Running head: ASSESSING SUICIDE AND SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR

Assessing Suicide and Suicidal Behavior

Allyson Lindsey
Seton Hall University

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I. Precipitants or Stressors

Precipitants or stressors, as they relate to clients with suicidal thoughts, ideations or attempts,
will invariably be different for every client - no two people are the same. That statement rings
true even of clients who are diagnosed with the same disorder. Stressors among clients vary,
respectively, from the seemingly mundane day-to-day stress (e.g. caring for children, work) to
those which have significant implications for the clients well-being, welfare, or life, generally
speaking (e.g. financial problems, family instability, interpersonal relationship issues, death of a
family member) (Bryan & Rudd, 2006, pg. 191). Precipitants and stressors are also seen as a
byproduct of a preexisting medical conditions, wherein the client experiences a myriad of
symptoms related to their illness, which has the potential to compound the already existing
stress. A client who has escalating precipitants or stressors which cause instability or significant
change of behavior, no matter how seemingly insignificant, should be assessed for suicide, and
suicidal behavior as a precaution.
II. Predisposition to Suicide
Empirical data provides support that offspring of parents who have depression are more likely
to develop suicidal behaviors, ideation, thoughts, or to commit suicide (Gureje, Oladeji, Hwang,
Chiu, Kessler, Sampson, & ... Kovess-Masfty, 2011, pg. 1230). Genetic studies also show a
strong genetic predictability of suicide and suicidal behaviors for children of parents who have a
history of impulse-control or anxious arousal issues (Gureje, et al, 2011, pg. 1230). Gureje et al
(2011) state that although there is a genetic component to an increased risk of suicide and
suicidal behavior in families where suicide and suicidal behaviors run in the family there are
still unanswered questions pertaining to how the risk is transmitted (pg. 1222).

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According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), men are at a greater risk for
suicide and suicidal behaviors; nearly four times as many males as females die by suicide, the
seventh leading cause of death for males (2013). Suicide is also the third leading cause of death
for youth, aged 15 to 24 years (NIMH, 2013). In ages 15 to 19 years, nearly five times as many
males as females die by suicide and from 20 to 24 years, nearly six times as many males as
females die by suicide (NIMH, 2013). Older individuals have the same tragic statistics; of ages
65 and older, 14.3 in every 100,000 people die by suicide (results from the 2007 Centers for
Disease Control online statistics query). Non-hispanic whites, mostly men, make up the majority
of the statistic with 13.5 of the 14.3 (per 100,000) (NIMH, 2013). While gender is an important
risk factor for suicide and suicidal behavior, marital status and sexual orientation are also
significant, specifically among the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered (GLBT)
communities (Bryan & Rudd, 2006, pg. 191).
III. Presence of Hopelessness
Hopelessness refers to a cognitive style characterized by a tendency to make negative
attributions about the causes, consequences, and self-implications of future events (Beck,
Brown & Steer, as cited in Ribeiro, Bodell, Hames, Hagan, & Joiner, 2013, pg. 208). Generally,
negativity is due to ones overall longitudinal outlook on life, and the feeling that life offers only
negative outcomes in a never-ending repetition of negative outcomes, which for the person
experiencing such a lack of positivity, is the unfortunate inability to look upward (Ribeiro, et al,
2013, pp 208-209). Hopelessness is often linked to depression and is one of the leading risk
factors of suicide and suicidal behaviors.

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IV. Assessment

General Guidelines
The thought of assessing a client for suicide or suicidal behaviors appears a daunting task; in
fact one article calls it one of the most anxiety-provoking tasks for professionals (Freda, 2010,
pg. 7). Freda (2010) suggests starting an assessment with simple questions (e.g. How often do
you have thoughts of hurting yourself?) that require specificity in answers the more detailed
responses, the better (pg. 7). Freda (2010) follows with additional questions gaged to assess the
clients strengths, limitations and their coping skills (e.g. Who can you turn to for help?) (pg.
7). She also suggests interview questions to open discussions on death, suicide, the clients
future, and their reasons for living (Freda, 2010, pg. 7).
Assessing Precipitants and Stressors. In an effort to evaluate suicide and suicidal behaviors a
verbal self-report is often vital to predicting at-risk clients. On other occasions, when a selfreport is insufficient, such as when working with adolescents or children, observing their
behavior(s) becomes essential in the treatment of symptoms (and sometimes, coexisting
symptoms) (Freda, 2010, pg. 6). Understanding that even the most seemingly insignificant
stressors in the life of an adolescent can become critical (Freda, 2010, pg. 6). Stressors cannot be
measured as typical since the value of the stressor differs amongst individuals, ages, genders,
etc. Interpersonal relationships, family conflict and cultural issues among others are factors to
consider when assessing suicidal behaviors. Interaction with family members, specifically for
children and adolescents are essential for determining the clients support system as well as to
provide any historical information of mental illness or medical problems within the clients
immediate family (Freda, 2010, pp 6-7).

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Assessing a Predisposition to Suicide. Assessing a predisposition to suicide should involve a

thorough intake interview wherein the counselor gathers a brief history of the clients
background and any medical conditions, mental health issues and family life. Taking into
consideration the reasons for the clients reasons for seeking mental health counseling, assessing
the client as normal while also looking for risk factors which may point to the potential for
suicide and suicidal behaviors. Such risk factors could include depression, alcohol or substance
abuse or misuse, disruptive or unusual behaviors, impulsivity, and anxiety (NIMH, 2013).
Chronic or terminal medical conditions or a history of mental illness is also an important risk
factor to note during the intake interview (NIMH, 2013).
Assessing feelings of hopelessness. Hopelessness is often defined by ever present negative
thoughts and emotions, but is often compounded by the idea that the future is devoid of
possibility (Sisask, Varnik, Kolves, Konstabel, & Wasserman, 2008, pg. 431). In assessing
hopelessness, counselors often use the Beck Hopelessness Scale, a 20-item self-report inventory
developed by Dr. Beck, which aids counselors in the assessment of a clients feelings and
attitudes about his/her future (Sisask et al, 2008, pg. 431). The inventory engages the client with
simple questions that have multiple choice true/false answers. Becks questions are simple but
vary (e.g. I never get what I want so its foolish to want anything); it is designed to provide
counselors with an overall hopelessness score (Beck & Weissman, 1974, pg. 862).
While there are numerous questionnaires and inventory scales designed to quantify a clients
feeling of hopelessness, despair or depression, in an effort to assess for suicide and suicidal
behaviors, most are used in clinical research settings rather than in an office. Becks Depression
Scale is another self-report inventory however, others such as the Beck Suicide Intent Scale and
the Pierce Suicide Intent Scale are most often used for research studies on suicide (Sisask et al,

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2008, pg. 432). Observation of client behaviors, along with a thorough interview and possible
inventory for hopelessness, depression, etc. is key when assessing a client for the possible risk of
suicide.
VI. Conclusion
There is much to learn about suicide, suicidal behaviors and suicidal ideation. Freda had it
right when she suggested that predicting risk is difficult (Freda, 2010, pg. 7). Freda also
mentioned that despite the various tests, inventories and self-report measures, the best tool for a
counselor assessing clients who discuss suicide, suicidal ideation, or who exhibit suicidal
behaviors, is the clinical interview.

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References

Beck, A. T., Weissman, A. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42(6), 861-865. Retrieved from
http://web.elastic.org/~fche/mirrors/www.jya.com/2012/10/beck-hopelessness.pdf
Bryan, C. J., & Rudd, M. D. (2006). Advances in the assessment of suicide risk. Journal of
Clinical Psychology: In Session 62(2), 185-200. Retrieved from
http://myweb.shu.edu/courses/1/2013_FALL_CPSY6103...
Gureje, O., Oladeji, B., Hwang, I., Chiu, W., Kessler, R., Sampson, N., & ... Kovess-Masfty, V.
(2011). Parental psychopathology and the risk of suicidal behavior in their offspring: results
from the World Mental Health surveys. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(12), 1221-1233.
doi:10.1038/mp.2010.111
National Institute for Mental Health. (2013). Suicide in the U.S.: Statistics and prevention (NIH
Publication No. 06-4594). Bethesda, MD: Science Writing, Press, and Dissemination Branch.
Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-in-the-us
Ribeiro, J. D., Bodell, L. P., Hames, J. L., Hagan, C. R., & Joiner, T. E. (2013). An empirically
based approach to the assessment and management of suicidal behavior. Journal Of
Psychotherapy Integration, 23(3), 207-221. doi:10.1037/a0031416
Sisask, M., Varnik, A., Kolves, K., Konstabel, K., & Wasserman, D. (2008). Subjective
psychological well-being (WHO-5) in assessment of the severity of suicide attempt. Nordic
Journal Of Psychiatry, 62(6), 431-435. doi:10.1080/08039480801959273