ADVANCED DATABASE TECHNIQUES

LECTURE#02

DATABASE APPROACH

A database is a shared and organized collection of interrelated data and a

description of this data, designed to meet the varied information needs of

an organization

DATABASE APPROACH (CONTD)

A database has some important properties: Integrated
Previously distinct data files have been logically organized to eliminate (or reduce)

redundancy and to facilitate data access.

Orders Department

Accounting Department

DATABASE APPROACH (CONTD)

Shared
All qualified users in the organization have access to the same data for a variety of

activities.

The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate

resource.

Different users can even be accessing the same piece of data at the same time

(concurrent access)

Organized
The data requirements are carefully planned and structured as logical entities (e.g

customer, order, product etc.) along with the relationship between these entities.

DATABASE APPROACH (CONTD)

Interrelated
The data describes a domain of interest to a group of users.
The users can use the data to answer questions concerning that domain.
For example, a database for an automobile repair shop contains data

identifying
o

Customers,

Automobiles belonging to those customers and

Repair Histories for each of those automobiles.

DATABASE APPROACH (CONTD)

Self-describing
The database also holds a description of data.
The description of the data is known as the system catalog or data

dictionary or metadata the data about data.

OBJECTIVE OF DATABASE APPROACH

The basic objective of a database is
to provide speedy, up-to-date information for the effective control of

business operations and

for the making of decisions based on facts rather than assumptions.

It also provides efficient searching techniques which save the valuable

time of executives and professional accountants etc.

INSTANCE VS SCHEMA
Schema

Specification (or definition) of a database usually using the Data Definition Language (DDL) or
expressed graphically in the form of ER model.

CREATE TABLE BOOK

(BOOKID NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
TITLE VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,

AUTHOR VARCHAR2(20));

INSTANCE VS SCHEMA
Schema
A schema is a logical model of a database.
It captures the Meta data that describes an organizations data
in a language that can be understood by the computer.
The schema is specified during the database design process and is
not expected to change frequently.
Also called the intension of the database.

INSTANCE VS SCHEMA
Instance
The collection of data stored in the database at a particular time is

called an instance of the database.

Databases change with time as data is inserted and deleted from them.
Therefore, many database instances can correspond to the same
database schema.
The instance of a database changes more frequently than its schema.
An instance is also called an extension (or state) of the database.

DATABASE SYSTEM
A complete database system in an organization consists of five major

components: Data
Hardware
Software
Procedures
People

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

The data in a database system is in the form of database. (Already discussed).
Database systems are available on machines that range all the way from the

smallest PCs to the largest mainframes.

In particular, systems on large machines tend to be multi-user whereas those

on smaller machines tend to be single-user.

A major objective of multi-user systems is precisely to allow each user to

behave as he were working with a single-user system instead.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS
The range of database applications can be divided into four categories,

from simplest to most complex: o Personal Computer (or PC) databases,

o Workgroup databases
o Department databases and

o Enterprise databases

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS
Personal Computer databases
PC databases are designed to support one user with a standalone PC

(e.g. a desktop or laptop computer).

e.g. A company that has a number of salespersons who call on actual

or prospective customers.
Each salesperson might carry a laptop computer
with a simple database application to record customer information and
the details of contacts with each customer.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS

Workgroup databases

A workgroup is a relatively small team of people (fewer than 25)

who collaborate on the same project or application or
on a group of similar projects or applications

These persons might be engaged (for example) with a construction project or with
developing a new computer application.

A workgroup database is designed to support the collaborative efforts of such a team.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS

Department databases

Department: a functional unit within an organization.

Typical examples of departments are personnel, marketing,

manufacturing, and accounting.

department is generally larger than a workgroup (typically between

25 and 100 persons) and

is responsible for a more diverse range of functions.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS
Enterprise databases

Scope is the entire organization or enterprise (or at least, many different

departments).

Support organization-wide operations and decision making.

An organization may have several enterprise databases, so such a database not

inclusive of all organization data.

A single, operational, enterprise database is impractical for many large

organizations

due to difficulties in performance for very large databases,

diverse needs of different users and

the complexity of achieving a single definition of data (metadata) for all database users.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS

Hardware is the set of physical devices used

to store databases and

to execute the DBMS, applications and utilities

In general, the hardware consists of

One or more Computers including processor with sufficient cache memory and
Secondary Storage volumes,

Disk and Tape Drives,

Printers,

CRT terminals

Connecting Cables and

other auxiliary and connecting hardware.

DATABASE SYSTEM DATA

Hardware is the set of physical devices used

to store databases and

to execute the DBMS, applications and utilities

In general, the hardware consists of

One or more Computers including processor with sufficient cache memory and
Secondary Storage volumes,

Disk and Tape Drives,

Printers,

CRT terminals

Connecting Cables and

other auxiliary and connecting hardware.

DATABASE SYSTEM HARDWARE

The computers used for processing the data in the database may be
Personal Computers (PCs),
Mini Computers or
Mainframes
Mainframes/Mini computers have traditionally been used on standalone basis
to support multiple users accessing a common database
PCs are often used with standalone databases controlled and accessed by single

user.

DATABASE SYSTEM HARDWARE

PCs can also be connected in a client/server network
providing multiple users access to a common database stored on disks and

controlled by a server computer.

The server itself may be

more powerful multiprocessor desktop computer,

a mini computer, a mainframe

A DBMS requires a minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run

but this minimum configuration may not necessarily give acceptable performance

DATABASE SYSTEM HARDWARE

The secondary storage volume mostly magnetic disks

that are used to hold the stored data together with the associated I/O devices

(disk drives etc.),

device controllers, I/O channels and so forth
Disks allow random access without which database processing would be

impossible.
Tapes provide rapid and inexpensive backup of data residing in disks.

DATABASE SYSTEM HARDWARE

Oracle 9i's minimum requirements for installation such as processor, operating
system, memory capacity and hard disk space

The minimum server configuration depends on several factors such as

the installed options, server usage, using Enterprise Edition vs. Standard Edition,
etc.

Oracle Corp. is recommending the following server capacities for Oracle 9i running on
Windows:

Memory: 128 MB (256 MB)recommended)

Disk Space: 2.75 GB for software install, More for the database itself.

Operating System: Windows NT 4.0 or Windows 2000

CPU: Pentium 166 (Pentium 233 recommended)

DATABASE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

DBMS
A generalized software system that is used to manage data in the database. More

specifically, it is used to create, manipulate and protect databases. Moreover, it

receives and satisfies all requests for access to data.
Layer of software between the physical database and the users of the system.
One general function provided by the DBMS is thus the shielding of database users

from hardware-level details.

It supports user operations (using SQL) that are expressed in terms of higher-level

perception.
e.g. Oracle, SQL Server, MS Access

DATABASE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Application Programs
Also referred to as front-end,
Usually provide GUI environment to end users for interaction with the

database.
e.g. an application to search books and other material in library.

DATABASE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Utilities
Utilities are programs designed to help the DBA with various administration

tasks.
For example, for backup, recovery,
data organization
to cluster data together in some particular way on disk or

to reclaim space occupied by data that has become obsolete.

DATABASE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Application Developer Tools
Application programs are written either in

a third-generation programming language (3GL) such as C, C++, Java,Visual Basic,

COBOL, Fortran, Ada, Pascal, VB.Net

or using a fourth-generation language such as a query language like SQL; form

generators, report generators like Oracle Developer, Jdeveloper

Design Aids

For designing databases e.g. Oracle Designer, ER Win

DATABASE SYSTEM PROCEDURES

Procedures refer to the written instructions and rules that govern the design and

use of the database

These may consist of instructions on how to:
Log on to the DBMS
Use a particular DBMS facility or application program
Start and stop the DBMS
Make backup copies of the database
Handle hardware or software failures.
Change the structure of a table, reorganize the database across multiple disks,

improve performance, or archive data to secondary storage.

DATABASE SYSTEM PEOPLE

Four distinct types of people that participate in the development, maintenance and

use of a database system are:-

o Data and Database Administrators

o Database Designers
o Application Developers
o End-Users