BIO1130 Final Exam Notes

Phanerozoic Era:

Divided into 3 separate eons

1. Paleozoic (550-245 Ma)
Single-cell protist become multicellular (Takes 2 million years)
2 lineage move towards multicellular animal/fungi and plan lineage
Components of this era
Cambrian (555-488 Ma)
o Cambrian Explosion: ancestor to every single animal type of
life form
o Fossil record go from nothing to everything multicellular
Ancestors show up for the 30ish phylum
Mostly invertebrates
What was so unique?
o Geography of the world in Late Cambrian:
Equator high solar radiation, warm
Right above and below the equator there is a dry zone
Convection currents of air mas:
In dry zones, air is pulled up/drying air out,
saturating and falling with heat and warmth in
the tropical zone to create nice warm, wet areas
However, at this point, all land masses are
associated with GONDWANA
Most of weather patterns does not affect
anything because nothing lives on land
However this is a land mass called
LAURENTIA, away from GONDWANA, and is
sitting right on the equator
Nothing is happening on land, so moisture stuff
dont matter
Around LAURENTIA, large continental shelf,
ocean is shallower so sun rays penetrate to
deeper depth
This means we have a deep photic zone lots of
light lots of algae good food source
more algae for predators
When we have an area like this, with warm
temperatures and lots of light good incubator
for biodiversity to occur

Laurentia is part of Canada, USA,

Newfoundland, Hudson bay, east coast of
Canadian Rockies
This is where water will be warmest, sunniest
and shallowest
Location where fossil from that period of time,
Burgess Shale, Found in Yoho national park in
Rockies
Ordovician (488-443 Ma)
Silurian (444-416 Ma)
o Plants make their appearance multicellular
Does NOT make appearance in water; instead, make
appearance at the edge of water an move up on land
Devonian (416-359 Ma)
Carboniferous (359-299 Ma)
o Plants become so dominance, plants create a huge forest
o There are no decomposers:
Forest fossilizes into coal is what we sue today
No decomposers that can break down the plant,
therefore, coal builds up
Permian (299-245)
o Paleozoic ends single largest mass extinction
o 95% of diversity in ocean will become extinct
o There will be a few survivors that set the stage for repopulating
the ocean
o Impact on the tectorial environment
o 3rd or 4th mass extinction
o No seed plants in this era, no explosion of vertebrates on land
o It is the age of plants, invertebrates, and movement onto lines
2. Mesozoic (245-85 Ma)
3. Cenozoic (65 Ma- present time)

Cambrian and Ordovician periods:

Burgess Shale Fossils contain many weird animals

There are organisms there that we would not be able to recognize due to shapes and appearance
This mixture managed to be fossilized Burgess Shales shallow oceans has a cliff, dropped
down into a region of ocean that was anaerobic, any animals that fell down and died did not
decompose because of lack of oxygen In addition, shallow water also fell down the cliff
containing sediments and animals would go on for hundreds of millions of years
Sediments became Fossils called a shale
Shales can be split, opened up, and see impression of organisms inside shales

Shales are opened up and the fossils are weird, made the cover of Time magazine because of how
weird they are.
Cambrian explosion occurred because first large predators evolved set off an evolutionary arms
race
o Anomalocaris (strange shrimp) is currently thought to be the Earths first large predator
Used to be the name of just the claws
Could grow to 1 m or 2 feet
Propelled itself quickly; something similar is the mantis shrimp found in
Australia, in the barrier reef lives in the burrows
Very similar to the Anomalocaris, have the same appendages at the front
of mouth,
Superb visions (12 color receptors) , great speed, and large size larger
than its prey
Animals needed to protect itself, hallucinogen, had 5 spikes on its back as
protection and lobes acting on its leg
For many years, scientists thought that the animal was upside down. But why
would it need spikes?
2 separate fossil, one thought to be a jelly fish, the other, thought to be a
caterpillar
However, it was found that the jellyfish was actually a mouth with teeth and the
caterpillar was a head with pointy things used to stab and grab prey
A third fossil was found, had plates on tis back and a tail like a swimmer
Between the two claws, there was a mouth
It is evidence that hunting began in the Cambrian, as predators became better,
prey had to develop elaborate defenses
Ex. More eyes to avoid trouble, Hallucinogenia had spikes on its back
It took 10-15 million years to produce complex organisms, took 2 billion years to
make the first cell!
o Fossilized shales also included soft animals can find every single type or organism
Based on continental drift, we can estimate where we can find futher amounts of
shales
Land mass in northern china, was also on a continental shelf found more shales
Burgess shales and its unusual invertebrates
o Serendipity right place right time
o Yoho has a lot of horse tracks, Burgess path lead right into the backcountry of Yoho
o On the way out, path was blocked by rocks that tumbled down the mountain
o When rocks were picked up, found interesting fossils
o Next summer they climbed up and picked up shales and all of a sudden the fossils
stopped
The shales on the edge of the mountain probably fell down to the bottom
Started to dig and found a lot of interesting fossils
The person that picked up fossils was the director of the Smithsonian institute in
Washington DC--. Most famous North American Paleontologist

Walcott characterized them but did not believe in tis diversity put them in
arthropods and that they were all variants
Few years ago, 2 British scientists went to the Smithsonian to reexamine
the Burgess Shales found the shales and realized that they were
transitional fossils
Missing link fossils from early multicellular life to things we know today
One took soft bodies and one took arthropods and made a career out of it
Why did the Cambrian Explosion Occur?
o If we look at the genetics and biology, the common ancestor to all animals is a
specialized cell called a choanocyte one of the first heterotrophic unikonts
o 1 flagellum beats, brings water current and food gets trapped in a collar, and the food is
absorbed via phagocytosis,
o When you get these together in a colony, a colonial choanocyte, they are able to pump
water better.
o You find them in mats beginnings of the organisms of the animal tree of life
It is a Eukaryote cells is consuming organic material, 1 flagellum
Also the at the bottom of the evolutionary chain of fungi
We know it is the original ancestor is that the collar is made up of microvilli,
microvilli surface with a flagellum sticking out,
the arrangement of microtubules found in the collar is identically to the
arrangement of microtubules found in the digestive tract of humans and other
surfaces
Cytoskeleton of collar is same as structures in animal digestive tract
And of course, the flagellum is going to be reflected in the motile sperm
Evolution of Animals
o Sitting at the bottom is the chanocyte, everything will inherit its basic structure, becomes
an autapomorphies
o Autapomorphies of Animalia
Multicellular eukaryotes
Ingestive heterotrophs
Cells with different functions (not really an autapomorphy because it applies to
plants and fungi)
Stepped away from being a colony of cells into a true organism
In a colony of cells, we have cells that are doing the same function, if
there is another function it is for reproduction only
The only specialization in a colony of cells is the production of gametes
In Animalia, there are cells with even more specilization
Choanocytes common ancestor
Collagen Collagen makes first appearance as mechanism to stick cell together
In animal group, the characteristics of an animal will slowly change, different characteristics will
appear
o Tissues
Ultimately, cells will begin to communicate to each other
When cells communicate, they represent change in animal
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Can be None, diploblastic or triploblastic ( 2 or 3 layers)

In diploblastic, we have an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm
In triploblastic, there is a layer in between, the mesoderm
Symmetry and cephalization
Animal groups will start to orient with bilateral symmetry there is only 1 axis
you can cut an organism in so that you get 2 identical halves
With bilateral symmetry, organisms orient and move in one direction
When animals move in one direction, concentrate on sensory structure on
anterior end where they are going; bilateral symmetry is associated with
cephalization
Radial symmetry responding to world in all axis around you, can make an axis
anywhere and get identical halves
Associated with being sessile, sit on the ocean floor or float in the ocean
Embryology
Distinct cell divisions that make tissues and body cavities
Often can divide animal Kingdom up into two sections, Protostome and
deuterostome
Are associated with how the digestive tract forms
Body Cavities
The mesoderm will often have some form of cavity in it called coelomate
condition
Coelomate, pseudocelomate, acoelomate

Porifera
o Sits at the bottom of the evolutionary tree of animals
o Will inherit autapomorphies of the animal kingdom as well as add their own to this to be
able to function as an animal group
o Autapomorphies:
Use of choanocytes in an aquiferous system (pumping system)
Cells but no tissues
Totipotent cells
Cells are not committed to being a choanocyte, amoebosyte, or
pinacocytes
Higher up in animal kingdom, once a cell becomes specialized, it cannot
un-differentiate
However in sponges, they retain stem cell capability throughout their
lives
Sponges are capable of breaking off, generating new piece,sa nd
producing asexually
If green sponge and red sponge were put in a blender and small enough
force was used to disrupt cellular structure, they would all revert back to
ameobocyte and red ameobocytes will find red ameobocytes
o They will form clusters and differentiate once again
Asymmetric body plan
Symmetry refers to the line from oral axis backwards
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Sponges do not have mouths cant apply rules of symmetry

They are not entirely sessile, they are capable of differential growth,
grow more on one side so it moves
Sessile group does not move
Group of organisms that predate the Cambrian, pumps volumes of water through
bodies, they are trapping the food that contain within it so they are ingestive
heterotrophs
Instead of moving themselves, the move the environment
The cells do not form tissue no cellular communication
Mild forms of communication such as electrical gradient
They are a group organized prior to the tissue grade are not tissued organisms
Very first organisms to appear on the planet sit and pump water
Choanocytes are lined up inside the cavity, Spongocoel, and they are constantly beating
with flagella
Forces water out through the opening, Osculum, water is being pulled inside
through the pores and opening
This cycle is repeated and can pump many gallons of water in a day
Scrubbing out bacteria and algae that they can feed upon
Algae components will be caught on the microvilli of the collar and ingested via
phagocytosis and put in a food vacuole
Food vacuole will then get digested by fusing with a lysosome get enzymes
breakdown
The Choanocytes are the only feeding cells
Along the outside of the sponge, the
Pinacoderm (cant call it epidermis
because it is not a tissue), there are
cells that cant feed need to get
nutrients
Once collar cell has met its
own nutritional needs, it will
take the food vacuole and
pass it.
Wondering between the
Choanoderm and Pinacoderm
are amebocyte cells, these
cells will carry the food
vacuole to the Pinacoderm
cells
One of the major characteristic of animals is different type sof cells
o We have a water pumping cell that feeds, coanocytes
o We have a cell that acts as an outer layer, pinacoderm, made of
pinacocytes
o And also have amebocytes carry things between the two cells

Sponges also has a skeleton made of minerals/ proteins, formed

via spicules- cells produce spicules

Sponge sex
Shows ancestral type of reproduction
Involves release of sperm and egg into water column around the organism
Fertilization will occur there
Chanocytes lining the chamber will
differentiate and turn into sperm
(meiotic event, 4 products, mitosis
might occur to increase number)
When sponges are ready to mate,
they synchronize due to lunar
cycle, cells containing sperm bursts
Chanocytes that remain are
still pumping water so you
get a smoking sponge
you get a haze which is
millions and millions of
sperm
Ameobocytes, also called
archeocytes (sponge stem cells), have de-differentiated to form eggs, have
undergone meiosis
Sponges can be female, male or both
Sponge that is female pumps water and brings water throught pores, stuff
gets trapped and ingested via phagocytosis
Choanocyte cell recognizes sperm from its own species, so it puts it in a
vacuole, gives it to an ameobocyte, wonders around until it finds an egg,
passes sperm to the egg to create a zygote
If its not sperm form the species, it is seen as food and digested
They are considered the prime body filters for food
o When buying commercial sponge, it is commercially adjusted by
adding acid; you are scrubbing yourself with the skeleton of an
animal
Sponge reef off coast of BC, result of the last ice age, recolonized by
glass sponges skeleton is made of silica and glass
o One of the rarest place of ice sponge
Animal Symplesiomorphies- Animal Innovations
o Tight junctions just hold cells together
o Cell junction that is most important is the one that allows cytoplasmic communication
gap junction
o Right after, tissues of organisms appear ectoderm and endoderm
o Gap junctions:

Consists of proteins sets that open and closes that can monitor cytoplasmic
communication between two cells
Tissues can function and signal together and coordinate together
Animal Architecture- Tissues
Diploblastic germ layers
Ectoderm and endoderm
Animals at this point will not have any muscles another way of contractions
Triploblastic germ layer
Ectoderm( body wall on the outside and nerve cells) , mesoderm (forms
muscles), endoderm (forms Digestive system and gut)
Gastrulation-digestive epithelium
All organisms on the animal side basically have an embryology in its
simplest forms that is a hallow ball of cells Blastula
One of the embryological steps is the Blastula is pushed in
o We have 2 cell layers ectoderm and endoderm
o One epithelial layer, the endoderm, is pushed in and will form
digestive tract
The cavity inside is the primitive gut, has an opening to the outside
where food would go in and come out, called the Archenteron
This event happens between sponges and next group

Animal Architecture: Symmetry and cephalization

Radial symmetry occurs, we now
have an open mouth and a gut
If we mark a line through the
mouth, it can split into identical
pieces
It can be sessile (responding to
environment around it) or a
swimmer (jelly fish)
Cnidaria (Jelly Fish, sea enemines)
o These organisms will inherit diploblasty, will inherit radial symmetry
o They are also predators have a very distinct cell: Cnidocytes
o Autapomorphies
Cnidocytes
This is what stings you, it is a cell
The Nematocyst is the organelle
that is inside the cell and this does
the stinging
As cell matures, a barbed hook
develops inside this organelle and
coiled under pressure ready to
spring
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There is a little sensory hair, if anything stimulates (something-animal),

the nematocysts turns in itself inside out (couple of m/s with up to 4000G
force of push)
The barbed wire will pierce through outer tissue of animal its attacking,
it has poison that knock out CNS or nervous response system
Have been designed to attack small invertebrates, force of firing
cnidocytes can penetrate the skeleton of small arthropod poisons
arthropod becomes still can now be preyed upon
Box jelly fish, found near Australia off the coast of barrier fish,
specialists that can use cnidocytes to kill large prey can kill you, if
one stings you, they can swarm you
Polyp body plan
Body wall- Hydrostatic skeleton no anal opening (blind ended gut)
Animal sits on substrate with a whole bunch of tentacles surrounding a
mouth in the center mouth leads to digestive tract
Hydra is the classic example
o Stings it , rams it into mouth cavity and then digests it
Polyp, U-shaped from the two tissues U-Shaped organism with a
internal digestive tract except we have extensions of that which forms the
polyp
More complex tissues
o Gastrodermis
Nutritive tissues that absorb via phagocytosis
Gland cells that produce digestive enzyme while the
mouth is closed to break it down into small enough
pieces so that it can be digested
o Epidermis
Cnidocytes stinging cells
Nerve cells comes from ectoderm able to sense
environment around it, fires the groups
These two layers are held together by a jelly-like mass called Mesoglea
These create our first skeleton:
o Role of skeleton: involved in motions
o There is a counter muscle that pulls a muscle back after myosin
motors have walked along the microtubule
o A skeletal element is involved returning contacted actin-myosin
fibers back into position
o Skeleton use is to provide muscle opposite contraction to stretch
a muscle that has been contracted
o Hydra has a water filled cylinder, if it contracts the epithelial
muscle the length of the body, the water length will decrease but
the width will increase (water volume stays the same) this
causes the circular muscles to stretch
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If circular muscles contract, it will cause longitudinal muscles to

stretch
o It is constantly returning to position but the dynamic force being
worked on is water
Hydrostatic skeleton: Because it is a water skeleton,
using the incompressible ability of water to stretch and
compress muscle back into shape
Epitheliomusculature
Will be able to move without muscles
Epithelial cells will be able to contract
At the base of cells, there are myonines, muscles strands of actin and
myosin fibers
Arranged in a specific way
o Those found at the base of nutritive cell are arranged circular
around the cavity, inner surface-> fibers are in circular array
o The ones found at the base of epidermis are arranged
longitudinal
o Muscles can counter the opposite muscle has the ability to
bring the captured prey toward the mouth using the tentacles
Are able to walk, take the polyp body plan, attach
cnidocytes to substrate and do a somersault
Solution to contractile elements when no
mesoderm is present
o Nutrient cells in the gut and contractile Nutritive muscle cell
Medusa (another form of Cnideria)
o Polyp is sessile, with a pedal disk attaching to the substrate, inner blue endo derm, and
ectoderm with circular and longitudinal myosin/actin fibers
o Medusa is the same animal except flipped upside down
Structure where pedal disk on top and tentacles stretched
Bell shaped organism, Medusa stage of the life cycle, circular muscle lying
endoderm
Jelly like substance tissue- amount of Mesoglea is increased
Key to movement because Medusa does not contain any longitudinal
muscles due to bell shape
Mesoglea is compressible like a spring, when circular muscles contract,
puts pressure on Mesoglea,
o If muscles is relaxed, spring of Mesoglea will pop open and
stretch back the circular muscles
o Dont need contracting pairs of muscles no need for
longitudinal
o Secret of how Medusa swims, compresses bell, squirts water out,
allows it to rise in the air, as bell opens, water fills it back up and
rises down a little

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Does not need to be sessile, can rise in water column and hunt
prey into photosynthetic zone
Around margin, there is a flap of tissue that forms shelf
When contracting, shelf is sending volume of water
through a small hole
Smaller whole faster jet net movement
upwards
When it is filling, shelf goes out of the way so it is filling
via a large whole
When filling with a large whole net movement
upwards.

Jellyfish-life cycle (Diplontic)

o Medusa stage reproductive stage, gametes will be released into the water colum,
outside of the organism-- gametic isolation causes right sperm to fertilize with egg
o Will form a zygote, and after multiple cell divisions, it will lie on the ocean bed as a
Planula Larva creeps around on substrate has directive motion; usually associated
with bilateral symmetry used to be thought that radial symmetry was derived from
bilateral symmetrical ancestor
o Settles, stops, starts to project upwards, blastula becomes gastrula
Have tentacles around the edge have polyp sitting on the ground
Polyp develops 2 different colonies colonies are connected to each other
Specialized Feed polyps: Gastrozooid
Reproductive polyps: Gonozooids
o On the surface, little medusa are formed
o Completes all requirements of a diplontic life cycle
Corals?
o They are all colonial can secrete minerals and use it to form a base
o Fossil-> predates Cambrian era
Early multicellular life may have occurred before Cambrian
o Coral Reefs
Major modifiers of marine environment always in tropical regions extreme
heat
Polyps sit in little secreted tubes made from minerals, mineralized structures are
built upon layer by layer every year
Some reefs are huge, become geological feature
Brings level of substrate into
photosynthetic zone, coral
reefs are some of the most
diverse tropical forest of
oceans largediversity
Reef building on continental
shelf s a major changer of
marine environment

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polyps will create

unique environment
o Reef
building
will stop at
one time
completely
Most corals on
reef symbiotic
relationship with
green algae
o Green algae
provides it
with
glucose
o Coral offers a protective environment, brings bottom of the
ocean closer to the
top creates
surfaces for other
organisms
o Around the world,
as oceans warm,
The
relationship
between
green algae
and coral is
broken
Green algae
are leaving cells of the coral, bleached coral-> coral
bleaching is bad, coral cannot survive without green
algae
As corals bleach, habitat becomes destroyed,
biodiversity is destroyed

Animal Innovations
o 1. Triploblastic mesodermal musculature
Much more efficient mechanism of movement directed movement
Cephalization directed movementhave an anterior end
o 2. Bilateral symmetry is caused by the presence of anterior end
o NOTE: Ctenophora is tripoblastic but does not have bilateral symmetry
Majority of animal kingdom have bilateral symmetry and muscule
o Embryology- Clevage
You can divide up the entire animal kingdom into two sections during the 4-8
cell stage
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4 cells, the only way to develop the next division is through the plane in the
middle, 4 on top, and 4 below
Can site with rounded edge on round edge
o Develop a special membrane to hold them into place
o Radial cleavage
OR they can sit, round edge on the grove created by 2 cells underneath
(this is more stable)
o Spiral cleavage
Embryology- Gastrulation
How mesoderm is formed
Section of Blastula invaginates, you get an inner endoderm and an outer
exctoderm; blastula becomes a gastrula
Diploblastic condition typical formation for cnidarian
Mesoderm is going to fill space between endoderm and ectoderm
Can happen wo different ways in animals
At the opening to the lip of the gut, the blastopore, Cells at the edge of
the lip receive a signal to start proliferating
o Mass of cells start to proliferate filling the space completely in
solid mass of mesoderm.
o A split develops between the mesoderm on both sides cavity is
created
o Cavity is important because when muscle movement in
hydrostatic skeleton, mesoderm will work with fluid to make
shape changes
Cavity is the coelombody cavity of organism
Fluid filled cavity with potential to become
hydrostatic skeleton
This cavity is formed by splitting mesoderm
Coelom is made from splitting referred to as a
Schizocoel
As the cells invaginate, certain set of cells that are sitting on the
enteron gut was referred to as the arcenteron
o When they make
the association
with cells on the
other side, causes
mesoderm to form
o Cells of the gut
being to form the
mesoderm
Unlike
before
where it
was the
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lip of the gut

o They start off as little blebs until they get bigger an dpinch off
completely
They then fill backwards and we get mesoderm with a
space in the middle, a cavity
Little pouches that stretch and fill up the space, cavity is
right there from the start
Coelem is formed from the Enteron
Called a Entercoel
End result of both is that there is a cavity inside the mesoderm, between
endoderm and ectoderm
o Visually, they look the same.
o Embryonically is different
In both, when all of this is set and done, the arcenteron will fuse and
create an opening on the opposite side of the blastopore.
o Cnidarian only had one opening have to digest if you want to
keep digesting or eat another new meal
o If we have two tubes creating a long tube, we can digest food in
linear manner can still add more food at the beginning
o We go from Incomplete digestive tract complete digestive
tract
o Blastopore could either be an anus or mouth second opening is
the other one that is not the Blastopore
Protostomes vs deuterostomes
o Protostomes (first mouth)
Blastopote mouth
Spiral Cleavage
Schizocoely
o Deuterostomes
Blastopore anus
Radial Cleavage
Entercoley
o Matrix of 3 duel characters, can create a matrix
These descriptions of Protostomes and Deuterostomes are wrong because spiral
clevage and Schizocooly comes later
The only real character to divide the animal world is the fate of the blastopore
o There are a lot more Protostomes than there are Deuterostomes
Creates 2 lineages after the introduction of bilateral symmetry
Body Cavities
o Acoelomate
Absence of the body cavity, the mesoderm is solid
Ex. Flatwarmno cavity solid masses of mesoderm
o Pseudocoelomate (mesoderm only lining ectoderm)

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Filled with fluids but there is no mesoderm associated with digestive tract, only
mesoderm is on the body wall
Can cause problems because they will not be able to propel food down the
digestive tract without moving their bodies
There are no mesenteries to suspend organ system.
o Coelomate
Body Cavity that is completely lined with mesoderm made via schizocoely or
enterocoeley
Textbook shows no mesoderm lining gut but THERE IS
There is always a strand of mesoderm that connects mesoderm lining of
the gut and mesoderm lining on the cell wall
o They are mesenteries and they hold body organs in place
Mesoderm lining the gut is what makes the gut move
Mesoderm lining the body wall musculature that will be turned into
things that will allow for locomotion
They are all connected by mesenteries that hold organs in place
Can move food in the digestive system individually from the movement
of body unlike acoelomate animals that require body to move to
propel food
o Which came first?
In protostome line, when we get mesoderm it comes in with full cavity
coelomate is the primitive condition
animal that closed up to become acoelomate is a derived character,
Platyhelminthes is at the top of the protostome lineage highly
derived specialists in living in flat world, did not need the body cavity
Pseudocoelomate was expected to be a general transition
Coelomates that started to lose mesoderm
The reality is, Pseudocoelomate occurs when animals undergo
miniaturization
Whole raft of multicellular organisms that are tiny and feed on amoeba
they jettison unnecessary tissue dont want to take up space
o Reduction in the complication of body davity, reduces mesoderm
to what is eventual in order for movements to occur
Coelomate is 1st, Acoelomate is derived, Pseudocoelomate arose many times
when miniaturization occurred.
Body Cavity is huge
Fluid within cavity can be the beginning of circulatory system
o Able to move nutrients around
Independent movement of gut becomes possible
This cavity is the area where organs can grow seasonality of
reproduction gonads are only present at a certain type of year dont
have to change tissue can just be present within cavity
Protostomia (autapamorphy)
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Blastopore is mouth

Protosome is the most diverse because arthropoda are the most dominant animals on the world.
o Protostome taxa:
Ecdysozoa
Exoskeleton (cuticle)
Moulting Ecdgsis
o Gives the group of phylum Ecdgsiszoa
Lophotrochozoa
When animal phylogeny got flipped, group of animals that had a
trochophore larva or a lophophore that they fed with
There were nothing that were similar too far in evolution
Platyzoa
Have lost their coelom ex. flatworm
Outer skeleton is called a cuticle not living and is on the outside
o 2 categories Can be reinforced with either 2 groups of organisms that must shed that
exoskeleton will either be reinforced with chitin or collagen
Chitin arthropods
Collagen
Nematoda (example of Miniaturization)
o Reinforcing armor was made of collagen
o Symplesiomorphies
Collaenours cuticle without microvilli longitudinal but no circular muscles
Epitheliomuscular pharynx
o Are pseudoceolomates; has undergone Miniaturization
Will only have longitudinal muscles present.
To be able to do things with minimum number of cells, rather than have a
pharynx that has a epithelial layer and a muscle layer
have gone back to ancient condition that Cnidarians had and combined
the contractile elements and epithelial elements to make an epithelial
muscular pharynx
o Another way to miniaturize
o Gut with no musculature gut is suspended along with gonad with no mesenteries
holding them into place everything is suspended
o Longitudinal muscles is on the outside cylindrical animal that has longitudinal muscle
If we contract on side, the other side will stretch causing it to bend
Movement is not efficient but it is good enough to navigate through the substrate
By reducing circular muscle and using contractility of cuticle, can live very
effectively in the environment
o Instead of having a CNS, it just has one long nerve chord
Nematods muscle cell itself sends an arm with the nerve chord and interacts
with it
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No PNS involved CNS communicates with muscle directly

Sexes are separate when they mate, sperm is transferred
Only animal group that has amoeba sperm
Epitheliomuscular pharynx
Longitudinal muscles is always contracted
Cuticle is kept stretched and rigid like amour
Would cause problem, if no independent musculature on gut and
longitudinal muscle is always contracted, pressure will build on the gut
o When you swallow something, you would barf up the contents of
your gut because the system is squeezing
o TO solve this, went one step backwards, used epithelialmuscular
cell in Cnidarians
o Gut has two valves shut back valve while pharynx is filled,
close front valve when back is open and squeeze pharynx down
and squeeze food into digestive tract
Triradaite pharynx:
Has three lips fastest way to open a circular structure
o Largest opening with least amount of cells
May be more nematods than arthropods can causes patato farms to die.

Lecture 3
Agdysoia: Group we are looking at now: Cuticle with chitin outer nonliving cuticle, as mass increases,
out suit of armor will be molded and grow a new one
Matrix of protein reinforcement rods
Rods could be like rebar in cement, made out of collagen

Panarthropoda (Autapomorphies) going up into a terrestrial environment

o Cuticle with chitin outer nonliving cuticle, as mass increases, out suit of armor will be
molded and grow a new one
Chitin: structural carbohydrates
o Food manipulated by limbs
First group that has appendages going to use to feed
Take food separate it from the median its in OR tearing the food in small
pieces before consumption
Happens in two groups: chordates (teeth) and occurs in this group
o Onychophera (autapomorphies)
Has a very elastic stretchy cuticle, total body flexibility: can still use hydrostatic
skeleton
Still has to molt cuticle, musculature is associate with longitudinal,
circular and hydrostatic skeleton
Velvet worm crawls around on substrate mostly at night night feeder
17

Has fleshy limbs body is worm like and flexible

There is a marine version of this in Burgess Shales
These animal came up on land developed a predator feeding
mechanism
Have not changed since first arrival so similar evidence of breakup
of Pangea living fossil:
Has fleshy antenna, to probe surrounding, has feet that is extendable
(hydrostatic skeleton) with a claw on tip
o Oral opening with two big jaws in the middle
o Capture prey, push face into prey and jaws tears it apart
Jaws are modified appendages
o Still has layers o muscle: longitudinal and circular to move
muscle considered an intermediate step
Beginning of segmentation, at front end they are modified to become
antennas, jaw is a feeding appendage (arranged linearly down the body)
Oral papillae with slime glands secretes slime
Body wall musculature continuous sheet
Unarticulated limbs
Arthropods have jointed exoskeleton
Has hydrostatic limbs body muscular is still in sheet
Arthropoda (90-95% of species of animals) marine arthropods
o Reason for large amount of animals is the insects that are on land
o

o
o
o

Articulated exoskeleton of plates

Tubular skeleton, to make it flex, must have hinges or if cylinder, points of
attachment where one can flex against another (works at 90 degree angles)
Creates a cylindrical exoskeleton structure that can put the tip anywhere you
want in the environment
Solid plates, can flex and ca move, there is no use of having hydrostatic
skeleton because its all encased
Muscles arranged in bands
They are now fiber moving across joins such as tendons to bend joints
Compound eye
4 sub-phylum 2 marine
Arthropods: Trilobites (Eccysozoa)
Have long since gone extinct disappear in the Permian
One of the largest arthropods in Cambrian Ocean known as a predator
Arthropoda: Crustacea (Ecdysozoa)
Ex. Lobster and crayfish
Have sequence of appendages arranged down the length of the body
o Each appendage has a different function
o Ex. Large defensive leg (cheliped)
Swimming leg, antenna, walking legs)
18

Musculature of appendages and appearance are changed

We have regions of specialization along the body
o Ex. head and thorax (walking legs) Cephalothorax
o Take segments and fuse them into Tagma locking segments
of common functions
Ex. Tail is a tagma ( composed of Uropods and telson)
Filter feeding: had unique set of limbs that are similar down the length of
animal most adapt filter feedings in the ocean (also capable of
movement) REVIEW THIS SHIT LATER
o These appendages were little cup like structures (fan out and
fold) metachronal wave
o Appendage pulls away, fills with water, along the middle of
body its is covered with hairs or tiny pores
When flaps extend, water comes through the midline
And when the close water moves out to the side
o The water comes in through the front of the animal-->pupulsive
water movement constantly pumping water down midline,
through the body, through the hairs at the side of the box, into
box, and squeezing water out
o Water contains algae primary producer of marine environment
As passed through celal hairs gets trapped in grooves
between legs
As it is swimming, constantly pulling algae cells from
marine environment
Part of the water flow, is that as animals move limbs
forward, bases squeeze and move forward, and
squeezing of the base slowly pushes food towards the
mouth
Movement motions is a constant feeding motion
Primary herbivores so successful at it, to this
day they are still the primary herbivores
Three main protostome groups
o Ecdysozoa
o Loophotrochozoa no single morphological character but had two distinct group
CANT HAVE BOTH, can only have one or the other
Lophophore OR
Had a unique feeding structure and presence of a U shaped gut
Trochophore
Had a larvae stage
o Platyzoa
Acoelomate
Lophophorates (settles back to the ground) example. Bryozoa
o Presence of a Lophophore or a U-shaped gut
o This is a sessile organism settles back to the ground
19

Problem: your anus will be on the ground cant poop out food
Has a U shaped guy
o Broyozoa
Sticks tentacles to the outside, mouth is right beside the anus, animal has bents
itself
Surrounds itself considered a reef builder
Are also colonial
Lophophores is the name given to a ring of tentacles
Water comes through center of Lophophorates and the ciliated tentacles grab
hold of food
Food is passed from one cilium to another until it reaches mouth
Inside mouth digestive system nutrients obtained
Convergent evolution: lives in a calcareous case so they can retract and protect
itself
Lophophores also assists in respiratory system
Anus is positioned so that contaminants will not get into the inflow of water
Water goes past lophophores, and washes contaminants away
Trochozoa ( autapomosphy)
o Presence of the trochophore larval stage
Miniature animals always have similar structure
Has a band of cilia around the middle that properls through its water
Mouth stomach anus
Little top, has a ciliary tuft and bottom so that it doesnt tip when its spinning
Continue to swim and feed until it undergoes metamorphosis
Animal Innovations (symplesiomorphies) shared by Annelids and Molluscs, not sued to name
the group
o Creates 4 major groups ( Annelida, Mollusca, Sipuncula, and Nemertea)
o 1. Trochophore
o 2. Schizocoel
More than 13-14 ways to get from 4 cell to 8 cell stage
o 3. Dorsal heart and pericardial cavity
Opposite to ventral heart in the Chordata group
Molluscs (Trochozoa) Number 2 most abundent
o 2nd Most biologically diverse squid, snail, clams
Camera eye is an example of convergent evolution
Mollusc traits:
Secretions of shell from mantle ( all molluscs have a shell)
o That shell is originally was secreted by an epithelial layer
o There was a set of muscles that allow it to creep along the
substrate, if predators came along, shell would cover them
o Can take dissolved calcium from ocean to make the shell
Fed with a Radula
o Brand new feeding feature tongue has barbs and teeth
20

Mollusks have tongue. Tongue has layer of epithelium that are

rough. That surface is set up so that it can slide back and forth.
Take it off stones and rocks
o Algal and bacterial films on surface of rocks and materials in
oceans. Mollusks can stick out tongue and sanding it and the
particles that are created are consumed by it.
Mantle cavity has gills covered in cilia
o Cilia pumps water into cavity creates unidirectional flow of
water
o Leaves a small opening at back of shell so that it can pull water
in.
Anus is located in the outgoing water never contaminating the water
that we use to breath from
Ventral creeping foot
o Able to use foot to crawl across the substrate
o Hiding underneath the cell that is able to eat and breath
Snail (mollusk that has come on land) gastropods
Mollusks comes on land after insects and spiders
If you can lock yourself in a shell to prevent from drying out can feed in moist
environments if predator comes, you retract inside the shell
Some snails have shell on back so when it curls up, its completely shut
Snails in desert when its dry, hibernates for 8 months
Squids and Octopods (Cephalopods): (head-foot are close together)
Camera eye
Enlarged size of body, and elongated the body making the mantle and shell
conical. The head became closer to the posterior end.
Foot modifies into tentacles that are used to track prey.
It swims by moving water into mantle cavity but it shoots water out of an
opening creating a jet propulsion.
New form of locomotion by jet pumping
As these organisms became bigger and bigger they wrap into spirals:
At one point all the cephalopods discarded shells
IN one of the mass extinction, vertebrate fish predators get wiped out,
when oceans gets populated again
o Group of fish that repopulate the ocean used to be freshwater
and lakes
o They are more agile are extreme competition to Cephalopods
and Ammonites
o Cephalopods discard shells light to lighter to lighter shell
until it disappears
Moves faster muscles is used to pump water in to jet
propel water
Ammonites:

21

Very abundant; the oceans were full of these ammonites.

were very good predators in the ocean
Coiled shell
Large predators that are protected by shell.
Cause the death of trilobites to lose reign as top predators
These organisms are agile swimmers, hunters and some use color to
communicate and camouflage themselves.
These are much more agile than others and can get to prey faster than ammonites.
Gradually shell becomes less and less. Became more mobile etc.
o Clams (Bivalves):
They take the mollusk body pattern/shape and bent it around the sides and the
entire organism lives inside shell.
Burrows itself into substrate they hide themselves and all that is seen are 2
openings for water to come in and out
Food is trapped in the cilia and passed to mouth
Pumps water into mantle cavity and out and are moved by cilia on gills.
Has openings to bring water in and out and water is being moved by cilia. Food
particles are trapped and sent to mouth.
Burrow into the ground, gooyduck, tissue that creats current can be 2 ft long
Hiding in substrate that is filter feeding
Uses muscular foot to burrow into the ground
Shells are part of the respiratory system, have 2 large muscles that can close the
shell
Never eat clams that are closed-> already dead, tetanus is already set
Scallops, flap shells up and down
Annelids:
o Found a new way to feed
o Earthwarm: metamerization:
They all have a segmented body
Each ring is hydrostatically isolated each box is its own skeleton
Each segment has a set of circular and longitudinal muscles
Can contract one segment and the other segment can be completely different.
There are series of longitudinal muscles on inside, circular muscles on outside.
Contraction of these muscles allows segments to change shape.
When diameter increases from longitudinal muscles contracting, setae poke into
ground anchoring it in place in substrate.
Contracting circular muscles, setae come back in. Front end of organism moves
forward.
Contracting longitudinal muscles, setae poke into ground and anchor it.
o Unique form of locomotion. accordion like movement
o Net forward movement
o Pushed it into the substrate
Can either burrow or swallow the substrate

22

Feeding on substrate at bottom of the ocean reason for

success

Instead of just crawling across substrate, they take anterior end, use the force of anchoring and force the
head into substrate. It opens its mouth while forcing its head down tapping into organic food source that
no other organism has.

Annelida: Marine Worms:

Within the marine worms there are also worms that have developed many ways
to swim.
Most diversity of annelid occurs in marine environment.
Platyzoa
o Loss of coelom actually a derived
o Acoelomate or pseudocoelom( occur multiple time not a monophyletic event)
o Loss of metanphridia and circulatory system
Platyhelminthes (Autapomorphy)
o Incomplete gut gone backwards on the design of digestive tract, gone backwards In the
coelmate condition
o Complex reproductive system associated with hermaphrodism
Contains both male and female organs
o Body cavities-Acoelomate
Solid mass of tissue, mesoderm, arranged around the gut
Outer circular muscles, below are longitudinal muscles
Dorsal muscles that run from dorsal to ventral surface
Can undergo shape change
The Dorsal muscles ensure that it is flat make sure all tissues are close
to gut to absorb nutrients, made sure that they are close to the outside so
they can absorb oxygen
o Also have ancestral movementciliary movement
Cilia on ventral surface allows it to glide through water in very fluid swimming
motion
o On the ventral surface, they have whole series of specialized glands that secrete glue that
allows them to stick to substrate.
They can anchor themselves in place
Second form of locomotion: takes body , lengthens it by contacting circular
muscles; prevents itself from increasing in diameter by contracting dorsal fin
Touch substrate and anchor it into place
Will then pull itself and push itself
Can crawl along the surface
Probably why they lost coelomate because they developed
o In the marine environment, They arm themselves with the cnidocyte cells by feeding on
cnidarians.

23

The cnidocytes dont fire when they are consumed by the flatworms. They take
the cells and migrate them through the tissues of the body and position them on
the epidermal surface.
o Mouth has changed orientation, it is in the middle ventral surface
Pharynx can move and acquire organic material
o Hermaphodism occurs when organism is not motile
There is a distinct advantage in being a hermaphrodite in the animal kingdom
Both organisms get fertilized both produce offspring
2 sets of offspring for every mating
Egg produce in ovaries, stored in yolk glands and moves via oviduct
Sperm is produced in testis, collected in sperm duct and moved through seminal
vesicle
When two flatworms meed, inset organs transfer sperm
Sperm received : transfers from seminal vesicle to the seminal receptacle
of opposite organism
Only after sex, after egg is passed down through Oviduct, only then is sperm
released from the seminal receptacle
o Most flatworms are parasitic very complex life cycles
o Fluke Clonorchis
They live in blood, bladder, lungs or digestive tract and use sticky glue to lodge
themselves in place. As a parasite.
Life Cycles:
Fluke is in liver eggs are released into digestive tract.
Passed off into fetal waste.
Runoff from rain eggs are washed into rivers. (Miracidium) egg
hatches
Burrows into snail, undergoes series of morphological changes:
o The fluke will only parasitize with a certain species of snail. And
the cercaria will only penetrate the body wall of specific host.
Become sporocysts, increase the number inside the snail, undergoes redia
o Filled with small cells with tails called Cercaria
Will infect either an intermediate vertebrae host (fish).
o Called a Metacercaria and stay dormant
o Wait for the fish to be consumed by a predator
This is why there is so much control in the fish industry
Deuterostomia (Autapomorphies)
o Blastopotes becomes the anus
o Entercoelic coelom
o Radial cleavage
o

Echinodermata (Autapomorphies)
Returns to radial symmetry, Pentaramous Symmetry
Larvae bilateral symmetry
24

Adult radial symmetry

o Undergoes metamorphisis
o Reason :first echinoderm was sessile and sat at the bottom with
long stalks
Discs stacked up against each other and surrounded by
connective tissue can be either rigid or soft
Has arms at the top mouth was facing top
Catching all organism debris falling through
water column before they hit the sediments
On the surface of the arm
Had tube feet, small hydrostatic skeletons, by
contracting longitudinal arms little tube feet
would push food to the mouth
Tube feet are part of the water vascular system
o There is an opening (Madreporite), sea
water fills creating radial and ring
canals give water to each of the tube
feet
o Each tube feet has an Ampulla and
connection to the rest of the system
To move, closes the connection
to the system, becomes
independent hydrostatic
skeleton
If contracted, force water into
tube feet, and if muscles in tube
feet were contracting and
shortening tube foot changes
position
Supplemented by the suction
cup
There are some that are still face up, but most
have turned upside and become mobile
o When eating, they wrap arms around prey, stretch skeleton and
lock it and it causes in the crack clam throws up digestive stuff
in the clam liquefies and then starfish consumes the slurpee
Water Vascular system: method of locomotion
Mutable connective tissue: very unusual conn
Echinoderms have an endoskeleton skeleton surrounded by tissue
o Arranged in plates plates are connected to each other via
connective tissue
o Under nervous control determines flexibility
An Explanation for the Cambrian explosion:
o Snowball earth
25

End of Proterozoic, large of block of land mass (no vegetation bare rock)
straddling the equator
It is not the kind of material that absorbs and holds onto heat
Bare rock reflects the energy
o Planet cools rock is eroding because of rain in tropics
Water run-off is loading into the ocean huge amounts of calcium and
cilica
o Once we get plants and animals, there will be no more
mineralization of oceans
Mineralization CO2 is at equilibrium with CO2 in the oceans
o Giant pulse of calcium in the ocean, pulling carbonate cycle,
pulling CO2 out of the air (one of the main greenhouse gases that
keeps it warm)
o Amount of Methane decreased as methane turned into CO2 due
to lack of CO2 in the air
Methane is a better insulator than CO2
Everything lowers in temperature and ice starts to form on the two poles
o Starts to lower water levels
o Ice mass are reflective reflecting back solar energy
o Everything is reflecting back thermal energy
o Ice mass continued to grow could not stop it from growing
Earths temperature had hit below a critical point not
enough heat
o Kept going until entire planet was covered with ice
Froze everything in time depending on what was going
on
Alternate: Slushball earth
o Did not completely froze there were some areas near the
equator where life continued
Snowball earth is like a rest point in evolution
o Once conditions comes back to normal via geothermal vents
(outgassing)
o Multicellular continued where it left off hence the explosion
Cryogenian (time of snowball earth)
o 2 sets of fossils
Doushantuo fossils (590-565 Ma)
Look like little embryos at different stages of
development
Indicates that multicellular life occurred earlier
Edicaran fossils (580-542Ma)
Inside fossil are impressions
Can see burrowing animals

26

Can either be footprint of an animal moving

across the surface or an animal sitting at the
bottom of the ocean
o Grew by repetitive branching (fracto)
Branches will have branches
All predate the Cambrian

Burrowing
Prior to the Cambrian sediments was covered by algae mass and organic
material over time
First animals were able to break through this indigestible layer and dig through it
Molluscs with radula allowed it to rip this layer to get to organis layer underneath
burrowers started to move into the sediments
Advantages
Feeding
Anchorage
o You were allowed to anchor yourself
Protection
o If you lived inside a burrow to hide from large predators
Shelled arms race
Predators are bigger than its prey
Predators wanted to be bigger than prey
Animals were beginning to escape predation by wearing organism
When a large animal had a shell, then you can also get an enhancement
of the arms race
Developmental hox genes
Homeotic Genes
How does cell in the walking leg know to make a walking leg
o Since all genetic information is present in the cell
o Where does pattern to come from?
How to differentiate from anterior to posterior
There are sets of transcription factors determines what genes gets
turned on and off
o Site of production of mRNA is at the front of the organism
o As factor is produced-- > diffused down the line of organism
o Concentration of factor is very high in the region that is
produced
o Some are produced at posterior end and vice versa
Posterior and Anterior end receive different factors
o Depending where cell is located in the embryo
o It will get a signal to turn on specific genes
Ex. cell in the middle gets messages to know what genes
to turn on
Once it gets the message, its fate has been sealed

27

Now we can change it down the length unlikeedicaran fossils where

its the same structure each time
Hox genes
There is a set of genes found in all organisms
o Controls the pattern of the organism (they are universal)
o Same gene sequence down the length of animals when
comparing fruit fly and mouse embryo
o There is just some deletions and some replications
Replication is common in the tail end region
Took clusters of cells that were committed to be a leg, placed them on
the antenna, and antenna developed into legs
There are commonalities
o There was an event that occurred on the genetics of pattern
o Ended up with huge array of organisms because now you can
control appearance in regulated manner
o This event is believed to happen in the Cambrian
May explain diversity all forms could flourish
because of abundance of space and nutrient

28

PART 2: Silurian and Devonian Periods

Mass extinction (loss than 50% of bio diversity)

o Dont know if End Cryogenian is a mass extinction
o Middle Ordovician:
Planets start to shift
Chordata
Animal Innovations (symplesiomorphies)
o 1. Pharyngeal gill slits, Dorsal hallow nerve cord
Invertebrate has a unique was of feeding
Allows water to flow as it moves with mouth open
water flows by slits in pharynx; food gets trapped
On the surface of slits, mucus is produced by the
endostyle, and food gets trapped
Food mucus is passed through digestive tract
o 2. Endostyle; post anal tail and tadpole swimming
Extension of the body past anal opening
Tail is wagging back and forth providing perpulsive
force
Make it through to the Silurian and Devonian
o End Ordovician
Gondwana starts moving south
Less continental shelf loss of some animal
Loss of diversity\
Ordovician survivors
Cnidaria (corals
Mulluscs
o Shelled cephalopods
o Bivalves
o Gastropods
Worms
Enchinoderms
Bryozoa
Arthropods
o Trilobites (some)
o Marine forms (crustacean)
Middle Slurian
o Most of continental shelf is tied with Gondwana
o Some continental shelf near the equator
Vertebrate phylogeny
o These fishes are the ancestor to the fish that we know today
The fished that had it mouth open as it swam through water (Mixini)
Vertebrata? (symplesiomorphies)
Axial Skeleton with vertebrae
29

Jawless fishes (Agnatha )

Armored fishes swam with mouth open trapping materials
Most are gone
2 descents in the vertebrate line that are still jawless:
Pteromyzontida (autapomorphies)
o Unique feeding structure with circular suction with keratinized
teeth
o Tongue covered with teeth
o Organisms are highly specialized
o Primitive of vertebrate fishes no mechanism to close jaw
o Ex. Hagfish and Lamprey
Survive today with a very unique habitat
Moves between freshwater and ocean
o Lampreys made it into the great lakes
o Has modified it into a very vicious
sucker
Has big set of teeth on the side
Causes oozing of blood and
material that feed on blood
Gnathostoma (autapomorphies) early ancestor toall vertebrates
Genome duplication
Amphixous primitive animal to all chordate chordate that doesnt
have bones
o There is a set of Hox genes at the base of the evolutionary tree
o By the time we get to Gnathostoma
The gene has gone through 2 rounds of duplication
Has undergone two polyploidy events there are 4
copies of everything
Normally associate with plants
We can have a set of back up genes and
experiment with body plan
o Lots of potential to experiment with
pattern, shape and form
o Explains why vertebrates have a
fundamental array of animals
Most successful, in bony fish, there are 8 copies
(underwent another gene duplication diversify the
quickest
Jaw
Evolution of the jaw,
o Slits were held open by cartilage or bone
o Support structure
Keep gill slits open
Reinforcing structure is the gill arch
30

They are formed by two bones that come

together and fuse ( bones from vental and
dentral sides)
They can take muscles of the face, can compress buccal cavity
If you can compress where the bones meet, they can now
flex
Instead of it being held open it can flex
Potential to pump water over cavity and into gill
Set of arches that used to be attached actually
bends and falls on top of each other and close
o Front two arches in vertebrates have
bent to the point where the jaw is
created
Group can now capture food,
put in buccal cavity and cannot
escape
Can pump water/ food still in
Animal does no longer need to
move to feed or breathe
o Innovation for respiratory becomes a
feeding mechanism

Paired Fins
Potential for wagging of heard if fins are not paired
If so, the heard will not wag around stabilizes posterior side
There is a dorsal fin at the top so we dont have head thrashing back
and forth
Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
Paired fins (pectoral and pelvic girdle and fin), axial skeleton, tail wags
back and forth
o Bones of fins are not connected to the axial skeleton
Tissue in the muscles that holds bones to the body
Can only move the fin slightly move in a large arc
o Has to keep swimming forcing water over gills to breathe
Placoid Scales
o A smooth body flowing through water creates a suction and
friction problematic when you swim
There is an adhesive force that pulls water to body,
called laminar flow results in resistance to the body
Sharks create scales that is on the surface, as water flow
the top, it creates turbulence area of disturbed water
adjacent to the body
No laminar of flow against water less friction
o Scale is excreted by the epidermal has calcium and minerals
Forms Dentn with enamel coated outer core
31

The Scales on the mouth is modified to become a teeth

Cant chew or break down food clamps down on prey,
death roll, creates angular momentum which tears the
prey apart
Can feed on something bigger than mouth
Teeth are often being pulled out there is an
epidermal layer which produces new teeth to the
front
Mermaid purse:
o Female only produces a few young per year, she will produce
after mating has claspers so passing sperm directly to women
o Fertilizes the egg, egg is put into mermaid purse
A leathery package, has whole piled of yolk and
nutrients bury the purse in crack or crevices and put
gravel around ( may mate 2-3 per year)
o May take a year to make a new shark
Huge investment into 1 egg
Reason why shark populations is decreasing
Shark fin soup
Knocking out reproductive potential of shark
population due to finning

Symplesiomorphies
o Bony skeleton replaces cartilage
No calcium in mineralization much more rigid skeleton
o Teeth embedded in the jaw
Teeth becomes more effective in grabbing for food
o Swim bladder or lung formed from the gut
Breath while maintain a stable position
Allows fish to respire but also hover neutral buoyancy
Actinopterygii (autapomorphies)
Fins supported with bony rays
o Filled with thousand little bones supports the dorsal fins
o Their fins ( Pectoral, pelvic, anal, and caudal fins)
Fins are now attached to skeleton of the organism
Muscles are no associated with them
Because of muscles they can now articulate
the fins
o Can swim without using the tail ( 2
ways)
Capable to use fine delicate movement
Swim bladder for neutral buoyancy
o Found in all fish
o Hooked into the blood supply
As you go down with a pack of air, the size shrinks
32

Need to be able to ajust how many air is that

bag-> need enough air to prevent from sinking
(body tissue is denser than water) but counter
pressure from water
As fish dives into the water oxygen is taken out of
blood and pumped into the bag by rete rhirable-> blood
is always oxygen rich
As fish comes back up top, oxygen is taken awayby
ovale
This is all done by nervous control and blood
instantaneous
No NEED OF MUSCULAR MOTION
Modification of the jaw for suction feeding
o Can extend the jaw out due to extra muscles being added
Mechanism used to catching prey
Shoot jaw forward to grab prey capable of hovering
and shoot jaw forward
Gill arches further back become secondary jaw
structures with teeth on them
IF it was not able to extend jaw, fish could sense
change in vibration within water
Because the fish is opening mouth wide and
pulling water in, it doesnt cause vibrations
o Ability to suck food right in without
warning
o Since the fish are staying still, they need to airate the gills
Same mechanism that shoots jaw out also must pump
water
On side of the fish, there is a covering called the
opercular
As it pulls out, it pulls water out of buccal cavity
o Opening mouth, enlarging buccal cavity,
closing the mouth, squeezing the buccal
cavity and squeeze it out

Symplesiomorphies
o Fins supported by muscles and bones that extend into the fin
o Lobbed fin
Sister to bonyfish (lobbed fin fish)
o 2 groups that survive called the lung fish
Has paddle fins that resemble limbs
o In the Devonian, where earth becomes dry and hot, freshwater start to stagnate, have to
breath above water turns into lungs are allowed to go above water using fins to find
better water

33

Plants

In moist shorelines, there are algae cells that are slowly forming colonies
o They are photosynthetic form algae mats
o Are ancestors to plants
o In animals cells has different functions and communicate via septate junctions
Autapomorphies
o 1. Cellulase, rosettes, phragmoplast cell division, and plasmodesmata
Charophyta does not have alternation of generations
o 2. Alternation of generations
o

Cellulose cell wall from hexameric cellulase synthase

Genes for cellulose are bacteria, are homologous across the living world
Is a glucose molecule stuck together in a chain
Glucose molecules have OH groups that can hydrogen bond cellulose
molecules can aggregate together to form micro fibrils
Microfibril are wound together to make a fibril
Cellulose in plants (made by cellulose synthase)
Takes glucose to make cellulose
This cellulose synthase forms a 6 figure subunit
o Each subunit has a strand with 6 microfibril
3 different types of cellulose in the subit of 6 (differ in
amino acid composition)
o This subunit of 6 organizes as 6 more subunits
Creates a rosette( 36 STRANDS OF CELLULOSE
MOLECULE)
As soon as they are produced, hydrogen bonds togeth to
make a microfibril of 36 molecules
THIS IS CHARACTERISTIC OF ALL
PLANTS
When subunits are there they assemble
automatically
All this is within in the plasma membrane: Rosettes are in the cell wall
o Microfibrils are facing towards the outside
o Cell wall is made of cellulose fibers in various patterns
Depending on composition and hydrogen bond
formation, it can be stretchy or rigid
Underneath plasma membrane are series of
microtubules, meshwork underneath
Base of rosette interacts with microtubules, as
cellulose becomes anchored, rosette slides along
microtubules
It is laying down a fiber on the outside

34

You get a whole layer of fibers, spinning out

micro fibrils because of orientation of
microtubules
If you have layers of fibrils, it will be stretchy
o Primary cell wall:
Cellulose
Protein
Hemicellulose (slightly different composition)
Pectin
Phragmoplastic cell division
Major problem wisth cell wall is that during cell division
Invagination pinching in on teach side
o Pinching until cell wall is close to one another with two cell
walls
o If you do this, you will never get cell to cell communication
because there is a cell wall barrier
When cell is at rest, there is a huge array of micro fibrils sliding through
plasma membrane
o Just at the start of cell division, microtubules aggregate at the
center pull nucleus to central position
o Microtubules splits off into poles, creates spindle fibers no
centriole organizer
Attaching to chromosome and pull to opposite directions
CELL HAS NO DIVIDED YET, only nucleus has
divided
o Molecular motors start transporting material to the center of the
cell where the vesicles pulled to the center, will release its
substance and that will form the new cell wall (called the cell
plate)
Expand as a cylinder until it gets bigger and bigger until
it attaches to the new cell wall
The cell wall was forming there is cytoplasm and
endoplasmic reticulum that spans the cell and gets
trapped in the cell plate cell plate is not solid
Continuous between ceels so cell-to cell
communication
Molecular motor builds this cell plate
Plasmodesmata
Cell to cell communication mechanism (there can be thousands within cell plate)
Cell wall can absorb water acts like a whisk
Hole contain endomembrane system and cytoplasm
Central core with endoplasmic reticulum is called the Desmotubule
Can open and close to allow and regulate movement of things

35

Can move things through like a wick using cell wall

o Apoplastic pathway (through cell wall)
Can move through cytoplasm
o Symplastic pathway
Alternations of generations

Sorting Out plantse

o Gametophyte (gamete plant) n
Have gametangia producing gametes
Antheridia- sperm
Archegonia-egg
Release sperm, find archegonia and fertilize egg on the inside
Forms a zygote inside the Archegonia
o Sporophyte (spore plant) 2n
Have sporagania producing spores

Comes from the zygote often nested in original gametophyte plant

Nourishment is coming from gametophyte
Transitions to land (plants)
o Water conservation
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Across exchange surfaces

Across body in general
o Protect the gametes against drying out protect sperm from drying out
o Support system (gravity)
When you come on land, there is much great pressure on land
Liverworts:
o Site at the bottom of plant evolution
o Are ancient, live mostly restricted moist environments
o Form little green scums on surface of plants
o Absence of any vascular tissue
Going to use cell wall to transfer substances
On the underside, some extend filaments called rhizoids (are not roots because
they dont have vascular tissue)
Will wick the water found in the soil
o There is some protection from drying out, has a waxy surface
Waxy coat means that we keep water AND air out
Need to get CO2to photosynthetic cells
Has a series of pores across the upper side of the thallus
Allows air to penetrate where chloroplast are
Pores cannot close are always open
o Plant is a massive tissueno differentiation
Lumps of photosynthetic tissue is called a thallus
Missing vascular tissue associated with leaf
o Two major lifecycles:
Archegonia
Stalk like structures that is like an umbrella
o Underneath umbrella are all the archegonia with egg inside
Antheridia
Flattened structures contain antheridia
When there is a rain, rain drops bounces up from Antheridia and hit the
Archegonia heads
Not a lot for genetic diversity thats why the self-fertilize
Sometimes they can absorb water, swell up, and shoot out sperm as they
burst

37

Sometimes can hit plants nearby

Z
y
g
o
t
e

b
ecomes a sporophyte and it is still attached under the umbrella of the Archeognia
Undergoes development as Gametophyte will nourish the sporophyte
Inside, it will undergo meiosis and thousands of mitosis to produce
thousands of spores
Spores are then released and wind carries them to other places
Can germinate and become a thallus , green leafy structure, as it matures
new gametophyte makes appearance
o Gemma cups (asexual)
If rain hits splash cup, gemma pops out and germinates to produce a new plant
Stomatophyta (Autapomorphies)
o Stomata, determinate meristern
Transition to land- water conservation
38

o Open when there is photosynthesis

o Close it so that we dont lose water
o Stomata consists of two guard cells,
micro fibrils of cellulose so that when they pump salt
into cells, the cells swell as they take on water
Because of restrictions, they end
up closing
o

Meristem
Set of cells that we would
consider to be stem cells can turn into anything
Potential at the tip (apical) or roots (root) meristem to be able to build anything
Tip of every branch of every plant is a new organism being formed from raw
stem cells
Old tree sections are holding new stem tips
They are not of same genetic composition as the old sections of the tree
Every single growing tip is genetically different from each other
Secret: a plant is a multiple of organisms with multiple meristem, that are
genetically different all on a growing tip
Meristem is the genetically variable for plants
Cells dividing would produce filaments, in meristem, there are unequal divisions,
cells can stack up and form organ

Determinate
Sitting at the end of growth structure
o Grows only so long
In moss, it is determinate,
o Gametophyte nourishes sporophyte
o Meristem at the bottom pushes gametophyte to the top
o Will be elevated so that sporophytes will be released in the air
o Gametophytes is leafy no vascular tissue
Has to absorb all water with leafy tissue

Indeterminate
Can grow continuously

Mosses
o Must protect cellulose in its cell wall because it can easily be degraded by bacteria
Deposition of anti-bacterial compounds in cell wallprevent it from staying and
eating it
Phenolic compounds based on benzene rings

Spores released from capsule, germinates,

Top of male gametophyte will be a similar splash disk
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Egg is inside a disk Arcegonia

Out of gametophyte grows a sporophyte
Original capsule produces many spores , done through meiosis

End of Devonian (Called the age of plants)

Ocean levels are falling reef systems collapse

o Changes in aquatic environment
o Not much mass extinction of plants
Devonian Terrestrial environment
o Tracheophyta? (Autapomorphies
1. Indeterminate meristem
2. Lignified secondary cell wall, tracheary cells and sieve elements, long-lived
sporophytes can no live independently
o Lignin way for anti-bacterial breakdown
Hydrophobic
Tracheids cells are hollow cells (xylem)
o Primary wall with cellulose, secondary wall with lignin
o When they die, they still have plasmodesmata connected to each
other
o Hollow connected to hollow hollow tubes stay within plants
stay
Getting evaporation and is supplied from the roots
Lignin lining nothing ex. water will not stick to it
Fine thing drinking straw for letting water evaporate at
the top of leafy structures and be replaced by ones on the
root level
If you have bundles of this, you can make plants rise
higher
Sieve cell (phloem)
o When it matures it is filled with cytoplasm (connected via
plasmodesmata)
o You have cells that are cytoplastmically connected to each other
o Connections are very obvious, sieve plates
o Move the sugar always has second cell called companion cell
(albuminous cel)
Companion cell uses ATP to pump sugar from leafs to
sieve elements
Sugar concentration is high, it is rigid, draws water in,
forces cytoplasmic flow of material DOWN
Somewhere, something is extracting the sugar out

40

Sugar is at low concentration in roots, return to

tracheal cells and goes up uses concentration
and pressure gradient.
Ex. When taking maple syrup intercepting sugar
solution coming up from roots

Indigestible
Bacterial and fungal lignases
Toxic

Secondary cell wall is filled with lignin, starts off as rings, gets more solid,
initially taking cells (rigid ring), ability so that it can stand up
Cells can then attach on each other, end on end (can withstand gravity)
Rings become a solid lining of lignin

We can now move water and sugar we can get unlimited height due to lignin
Sporophytes will now become dominant, gametophytes becomes less prevelant

41

PART 3: Carboniferous and Permian Periods

Early Devonian
o Eur-America is heading toward equator Pangea is on its way
Carboniferous (359-299 Ma)
o Lignin is most abundant Carbon compounds, one of the most carbon sinks
o No one can digest the lignin.
o Slowly heading towards large continental land mass
Will create an environment that will create the largest mass extinction at the end
of the Permian
o Carboniferous coal forests (used to be the size of trees)
Club mosses
Giant horse tails
Tree ferns

Developed vascular tissue, but, still rely on spores for life cycle no seeds
Advantage of vascular is independent of the onset of seeds
Autapomorphies
True leaves (because of vascularization so that we can extend leaf), chloroplast
DNA inversion in circular DNA
Ferns

Mature sporophyte is a fern

Still going to produce spores (brown splotches) called sorri
o Inside, is the sporangium, spore producing tissue
Ferns are unusual because they grew in diversity extremely vascular
plant without seeds
o Because of lepto-sporangium
o IN one sorrus, there is a casing, and inside are developing leptosporangium
42

Have thick wall on the inside, and thin wall facing

outside
When they get exposed to air water is gone
This buckles inwards, pulls cells facing the inner
surface closer together causes it to straighten
out
All of a sudden, it snaps, launches its spores
When it drops to the ground, it becomes a gametophyte, very similar to the
thallus of a liverwort, on it surface are antheridum and Archegonium
Rhizoids absorb water and water landing on this thallus, takes sperm and
brings it to the egg becomes a young sporophyte
Young sporophyte germinate, it has a root, can spread and produce more
leaves propogation
Up until now, spores were same size, spores would launch and produce bisexual
or just produce male and female gametophytes
Had to go through meiosis, produced 4 products
Homosporus:
o Sporangia Spores Bisexual gametophyte sperm or eggs
Spore size changes large spore is called a mega spore

Heterosporus:
o MicrosporangiaMicrospores Male gametophytes sperm
o Megasporangia megaspores female gametophyte Egg
Meiosis, 3 of the 4 spores disappear
Rather than taking all the nutrients, well invest
them into one much larger spore
Females are more nourished
Gymnosperms (Conifers)
o Cones (Strobila)
Separate sporangia separate location for making spores
Males cones and female cones
Before
Spore was released, geminated into gametophyte
Gametophyte was fertilized, new spore was produced there for the
embryo for the new sporophyte
Now, spore is produced but you dont release it
Leave archgonium on original plant
A gametophyte will be born on the sporophyte plant
We also get pollen for the first time male gametophyte will develop on the
original plant
Endospory we dont release spores from parent plant
At the end of the day, pollen granule inside is a mature male
gametophyte in waterproof coating
43

Male cones are producing this pollen

o Will fertilize a female that is hiding in the female cone

44

Male and female cones produce sporesspores are trapped in the cones
Gymnosperm pollen (male gametophyte)
o Undergone four division fate of each one is different
o One will become the generative cell nucleus of sperm
o One will be the tube that gets the sperm to the female cone
prothelial cells are protective cells
o Wings will carry it to the egg and female cones
Gymnosperm seed formation
o Female cone is always opne, pollen will enter and lands insider
o It will close up and Megaspore will undergo mitotic division
Will further undergo meiosis to produce tissue ex.
archangomium loaded with tissue with egg inside
Pollen grain fertilizes it, germinates, tube cell creates a
channel
Get diploid stage,
Theegg that develops is an embryo (sporophyte)
Gymnopsperm seeds
o Nutritive tissue is from the gametophyte
o Embry is the sporophyte
o Protective seed coat is a sporophyte
o
o

Takes two year to fertilize

Flying mobile pollen grains that flies around and an egg that is
waiting

Fungi
o Learn how to break down lignin
Therefore, it is the only time where coal is produced
o Absorptive heterotrophs:
Take cell strands and place them between cells of plants that are there, slowly
digest lignin and use it as a metabolic reserve
o Unique Fungal terms
They are filaments of cells
Septa, hypha (smallest) wrapped around each other to produce and mycelia
Cellular filaments throughout their whole life they are able to branch
They are haplontic, only n
We will get in the diploid state but it is short lived
45

2 haploid cells fuse to creat diploid

As soon as diploid happens, they immediately undergo meiosis to
become haplontic again and to produce spores
Why haploid?
Diploid allows it as a backup
Gametophyte were always protected from the suns rays
Fungi, dont use light, buried within food
They are not subject to possible mutation as they approach on land
Organism became multicellular,
Cell-cell communication, the cell wall between two cells disappear so
they are connected via cytoplasm
Problem: if nucleus undergoes mitotic division, duplication of
chromosomes still occurs but you cant dissolve nuclear wall
o Inside nucleus, spindle pull body , everything happens in nucleus
o And then nuclear envelope undergoes binary fission to create
two new nuclei
Microtubules sticking out of the nuclear envelope drags the nucleus to its
new position.
Plasmogamy
Dikaryote cells
o Cells divide
o When two fungi meet and mate, nuclei do not fuse, keep it
separate for prolonged period of time (n+n)
o When meiosis occurs, they nucleus will occur
Karyogamy
o Diploid cells
Nucleus divides
Meiosis:

46

o Haploid cell
Typical fungal life cycle:

2 cells meet to become in Heterokaryotic state (n+n)

Can go on for long periods of time
Will come a point where we need to combine nuclei
(Karyogamy) diploid zygote
Fungus can be 1 species and can span a long distance
All of a sudden it will decide to go through Karyogoamy, and it will
genetically recombinant

47

Underneath soil, you have monokaryotic mycelia

1 nuclei, all woven together, fused to form dikaryotic mycelia
We need to distribute spore
Elevate fungus
Fungal mycelia begins to swell with water
o Causes it to come up out of the ground
Up on the underside of each cell, where we have Dikaryotic
o They will undergo fuision, undergo two rounds of meiosis and
now they are haploid in (basidiospores)
Basidiospores are gathered at the bottom of the Basidium
Ill be released from the wind into the breezes to produce new fung
Why do we keep n+n, if you look at the undersurface of a gill of the mushroom
There are thousands of millions of dikaryotic just sitting there
o Each of those events is a recombination of 2 haploids
o Meiosis occurs different in each of Basidium
o Will be genetically different each time
When it releases spores, it is not the result of meiosis
and then hundreds of mitosis like normally, which is
what happens with pollen
Now, it is thousands of cells that undergo meiosis
Ensures biodiversity
Fungal mutualism:
When plants first invaded terrestrial, set up mutualism with fungi
Plants are not capable of dissolving mineral from substrate
o Needed for catalysis for enzymes fungi can do this
o Fungi would dissolved minerals and plant gave fungi
photosynthetic glucose
o Almost all of them have association with fungi occurs even
with rhizoids with liverworts,
48

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)

o Located at the end of roots, can span in large areas
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AMF)
o Live inside the tissue to receive nutrients
o Spore is outside so that it can absorb minerals

Fungi-Lichens
o Very unusual group of plants, have a close relationship with fungi
o Could be cyanobacteria, photosynthetic cell (Photobionts) trapped in woven mush of
fungal mycelia
o Relationship still exists
Can dry right out and turn non-green
Fungus can slowly dissolve mineral and make a groove
Arthropoda (Autapomorphies)
o Articulated exoskeleton of plates
o Muscles arranged in bands
o Compound eye
o

Insects external anatomy (Tagmatization)

Will dominate terrestrial land environment
Uses fusing segments together to the optium
Head tagma used to sense environment and obtain food
Thorax tagma strictly for locomotion-> flying
Abdomen tagma can enlarge when feeding and reproducing
Every tagma to this day is the same:
6 in head, 13 with thorax, and 11-12 with abdomen
Modified appendages into different forms
o Insect movement: Flight and wing folding mechanism:
Were feeding on spores and vegetated material,
Once they flew, they can colonize new habitats, escape areas, fly in and
out of seasonal area (ex. monarch butterfly)
o Cuticle- Exoskeleton
Has two components, a procuticle and an epicuticle
Chitin reinforced , nematods use collagen
Epicuticle is the waterproof layer prevents any water from evaporating
Ex. Shellacking a piece of wood
o Intersect reproduction:
Has a unique mating system ensures we dont dry the sperm
Sperm packages spermatophore
Females produces egg with water proof casing: chorion
Waterproof case is on beforefertilization
There is one opening in every single egg-> allows sperm to penetrate
through
Tetrapoda (Autapomorphies)
o Tetrapod stance with appendicular skeleton of fore and hind limb
49

Amphibia (autapomorphies
o Mass diversification occurs in the Cambrian
o Buccal force breathing
Pushing air into the lungs, swallow and gulp air and force it into lungs
Squeeze body to let air out
o Skin is primary respiratory organ
They still breathe through skin so outer skin is not waterproof
Must keep it moist
You will be subject to predation, we have glands that are poison
Poison glands are equally as important to mucus gland
Poison glands will contain hallucinogenic substances
o Feeding:
Theyre feeding on insects flying around
They are the first to tap the diverse amount of flying insects
Use their tongue, flip their tongue out to be able to capture prey
o Amphibian locomotion
4 sets of limbs, limbs are stuff off to the side
TO be able to move, they have to lift themselves off the ground not efficient

Types of extinction (READ THIS SHIT)

o Background extinction
o Mass extinction (50%)

50

Mesozoic Era
Mesozoic Triassic, Jurasic, and Cretaceous:
o We now have Pangea in place
o Pangea will rip apart, over time, it will create a mass extinction in Triassic
Reptiles will arise favor reptiles

o Amniota (autapomorphies)
Amniote egg
Can now law an eg without having to go back In marine environment
Water is filled with predators so it is good to learn to put embryo in
waterproof egg
Yolk sac contains nutrients
inside that sect we create waste sac (Allantois)
Albumen sac contains albumen and produces large amounts of
metabolic water
Keratinized skin
We are waterproofing it so we dont loose moisture
Temporal fenestra in skull
o Reptilia (Diapsida) Mammals are Synapsida
Development of eggs Oviparous reproduction
Diapsid skull (anapsids)
Crushing Jaw
Teeth were embedded in epidermis
These teeth are conical down the length (homodont)
o Can grasp onto prey with powerful jaw
o Can clamp down tight
o Musculature to open mouth is extremely
Put your hand over the nose because muscles are too
weak
Inside the brain case , jaws were attached to inner surface
Created holes in the skull called temporal fenestrae
o Allowed muscle to extend up and through to the surface of the
skull muscle pass through brain but did not change the shape
o Diapsids had two opening
Turtles are Anapsids, they have fused bones all over their bodies
o Turtle has taken jaw and removed teeth, made them into beaks
o We dont need large powerful muscles we now know holes
that were there have fused over
Major diapsid groups
o Extinct: Dinosaurs and pterosaurs
Saurischia (walk on land )
Migrated bones underneath so they are standing

51

Swung pectral so that axial skeleton is lying on

top always ready to run
Pubis, Ischium, Illium, Acetbulum
o There are two different ways bones can
be attached , Is and Pb are NOT parallel
to each other
Ornithischia (walk on land)
Ischium and Pubis bone are parallel to each
other
o There were two solution to supporting
body on land
o Will both lead to bipetal
Pterosaurs
Quadrupeds, walking on theirfront knucles
Little fingers is supporting large membrane
o Evolutionary not related to birds
Extant: Snakes crocodiles and lizard, turtles

Beta-Keratin in scales and feathers

Keratin is a protein
As skin cell smature, pushed toward surface, keratin protein is crosslinked protein that ends up meshing with cells to create layer of cells that
are dead (called cornified layer) flexible material
We end up with plates of Keratinized skin, scales, we have to molt the
skin
Crushing Jaws:
Teeth were embedded in epidermis
These teeth are conical down the length (homodont)
o Can grasp onto prey with powerful jaw
o Can clamp down tight
o Musculature to open mouth is extremely
Put your hand over the nose because muscles are too
weak
Inside the brain case , jaws were attached to inner surface
o As jaws increase in size, had impact on cranial capacity
limited brain development
Therapsids will become the mammals
o Warm-blooded
o Nocturnal are able to hunt at night
Sets up stage for mammals
o Glandular skin communicates with scents
o Specialized teeth and chewed their food heterodont
52

Angiosperms (flowering plants)

o Flower anatomy: gymnosperms were producing food, nutrient came from tissue of
female gametophyte produced even if egg was not fertilized
o Was also relying on wind both are inefficient
o Male and female body parts develop on the flower
Anther (stamen) pollen , filament (stamen)
Carpel, style , ovary
Get the pollen from one plant to another recruits insects to do so
Offer rewards
Ovary is now wrapped in tissue
Male anther contains the spores that has been produced by meiotic division , and
then mitosis,
Inside pollen is the miniature male gametophyte has been reduced to 3
cells
When it arrives at the plant, it lands on the top
Egg: last cell that is prepping for fertilization undergoes 3 mitotic 8
cell divisions
o 3 cells migrate to the poles (1n) opposite to micropyle
o 3 cells migrate to place right beside micropyle in which one
becomes the egg
The other two fuses in the middle (2n)
When fertilization occurs, pollen grain germinates, pollen tube extends
down

o
o

1 micronuclei from pollen fertilizes the egg, the other fertilizes

the middle
Triploid cell in the middle is called the endosperm (3n) provides
nutrients

53

Zygote (2n), no ovules will produce anything unless egg is

fertilized
o Much more efficient use of animals
Extremely efficient pollen transfer
Seed only takes a few days to geow
Outer case will become fruit
o Will eat the fruit when its in a case and poop out seeds
o Gemnosperms can only survive in the northern climates
where they are adapted to the cold

Cretaceous extinction
o Metero impact may not be as dramatic
o Not a lot of animals disappeared only killed the upper vertebrate
Dinosaurs were leaving the planet pare
Trophic collapse before meteorite hits
We are in the 6th largest mass extinction

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Cenozoic Era

Cenozoic:
o Two survivors of dinosaurs
o Birds
They fly, feather structure, creates a surface that is light
That light surface pushes against wind that causes lift
All reptiles had feathers
Advantage: used large wings to sweep insects
The ground-up theory of flight
Massive reduction of bones of skeleton fused and siappeared bone
Remove teeth from jaws ans use keratin beak
Muscles come down to the front to lift
Pectoralis major lifts the muscles
Supracoracoideus pulls them down
They also end up having hollow bones
Feathers used to create a constant pressure organism
Parental care:
They invest large resources in only a few offspring (first group since
sharks)
o Mammals
Synapsid skull
Glandular skin with alpha-Keratin
Used the glands used for scent and turned them into feeding organ to
feed young
For hairs to work, to insulate they cannot be brittle
Sweat glands keep hairs wet and those same oils creat moisture for
sweating
o Apocrine Sweat gland
o Eccrine sweat glands
Lactation
Glands are used to feed young
Heterodont deciduous dentition
We have specialized teeth that do different function, tearing, scraping,
chewing
Skull keeps growing, jaw keeps growing so we need to add teeth
o Loose teeth, deciduous
Mammalian reproduction
Oviparous
o Monostremes
They still lay eggs
o Viviparous
Marsupials

55

Internalize embryo, lives in there, has no blood

barrier to female
Female will not tolerate parasite living in there
Has to crawl out of the pocket to feed on the teet
Eutharians
Use, placental mammals
There is no autoimmune reaction
Put a barrier, we do exchange across the
placenta to nourish the young that is internalized

Parental care
Macroevolution:

56