International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Published online 13 January 2010 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1153

Articial Cranial Modication on a Female

Skeleton From the Byzantine Site of
Maroneia (Thrace, Greece)
PARASKEVI TRITSAROLI*
Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece

ABSTRACT

Articial cranial modication is one of the most often documented types of intentional intervention on the
human skeleton in the anthropological record. A female cranium exhibiting headshaping recently came to light
at the Early Byzantine site of Maroneia, in Thrace, northern Greece. Headshaping was practiced by several
different population groups during the migration period (1st9th c. AD), but was unknown in Byzantine
customs. Homogeneity in burial customs, evidenced by the skeletons position and orientation and by
cemetery topography, strongly supports the hypothesis that this burial belonged to a Christianised citizen
who had the right to be buried in a common Christian cemetery. Headshaping provides strong evidence for the
cultural adaptability and complexity of Early Byzantine society at Maroneia, an important provincial urban
centre of the Byzantine Empire. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Key words: circular cranial modication; burial customs; migration period; Byzantium; Greece

Introduction
Early Byzantine period (4th8th c. AD) was marked by
frequent geopolitical changes and signicant population movements into and within Europe, including
the Balkans. Historical sources indicate that people
from different religions and ethnicities were not always
in conict with each other during Byzantine times, but
peacefully coexisted within the generally Christian,
Orthodox society. Furthermore, the large territorial
extent of the Byzantine Empire had lead to the creation
of a much diversied population. Different population
groups were distinguished by their origin, language,
religious beliefs and customs (Lefort, 2006). This study
attempts to explore the cultural diversity of the Early
Byzantine society through the rst case of articial
cranial modication that was uncovered at the site of
Maroneia in the northern Greek region of Thrace.
The expansion of cranial modication in the area
of Europe is related to the migration period during
the 1st9th c. AD (Fo`thi, 2000). Several articially
modied skulls from historical times have been
uncovered in Western Europe (Delisle, 1889; Kiszely,
* Correspondence to: Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical
Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece.
e-mail: voula_tritsaroli@hotmail.com

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1978; Simon, 1978; Duday, 1983; Formicola & Scarsini,

1987; Buchet, 1988; Maureille et al., 1995; Benus et al.,
1999; Kustar, 1999) indicating the presence of
elements originating from the East (Buchet, 1988;
Buchet, 1997). Dingwall (1931) recounts that head
deformation produced by the application of wads, pads and
bandages to the head is prevalent throughout the Tiis area [the
region around the Caucasus and the Black Sea] among
Armenians, Jews, Greeks and Ossetes, and the result is to atten
the forehead. More precisely, articial cranial modication is associated with the Alans, Avars, Quades,
Goths, Gepids and Huns. Several cases close to Greece
are reported in Romania, Bulgaria, the area of formerYugoslavia, Hungary and Italy, dating from 2nd to 8th
c. AD (Kiszely, 1978). This period covers the transition
from late antiquity to the foundation of the Byzantine
Empire and extends to the so-called Dark Ages.
Consequently, headshaping in Byzantine Greece did
not arise in isolation from practices in surrounding
regions.
Articial cranial modication was not a customary
practice in Christian tradition and culture, and never
documented before in Byzantine cemetery populations
from Greece. The discovery of the skeleton with the
shaped head at the site of Maroneia suggests the
presence of an individual with a cultural background
distinct from that of the other, non-head-shaped
Received 23 February 2009
Revised 11 December 2009
Accepted 18 December 2009

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

individuals in the sample. Thus, this specimen
represents an additional source of information about
culture contact in the Early Byzantine period by the
spread of different cultural practices in the Greek
territory.
The paper describes the individual with the shaped
head and combines anthropological information on
headshaping with archaeological and historical evidence on burial customs and cemetery topography. At
the present state of analysis, there is no reliable
evidence available to discuss the origin of this
individual. The study addresses two major issues:
rstly, evaluate articial cranial modication as an
indicator of regional connections and cultural diffusion; and secondly, investigate the ways in which Early
Byzantine society integrated an individual using
articial skull modication as marker of sociocultural
difference.

Maroneia in the Early Byzantine period

The ancient city of Maroneia in Thrace was founded
in the 7th c. BC and continuously occupied until the
post-Byzantine period (13th c. AD). Maroneia
remained prosperous through antiquity until the Early
Byzantine era, when, like other ancient city-states, it
was transformed into a Byzantine fortress (DoukataDemertzi, 2005). Several of the sites occupational
phases, including that belonging to the Early Byzantine
period, reveal that Maroneia was for many centuries an
urban centre with ourishing commercial exchanges
and an industrial and agrarian economy (Doukata,
1991a; Doukata, 1991b; Doukata-Demertzi, 1994).
Maroneia was also a cosmopolitan city with rich
ecclesiastical and secular buildings, whose prosperous
port lay on the northern Aegean route to Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire.
Considering its strategic location, Maroneia didnt
escape invasions and conicts with migratory population groups. From the mid 3rd c. AD until AD 382,
Maroneia was dominated by Visigoths and Ostrogoths.
The Huns also attacked the Balkans twice. They rst
unsuccessfully threatened Maroneia in AD 441,
followed by the Bulgarians (AD 491515), Antes
(AD 517578) and Avars (AD 583679) (Tziovas,
1932; Tremopoulos, 1966). Nevertheless, archaeological and historical evidence attest that Maroneia was
not abandoned but survived theses trials, retained its
population (Doukata-Demertzi, 2008) and soon
regained its role as a functional urban centre of the
Byzantine State.
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

465

Materials
The Byzantine site of Maroneia, situated today in the
areas of Paleochora and Aghios Charalambos, lies approximately 3 km southeast of the modern village of
Maroneia in southern Rodopi (Figure 1). Burial grounds
have been identied both inside and outside the
Byzantine city walls of Maroneia (Triantafyllos, 1973;
Aliprantis, 1994; Karadima, 1994, 1995; Aliprantis,
1996; Doukata, 1996; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997).
Extramural burials presently include graves in the area
of the ancient theatre (Figure 2) and distributed among
contemporary farms located mainly to the north and
east of the fortied city.
Archaeological and historical research reveals that
cemeteries during the Early Byzantine period were only
allowed outside city walls, whereas burials in later
periods could be placed within fortied cities (Marki,
1990; Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, 1995; 1997; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997). Burials from the extramural
cemetery at Maroneia consequently belong to the
Early Byzantine period. Furthermore, archaeological
evidence shows that the ancient theatre was abandoned in the 5th c. AD; this date represents a terminus
post quem for the cemetery burials. The individual

Figure 1. Map of Greece showing the location of the site of

Maroneia (Department of Rodopi, Thrace).

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

466

P. Tritsaroli

Figure 2. Ancient theatre of Maroneia (courtesy of C. Karadima, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini) (top) and Early Christian graves at
the ancient theatre (drowning by N. Hatzidakis, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini (bottom). This gure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

01/T05 with the shaped head comes from cist grave

N5, which was excavated in 2001 on the west slope of
the ancient theatre (Figure 2). Archaeological ndings
within the intramural city suggest Maroneias Early
Byzantine period ended in the early 6th c. AD. The
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

basilica at Paleochora inside the city walls was destroyed

and the site converted to a cemetery during the Dark
Ages (Doukata-Demertzi, 1999). Thus, the chronological succession of the two cemeteries, along with the
topographic evolution of the burial grounds, dates the
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

467

burials from the extramural cemetery, including the

burial of the woman with the shaped head, between the
5th and early 6th c. AD.
Burials from the extramural cemetery were single
(n 30) and double (n 3). Cist, pit and tile graves
were used. The deceased were orientated west-east,
some of them with little northwest-southeast deviation,
in a supine position with forearms folded on chest or
abdomen, in accordance with common Christian
custom. The skeleton 01/T05 comes from a single
primary burial in a cist grave covered with roong
stone slabs. No offering or accompanying objects were
found in the burial. To date 36 individuals (32 adults
and 4 subadults) have been analysed. For the purposes
of the present study, only adults were considered. A
total of 28 adult skulls were examined, and these are of
varying degree of completeness.

Methods
Determination of sex was carried out using dimorphic
aspects of the pelvis (Bruzek, 2002), while age-at-death
was estimated from morphological changes of the pubic
symphysis and auricular surface, in accordance with
Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994). Stature calculations focused
on femoral length (Olivier, 1960; Olivier & Tissier,
1975a; Olivier & Tissier, 1975b) to achieve results
comparable with other Greek skeletal series from the
same time period (Tritsaroli, 2006a). Several bone and
dental paleopathological lesions were recorded (following Buikstra & Uberlaker, 1994). Although detailed
results of the general skeletal features of this sample are
provided elsewhere (Tritsaroli, 2006b), including
paleodemography, skeletal markers of occupational

stress and paleopathology, lesions are noted in the

present report that differentiate the individual displaying
headshaping from the other adults examined.
Articial cranial modication and headshaping are
terms used to describe changes of skull shape by means
of dynamic distortion of the normal vectors of the infantile
neurocranial growth through the agency of externally applied
forces (Moss, 1958). In living populations, a distinction
is made between unintentional and intentional (or
articial) modication, but in archaeological skeletal
material, such a difference is difcult to demonstrate. In
the present paper, evidence of headshaping was
assessed on the basis of metric analysis, visual, x-ray
and CT inspection. These features are employed in
order to: (1) differentiate between pathological
conditions, unintentional positional causes and intentional causes for modied head shapes, and (2) indicate
the type of modication, and consequently the method
used to achieve the particular cranial shape observed.
Metric analysis uses the adult skulls as a whole while
the rest of the methods focuses on the modied skull.
A set of 33 standard measurements were taken (as in
Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994) for skulls and mandibles on
adult males, females and individuals of unknown sex, in
order to quantify the morphological effects of headshaping on the cranium 01/T05 compared to the
unmodied skulls. Because of the fragmentary nature of
the sample, the total number of adult skulls represented
is not reected in the measurement sets, as only the
individual with the shaped head yield a full set of data.
In order to obtain reliable results, 19 measurements
taken for less than ve adult skulls and mandibles were
not included in the statistical analysis. Table 1 presents
standard deviation values that were estimated for 14
measurements of more than ve unmodied adult

Table 1. Number of cranial and mandibular measurements, means and standard deviations (SD) for the adults and the modied skull
according to sex determination. The left side was included for the pair measurements.
Measurements (in mm.)

Males

Females

Unknown sex

Means

SD

Skull 01/T05 (female)

Basion-bregma height
Maximum frontal breadth
Foramen magnum length
Porion-bregma height
Biauricular breadth
Maximum cranial breadth
Parietal arch
Occipital arch
Mastoid length
Mandibular length
Bigonial width
Mandibular angle
Minimum ramus breadth
Maximum ramus height

5
5
5
6
6
7
8
11
14
7
7
9
10
5

2
3
1
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
4
3

3
2
3
3
3
4
5
5
6
2
2
3
3
1

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
5
1
1
2
3
1

139
117
34
128
119
134
130
111
34
73,1
98
27,9
33,6
64,6

5.8
4.8
1.9
6.9
5.1
3.1
9.6
7.5
3.4
5.27
8.35
6.19
2.5
5.59

144
116
30
136
116
126
113
113
37
70
93
27
32
59

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

P. Tritsaroli

468
skulls and mandibles, with statistical signicance set
at 0.05. Finally, bivariate plots analysis was undertaken
using cranial measurements to compare heights,
breadths and arches; analysis focuses on the four
following sets: porion-bregma height versus basionbregma height; maximum cranial breadth versus
maximum frontal breadth; maximum frontal breadth
versus parietal arch and maximum cranial breadth
versus parietal arch.
Unintentional modication can be caused by
nutritional, hormonal or genetic factors, but also
habitual positioning or commonly preferred postures
during sleep (Dingwall, 1931; Rhode & Arriaza,
2006; Lekovic et al., 2007); the most common
features which are typically associated with intentional headshaping are cranial synostosis and
positional deformations. Cranial synostosis is a
pathological condition that describes the premature
fusion of one or more sutures of the skull (Cohen,
1980). When sutures fuse prematurely, head growth
occurs along the axis of the fused suture (Glass et al.,
2004). The effects of articial cranial modication
and cranial synostosis appear similar, but headshaping is produced by environmental factors, while
many cranial synostoses seem primarily to be
genetically induced (OLoughlin, 1996). For the
individual 01/T05 premature cranial synostosis is
scored as present or absent (White, 1996). Premature
synostosis is identied by a marked differential fusion
between one suture and other major vault sutures
(the suture scored as presenting premature synostosis
must be obliterated both endocranially and ectocranially when other sutures are still open).
Positional deformations, also called deformational
modications of the calvarium, may result from
accidental and prolonged application of pressure on
the posterior portion of the skull through, for example,
sleeping regularly in a supine position on a relatively
hard surface during infancy and childhood (Ortner &
Putschar, 1981; Di Rocco et al., 1998; Bridges et al.,
2002; Tubbs et al., 2006). The most common form of
positional deformation is deformational nonsynostotic
plagiocephaly; it is characterized by signicant
asymmetry that affects the cranial vault, face and skull
base (Littleeld et al., 2005). In order to exclude the
possibility of asymmetries on the skull 01/T05, nakedeye observation is used.
Analyses of intentional cranial modication consider
both skull shape and deforming devices, such as
boards, pads or stones applied to the head of a newborn
when the cranium and calvaria are malleable. The
abnormal concavities and convexities on the modied
skulls ectocranial surface are recorded; additionally,
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

modications on diploic bone are conrmed by using

x-ray and computed tomography (CT). Radiographic
analysis (50 kV, 0.15 mA, 90 cm, 0.25 sec), conducted
at the Wiener Laboratory (ASCSA) in Athens,
employed an Agfa Automatic X-ray Film Processor.
CT Imaging was achieved using a Toshiba Aquilion 16
(16-slice CT scanner) at Evangelismos General
Hospital in Athens. The morphology of the cranial
face and base is also noted since it can be inuenced by
changes in the growth pattern of the cranial vault that
are externally derived (Anto`n, 1989; Kohn et al., 1993;
Frie & Baylac, 2003).
The small sample size and the fragmentary nature of
the skulls, analysed here, allow neither for comparisons
to be made on the frequency of sutural bones nor
investigations into the aetiological relationship
between headshaping and the occurrence of supernumerary ossicles (Ossenberg, 1970; Gottlieb, 1978;
Anto`n et al., 1992; Konigsberg et al., 1993; White, 1996;
OLoughlin, 2004). It is also noted that age-related
sutural changes and obliteration can be misleading;
consequently, observations on sutural complexity
should be made only on adults who have not exceeded
40 years of age, as determined by patterns of cranial
suture fusion (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985), which is the
case of the specimen with the shaped head examined
here. Therefore, a brief reference will be made on the
degree of interdigitation, and the absence or presence
of 10 sutural bones will be mentioned, as these are
listed in OLoughlin (2004). The data on sutural
complexity could potentially be used in future research,
when a larger sample will be excavated and other cases
of headshaping will be identied from the same
cemetery.

Results
Analysis of the adult sample (Tritsaroli, 2006b) showed
eight males and nine females. Most of the adults (16 of
19 for whom age-at-death could be estimated) were
over 30 years old. Stature was estimated at 169.8 cm
for males (n 6) and 156.2 cm for females (n 4).
Signs of healed trauma were identied on upper limbs,
clavicles, thorax and the vertebral column. Three of the
four individuals showing trauma were females. Low
incidence of caries and periodontal disease coupled
with a high incidence of calculus suggest that mens
diet contained more meat, while women frequently
consumed food rich in carbohydrates (cereals, bread)
and sugar (fruits) (Tritsaroli, 2006b).
The skeleton 01/T05 with the shaped head belongs
to a female 4450 years old, very well preserved. Her
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

skeletal stature was estimated at 153.2 cm, which is
similar to the rest of the sample. Contrary to most of
the other females, however, this individual presents
low incidence of caries and high incidence of
calculus. Moreover, horizontal bone loss in most
upper and lower jaws molars and premolars is
attested. Five healed rib fractures, located between
the fourth and ninth ribs (three on the right, two on
the left), and a possible fracture on the distal shaft of
the right ulna were recorded and present similar
degrees of healing.
Metric analysis shows that differences between
the modied skull and the rest of the adults are mainly
located on the cranial vault. Two measurements,
maximum cranial breadth and parietal arch, showed
a clear distinction between the modied skull and
the rest of the adult sample since they are
signicantly smaller for the modied skull
(Figure 3). Moreover, the modied skulls basionbregma height and porion-bregma height are located
at the upper limits of statistical signicance while
foramen magnum length and biauricular breadth are
located at the lower limits of statistical signicance
(Figure 3). Studies have shown no signicant effect of
articial shaping on most mandibular measurements
(Cheverud & Midkiff, 1992), but antero-posterior
(AP) modication can affect the remodelling process
of the mandibular angle and lead to a smaller
mandibular angle in adulthood (Ogura et al., 2006).

469
No differences were found for the mandibular
dimensions of the modied skull (Figure 4); however,
the minimum ramus breadth and maximum ramus
height approached lower limits of statistical signicance.
Comparison using bivariate plots analysis shows
that: (1) porion-bregma height versus basion bregma
height of the modied skull is grouped with males
(Figure 5), (2) maximum frontal breadth of the
modied skull is placed among females (Figure 6,
Figure 7) and (3) parietal arch versus maximun cranial
breadth of the modied skull are evidently smaller from
both males and females (Figure 8). Measurements taken
on four individuals, two females, one male and one of
unknown sex, although not appropriate for statistical
analysis, showed notable differences between these
unmodied skulls and the modied skull 01/T05
(Table 2). These measurements pertain mostly to the
face: frontal arch, nasal, upper facial and orbital
heights. All of them were found to be higher for the
modied skull. The metric features taken together
show that the skull 01/T05 is narrower and higher than
unmodied skulls, resulting from intentional modication.
The skull presents no depressions or grooves at the
level of the sutures that could indicate premature
closure. Furthermore, all cranial sutures show similar
degree of fusion and thus premature cranial synostosis
is scored as absent. In superior view, the skull is

Figure 3. Means and standard deviation values for the cranial measurements for the modied and the unmodied adult skulls. Black
square, modied skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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470

P. Tritsaroli

Figure 4. Means and standard deviation values for the mandibular measurements for the modied and the unmodied adult skulls.
Black square, modied skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.

symmetrical without the possibility of occipital or

positional plagiocephaly (Figure 9). The symmetry of
the modied skulls shape and the absence of
paleopathological lesions on its surface show that
the modication did not result from pathological
processes or unintentional practices. Taphonomic
deformation is also excluded.
The skull shows obvious points of pressure in the
frontal, post-coronal and occipital regions. A concavity

in the middle of the frontal bone associated with a postcoronal transverse groove and a concavity at the
squamous portion of the occipital were also observed
(Figure 10). The bone is strongly convex and elevated
at the bregma. The bunning of the skulls nuchal area is,
in fact, suggestive of articial modication, while the
shape of the frontal bone is a type of distortion that can
only be achieved by manipulation with pressure, which
causes the frontal bone to recede posteriorly at an

Figure 5. Bivariate plots of porion-bregma height vs. basion-bregma height. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female
unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

471

Figure 6. Bivariate plots of maximum cranial breadth vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles,
female unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.

increased rate (Schendel et al., 1980). The superiormost portions of the occipital and parietal bones
extend posterosuperiorly resulting in a long loaf-like
appearance in superior view (Dingwall, 1931; Anto`n,
1989). The aforementioned distortions are also
conrmed by evidence from the sagittal section of
the skull by CT scan (Figure 11a) and x-ray
(Figure 11b): the diploe of the cranial vault is
underdeveloped in the frontal, postbregmatic and

occipital regions where pressure has been applied,

resulting in an undulation of diploic bone.
In frontal view, the shaped head 01/T05 is swollen
symmetrically in the region of the squamosal suture.
This distortion probably resulted from movement of
the brain as it adapted to the changing shape of its
container (Gerszten, 1993). The orbits are also very
deep, while the interorbital region has become very
wide. Regarding sutural complexity, the Maroneian

Figure 7. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female unmodied
skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

P. Tritsaroli

472

Figure 8. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum cranial breadth. Analysis made on eight individuals. Open circles, female
unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.

woman is of advanced age with an elevated degree of

suture closure. As far as observations can be made,
however, sutural interdigitation seems low and all
sutural bones are recorded as absent.
In summary, evidence obtained by metric analysis is
consistent with visual, x-ray and CT observations and
shows morphological changes mainly on the cranial
vault, but also on base and face. These features describe
clearly a skull with intentional modication; they allow
for identication of the type of modication, and
consequently the method used to achieve the particular
cranial shape.

Discussion
Articial cranial modication (headshaping) is among
the most common manifestations of culturally induced
modications of head shape during infancy (Ortner &
Putschar, 1981; Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin,

1998; Ortner, 2003). It is a cultural marker that serves

to dene territory or social boundaries, reafrm
ethnicity, and maintain and strengthen exchange
networks (Wobst, 1977; Schijman, 2005). Headshaping, moreover, is performed to demonstrate group
afliation (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995; Hoshower et al.,
1995; Tubbs et al., 2006), elite status (Snorrason, 1946;
Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995) or as a product of fashion
and imitation. The anthropological record contains
numerous cases of skulls intentionally modied dating
from prehistoric to modern times that were documented in geographically diverse areas (Gerszten &
Gerszten, 1995; Lorentz, 2009). This global distribution suggests that articial cranial modication
originated independently in various regions of the
world (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995).
In the territory of modern Greece, several cases of
headshaping are reported from different time-periods
(Lorentz, 2009). The rst skull was found about a
hundred years ago at Trikeri, Volos, but neither its origin

Table 2. Row measurements for the frontal arch, interorbital breadth, nasal height, upper facial height and orbital height (left) on four
adult skulls and the modied skull.
Measurements (in mm.)
Frontal arch
Interorbital breadth
Nasal height
Upper facial height
Orbital height (left)

1st (female)

2nd (female)

3rd (male)

4th (unknown sex)

Skull 01/T05 (female)

115
24
50
63
38

110
22
49
61
34

114
24
50
59
32

18
50
61
33

124
27
55
70
36

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

473
Neolithic samples indicates that headshaping was used
as a marker of social differences (Lorentz, 2003, 2004,
2005, 2009). Finally, evidence of headshaping dated to
the Roman period is reported from the Athenian Agora
(Lorentz, 2009).
The skull of the skeleton 01/T05 from the extra
mural cemetery of Maroneia shows evidence of
headshaping, a practice that so far is undocumented
in Early Byzantine cemetery samples from Greece. This
case is compared with two main types of headshaping
that are commonly adopted for classication, in
accordance with the methods used to achieve the
particular cranial shape (Anto`n, 1989; Kohn et al.,
1993):
(1)

Figure 9. Superior view of the modied skull 01/T05. This gure

is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

nor its ethnic place are known (Kiszely, 1978). Two

important series of shaped skulls come from the
Neolithic cave cemetery in Tharrounia, Euboia and the
Neolithic settlement of Khirokitia in Cyprus (Manolis
et al., 2000; Lorentz, 2009). Extensive study of

Figure 10. Left lateral view of the modied skull 01/T05 without
the mandible.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

AP type, including the tabular forms (tabula erecta

and tabula obliqua) of Dembo & Imbelloni (1938). AP
modication results from pressure applied on the
frontal and occipital bones by binding the head
with pads or afxing it to a cradleboard. Skulls with
AP modication are characterized by the attening
of the frontal and occipital bones and the compensatory lateral expansion of the parietal bones frequently accompanied by plagiocephaly of the erect
type (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938).
(2) Circumferential or circular type (C), including
Hrdlickas Aymara type (Hrdlicka, 1922) and the
annular (erecta and obliqua) type (Dembo & Imbeloni,
1938). Circumferential modication involves use of
bandages or wrapping materials applied circumferentially on the head (Dingwall, 1931). Skulls with
circumferential modication extend posterosuperiorly. A posterior elongation of the superior portion
of the cranial vault including the frontal, parietal
and occipital regions characterizes the circumferentially modied skull. This extension of the skull
results in a long, loaf-like appearance in superior
view, while the cranium becomes ovoid.
All morphological features observed on the Maroneian skull 01/T05 are characteristic of the circumferential type of modication. The post-coronal
transverse groove suggests bandage marks. This
morphology may have been induced by a bandage
running over the point bregma and under the mandible,
a method of articial modication that would explain
the post-coronal depression and parietal bulge (Meik zbek, 2001). Underdevelopment
lejohn et al., 1992; O
of the diploe of the frontal bone is observed in circular
band deformations (Molleson & Campbell, 1995).
Judging from all these features, it seems likely that the
skull from Maroneia was intentionally shaped by means
of bandages rather than boards. Since no modications
were observed on the mandible, a single or double
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

P. Tritsaroli

474

Figure 11. Left lateral scan section (a) and left lateral x-ray (b) of the modied skull 01/T05.

bandage running over to the point of the occipital

squamous, then up to the frontal bone and the postcoronal region, seems to have been applied. Consequently, an annular modication was achieved by
circumferentially wrapping the cranial vault (Tritsaroli,
2008) with a binding that was progressively adjusted
(Schijman, 2005).
In addition to the circular skull modication,
paleopathological features taken together appear to
distinguish this woman from the rest of the sample,
particularly other females, with respect to her labour
and nutritional habits. The injury near the wrist may
have resulted from a fall, since an individual, when
falling, instinctively extends one or both arms to
minimise trauma risk. The fractured ribs on both sides
may be due to accidents, falls or direct blows to the
chest. The dental and alveolar lesions coupled with
periodontal disease suggest consumption of large
quantities of meat. With respect to the Maroneia
sample, these lesions suggest a diet more characteristic
of male nutritional habits. In contrast to other women
buried in the cemetery, this female individual,
apparently following traditions linked to a different
cultural background, seems to have adopted a lifestyle
with higher risk of trauma and a diet rich in calories.
Anthropological record includes several cases of
circumferentially modied skulls from areas in close
proximity to northern Greece (Kiszely, 1978; Schijman, 2005). In Hungary, for example, published skulls
dating to the early migration period all show the same
circular type of modication (Kustar, 1999; Marcsik &
Pap, 2000), with many of them attributed to Germanic
groups. In Italy, a possible case of articial modication
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

has also been identied dating to the 5th7th c. AD

(Saponetti et al., 2005). Finally, the Huns are known for
having frequently practiced a pronounced form of
circular modication and for spreading this type of
modication throughout the Eurasian steppes after AD
200 (Torres-Rouff & Yablonsky, 2005). In particular,
they are known to have practiced cranial vault
modication in order to give themselves a more
ferocious and terrifying appearance as warriors.
Articial cranial modication was also practiced by
subjugated groups assimilated into Hun culture.
Historical research indicates that during the 5th c.
AD relationships between the Byzantine Empire and
the Huns were tense (Ostrogorsky, 1996) and mainly
based on warfare and economy. Attila unied the Huns
in AD 434 and gained military and diplomatic
superiority over his rivals by creating a vast empire
that extended from the Danube to the Dnieper.
The Huns became extremely dangerous for the
Byzantine Empire when they threatened the Byzantine
Danube frontier. Anthemios (404414), the Praetorian
Prefect of the East, repelled the Huns installed at the
Danube frontier; many prisoners were transferred to
Asia Minor, among them were members of German
tribes who allied themselves with the Huns. In AD 430
the Huns forced the Byzantine Emperor to pay tribute
which amounted to 350 pounds of gold; in AD 435 this
tribute increased at 700 pounds, and in AD 443 at 2.100
pounds (Christolopoulou, 1993). In AD 447, Attila
turned the Huns against the Byzantine Empire and
rampaged through the Balkans as far as central Greece.
They reached Constantinople in AD 448, but refrained
from attacking the city. Attilas devastating invasion of
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modication in Byzantine Greece

the Balkans and Thrace, which ended in AD 449,
probably razed over 70 cities.
Frontier zones like Thrace are areas that facilitate
social and cultural intercourse. Under the conditions
described above, culture contact emerged between the
Huns and the Byzantines at some regions of Northern
Greece including Thrace. The presence of headshaping, a practice unknown to Christian customs, is of
great importance because it allows for evaluation of
regional connections and cultural diffusion. The
circular type of modication exhibited by a female
individual, whose burial dates to the 5th6th c. AD,
coincides with or may slightly post-date the presence
of the Huns in Northern Greece, especially at the city
of Maroneia; this case of cranial vault modication,
therefore, is most likely linked to Hun tradition
(Tritsaroli, 2008).
Headshaping is tied up with sociocultural practices
related to the care of children, which may be seen as
traditional and slow to change (Lorentz, 2009). In
Byzantine culture, the newborn baby was washed and
swaddled in woollen wrappings (fasciae) during seven
days in order to straighten its body and make it
beautiful (Koukoules, 1951). On the contrary, the
period of time required to produce a permanent cranial
modication can vary, ranging from a few months after
birth up to one year or until the child can walk
(Schendel et al., 1980). Additionally, this practice needs
a considerable length of time in order to be
appreciated, and for this reason it cannot be adopted
through sporadic culture contact. In the case examined
here, it seems improbable that headshaping was
practiced by the Byzantines. Consequently, headshaping likely indicates the presence of an individual
with a distinct cultural background rather than the
adoption of the practice itself by the Early Byzantine
society of Maroneia.
Additional information regarding the place and role
of the woman with the shaped head within the Early
Byzantine society is provided by cemetery topography
and burial customs. Byzantine cemeteries were often
organised on the basis of social, ethnic, or other
criteria. Literary evidence indicates that the Byzantines
reserved special burial places for foreigners who did
not have the means to pay for their own funeral
(Koukoules, 1951). Analyses of grave typology and
decoration at the Early Byzantine cemetery of
Thessaloniki, moreover, have led to the identication
of various ethnic groups including Jews and Goths
(Marki, 2006). Graves of Goths were often grouped
within the cemetery to maintain family and ethnic
identity (Marki, 2006). A large number of anthropomorphic graves found in the city of Veroia were also
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

475
attributed to Goths, who were present in the city
during the 4th and 5th c. AD (Pazaras, 1978). Another
example of ethnic differentiation comes from the Early
Byzantine cemetery at Akraiphnio (Tritsaroli, 2008),
where the position and orientation of one of the
skeletons suggested an association with Muslim
traditions.
At Maroneia, the generally homogeneous burial
customs and scarcity of offerings and accompanying
objects within burials seem to indicate no differences in
ethnic, cultural or religious afliation among the
deceased. The single primary burial of the woman with
the shaped head in question, therefore, appears to
resemble the rest of the burials in the cemetery, as well
as other funerary samples from the same time period
studied elsewhere in Greece (Tritsaroli, 2006a).

Conclusions
During the turbulent Early Byzantine period, the city of
Maroneia experienced continuous occupation and
development that chiey resulted from its strategic
location at a crossroad between the Balkans and
the East. Maroneias survival through these trials can
be attributed in large part to the ability of the local
people to adapt to changes imposed upon them. The
practice of annular cranial modication now detected
at Maroneia seems to indicate the presence of an
individual possessing a different culture, (Buchet, 1988;
Pilet et al., 1994; Buchet, 1997) who made an effort to
demonstrate group cohesion (Torres-Rouff, 2002)
while also maintaining the physical identity of a
larger, contemporary or recently eclipsed population
group. The specimen examined in the present study
exemplies the biocultural complexity of Early
Byzantine Maroneia. Absence of differential burial
treatment, accompanying objects and artifacts, however, suggests this Maroneian woman with the shaped
head, while maintaining different traditions, was an
integrated member of the local Early Byzantine society.
Based on skeletal, archaeological and historical
evidence, we can conclude that this so-far unique burial
at Maroneia belonged to a Christianised citizen who
bore a distinctive mark of her cultural heritage, but who
still had the right to be buried in a common Christian
cemetery in accordance with the customs of the citys
other inhabitants. The assimilation of an individual
with articial skull modication into Early Byzantine
Maroneian society provides strong evidence of cultural
variability and reects the cosmopolitan character of
the city. Future biogeochemical analysis, along with
greater understanding of the geochemical and environInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

476
mental settings of Northern Greece and the Balkans,
will allow for inferences to be made regarding the
origins of the female with the shaped head and other
individuals buried in the Maroneia cemetery. Such
additional study will also begin to elucidate migration
patterns in Maroneia during the Early Byzantine
period.

Acknowledgements
The analysis of human skeletal remains from Maroneia
was part of a project funded by the 20052006 J.
Lawrence Angel Fellowship in Human Skeletal Studies
(Wiener Laboratory, ASCSA). My thanks go to the
archaeologist and excavator of the site Chryssa Karadima of the IQ EPCA at Komotini for giving me
permission to study this sample. I am grateful to Sherry
Fox, director of the Wiener Laboratory, for x-ray
analysis, but mostly for her advice during this project.
I also extend my gratitude to Dimitrios Chondros,
Director of the Radiological Unit of Evangelismos
General Hospital in Athens, tutor Dimitrios Exarchos
and technician Dora Sidiropoulou for completion of
the CT. Finally, I would like to thank Anastasia
Papathanasiou (EPASPE at Athens), Sophia Doukata
(12th EBA at Kavala), Florent Detroit (MNHN in
Paris), Nathan K. Harper (University of Nevada)
and Eleanna Prevedorou (ASU) for their comments
and suggestions.

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