Chapter 1 - Introduction To Statistics PDF

MPU1034
Application of
Statistic in Educational Research
Dr. Norazrena Abu Samah

Office: M39 Wing A
norazrena@utm.my
019-7103903
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics
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Students should be familiar with the terminology and

special notation of statistical analysis
Statistical Terms
population
sample
parameter
statistic
descriptive
statistics
inferential
statistics
sampling error
Measurement Terms
operational definition
nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio
discrete variable
continuous variable
real limits
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Research Terms
correlational method
experimental method
independent variable
dependent variable
nonexperimental
method
quasi-independent
variable
Variables
A variable is a characteristic or condition that
can change or take on different values.
Most research begins with a general question
about the relationship between two variables
for a specific group of individuals. (eg: Male
and Female, x & y )
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Population
The entire group of individuals is called the
population.
For example, a researcher may be interested
in the relation between class size (variable 1)
and academic performance (variable 2) for the
population of third-grade children.
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Sample
Usually populations are so large that a
researcher cannot examine the entire group.
Therefore, a sample is selected to represent
the population in a research study. The goal is
to use the results obtained from the sample to
help answer questions about the population.
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Types of Variables
Variables can be classified as discrete or
continuous.
Discrete variables (such as class size) consist
of indivisible categories, and continuous
variables (such as time or weight) are
infinitely divisible into whatever units a
researcher may choose. For example, time
can be measured to the nearest minute,
second, half-second, etc.
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Real Limits
To define the units for a continuous variable, a
researcher must use real limits which are
boundaries located exactly half-way between
adjacent categories.
Example
Intervals 11-20,21-30,31-40.
Lower limit = 20.5
Upper limit = 30.5
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Measuring Variables
To establish relationships between variables,
researchers must observe the variables and
record their observations. This requires that
the variables can be measured.
The process of measuring a variable requires a
set of categories called a scale of
measurement and a process that classifies
each individual into one category.
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Variables
Discrete variable: no value can exist between
two neighboring categories.
Continues variable: there are infinite number
of possible values that fall between any two
observed value
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4 Types of Measurement Scales

1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of
categories identified only by name. Nominal
measurements only permit you to determine
whether two individuals are the same or
different.
2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of
categories. Ordinal measurements tell you
the direction of difference between two
individuals.
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Numbers are regarded as NOMINAL when they represent categories

for classification of characteristics with no specific order.
Eg.1
Natural numbers in the general number system (0, 1, 2, 3,. )
Eg.2
Numbers assigned to specific categories of colours:

1 for Blue
2 for Brown
3 for Green
Eg. 3*: Numbers representing a list of rate of death for each category (e.g.
state)
Nos. of Deaths for Three States
State 1
State 2
State 3
45
34
20
Note: In general, the true order of magnitudes can be applied to these numbers,
i.e. 20 < 34 < 45 (so that 45, 34 and 20 are ordinal!)
However, the comparative ordering cannot be applied in this particular
case, as the rate of 45 deaths in State 1 perhaps is lower (in terms of
percentage of the population) as compared to 20 deaths in State 3!
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12
Numbers are regarded as ORDINAL when they represent ordered

relations of some characteristic, with the order having unspecified intervals.
Eg.1 Grades obtained by students in a Maths Test
Eg.2 My pre-school child watches television:
1 very much
2 a little
3 not very much
4 not at all
Eg. 3 Suppose you conduct an Algebra Readiness Test to 3 different groups of
samples, namely Traditional Class, Hands-on Class and Prealgebra Class.
Each of these classes comprises of 7 students. The scores obtained by
each student are shown below:
Note: In this case, the numbers 95, 94, 89,
84, can be ordered. Bearing in mind
the nature of interval scale, these
numbers may be regarded as
INTERVAL
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13
4 Types of Measurement Scales

3. An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized
categories. Interval measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero
point is located arbitrarily on an interval scale.
4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of
zero indicates none of the variable. Ratio
measurements identify the direction and
magnitude of differences and allow ratio
comparisons of measurements.
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Interval Scale
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15
Ratio Scale
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16
DATA
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Correlational Studies
The goal of a correlational study is to
determine whether there is a relationship
between two variables and to describe the
relationship.
A correlational study simply observes the two
variables as they exist naturally.
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Experiments
The goal of an experiment is to demonstrate a
cause-and-effect relationship between two
variables; that is, to show that changing the
value of one variable causes changes to occur
in a second variable.
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Experiments (cont.)
In an experiment, one variable is manipulated to
create treatment conditions. A second variable is
observed and measured to obtain scores for a group
of individuals in each of the treatment conditions.
The measurements are then compared to see if there
are differences between treatment conditions. All
other variables are controlled to prevent them from
influencing the results.
In an experiment, the manipulated variable is called
the independent variable and the observed variable
is the dependent variable.
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Other Types of Studies

Other types of research studies, know as nonexperimental or quasi-experimental, are
similar to experiments because they also
compare groups of scores.
These studies do not use a manipulated
variable to differentiate the groups. Instead,
the variable that differentiates the groups is
usually a pre-existing participant variable
(such as male/female) or a time variable (such
as before/after).
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Other Types of Studies (cont.)

Because these studies do not use the
manipulation and control of true experiments,
they cannot demonstrate cause and effect
relationships. As a result, they are similar to
correlational research because they simply
demonstrate and describe relationships.
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Data
The measurements obtained in a research
study are called the data.
The goal of statistics is to help researchers
organize and interpret the data.
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Two type of Statistics

Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
Inferential statistics are methods for using
sample data to make general conclusions
(inferences) about populations
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Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such as
the average score are used to summarize data.
A descriptive value for a population is called a
parameter and a descriptive value for a
sample is called a statistic.
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Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are methods for using sample
data to make general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
Because a sample is typically only a part of the whole
population, sample data provide only limited
information about the population. As a result,
sample statistics are generally imperfect
representatives of the corresponding population
parameters.
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Example
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of the Pre Test and Post Test
Percentiles
PreTest
Std.
N Mean Deviation Minimum Maximum
35 72.738
13.112
33.33
91.67
PostTest 35 94.762
8.292
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75.00
100.00
50th
25th (Median)
66.667
75.000
75th
83.333
91.667
100.000
100.000
Number of cases
Mean
Variance
Standard division
Correlation coefficient
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Parameter
N
Statistics
n
x
s2
s
r
Sampling Error
The discrepancy between a sample statistic
and its population parameter is called
sampling error.
Defining and measuring sampling error is a
large part of inferential statistics.
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Notation
The individual measurements or scores obtained for
a research participant will be identified by the letter
X (or X and Y if there are multiple scores for each
individual).
The number of scores in a data set will be identified
by N for a population or n for a sample.
Summing a set of values is a common operation in
statistics and has its own notation. The Greek letter
sigma, , will be used to stand for "the sum of." For
example, X identifies the sum of the scores.
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72
5184
XY
165
68
151
67
160
67
160
68
146
70
160
66
133
27225
Also, find (2y) and (x)

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MPU1034

Dr. Norazrena Abu Samah

innovative entrepreneurial global