Unit 7 Exam (Midterm): Focus on Motivation & Emotion

37 new questions & 113 review questions = 150 questions (No FRQ)
January 13 - 19
38 vocabulary terms (17 concepts on p. 364 and 21 concepts on p. 408)

MOTIVATION
Theories of Motivation
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: we are motivated by needs, not all needs are
equal, driven to lower needs first
Homeostasis: tendency to maintain balanced internal conditions and regulate
body chemistry
Drive-Reduction Theory: motivated by our BIOLOGICAL needs, physiological
arousal creates a drive which motivates the organism to satisfy the need, ex] thirst
- homeostasis
Instinct Theory: motivated by our inborn automated, UNLEARNED, behaviors
Incentive Theory (push and pull): motivated by positive and negative
ENVIRONMENTAL stimuli, ex] $
Arousal Theory: motivated to seek optimum level of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson Law: states basic/general tasks are completed best with
moderate level of arousal

Hunger *Hunger comes from the BRAIN (hypothalamus), not stomach

Glucose: natural sugars in the body, main source of energy; if there are low levels
of glucose, there will be high hunger levels
Insulin: converts glucose into fat
Lateral hypothalamus: stimulated- hungry, lesioned- never be hungry again
Ventral Medial hypothalamus: stimulated: full, lesioned- never feel full again
Set-point theory: body falls below set point, hunger ^ metabolism v
(hypothalamus acts like a thermostat) Leptin Theory:
Eating disorders
Anorexia: one sees themselves as always fat, and they set out to starve
themselves of the natural nutrients their body needs, usually have below 80% of
their body weight

Bulimia: one goes through the process of bingeing and purging in order to reduce
their appearance that they are fat
Sex
Masters and Johnson sexual cycle:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Excitement Phase: genitals engorged with blood + lubrication occurs

Plateau Phase: nearing the orgasm
Orgasm: muscle contractions
Resolution Phase: everything slows, men enter refractory period (incapable
of another orgasm)

Belongingness
Why we need to belong: we can create relationships that aids survival so we can
pass genes into future generations

Achievement Motivation
Need for achievement: desire for accomplishments in certain skills, ideas, for
control, attendance (IQ is not an achievement)
Extrinsic Motivation: perform due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
(controlling reward: $ for every A leads to studying as long as your mom pays)
Intrinsic motivation: desire to perform for its own sake and to be effective

EMOTION & STRESS

Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory: we feel emotion because our brain recognizes a biological
change caused by the situation,
Cannon-Bard Theory: physiological and emotional changes occur at the same
time as the thalamus routes it to two different places at the same time (think of 2
cannons firing @ the same time)
Two-factor Theory (Schacter): physiological and emotional response occur at the
same time but it is up to us to put a cognitive label on the situation and decide how
we react and feel
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: adapting to a certain situation where emotions
arent as intense as in the beginning, ex] winning the lottery- happiness isnt the
same a year later
Catharsis Hypothesis: emotional aggression release, relieves urges (only works
when it is directly against the provoker, when it is justifiable, and when the target is

nonintimidating) aggression creates aggression because aggression is reinforcing

(we get a rush)
Relative Deprivation Theory: our tendency to view ourselves as worse off than
those around us (we compare), ex] you got a B and is happy until you see your
friends got an A
Non-verbal communication: middle finger, silently shushing
Facial-feedback effect: facial expressions intensify feelings
Feel good, do good phenomenon: the tendency to be more helpful if you are in
a good mood
Amygdala: primary center for regulating emotions, signal from Amygdala to Cortex
is stronger than the signal back form Cortex to Amygdala, (this is why we stay mad
for a while)
Physiology of emotion:
Facial expressions: Joy, Anger, Interest, Disgust, Surprise, Sadness, Fear,
(universally understood emotions)
Parasympathetic Nervous System: part of the AUTONOMIC nervous system that
CALMS the body to conserve its energy after an intense emotional or physical
exertion
Stress Appraisal: your recognition and reaction to a stressful situation that can
either hurt or help your health
General Adaptation Syndrome:
1. Alarm: sympathetic nervous system activates releasing cortisol
2. Resistance: how long the stressor lasts, we stay on high alert
3. Exhaustion: parasympathetic nervous system activates (at risk of illness)
Epinephrine:
Type A/Type B personalities
A: workaholic, aggressive, impatient (more at risk for heart disease)
B: easy-going, relaxed, reflective, creative
Psychophysiological illness: physical illness caused by stress related-issues, ex]
headaches, hypertension, ulcers
Biofeedback: learning how to control function of your body like heartbeat and
blood pressure
Perceived control: the perception of viewing the situation us as negative and
uncontrollable or positive and manageable (can cause illness) if we have control
over the situation or not *learned helplessness*

Stress
Stressors: the factor that causes the stress
Sympathetic Nervous System: part of the AUTONOMIC that AROUSES the body
to mobilize its energy in stressful situations like a life or death experience

RESEARCH & APPROACHES (UNIT 1)

William James and functionalism: analyze the function of consciousness and
how it affects behaviors and leads to adaptive behaviors, James believed the
consciousness was always changing and has no structure
All Psychology PerspectivesNeuroscience (Biological) Perspective: physical body and brain creates our
emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
Evolutionary Perspective: behavior due to inherited behaviors, behaviors of
ancestors ensured their survival so we have them as well (Darwinism), ex] Emma
Watsons beauty would keep her alive
Psychodynamic Perspective: Sigmund Freud, our behaviors come from
unconscious drives usually stemming from childhood
Psychoanalytical Perspective: man cannot maintain intimacy, has issues
forming relationships in the future focuses on the possibility of being bullied as a
child
Behavioral Perspective: focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings
aside we behave in certain ways because we are conditioned (learned) to do so
Cognitive Perspective: focuses on how we think (encode) information, cognitive
therapists intend on changing the way you think
Social-Cultural Perspective: focuses on how culture affects you behavior ex]
same highschool, changed behavior in different classrooms
Humanistic Perspective: focused on positive growth, free will, and selfactualization (ideal self)
Hindsight bias: tendency to believe, after learning the outcome that we knew it all
along
Overconfidence: we tend to think we know more than we do
Case Studies: one person or situation is observed in depth
Surveys
Wording effects: bias, used in both descriptional and correlational research

Naturalistic Observation: observing and recording behavior in a natural

environment no control
Correlational Studies *correlation DOES NOT equal causation*
Correlational coefficients: describes relationship between variables and allows
one to predict the other
Experiment
Operational Definition: defining a variable so someone can replicate the study
ex] kids, happiness, jumping
Population versus sample: population is the subject you are interested in
studying, sample is the subject(s) you studied
Random assignment
Random Sampling
Calculating
Mean: add up all the variables and divide by the number of variables there were
originally, outliers skew data
Median: find the middle variable
Mode: find the variable to occurs the most in the set

BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR (UNIT 2)

Autonomic Nervous System: the nervous system in your body that deals with
anything you cannot consciously control
Peripheral Nervous System: everything except the brain or spinal cord
All-or-none response: the instance where a neuron will fire with the minimal
amount of stimulation (like a gun trigger), you feel more pain because more neurons
are firing and the gate-control theory (at the spine) influences how much pain you
feel depending on the severity of the injury ex] you will feel more pain stubbing
your toe than breaking a bone
Structure of a neuron:

Synapse: fluid-filled area in between neurons that acts as a transportation highway

for neurotransmitters
Brain Imaging:
EEG: function (what is happening in our brain), not structure *electrical
PET Scan: shows function and electrified/radioactive *glucose
MRI: shows structure/ brain anatomy *magnetic
CT/CAT Scan: shows structure of brain through *x-rays
fMRI: tells both structure and function of the brain *functional mri
Brocas Area: part of the brain that allows you to speak (controls lip and tongue
movement)
Wernicke's Area: part of the brain that allows you to comprehend what is spoken
Association Areas: every area of the brain that is not involved in keeping you
alive ex] frontal lobe
Experience and Brain Development: brain stem (medulla- heartbeat and lungs,
reticular formation-controls consciousness and arousal {lesioned: coma, stimulated:
hyper/awake}), hindbrain, , forebrain
Lesion: medically, purposefully damaging part of the brain
Medulla: heartbeat and breathing
Cerebellum: controls muscle memory and balance (vestibular)
Hippocampus: memory (stores)
Hypothalamus: controls the endocrine system
Thalamus: redirects every sense, except for smell, to the brain (sensory cortex and
occipital lobe), maintains body temp (maintenance like eating and drinking)
Reticular formation: controls arousal lesioned: coma, stimulated: awake
Motor cortex: controls muscle movements
Occipital lobe: *optical, processes visual stimuli (tells us what we see)
Temporal lobe: auditory cortex (closest one to brain stem)
Parietal lobe (sensory cortex): relays all senses you feel for touch
Split-Brain patients: people who have a severed corpus callosum, left and right
brain cannot communicate
Neurotransmitters: *flashcards
Hormones: chemical things in your bloodstream that act in similar ways

Traits that are genetically predisposed: instinctive traits, reflexes, things to

things like snakes, low metabolism
Nature versus nurture: environmental vs biological traits affect who we are

SENSATION & PERCEPTION (UNIT 3)

Absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimuli needed to detect something ex]
dog whistle
Signal Detection Theory: youre prone to notice a certain stimuli based on what
you are prepared to notice ex] mother and baby wake up to babys cry and sleep
through traffic
Difference threshold: there is a minimum amount of difference in stimuli needed
ex] haircuts
Weber's law and JND: the bigger the stimulus, the bigger the change needed for
someone to detect the change JND: the amount needed for you to notice the
change
Parallel processing: ability to process many things at once
Transduction: changing stimuli/signals into electrical signals that can be sent to
the brain
Ear: occurs in the basilar membrane with the basilar hairs (vibrations)
Eye: in the retina: 3rd layer, bipolar cells stimulate ganglion cells where
transduction occurs
Eye structure and function
Eye- (from the eye, signals go to the optic nerve (blindspot- there are no rods and
cones), then to the thalamus, then occipital lobe)
Cornea: outer layer of the eye, protects and refracts light into the pupil
Iris: muscle around the pupil that is responsible for dilations (expands and
contracts) of the pupil
Pupil: hole in the eye where light travels through
Lens: curved, flips the image onto the retina
Retina: three layers, last layer is where transduction occurs
Bipolar Cells: release chemicals which stimulates the ganglion cells (where
transduction occurs)
Rods: allows us to see black and white
Cones: allows us to see color

EarAuditory Canal: sound waves travel through here

Middle Ear/Eardrum: soundwaves are amplified, stimulates vibrations in stirrup,
anvil, and hammer (amplifies even more)
Cochlea: snail-like structure leading to the basilar membrane (inside
Basilar Membrane: contains basilar hair cells where transduction occur
Opponent-process theory: you substitute a color for the pair in the set when you
see that color for a while
Young-Helmholtz Theory: all colors are derived from three colors, additive
color mixing: painting
Structure and function of ear:
Kinesthetic versus vestibular sense
Kinesthetic: your awareness of where your body parts are
Vestibular: your awareness of where your body is in space
Semicircular canals: fluid-filled canals in your ears that deal with balance and the
vestibular sense
Sensory Adaptation: you adapt to a sensory stimuli (hair tie on your wrist)
Sensory interaction: different senses interacting with each other
Bottom-up vs. top-down processing
Bottom-Up: use the features of an object to build a perception ex] first
impressions
Top-Down: our experiences and expectations guide our perceptions ex] we can
read words that are misspelled if first and second letter are correct
Change blindness: your inability to detect a change in an environment
Gestalt
Closure: fill in gaps to create a filled picture
Connectedness: see as uniform or linked
Proximity: group nearby figures together
Similarity: group similar objects together
Figure/ground: different ways to perceive something ex] words on a page
Depth perceptionBinocular vs. monocular cues:

Binocular: two eyes

Retinal disparity: two retinal images are different, to create depth perception
Convergence: brain figures out how close something is to you by measuring how
cross-eyed your eyes get
Monocular: one eye
Interposition: objects blocking our view of other objects
Relative size: the closer something is, the bigger it is
Linear perspective: parallel lines converge as they get farther away (railroad
tracks)
Relative height: the higher something is, the smaller it seems
Relative clarity: the closer something is, the clear it is
Texture gradient: the closer something is, the coarser it is
Visual cliff and depth perception: shows how babies and infants have depth
perception
Perceptual adaptation: you grow to adapt to a sensation ex] hair tie on wrist
Perceptual constancySize Constancy: size of the object remains the same even if it looks different ex]
an open door
Shape constancy: shape of the object remains the same even if it looks different
ex] an open door
Perceptual set: focusing on one stimuli over the other
Selective attention / cocktail party effect:
Visual capture: our sight is our dominant sense

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS (UNIT 4)

Drugs:
Stimulants: speeds up processes in the body
Depressants: slows down processes in the body
Hallucinogens: gives you hallucinations
Marijuana: stimulant + hallucinogen, mind hallucinations, amplifies sensation of
colors
Meth: stimulant, feeling of euphoria

Cocaine: stimulant, powerful 15-30 minute high, depletes brain supply of

serotonin, dopamine, endorphins
Alcohol: depressant
Opiates: drug with morphine-like effects
Heroin: depressant, makes you super chill/calm
LSD: Hallucinogen,
Circadian rhythm: our internal sleep clock
Hypnosis
Split or divided consciousness theory:
Dissociation: a split in consciousness that allows thoughts and behaviors to occur
simultaneously
ex] multitasking
Hilgard: focused on hypnosis and known for hidden observer
Hidden observer: a small part of us that experiences what happens under
hypnosis ex] a part of us still feels the pain from the ice
Manifest content of dreams: Manifest Content is the outline of the dream,
Latent Content is the underlying meaning of the dream (Freud)
Sleep disordersSleep apnea: cant get oxygen to the lungs during sleep
Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks
Insomnia: inability to fall asleep
Night terrors: wake up screaming, occurring in stage 4
Sleep stages 90 minute cycles
Stage 1: THETA WAVES, hypnogogic jerks, kind of awake
Stage 2: SLEEP SPINDLES- bursts of brain activity, theta waves get slower
Stage 3 + 4: DELTA WAVES, restore growth hormones, if woken up you will feel
groggy
REM: (rapid-eye movement) aka paradoxical sleep, dream, REM rebound- if you
are sleep deprived, you will experience longer periods of REM sleep, brain is very
active
Tolerance: your body becomes tolerant of a substance, causing you to need more
of it in the future to get the same effect as in the beginning
Withdrawal: distress that follows the discontinuance of an addictive drug

LEARNING (UNIT 5)
Watson and observable behavior:
Classical versus operant conditioning:
Classical conditioning- a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more
stimuli and anticipate events.
Operant conditioning- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if
followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Classical conditioning: Baby Albert
CR: crying, fear of furry animals
CS: furry animals
UCR: crying, fear of furry animals
UCS: loud noise
NS: furry animal
Generalization: Albert became afraid of all furry animals when they only used a
white rat
Spontaneous recovery: you take a psych class in college, all your knowledge will
be refreshed from freshman year
Operant conditioning: learning through consequences and reinforcements
Negative Reinforcement: increasing behavior by taking something away ex]
getting phone taken away if you get a bad grade
Positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by adding something ex] getting
paid for good grades
Positive Punishment: decreasing behavior by adding something unpleasant ex]
getting a spanking for sneaking out
Negative Punishment: decreasing by taking away something ex] taking phone
away to stop you from sneaking out
Skinner: NURTURE behaviorist, social learning theory we learn language by
seeing other people speak, Skinners Box
Shaping: get a desired behavior through reinforcing small steps ex] giving a treat
every time you get close to the desired behavior
Immediate versus delayed reinforcement: Immediate: increases behavior and
extinction very fast, Delayed: learning is slow, but more resistant to extinction
Schedules of reinforcement:

Fixed Ratio: reinforces a behavior after a set number of Reponses ex] paid after
mowing lawn
Fixed Interval: reinforces a behavior after a set time has elapsed ex] monthly
payment/salary
Variable Ratio: reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses
ex]
Variable Interval: reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time
has elapsed ex]
Primary Reinforers: food and drink
Secondary Reinforcers: money
Observational Learning: aka social learning, learning without interference
Latent learning: learning that occurs but is only present when there is an
incentive
Cognitive maps: mental layout of an environment ex] rats in mazes

COGNITION (UNIT 6)
Memory:
Context effects: the way someone says something ex] smashed vs hit
Mood-congruent memory: tendency to recall memories that are congruent to
ones current good or bad mood
State-dependent memory: tendency to recall memories better if youre in the
same state of consciousness when you made
Encoding: processing information into the memory system
Storage: storing information into long or short term memory
Retrieval: getting information out of storage
Sensory memory: immediate, brief recording of sensory information ex] walking
into a room
Short-term memory: memory that holds a few items briefly before it is forgotten
or stored ex] phone #
Long-term memory: relatively permanent memory
Rehearsal: conscious repetition of information
Mnemonic device: memory aid

Chunking: organizing into familiar, manageable units ex] 7047041651 into 704705-1652
Semantic encoding: encoding of meaning, words
Spacing effect: distribute study for long-term retention
Echoic memory: ability to recall audition memory for 3-4 seconds
Explicit memory: declarative memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously recall and talk about
Implicit memory: nondeclarative retention of memory abilities that one cannot
describe, no conscious recollection
Priming: predisposing (associations) ones memory by activating certain
associations ex] white, white, white = milk
Forgetting
Encoding failure: inability to encode information into LTM
Retrieval failure: inability to retrieve information from the LTM
Retroactive Interference: new information blocks old information ex] teachers
forgetting students name
Proactive interference: old information blocks new ex] dude says the name of his
old girlfriend
Memory construction: encode, store, retrieve
Misinformation effect: incorporating wrong information into ones memory to
give them false memories ex] telling someone theyve met Taylor Swift when they
havent
Role of epinephrine in memory: enhances memory
Role of Hippocampus in memory formation: part of the limbic system, helps
encode explicit memories

Language:
Phonemes: smallest unit of sound ex] chug = ch, u, g
Morphemes: smallest unit of means ex] prefix or suffix
Semantics: rules by which we derive meaning in a language ex] adding ed at the
end of words
Syntax: rules for combing words into sentences, grammar
Stages of language development:

Babbling Stage: starts at 3-4 months, infants make spontaneous noises

One-Word Stage: at 1-2 years old, uses one word to communicate meaning ex] go
Two-Word Stage: at age 2, uses two words to communicate meaning, aka
telegraphic speech ex] go car
Chomsky's theory of language acquisition: we learn language too fast to
comprehend it, over generalization, NATURE
Skinner's theory of language: social-learning theory, we learn to speak based off
of how we view our parents speak, NUTURE
Critical period for language: period of time when infants must be exposed to
language
Whorf's linguistic relativity theory: our language determines the way we think