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In this conceptual article we examine the interrelationships between two fields of study, specifically the
real and potential contributions of leisure studies to event studies. Furthermore, we consider the evolution of the two fields, philosophical discourses and theories associated with both. Epistemologically,
both event and leisure studies have drawn heavily from the same foundation disciplines when focusing
on motivation, experience, and benefits. Ontologically, event studies seeks to develop distinct concepts
that differentiate planned event experiences and the meanings attached to them, but there are definitely
shared areas of knowledge with leisure studies. Specific leisure philosophies, and theories are examined
as to their current and potential application within event studies, and insights are provided about how
these two closely related fields can cooperate in the future for their mutual benefit.
Key words: Leisure studies; Event studies; Theory; Philosophy; Epistemology; Ontology
Introduction
Leisure and event studies are closely related in a
number of important ways, particularly with regard
to the nature of leisure experiences and the fact that
so many planned events are clearly leisure oriented.
There is considerable potential for leisure studies,
being older and better established academically
to contribute to the advancement of event studies,
and with this in mind the primary purpose of this
article is to demonstrate how these closer ties can
be achieved.
There are three apparent ways in which leisure
studies can help advance event studies, the first
being a simple transfer of topics and methods from
a more mature field to a newer one. Such a transfer
is based on the assumption that much of the scholarly interest in events is dependent upon their status
as a leisure (and travel) phenomenona supposition that is only partially true. However, many topics that have been examined in leisure studies are
not actually theories (Harris, 2005), and with regard
to topics such as authenticity, there are parallel discourses in all fields dealing with experiences.
A second contribution is in the form of academic
knowledge about the evolution, nature, and challenges that are applied to an academic field. For
example, an important component of leisure studies
has been the philosophical discourse on the nature
and value of leisure, and it has been argued that this
depth of philosophical discourse has not yet occurred
within event studies (Getz, 2007). The third transfer
Address correspondence to Dr. Ian Patterson, Associate Professor, School of Tourism, University of Queensland,
St. Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia.
E-mail: ian.patterson@uq.edu.au
Delivered
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leisure concepts apply by their extension and adapsetting, service quality management, themes, and
tation to all planned events, even those normally
programs all suggest and shape desired experiences.
associated with business.
Sport management encompasses the production of
A phenomenon means a state or process known
competitive events, with an emphasis on the athlete
through the senses, in other words something that
and audiences experiences. Within the arts, planned
can be experienced. An event is a tangible pheevents are essential, but events are not the only form
nomenon bounded by space and time. When it is
of artistic expression.
over, it is gone forever and cannot be perfectly
replicated owing to variations in the interactions of
Types of Planned Events: Which Ones Fall
people, the environment, and management systems.
Into the Leisure Domain?
The essence of an event is that an experience is
sought and it is designed (or at least the experience
Events can be classified according to their form
is facilitated), which would not otherwise occur in
(which is a social construct, and therefore vardaily life. There are many styles of planned events
ies between cultures and even generations), as in
produced for many purposes, but in every case
describing the obvious differences in programming
there is intent to create or at least shape the indiand settings between festivals, competitions, meetvidual and collective experiences of the audience
ings, or trade shows. Another typological approach
or participants. Increasingly, many people desire to
relates to the function or roles of events, differenticocreate their experiences with significant others,
ating between those that are created to raise money
and event/experience designers are now becoming
or for conducting business so as to attract tourists
more aware of the expanded possibilities for design
or garner media attention. Because experiences are
and marketing that this presents. New forms are
highly personal, and therefore not directly dependent
always being created, and this in itself is of considupon the type or function of the event, it is very diffierable interest within event and leisure studies.
cult to suggest an experiential typology. What can be
Multiple perspectives associated with experiences
done is to state, in the language of service-dominant
and meanings have also to be considered. Obviously
logic (Varga & Lusch, 2004) that the value proposithere are paying customers and invited guests at most
tion of organizers will result in certain events faciliplanned events, but there are also the organizers such
tating certain types of experiences. In this context,
as staff, volunteers, sponsors and other facilitators,
event organizers understand that they create either
regulators (e.g., city officials), coproducers, exhibientertainment events or business events for quite diftors, and suppliers. We are also concerned about how
ferent purposes, but they cannot dictate, and often
meanings are attached to planned events and to the
cannot determine, what experiences their customers
personal event experience. For example, is the event
or guests actually acquire.
perceived to be a shared cultural experience or is it
One can make the argument that business events
personally self-fulfilling? We also have to examine
are totally dissimilar from leisure events, refermeanings from different perspectives. Each stakering to the intrinsic versus extrinsic motivational
holder in the process wants, expects, and receives
dichotomy and to the goals of organizers. Those in
potentially different experiences and can attach difthe leisure domain concentrate on attracting people
ferent meanings to the event.
who want to attend in order to realize benefits such
Events are also important, but are not at the core
as being entertained, having fun, relaxing, socialof closely related fields. In tourism, events are develizing, celebrating, or pursuing communitas and
oped to attract tourists and generate favorable images
self-development (Getz, 2007). But the assumption
of a destination. Increasing attention is being given
that convention delegates or trade show attendees
to event tourism as it manifests experiential marpossess only extrinsic motivations has been freketing, in contrast to the more traditional emphasis
quently disproved (Rittichainuwat & Mair, 2012).
of tangible products and places. In hospitality, events
Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) concluded that
are an important service to be provided to clients,
consumer travel show attendance may be closely
technically involving the design of specific prodlinked with the individual leisure desires of the visiucts (food, beverages, and Delivered
gifts) and the
physical
tor, that is,
to get special deals on travel to desirable
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safe in the knowledge that they were not transgressand what they want from different types of events.
ing the wider social structure that they encountered
This approach appears to make the most sense for
in everyday life. This was particularly true for bull
highly involved participants who are completely
running, where descriptions of participation used a
engaged in an event, such as extreme sports or other
rhetoric of danger, injury, machismo, and adrenaline
group situations.
rush more usually associated with physical aggression and combat (Ravenscroft & Mateucci, 2003,
Personal Antecedents, Motivations, Constraints,
p.12). They found that for residents, the fiesta was
and Choices in Leisure and Event Research
primarily a cultural celebration that also included
many important leisure-related elements. The tourists
Antecedents refer to those factors that influence
were also motivated by leisure and social factors, such
or constrain participation in leisure and events as
as enjoying the nightlife and meeting new people.
well as their influence on specific choices (i.e., the
Event researchers are increasingly focusing on the
decision-making process). In a marketing frame
leisure experiences of participants. Agrusa, Maples,
these are subsumed under consumer choice theory.
Kitterlin, and Tanner (2008) studied runners in the
However, for many aspects of leisure and events,
Honolulu Marathon in 2006 and concluded that
we need to look much deeper into the social and culfirst-time competitors valued the experience as well
tural influences because not all leisure and events
as having a greater economic impact than repeat
represent commodities that are rationally chosen in
runners on Hawaiis economy. Atkinson (2008)
a free marketplace.
found that triathletes come together as a mutually
The motivations to participate in leisure at
recognized pain community who learn to relish
planned events are of considerable theoretical and
the physical and mental suffering from the sport.
practical importance. Deci and Ryan (1991) proThey ritually punish their bodies in triathlon races,
posed that intrinsically motivated behavior occurs
which can induce a liminal state. The triathlon
in the absence of any apparent external reward and
was described as physiologically exhilarating and
where people have free choice, resulting in experinovel for most competitors at first, which became
ences that are optimally challenging and feelings
more exciting when triathletes pushed their bodies
associated with the flow state. Motivation theory
harder and longer. Group runs, rides, and swims
has also been a preoccupation with event researchwere seen as social occasions where these athletes
ers, drawing heavily from the leisure and tourism
could inflict further suffering on their bodies.
literature, which have been intertwined through the
Many forms of leisure bring people together at
work of Mannell and Iso-Ahola (1987), and their
planned events in a spirit of belonging and sharseeking-escaping model. A large number of studies
ing. Turner (1974) described liminality as a state of
have examined festival and event motivation, and
social limbo associated with rites of passage during
generally these have confirmed that the seekingwhich participants play with elements of culture.
escaping theory connects directly to Maslows
In modern societies he saw the liminoid state as
(1968) needs hierarchy. Raybould, Digance, and
encompassing individualized leisure pursuits such
McCullough (1999) studied the motives of visitors
as art, sport, pastimes, and games. The liminoid
to a folk festival and found that the desire to experistate is associated with fun, revelry, and entertainence a unique and authentic festival was the most
ment that occurs in a variety of leisure and event
highly ranked dimension. Motivational statements
settings. In a model of planned event experiences,
relating to escape from the normal environment and
Getz (2007) described the attendee as entering into
the need to seek social stimulation were also ranked
a bounded time and space, marked by liminoid
highly by the majority of visitors.
experiences, echoing the words of Falassi (1987)
Leisure theorists (Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey,
who described festivals as a time out of time.
1991; Jackson, 2005) also sought to explain what
Peak or optimal experiences and flow theory
constrains people from doing what they want to do
have also direct applicability to events, but event
in their leisure. Generic categories of constraints
researchers have been slow to adapt these constructs
have been identified, such as intrapersonal (ones
to how participants describe their
event
experiences
and attitudes), interpersonal (such as a
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Table 1
A Comparative Analysis of the Differences Between Leisure and Event Studies
Leisure Studies
Core phenomenon
Applied fields
Epistemology
Event Studies
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