Atlantic Flight Training Ltd

Chapter 10.
Maps and Charts Mercator
Introduction The cylindrical projection is provided by a light source at the centre of the
Reduced Earth which projects the meridians and parallels onto the cylinder wrapped around
the Earth. When unwrapped:

The Equator is represented by a straight line equal in length to that of the

circumference of the reduced Earth (Standard Parallel)

The meridians are represented by parallel straight lines

The parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel to the Equator. The distance
between the parallels increases as the latitude increases as shown in the
diagram below.

The Parallels of latitude are drawn at distances from the Equator of R tan . This places a
limit on the maximum usage of the chart as it is obvious that the poles cannot be correctly
represented. In real terms the usage of this chart is limited to 70N/S.
Scale The projection is:

Expanded in the East - West direction at high latitudes

Expanded in the North South direction away from the equator.

Away from the Standard Parallel this expansion is not the same in all directions and the chart
is not Orthomorphic. To make the chart Orthomorphic mathematical modeling is required.

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Once mathematical modeling has been achieved the scale is still correct along the Equator
where the cylinder touches the reduced earth. Any other point on the chart is still subject to
expansion. This expansion is constant and is related to the secant of the latitude.
Scale problems can be resolved by the following formula:
SEC A

/SEC B = Scale A/Scale B

Which can be further resolved into

Cos Lat A x Scale Denominator Lat B = Cos Lat B x Scale Denominator Lat A
Example
STEP 1

If the scale at the equator is 1:1 000 000 what is the scale at 60N.
Cos Equator x Scale Denominator 60N = Cos 60N x Scale
Denominator Equator
1 x Scale 60N = x 1 000 000
1: 500 000

Measurement of Distance
The mid latitude scale must be used because of the scale
expansion away from the Equator.
Properties of the Mercator Chart
Meridians

Straight parallel lines

Parallels

Straight parallel lines with spacing increasing towards the poles

Orthomorphic Yes (after mathematical modelling)

Rhumb Line

Straight Line

Great Circle

A curve concave towards the Equator. Meridians and Equator are

straight lines

Convergence Zero as the meridians are parallel to each other. Chart convergence
is correct at the Equator where the value is equal to convergence on
the Earth.
Scale

General Navigation

Expands away from the Equator by the secant of the latitude

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Limitations

70N/S

Plotting on a Mercator Chart Radio bearings follow the shortest path over the Earths
surface, the Great Circle distance. On a Mercator chart a straight line is a Rhumb Line and so
the Great Circle direction must be converted into a Rhumb Line direction before it can be
plotted.
With the exception of ADF bearings, all bearings are changed into a QTE and then
Conversion Angle (CA) is applied. With ADF the bearing to be plotted is determined first and
then CA is applied.
When calculating either the Great Circle direction or Rhumb Line direction the Great Circle is
always closer to the relative pole. Remember that True North is always to the top of the chart.
Always draw the GC direction as a straight line (on the Mercator the GC is a curve). Then
there will be no confusion as to which line is which; this will be apparent when we look at the
first calculation.
Note: In the next two examples the meridians look as if they are drawn for a
Lamberts Conformal chart not a Mercator. The reason for drawing the
diagrams in this way is that it makes distinguishing the Northern hemisphere
from the Southern Hemisphere easier. If you wish you can draw the meridians
as parallel lines.
Example

Step 1

An aircraft obtains a magnetic bearing of 270 off an NDB. The

variation at the aircraft position is 17W. The aircraft is in the Northern
Hemisphere, what is the RL bearing to plot from the meridian passing
through the NDB position on the chart if the convergence between
the aircraft and the NDB is 12?
Calculate the required information first
The GC bearing to the NDB is 270M 17W = 253T
Calculate the conversion angle, this is half of the
convergence = 6

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Step 2

Draw the diagram. The GC to the NDB is 253T, this puts the
NDB to the West of the aircraft.

TN

Step 3

TN

In the diagram above it is obvious that the RL direction to

the NDB is less than the GC direction.
The difference being the CA which is the convergence of
the meridians = 6.
So the RL direction to the NDB is 253 6 = 247T
The reciprocal must be plotted as we want the bearing from
the NDB to give us a position line = 067T

For the Southern Hemisphere

TN

TN
RL
GC = 253
RL to Plot 079

GC

Step 1

General Navigation

RL = 253 + 6
= 259

Follow the calculation stage first and then draw the diagram.

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Step 2

Again it is obvious that the aircraft must be West of the NDB.

From the diagram it is now obvious that the RL direction is
greater than the GC direction.
The difference again being the CA of 6
So the RL to the NDB is 253 + 6 = 259T
So the RL to be plotted is the reciprocal 079T

Use of Chart The main use of the Mercator Chart is as a navigation plotting chart. In
Equatorial Regions the projection is used as a topographical map. Either side of the Equator
for small distances the map scale is practically constant.
Mercator Problem 1

Mercator Problem 2

On a Mercator, the distance between two meridians 1 apart is

3.58cm
i.

Express the scale at 40N as a representative fraction.

ii.

Where on the chart would the scale be 1:2 000 000

i.

The scale of a Mercator is 1:1 000 000 at 40N. What is the

scale at the Equator

ii.

Explain whether it is possible for the scale to be 1:2 000 000

at any latitude.

Mercator Problem 3

The relative bearing of an NDB is 247 from an aircraft on a heading

of 047(T). If the change of longitude between the aircraft and the
NDB is 12 and the mean latitude is 65N, what bearing would you
plot on the Mercator?

Mercator Problem 4

The scale of a Mercator at 48N is 1:4 000 000.

What would be the spacing between two meridians 1 apart
at 48N?

Mercator Problem 5

With reference to a Mercator:

i.
ii.
iii.

Mercator Problem 6

How does scale vary?

Where is convergence correctly represented?
Where on the chart would a straight line represent a great
circle?

On a Mercator chart, at latitude 44N, the measured distance

between two fixes 10 minutes apart in time along a track of 090(T) is
1.63 ins. If the chart scale at 15N is 1:3 000 000, what is the
aircrafts speed in kts?

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Mercator Problem 7

A Mercator extending from 008W to 003E has a scale of

1:1 000 000 at 56N. What is the distance in inches between the
limiting meridians?

Mercator Problem 8

When using a Mercator chart with a scale 1:4 000 000 at 58N, a fix
is plotted at position 4700N 00218E. 20 minutes later a second fix is
obtained, indicating a track made good of 270(T). The distance
apart of these two fixes is 6 cm.
i.
ii.

General Navigation

What is mean ground speed between fixes?

Give the longitude of second fix.

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Mercator Problem Answers
Mercator Problem 1

i.

Departure = Dlong x Cos lat

60 x Cos 40 = 45.96 nm
3.58 cm = 45.96 nm = 85.12 km
1 cm = 23.776 km = 2 377 595
Scale is 1: 2 377 595

ii.

Cos A x Scale Den B = Cos B x Scale Den A

Cos 40 x 2 000 000 = Cos B x 2 377 595
Cos B = 0.644
Lat = 50

Mercator Problem 2

i.

Scale E x Cos 40 = 1 000 000 x Cos E

Scale at the Equator is 1:1 305 407

ii.

1 305 407 x Cos Lat = 2 000 000 x Cos Equator

Cos Lat = 2 000 000 1 305 407 > 1
No

Mercator Problem 3

i.

RB + Hdg = TB = 247 + 047 = 294

The Rhumb Line must be plotted.
Convergence is Ch Long x Sin Lat = 10.87
CA = convergence = 5.4
GC CA = RL
294 5.4 = RL = 288.6
The reciprocal must be plotted from the beacon =
108.5

Mercator Problem 4

60 @ 48 = 40.14 nm = 74.35 km
CD =
cm

Mercator Problem 5

Mercator Problem 6

ED

/RF = (74.35 x 100 000) 4 000 000 = 1.858

Expands away from the Equator

ii.

The Equator

iii.

The Equator and the Meridians

i.

Scale Den 44N x Cos 15 = Scale Den 15 x Cos 44

Scale at 44 1: 2 234 146
1 inch = 2 234 146 inches = 30.62 nm
1.63 inches = 49.91 nm traveled in 10 minutes

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Groundspeed = 300 knots

Mercator Problem 7

Dlong = 60 x 11 = 660 = 369 nm

1 inch = 1 000 000 = 13.7 nm
11 is represented by 369 13.7 = 26.9

Mercator Problem 8

i.

Calculate the scale for 47N

4 000 000 cos 47 = scale(47) Cos 58
Scale (47) = 4 000 000 cos 47 cos 58
= 5 147 942
6 cm = ED 5 147 942
ED = 166.67 nm traveled in 20 minutes
Groundspeed 500 knots

ii.

166.67 = Dlong x Cos 47

Dlong = 244.4
404 of travel
New Longitude 001 46W

General Navigation

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