChryslerBuildingisclad
withNirostastainlesssteel,a
formofType302[11][12]
Unisphere,constructedasthethemesymbolofthe1964NewYorkWorld'sFair,isconstructedof
Type304Lstainlesssteelasasphericalframeworkwithadiameterof120feet(37m)(NewYork
City)
GatewayArch(pictured)iscladentirelyinstainlesssteel:886tons(804metrictonnes)of0.25in
(6.4mm)plate,#3finish,type304stainlesssteel.[14](St.Louis,Missouri)
UnitedStatesAirForceMemorialhasanausteniticstainlesssteelstructuralskin(Arlington,Virginia)
Atomiumwasrenovatedwithstainlesssteelcladdinginarenovationcompletedin2006previously
thespheresandtubesofthestructurewerecladinaluminium(Brussels,Belgium)
CloudGatesculpturebyAnishKapoor(Chicago,Illinois)
SibeliusMonumentismadeentirelyofstainlesssteeltubes(Helsinki,Finland)
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TheKelpies(Falkirk,Scotland)
ManofSteel(sculpture)underconstruction(Rotherham,England)
JurajJnokmonument(Terchova,Slovakia)
Other
Automotivebodies
TheAlleghenyLudlumCorporationworkedwithFordonvariousconcept
carswithstainlesssteelbodiesfromthe1930sthroughthe1970s,as
demonstrationsofthematerial'spotential.The1957and1958Cadillac
EldoradoBroughamhadastainlesssteelroof.In1981and1982,the
DeLoreanDMC12productionautomobileusedstainlesssteelbodypanels
overaglassreinforcedplasticmonocoque.IntercitybusesmadebyMotor
CoachIndustriesarepartiallymadeofstainlesssteel.Theaftbodypanelof
thePorscheCaymanmodel(2doorcoupehatchback)ismadeofstainless
steel.Itwasdiscoveredduringearlybodyprototypingthatconventional
steelcouldnotbeformedwithoutcracking(duetothemanycurves
andanglesinthatautomobile).Thus,Porschewasforcedtouse
stainlesssteelontheCayman.
Anartdecosculptureonthe
NiagaraMohawkPower
buildinginSyracuse,New
York
Passengerrailcars
Railcarshavecommonlybeenmanufacturedusingcorrugated
stainlesssteelpanels(foradditionalstructuralstrength).Thiswas
particularlypopularduringthe1960sand1970s,buthassince
declined.OnenotableexamplewastheearlyPioneerZephyr.
Notableformermanufacturersofstainlesssteelrollingstock
includedtheBuddCompany(USA),whichhasbeenlicensedto
Japan'sTokyuCarCorporation,andthePortuguesecompany
Sorefame.ManyrailcarsintheUnitedStatesarestillmanufactured
withstainlesssteel,unlikeothercountrieswhohaveshiftedaway.
Surgicaltools,suchasthese
hemostats,arecommonlymadeof
stainlesssteel
Aircraft
Buddalsobuiltanairplane,theBuddBB1Pioneer,ofstainless
steeltubeandsheet,whichisondisplayattheFranklinInstitute.
TheAmericanFleetwingsSeaBirdamphibiousaircraftof1936was
alsobuiltusingaspotweldedstainlesssteelhull.
TheBristolAeroplaneCompanybuilttheallstainlesssteelBristol
188highspeedresearchaircraft,whichfirstflewin1963.
Stainlesssteelisoftenusedfor
everydaykitchensinks,appliances,
andcookware
Theuseofstainlesssteelinmainstreamaircraftishinderedbyits
excessiveweightcomparedtoothermaterials,suchasaluminum.
Airports
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Stainlesssteelisamoderntrendforroofingmaterialforairportsdue
toitslowglarereflectancetokeeppilotsfrombeingblinded,also
foritspropertiesthatallowthermalreflectanceinordertokeepthe
surfaceoftheroofclosetoambienttemperature.TheHamad
InternationalAirportinQatarwasbuiltwithallstainlesssteel
roofingforthesereasons,aswellastheSacramentoInternational
AirportinCalifornia.
Jewelry
Stainlesssteelisoftenusedfor
cookware
Valadium,astainlesssteeland12%nickelalloyisusedtomake
classandmilitaryrings.Valadiumisusuallysilvertoned,butcanbe
electroplatedtogiveitagoldtone.Thegoldtonevarietyisknown
asSunliteValadium.[15]Other"Valadium"typesofalloyaretrade
nameddifferently,withsuchnamesas"Siladium"and"White
Lazon".
Surgeryanddentistry
Surgicaltoolsandmedicalequipmentareusuallymadeofstainless
steel,becauseofitsdurabilityandabilitytobesterilizedinan
autoclave.Inaddition,surgicalimplantssuchasbone
reinforcementsandreplacements(e.g.hipsocketsandcranial
plates)aremadewithspecialalloysformulatedtoresistcorrosion,
mechanicalwear,andbiologicalreactionsinvivo.
Stainlesssteelisusedforindustrial
equipmentwhendurabilityand
cleanabilityareimportant
Stainlesssteelisusedinavarietyofapplicationsindentistry.Itis
commontousestainlesssteelinmanyofthesterilizedinstruments
suchasneedles,[16]endodonticfilesinrootcanaltherapy,metalpostsinrootcanaltreatedteeth,temporary
crownsandcrownsfordeciduousteeth,andarchwiresandbracketsinorthodontics.[17]Thesurgical
stainlesssteelalloys(e.g.,316lowcarbonsteel)havealsobeenusedinsomeoftheearlydental
implants.[18]
Kitchens
Stainlesssteelisoftenpreferredforkitchensinksbecauseofitsruggedness,durability,heatresistance,and
easeofcleaning.Inbettermodels,acousticnoiseiscontrolledbyapplyingresilientundercoatingtodampen
vibrations.Thematerialisalsousedforcladdingofsurfacessuchasappliancesandbacksplashes.
Cookwareandbakewaremaybecladinstainlesssteels,toenhancetheircleanabilityanddurability.
Becausestainlesssteelisapoorconductorofheat,itisoftenusedasathinsurfacecladdingoveracoreof
copperoraluminum,whichconductheatmorereadily.
Maintenance
Iftreatedorstoredincorrectly,anygradeofstainlesssteelmaydiscolororstain.Tomaintainoptimum
appearance,thesurfaceshouldbecaredforregularly.
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Duringinstallation
Thequalityofinstallationaffectsthedurabilityandlifespanofstainlesssteel.[19]Therefore,itisimportant
tomakesurestainlesssteelisingoodconditionbeforeinstallation.Normally,givingitaquickcleanis
enoughpriortoinstallation.However,ifsurfacecontaminationispresent,moreattentionisrequired.In
fieldssuchasaerospace,pharmaceuticalsandfoodhandling,anextremelyhighstandardofcleanlinessmay
berequiredsoextracareshouldbetaken.
Routinemaintenance
Maintenanceisrequiredtomaintainthequalityandappearanceofsteel.Dependingontheenvironment,it
iscarriedoutbetweenoneandtentimesperyear.Apropermaintenanceroutinesignificantlyprolongsthe
lifeofstainlesssteel.[20]
Maintenancetools
Softclothandwater:suitableforcosmeticissuesandgeneralcleaning
Milddetergent:neededifstainscannotbeeasilyliftedwithwater
Glasscleaner:usefulforremovingfingerprintsandsimilarstains
Recyclingandreuse
Stainlesssteelis100%recyclable.Anaveragestainlesssteelobjectiscomposedofabout60%recycled
materialofwhichapproximately40%originatesfromendoflifeproductsandabout60%comesfrom
manufacturingprocesses.[21]AccordingtotheInternationalResourcePanel'sMetalStocksinSociety
report,thepercapitastockofstainlesssteelinuseinsocietyis80180kginmoredevelopedcountriesand
15kginlessdevelopedcountries.
Thereisasecondarymarketthatrecyclesusablescrapformanystainlesssteelmarkets.Theproductis
mostlycoil,sheetandblanks.Thismaterialispurchasedatalessthanprimepriceandsoldtocommercial
qualitystampersandsheetmetalhouses.Thematerialmayhavescratches,pitsanddentsbutismadetothe
currentspecifications.
Healtheffects
Stainlesssteelisgenerallyconsideredtobebiologicallyinert,butsomesensitiveindividualsdevelopaskin
irritationduetoanickelallergycausedbycertainalloys.
History
Thecorrosionresistanceofironchromiumalloyswasfirstrecognizedin1821byFrenchmetallurgistPierre
Berthier,whonotedtheirresistanceagainstattackbysomeacidsandsuggestedtheiruseincutlery.
Metallurgistsofthe19thcenturywereunabletoproducethecombinationoflowcarbonandhighchromium
foundinmostmodernstainlesssteels,andthehighchromiumalloystheycouldproduceweretoobrittleto
bepractical.
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In1872,theEnglishmenClarkandWoodspatentedanalloythat
wouldtodaybeconsideredastainlesssteel.[23]
Inthelate1890sHansGoldschmidtofGermanydevelopedan
aluminothermic(thermite)processforproducingcarbonfree
chromium.Between1904and1911severalresearchers,particularly
LeonGuilletofFrance,preparedalloysthatwouldtodaybe
consideredstainlesssteel.[24]
FriedrichKruppGermaniawerftbuiltthe366tonsailingyacht
GermaniafeaturingachromenickelsteelhullinGermanyin
1908.[25]In1911,PhilipMonnartzreportedontherelationship
betweenchromiumcontentandcorrosionresistance.On17October
1912,KruppengineersBennoStraussandEduardMaurerpatented
austeniticstainlesssteelasNirosta.[26][27][28]
Similardevelopmentsweretakingplacecontemporaneouslyinthe
UnitedStates,whereChristianDantsizenandFrederickBecketwere
industrializingferriticstainlesssteel.In1912,ElwoodHaynes
appliedforaUSpatentonamartensiticstainlesssteelalloy,which
wasnotgranteduntil1919.[29]
Anannouncement,asitappearedin
the1915NewYorkTimes,ofthe
[22]
developmentofstainlesssteel
Alsoin1912,HarryBrearleyoftheBrownFirthresearchlaboratory
inSheffield,England,whileseekingacorrosionresistantalloyfor
gunbarrels,discoveredandsubsequentlyindustrializedamartensiticstainlesssteelalloy.Thediscovery
wasannouncedtwoyearslaterinaJanuary1915newspaperarticleinTheNewYorkTimes.[22]Themetal
waslatermarketedunderthe"Staybrite"brandbyFirthVickersinEnglandandwasusedforthenew
entrancecanopyfortheSavoyHotelinLondonin1929.[30]BrearleyappliedforaUSpatentduring1915
onlytofindthatHayneshadalreadyregisteredapatent.BrearleyandHaynespooledtheirfundingandwith
agroupofinvestorsformedtheAmericanStainlessSteelCorporation,withheadquartersinPittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.[31]
InthebeginningstainlesssteelwassoldintheUSunderdifferentbrandnameslike"Alleghenymetal"and
"Nirostasteel".Evenwithinthemetallurgyindustrytheeventualnameremainedunsettledin1921one
tradejournalwascallingit"unstainablesteel".[32]In1929,beforetheGreatDepressionhit,over25,000
tonsofstainlesssteelweremanufacturedandsoldintheUS.[33]
Seealso
Argonoxygendecarburization
CrucibleIndustries
Listofbladematerials
Listofsteelproducers
Paneledgestaining
PittingResistanceEquivalentNumber
Marinegradestainless
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#References
Marinegradestainless
Rouging
Stainlesssteelfiber
Stainlesssteelsoap
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References
1."TheStainlessSteelFamily"(PDF).Retrieved8December2012.
2."WhyisStainlessSteelStainless?".Retrieved6September2013.
3.JianhaiQiu."StainlessSteelsandAlloys:WhyTheyResistCorrosionandHowTheyFail"
(http://www.corrosionclinic.com/corrosion_resources/stainless_steels_why_how_p1.htm).Corrosionclinic.com.
Retrievedon29June2012.
4.Ashby,MichaelF.DavidR.H.Jones(1992)[1986]."Chapter12".EngineeringMaterials2(withcorrections
ed.).Oxford:PergamonPress.p.119.ISBN0080325327.
5.Davis(1994),StainlessSteels,JosephR.,ASMInternational,p.118,ISBN9780871705037
6.Habara,Yasuhiro.StainlessSteel200Series:AnOpportunityforMn
(http://www.manganese.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/81061/07
_Stainless_Steel_200_Series_An_Opportunity_for_Mn__Y_Habara_Nippon_Metal_Industry_Co.pdf).Technical
DevelopmentDept.,NipponMetalIndustry,Co.,Ltd.
7.StainlessSteelGrade304(UNSS30400)(http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=965).azom.com
8.ASTMA387/A387M06aStandardSpecificationforPressureVesselPlates,AlloySteel,Chromium
Molybdenum
9.MaterialPropertiesData:MarineGradeStainlessSteel(http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?
material=316_Stainless_Steel).Makeitfrom.com.Retrievedon29June2012.
10."310310SStainlessSteel".TubingChina.comStainlessSteelDirectory.
11.Startofproduction:Firstcoilonnewmill
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232431/http://www.thyssenkruppnirosta.de/index.php?id=576)atthe
WaybackMachine(archived30May2013).thyssenkruppnirosta.de
12.WhatisStainlessSteel?
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060924043735/http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm)atthe
WaybackMachine(archived24September2006)nickelinstitute.org
13."Stainlesssteelbridge""StainlessSteelBridgeinBilbao"Check|url=value(help).Outokumpu.
14.GatewayArchFactSheet(http://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/gatewayarchfactsheet.htm).Nps.gov.
Retrievedon29June2012.
15."WhatisValadium?".
16.Malamed,Stanley(2004).HandbookofLocalAnesthesia,5thEdition.Mosby.ISBN0323024491.p.99
17.Anusavice,KennethJ.(2003)Phillips'ScienceofDentalMaterials,11thEdition.W.B.SaundersCompany.
ISBN0721693873.p.639
18.Misch,CarlE.(2008)ContemporaryImplantDentistry.Mosby.ISBN0323043739.pp.277278
19."MaintenanceofStainlessSteelProducts".2013.Retrieved11October2013.
20.Kopecki,E.(1937).CleaningStainlessSteel.ASTMInternational.
21."TheRecyclingofStainlessSteel("RecycledContent"and"InputComposition"slides)"(Flash).International
StainlessSteelForum.2006.Retrieved19November2006.
22."Anonrustingsteel".NewYorkTimes.31January1915.
23.http://www.airedalesprings.co.uk/itscomplicatedthediscoveryofstainlesssteel/
24.http://www.bssa.org.uk/about_stainless_steel.php?id=31
25."AProposaltoEstablishtheShipwreckHalfMoonasaStateUnderwaterArchaeologicalPreserve"(PDF).
BureauofArchaeologicalResearch,DivisionofHistoricalResources,FloridaDepartmentofState.May2000.
26."ThyssenKruppNirosta:History".Retrieved13August2007.
27.GermanPatentOffice:DeutschesReichspatentNr.304126,erteiltam18.Oktober1912
(https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304126A)
28.GermanPatentOffice:DeutschesReichspatentNr.304159,erteiltam21.Dezember1912
(https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304159A)
29.Carlisle,RodneyP.(2004)ScientificAmericanInventionsandDiscoveries(https://books.google.com/books?
id=pDbQVE3IdTcC&pg=PA380),p.380,JohnWileyandSons,ISBN0471244104
30.Howse,Geoffrey(2011)APhotographicHistoryofSheffieldSteel,HistoryPress,ISBN0752459856
31.Cobb,HaroldM.(2010).TheHistoryofStainlessSteel.ASMInternational.p.360.ISBN1615030107.
32.Moneypenny,J.H.G.(1921)."UnstainableSteel".MiningandScientificPress.Retrieved17February2013.
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StainlesssteelWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
33.BonnierCorporation(1930).PopularScience.BonnierCorporation.pp.31.ISSN01617370.
Externallinks
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(http://www.ssina.com/overview/history.html)byThe
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