Sayyid Mahdi Alavinia1

Department of Electrical and

Robotic Engineering,
Shahrood University of Technology,
Shahrood 3619995161, Iran
e-mail: zalloi@shahroodut.ac.ir

Mohammad Ali Sadrnia

Department of Electrical and
Robotic Engineering,
Shahrood University of Technology,
Shahrood 3619995161, Iran
e-mail: masadrnia@shahroodut.ac.ir

Mohammad Javad
Khosrowjerdi
Department of
Electrical Engineering,
Sahand University of Technology,
Tabriz 51335-1996, Iran
e-mail: khosrowjerdi@sut.ac.ir

Mohammad Mehdi Fateh

Department of Electrical and
Robotic Engineering,
Shahrood University of Technology,
Shahrood 3619995161, Iran
e-mail: mmfateh@shahroodut.ac.ir

Stable and Efficient Operation

of Gas Compressor With
Improving of Surge Detection
System
This paper investigates the application of fault diagnosis (FD) approach for improving
performance of compressors within exact operating point determination. Detecting of
sensor fault or failure status is more important in the compressor for safety-critical application. No work has previously been reported on the use of the FD system within a compressor surge-suppressing system. Therefore, the main contribution of this paper is
presenting different and complementary techniques for surge-suppressing studies via sensor FD. By data acquisition from a nonlinear MooreGreitzer model, a neural network
(NN) and innovation complex decision logic provide residual generation and evaluation
blocks in an analytical redundancy FD system, respectively. The proposed FD deals with
the most-common sensor faults and failures in seven different scenarios according to
their nature, such as bias, cutoff, loss of efficiency, and freeze. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4027371]

Introduction

Compressors have increasingly more applications, for instance

in gas turbines, in the upstream oil and gas industry, and natural
gas transmission over long distances. These machines are made in
different models, such as centrifugal, axial, and piston. They can
also vary in size from a few feet to tens of feet in diameter. For
natural gas transmission to long distances, steel pipelines and gas
compressor stations (GCSs) have first place, despite the various
technologies, such as liquid natural gas, liquid petroleum gas, and
dimethyl ether [14]. In extensive networks for natural gas transmission, GCSs are made at 120130 km distance from each other.
The turbo compressor (TC) is the most important part of GCSs. In
Fig. 1, a schematic view of a TC is shown. There are three to five
units, in series, parallel, or combination of series and parallel construction in GCS, depending on GCS capacity. Compressors operate as a pump in GCSs and increase natural gas pressure with ratio
1.11.6. Gas turbines are the compressors drive units; furthermore, powerful electrical motors can be used as a compressor
drive unit. In turbomachinery applications, safe and efficient operation of the compression system is imperative. To run a compressor as efficiently as possible and to prevent damage, flow
instabilities such as surge must be avoided or dealt with soon after
their inception [2,3].
Surge is a serious harmful instability that affects the entire compression system. It is characterized by large-amplitude fluctuations of the pressure and by unsteady, but circumferentially
uniform, annulus-averaged mass flow [5]. Four types of surge can
be distinguished based on the amplitude and frequency of the
associated oscillations, namely mild surge, classic surge, modified
surge, and modified deep surge [5,6]. For quick and accurate surge
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Turbomachinery Committee of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received January
29, 2014; final manuscript received March 22, 2014; published online May 9, 2014.
Editor: David Wisler.

suppressing, the real and healthy values of fluid flow U, pressure

ratio W, and speed of compressor B sensors as key variables
should be accessible any time. When a compressor is delivered
from the manufacturer, system documentation such as compressor
map or compressor performance curve, as Fig. 5, is also supplied.
By mapping these healthy values, the authorized point or
surge one on the performance curve is determined at any given
moment [3,5].
Healthy sensors have a vital role in compressor control and
surge suppressing. Any fault or failure in a sensor not only can
degrade performance indexes but also cause serious damage to the
user, environment, and itself, due to surge occurrence. Therefore,
a precision and advanced FD is necessary. Currently, there is not
any sensor FD in a compressor. Statistical and field studies in
GCSs show that compressors emergency shutdown (ESD) frequently [2,7,8] due to absence of FD.
The main idea in FD is the comparison of actual system performance with the performance of the system in normal status
without any fault or failure by generating of residual signal [9]. In
technical terms, a redundant device can perfectly or even
roughly replicate the nominal behavior of the crucial component
in the system. There are three most important ways to create a
redundant system and compare behaviors: hardware redundancy, signal processing-based, and analytical redundancy. The
crucial components in the process are reconstructed using identical hardware. This approach is extremely reliable but expensive.
In the second approach, measurement signals carry vital information about the actual behavior of the plant. Furthermore, time or
frequency domain-based tools can generate residual. In the analytical redundancy approach, the model of system is generated as
shown in Fig. 2 [10,11]. The model can either be quantitative (i.e.,
based on first principles), qualitative (based on if-then-else rules,
decision tree, etc.), or data driven (process history based) [9,12].
After getting a redundancy, the behavior of the real system and
model is compared to generate residual signal after residual calculating, and then fault or failure can be diagnosed with regard to

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Fig. 1 A schematic view of TC

well as sensor failures such as cutoff and freeze. By data acquainting from nonlinear MooreGreitzer simulated model, a NN as an
observer generates residual signals. It is also needed to present an
innovation algorithm for residual evaluation block due to complexity of fault and failure scenarios. Moreover, the proposed NN
demonstrates remarkable identification properties in the presence
of uncertainties and bounded external perturbations [2325].
This paper is organized as follows. First, fundamentals concerning
the MooreGreitzer model and the surge phenomenon are discussed
in Sec. 2 briefly. Sensor fault and failure different scenarios and FD
techniques are described in Sec. 3. A more detailed description of the
structure of NN as a residual generator and the proposed algorithm
for residual evaluation are presented in Sec. 4. Section 5 deals with
the proposed FD approach for the compressor, and the simulated
results are also presented. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Sec. 6.

Fig. 2 FD based on analytical redundancy

residual signal in a residual evaluation block [13]. The selection

of a suitable FD approach depends on our knowledge from the
system, the nature and importance of the system, speed, and time
delay of processing. In this paper, the NN approach will be used
for residual generation. The lack of access to accurate mathematical and physical equations and casual models or abstraction hierarchy about the compressor is the main reason for choosing NN.
As mentioned before, no considerable and impressive work has
previously been reported on the use of the FD system within a
compressor surge-suppressing system. But there are some
researches in the surge-suppressing system. On the other hand, FD
has been discussed on compressor actuators and main components
FD separately. For example, in Refs. [1416], for surge alleviation, researchers seek to enlarge the stable operating range (push
back the surge line) by altering the physical construction of the
compressor or adding actuation, such as an additional valve or an
air injector. Active surge control is a popular research in this field.
The purpose of active surge controls is to stabilize the compressor
when operating within the unstable region of the compressor map.
This is achieved by extending the stable operating envelope of the
compressor. Modifications of the compressor or the controller
must be done in order to be able to achieve this. Moving plenum
wall, throttle valves, air actuators, close-coupled valve, variable
inlet guide vanes, or drive torque control are examples of active
surge schemes [1618]. Closed coupled valves use drive torque
actuation for active surge control [19,20]. For more details about
the surge-suppressing techniques, the interested reader is referred
to Refs. [1420]. In Ref. [21], principle component analysis
(PCA) was used for compressor fault detection. If the number of
variables in the reduced-order model is not selected properly, then
it cannot perverse original model specifications; therefore, analysis of variance for selecting a proper number of variables was suggested. In Ref. [21], only inlet guide vane failure as a component
failure was detected by PCA. In Ref. [22], a data-driven approach
based on feature extraction and pattern classification was used for
FD in jet turbine. This method was tested on a commercial jet
engine by NASA.
The main contribution of this paper is presenting different and
complementary techniques for surge-suppressing studies regarding sensor faults or failures. Sensors faults are classified into several important scenarios, for instance, bias, loss of efficiency, as

MooreGreitzer Model and Surge Phenomenon

A survey of the literature in recent years shows that there are

extensive researches on compression system modeling. But a significant step forward in this field was made by Greitzer [26,27],
who developed a nonlinear lumped-parameter model for basic
compression systems, named the Greitzer model. Moore and
Greitzer extended the previous Greitzer model, which presents a
qualitative description of the relevant phenomena, and its simplicity facilitates the physical interpretation of the model parameters
and their influence on the overall dynamics [16]. The Moore
Greitzer model is particularly suited for control-oriented modeling
of compression systems. This model is suitable for research
works, but it deals with the main problems in practical and experimental tasks, because various simplifications are used in its preparation. Compressors that are used in the natural gas transmission
industry are very expensive machines, and they are not accessible
for research tasks in a laboratory. Hence, we select the Moore
Greitzer model as a relative appropriate model for data acquisition
inevitably. Therefore, the MooreGreitzer model is selected as a
relative appropriate model for data acquisition inevitably. The
MooreGreitzer model in nonlinear state space realization is
dW K2

U  UT  2K1 CBW
dn
B




dU
H
W  Wc0
3 U
J

1 1

1
dn lc B
2 W
2
H

3

1 U
lE Ud K1 CU 1
1 
U; W; J; B

2 W
bH
2


2

dJ
U
J 2Ud Cm  1WK1
J 1
1  
dn
W
4
3bH
3aH

1  mB BaW
dB
K1 CB2
dn
2 3
W
6 7
y 4U5
B

(1)

where
r
U
Ac Lc
Ud
; b 2as
; mB B 1  m
1
b
VP
bB
p
Ud 1
qbR3 Ac
UT c W; lc B lI lE
;
; K1
bB a
2IUd
Rb
K2
L c Ud
B

In Eq. (1), U denotes the annulus-averaged dimensionless axial

flow coefficient, W indicates the dimensionless pressure rise, J

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Fig. 3 A schematic of compressor control system

Fig. 5 Compressor performance curve

shows the squared amplitude of angular variation (J > 0 denotes

rotating stall or stone wall), and, finally from above equations, B
is the fraction of compressor speed. B depends on plenum volume
and compressor annulus area. Furthermore, U, W, and B can be
considered as model outputs, and C as the supply torque is the
control variable and it can obtain as a fellow equation
C Ct  Cc

(2)

where C is the net control input in the compressor, Ct is the torque

applied to the impeller by the drive unit, and Cc is the load torque
due to fluid flow in the impeller and friction of rotating mechanical parts. The model parameters are not included here, and for
more details about the MooreGreitzer and its parameters, the
interested reader is referred to Refs. [2629].
To achieve B at a fixed value, a simple closed-loop system,
such as Fig. 3 with proportional-integral (PI) controller, is supposed. Nonlinear relations in Eq. (1) are simulated as a compressor model. Ud acts as a reference input variable, and it is constant
and equals to compressor desired speed. All of the states in
Eq. (1) are measurable, and a simple sensor with 10/(s 10) transfer function is considered for each of the variables. An inherent
difficulty in sensor FD is that the diagnosis performance could be
drastically reduced under sensor noise [30]. In this paper, fluid
flow and pressure ratio signals are filtered by Chebyshev type II
order 3. Butterworth filter with order 3 is implemented to stone

wall signal, and for compressor speed signal, a low-pass filter is

also designed. Appropriate output signals and control signal are
available at any time by filtering. In Fig. 4, filtered signals are represented, respectively.
The most common problem in the operation of compressors in
the natural gas transmission industry is the surge phenomenon. It
can impose financial losses and also affect stability of the natural
gas transmission network. As previously mentioned, when a compressor is delivered from the manufacturer, the compressor performance curve is also supplied as an important document. As
shown in Fig. 5, the shaded area on the left of surge line (SL) is
an unauthorized region and is called the surge margin. The minimum speed, maximum speed, and choking line also limit the
authorized area. Surge line separates the two mentioned areas. It
is noteworthy that the surge line also represents the maximum
efficiency line of the compressor. If the operating point is closer
to the surge line, then it means that the machine operates near the
maximum efficiency. For determination of the exact position of
the operating point on the compressor performance curve, the real
value of U, W, and B should be available every time. Therefore,
even one faulty sensor can cause the mapping point to become an
unreal point and it imposes two unpleasant consequences:
(1) Suppose that the real operating point is B1 in Fig. 5, but
due to sensor fault, it is shown in a wrong point such as A1
on the performance curve, then the antisurge control system

Fig. 4 (a) Filtered U, (b) filtered W, (c) filtered J, and (d) filtered B

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assumes it as a surge point. To leave the unauthorized area,

the surge control system opens the antisurge recycle valve
consequently and forces the actual operating point B1 away
from the maximum efficiency line indeed. Furthermore, the
compressor mechanical stresses increase by the acting antisurge recycle valve.
(2) Unlike the previous case, suppose that the real operating
point is A2 in Fig. 5, but due to sensor fault, it is shown as
B2 on the performance curve, then the user leads the operating point to the SL for obtaining the maximum efficiency,
but the actual operating point A2 goes to the surge margin
even more. Generally speaking, fault imposes the compressor to deep surge in practice. Considering the above issues,
for the safe and efficient operation, the primary surge point
detection method should be enhanced by a suitable and
advanced FD.

Sensor Fault Scenarios

Sensors are important components for control and advanced

health management techniques. Sensors are often less reliable
than the system they are observing. This is in part due to the
sensor-operating principles and their susceptibility to interference
from the environment. Detecting and mitigating sensor faults are
becoming increasingly important in more-complex and safetycritical applications [30]. Sensor faults are classified in different
scenarios as well as sensor failure according to its nature and
behavior. Equation (3) is established between input and output of
linear sensor simplicity.
yout t M:xin t A

yout t M:xin t

(4)

Table 1 Fault different scenarios (note that the last scenario

appertains to B sensor only)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Fault Diagnosis

NN has useful properties concerning FD. It can be applied to

nonlinear and indeterminate processes when the process model is
not available and the NN learns the diagnosis by means of the
information of the learning data [23,31]. A variety of structures
has been suggested for NN, but the feedforward network learned
by backpropagation (BP) has been used in numerous applications.
In the BP network, the branches can only broadcast information in
one direction, that is, the feedforward direction. The proposed NN
has four nodes in the input layer: one for each of the compressor
state variables in Eq. (1) and one node in the output layer. Each
node in the subsequent layers takes a weighted sum across its
inputs to be applied to a hyperbolic tangent sigmoid transfer function, and then continuous output activation is produced in the
range [0,1]. The standard BP algorithm for training the network is
based on the minimization of a cost function defined as [32]
E

n
1X
dq  yq 2
2 q1

Dwij k

dE
dwij

(5)

zk1 zk  ak gk

(3)

where xin(t) and yout(t) represent the input and output variables,
respectively. The coefficients M and A denote scale and bias factors, bias is injected as an offset, and it is specified as a percentage
of the sensor average baseline in the sensor output usually. Scaling is simulated by attenuating the signal with a scaling factor.
Seven different fault or failure scenarios are considered in this
paper as Table 1. Note that additive fault is divided into two types,
namely additive ramp (AR) and additive step (A). If A 0 and
M 1 in Eq. (4), then sensor status is fault free. When A 0 and
M 0, then the sensor becomes cutoff and the sensor is out of
service. Furthermore, in the last row from Table 1, cutoff in the B
sensor imposes the control system to be unstable, because this
sensor is used in the feedback path. For safety, the compressor
emergency shuts down in this case. In the third scenario, A A1,
M 0, and y A1; in this task, the sensor output is not a function
of x and the sensor is out of service. Note that A1 has arbitrary
and suitable value. Additive and multiplicative faults appear in
the fourth scenario contemporaneously. A 0 and 0 < M < 1 in
the fifth scenario causes one to attenuate the sensor output. It is
named the loss of efficiency expression here, and in this case,
Eq. (3) can be written as follows:

Scenario

The sixth scenario shows bias additive fault in the sensor output; it is worth mentioning that all of the additive and multiplicative faults should have reasonable amplitude for guaranteeing
stability.

Result

1
0
0
0<M<1
0<M<1
1
0

0
0
A1
A>0
0
A1
A1

Fault free
Cutoff connection (failure)
Freeze (failure)
Faulty
Loss of efficiency
Bias fault
Unstable system then ESD

where dq indicates the desired network output for the qth input
pattern and yq is the actual output of the NN. Each weight is
adjusted with this rule,
Dwij k

dE
dwij

(6)

where k is a fixed coefficient, E is the error function, and wij represents the weights of the branch between the neuron j and the neuron i. The weight adjustment process is repeated until the
difference between the node output and actual output is within
some acceptable tolerance. The training of the NN has two steps:
training and testing. During the training phase, 80% of all data is
selected randomly, and then NN is trained to capture the underlying relationship between the chosen inputs and outputs. After
training, the networks are tested with the remaining 20% of all
data as test data set, which was not used for training. The following issues are to be addressed while developing the model for
residual generation in the compressor [33].
4.1 Selection of Input and Output Variables. As mentioned, J > 0 in Eq. (1) represents the rotating stone wall operating
point in the compressor. However, it is always assumed to be
equal to zero in here, due to that the machine operating point is
far from the stall region. Therefore three NNs are needed separately for residual generation. The state variables in Eq. (1) are U,
W, J, and B, which are considered the input variables for each of
_ andB_ variables are the output variables for
_ W;
the networks and U;
each of the network, respectively.
4.2 Training Data Generation. To achieve a good performance of the NN for residual generating, the training data should
represent the complete range of operating conditions of the compressor. As shown in Fig. 6, the waveform of output variable is
independent from the value of input variable Ud and only the output variable amplitude is changed with Ud.
4.3 Data Normalization. If the raw data are used in the network training, the large amount of inputs may impress the

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4.4 Selection of Network Structure. It is well known that,

before a NN can be employed, its dimension must be predetermined. In fact, an NN is not fully utilized until it is properly
trained with an appropriate size. Aside from lucky guesses and
extensive trial and error, there are two fundamental approaches to
finding the appropriate size of an NN.
(1) NN enlarging: start with a small network and slowly add
more connections to it
(2) NN pruning: start with a network that is large for the
data, and then trim it down to the appropriate size [34]
With the last technique, the proposed NN model has one hidden
layer with hyperbolic tangent sigmoid neurons; it receives the
inputs and then broadcasts their outputs to an output layer, which
computes the corresponding values.

Fig. 6 B variable for multiple inputs

4.5 Network Training. The backpropagation training algorithm, which propagates the error from the output layer to the hidden layer to update the weight matrix, is most commonly used for
feedforward NN. The back propagation (BP) training algorithm, in
which the weights are moved in the direction of the negative gradient, the performance function decreases most rapidly, the negative
of the gradient. An iteration of this algorithm can be written
zk1 zk  ak gk

where zk is a vector of current weights, gk is the vector of the

biases, and ak is the learning rate. Mean squared error (MSE) performance function is the network performance function. It measures the network performance according to the mean of squared
errors. For the proposed NN, the MSE index less than 105 is
achieved at 100 epochs of NN training, as shown in Fig. 7.
After completion of the proposed NN as a residual generator,
NN stability with similar structure can be approved generally
[2325,35].

Fig. 7 Mean squares error performance function

influence of smaller ones. Also, neurons reach saturated status

if the raw data is directly applied to the network. Therefore, the
data should be normalized before applying to the NN. Data normalization can compress the range of training data between 1 to
1 via
Xn X  Xmin =Xmax  Xmin

(7)

where Xn is the normalized value of the data and Xmin and Xmax
are the minimum and maximum values among all the values of
the data.

Fig. 8

(8)

Simulated Results

The residual generator is created, such as Fig. 8. The NN input

variables are C as the compressor input variable and U, W, J, and
B variables as the compressor outputs. The NN output is B_ in the
first task, and this identification within NN should be repeated
_ and in the last
three times. In the second time, NN identifies U,
_ In all three tasks, the NN input signals are
time, NN identifies w.
C, U, W, J, and B variables.
Residual evaluation block is needed after residual generation,
as shown in Fig. 2. The proposed algorithm must be able to

Proposed residual generator

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Fig. 9 Fault free scenario

Fig. 10 U sensor cutoff

Fig. 11 B sensor cutoff and unstable system

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Fig. 12 (a) U freeze, (b) W cutoff, and (c) B degradation

diagnose seven fault and failure scenarios from each other carefully. The fault and failure detection section from this algorithm
is discussed here, for brevity. Fault and failure isolation
and identification implementation have many issues and calculations; therefore, only results of fault isolation and identification
are presented in Figs. 912. The proposed FD flow chart is
presented in the Appendix. The following issues should be
regarded for the complete proposed fault and failure diagnosis
algorithm:
(1) The proposed algorithm is able to diagnose additive and
multiplicative faults from each other at any time

(2) The proposed algorithm can calculate and diagnose all

properties of fault and failure such as type, value, occurrence time, end time, and their dynamic with high accuracy,
more than 95%
(3) To deal with false and missed alarms, the values of thresholds ai should be selected properly
(4) ai values are chosen according to false alarm and missed
alarm. By compromising between the missed and false
alarms, these threshold values have been achieved.
(5) After detection of the first fault or failure as sensor abnormality, the residual signal is adjusted with regards to it deliberately for second sensor abnormality. Simulation results.

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Table 2 Simulation results

U

No

Result

M1 1
M1 0 at
11,340
M1 m

A1 0
A1 0

M2 1
M2 1

A2 0
A2 0

M3 1
M3 1

A3 0
A3 0

Free-free-free
Cutoff 11,436-free-free

A1 a

M2 m

A2 a

M3 0 at
20,550

A3 0

M1 0 at
7890

A1 0.6 at
20,760

M2 0 at
9990

A2 0

M3 0.67 at
32,700

A3 0

M1 0 at
6360

A1 0.47 at
17,700

M2 0 at
13,800

A2 0

M3 0.6 at
12,990

AR3 0.05, at
24,66016,200

M1 0.7 at
29,100

AR1 0.05 at
71107500

M2 0.35 at
7740

A2 0.64 at
18,210

M3 0.45 at
26,070

A3 4 at
10,320

M1 0.32 at
8190

A1 0.3 at
23,250

M2 0.54 at
3960

AR2 0,
A0

M3 1

A 6 at
555516,665

M1 0.62 at
26,880

AR1 0,
A0

M2 1

AR2 0.03 at
81008400

M3 1

A3 0

B sensor is cutoff and it

causes unstable system at
20,640
Freeze 7975, A 0.63 at
20,904
Cutoff at 10,052
Loss of efficiency 17.3 at
33,333
Freeze 6477, A 0.47 at
18,400
Cutoff 13,903
M3 20 at 13,260,
AR 13.5 at 25,299
M1 0.1 at 29,819,
AR1 0.55 at 7297
M2 0.45 at 7750,
A2 0.67 at 18,247
M3 22 at 26,587,
A3 11 at 10,699
M1 0.4 at 8316,
A1 0.27 at 24,005
Loss of efficiency 0.34 at
11,849
Bias 16.77 at 16,668
Loss of efficiency 0.22 at
26,900
Bias 0.14 at 8225
Fault free

1
2
3

cut off at 10,052, and the B sensor has 17.3 dropping value at
33,333 in Figs. 12(a)12(c), respectively. Note that all M coefficients show amplitude reduction gain, but these gains are converted to signal amplitude drop.
The effect of FD in determination of the operating point on the
compressor curve performance practically is presented clearly. In
Fig. 13, the operating point is A1 initially and it is supposed the
actual one. Incipient additive fault in the U sensor with amplitude
0.55 at 7279 forces the operating point to A2 as row 6 in Table 2.
Multiplicative fault in the pressure sensor with amplitude 0.45
shifts the operating point to A3 at 7750. The B sensor fault at
10,699 with 11 m/se value shifts A3 to A4. Subsequently, the
operating point is transferred to A5, A6, and A7 due to other
faults. The compressor control system considers the mentioned
points as real and actual points and acts according to them,
whereas the actual operating point is only A1.

6
Fig. 13 FD in compressor operating point determining

The proposed FD flow chart is simulated based on Table 1, and

the simulation results are presented in Table 2. All sensors are
fault free in row one of Table 1. For example, B is fault free
because the residual signal equals zero in Fig. 9. In the second
scenario, the sensor of U becomes cut off at 11,340, and FD
presents this cutting off at 11,436 in Fig. 10. Therefore, FD error
is less than 1%. In the other case, U and B sensors are chosen fault
free and FD results confirm them. In Fig. 11, B sensor is cut off at
20,550; this cutoff makes the closed-loop control system unstable
at 20,640. The U signal is frozen in 0.63 at 7975, the W signal is

Conclusion

In this paper, we have investigated the problem of fault diagnosis, which is defined as the problem of fault detection and fault
isolation of the industrial compressor. We have presented a novel
approach for quick compressor surge determination by NN for
proposing our fault detection and isolation schemes. Sensor noises
have been eliminated within designed filters, and one should note
that the results presented are obtained in the presence of noisy
measurements. Our proposed fault diagnosis flow chart is presented in the Appendix. Simulation results corresponding to different faulty scenarios are presented and the results are
summarized in Table 2, showing satisfactory fault isolation performance by using our proposed solutions. Finally, fault diagnosis
results were combined within the compressor operating point
detection procedure.

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Appendix

Fig. 14 Proposed FD flowchart

References
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