Cases and solutions

Application of a groundwater
contamination index in Finland
and Slovakia
B. Backman 7 D. Bodi 7 P. Lahermo 7 S. Rapant 7 T. Tarvainen

Abstract A methodology is presented for evaluating and mapping the degree of groundwater contamination by applying the contamination index
Cd. The applicability of the contamination index
was tested in two distinctly different geological regions: the area between Uusikaupunki and Ylne in
southwestern Finland and the Brezno area in central Slovakia. The index takes into account both the
number of parameters that exceed the upper permissible concentrations of contaminants or potentially harmful elements and the part of the concentrations exceeding those values. The water-quality
parameters reflect the effect of diverse natural (topographical, climatical, geological, biological) and
anthropogenic (type of land use, local pollution)
environmental factors on groundwater quality. In
Finland, technical-aesthetic contamination was
found over more than half the test area. These
quality problems were most often related to acidity
and high concentrations of organic carbon and Al
and Fe in wells. Health-risk-based contamination,
mainly caused by elevated concentrations of fluoride, radon, or nitrate, was found in only a few separate areas. In Slovakia, naturally contaminated and
anthropogenically polluted groundwaters could be
distinguished. The geogenic pollution is mainly derived from sulfide mineralizations. In both countries the strongest anthropogenic pollution was
found in intensively cultivated areas.
Key words Environmental geochemistry 7
Hydrogeochemistry 7 Groundwater contamination 7
Contamination index

Received: 23 July 1997 7 Accepted: 15 September 1997

B. Backman 7 P. Lahermo 7 T. Tarvainen (Y)
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FIN-02151 Espoo,
Finland
Tel: c358 205 5020 7 Fax: c358 205 5012
e-mail: timo.tarvainen6gsf.fi
D. Bodi 7 S. Rapant
Geological Survey of Slovak Republic, Mlynsk dolina 1,
SK-817 04 Bratislava, Slovakia

Introduction
Drinking water is the most common pathway through
which populations are exposed to harmful elements of
anthropogenic or geological origin. The health-based criteria for the quality of drinking water, set by national
and international health organizations (Anon 1993,
1994a,b), include limits on the number of potentially
harmful microbes or bacteria (the harmless species Escheria coli is used as indicator bacterium) and concentrations of certain inorganic elements (As, F , Rn) and ionic
species (e.g., NO3 , UO2 2c). In addition to the health-related upper permissible concentrations or guide values,
there are a number of technical and aesthetic target values for household water. These properties impairing the
utilization of water are color, smell, taste, and some physical and chemical properties (low pH, high CO2 and Cl
concentrations) which induce the corrosion of concrete
and metal or enhance precipitation and clogging in pipes.
Household water may also contain ionic species and biota which, while not affecting human health directly, may
impair water quality by enhancing the growth of microbes or by leaching harmful elements from water
pumps, containers, and pipes. Finnish soft and acid
groundwaters tend to corrode metals and other plumbing
materials (Korkka-Niemi and others 1993), but corrosion
is not a problem in the more strongly mineralized Slovak
groundwaters.
The quality of groundwater consumed in households has
been registered in the course of several national hydrogeochemical mapping programs and monitoring networks
in Finland and Slovakia. A few physical and chemical
characteristics and dissolved components were measured
in the field immediately after the collection of groundwater samples. Later, in the laboratories, the samples
were analyzed for the concentrations of tens of dissolved
elements and ionic species. The results were presented in
tables and as sets of hydrogeochemical maps.
Modern map production techniques visualize informatively the distribution of each element and compound. A
large number of separate maps do not, however, easily
provide a general view of the level of groundwater contamination. As a means to such a general view, a method
for calculating a contamination index, Cd, was developed
at the Geological Survey of Slovak Republic by D. Bodi
and S. Rapant (Rapant and others 1995). The method was

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

55

Cases and solutions

fluorite minerals, which lead to anomalously high F concentrations in soils and in surface waters and groundwater. The western part of the area is mainly composed of
granodiorites, while mica schists intermingled with smaller granitic intrusions dominate in the southern and eastern parts of the area (Fig. 2).
The test area is covered by thin layers of Quaternary deposits, mainly sandy and silty till (Perttunen and others
1984). The thickest till deposits (35 m) are met at the
leesides of the hills and in valley bottoms. In the coastal
General description of the test
area about 40% of the land area is characterized by bedrock outcrops, while in the central part the bedrock is
areas
outcropping in only 24% of the area. A narrow glaciofluFinland
vial esker with sand and gravel deposits 515 m thick
The Finnish test area, comprising the maps sheets 1131
cuts through the test area from northwest to southeast.
and 1133 around the municipalities of Uusikaupunki and Late glacial and postglacial marine and lacustrine clay
Ylne, is 2100 km 2 in area. It extends from the Bothnian and silt deposits cover 1314% of the total area. In topoSea in the west 70 km into the interior, where the typical graphically low-lying tectonic depressions and in fracture
elevations are 20 to 60 m a.s.l. In the eastern part of the
zones these sediments may attain a thickness of 1020 m,
area the highest rocky hills rise to more than 100 m elealthough generally the thickness is much less. Clay devation.
posits a few meters thick are common everywhere on the
Uusikaupunki, a municipality of 14000 inhabitants, hosts top of till deposits flanking the lower slopes of hills and
a large metal industry, in addition to several small-scale
small valleys. There are also numerous peat bogs.
industrial enterprises. Because the clay-covered plains
Glacifluvial eskers composed of sand and gravel host the
provide a productive base for agriculture, the area is
most extensive aquifers in the test area, as well as in Finmore densely populated than Finland in general. Sparsely land as a whole. However, most of the private household
populated forested areas dominate in the central part of
wells in rural areas draw water from till deposits, which
the test area, and the southern part of Lake Pyhjrvi, the are relatively poor aquifers. The fractured upper part of
largest body of water in southwest Finland, lies to the
the Precambrian bedrock down to 50200 m hosts a third
east. The abundant microbiota in the lake supports large type of aquifer. Wells drilled in the crystalline bedrock
populations of vendace and whitefish.
generally supply sufficient water to private households
The bedrock is composed of crystalline Precambrian igbut cannot support community water supplies.
neous and metamorphic rocks. In the central part of the
area there are rapakivi granites, cut in places by thin diaSlovakia
base dikes (Suominen and others 1994, Vorma and NieThe test area in Slovakia comprises map sheet 36-2 Brezmel 1994). Rapakivi granite is characterized by high
no (scale 1 : 100000), which covers an area of 1850 km 2 in
further refined at the Geological Survey of Finland. The
aim of the study we now describe was to test the applicability of the contamination index (or the degree of contamination) Cd in two regions with largely varied natural
and geological conditions: the Brezno area in the central
part of Slovakia and the area between Uusikaupunki and
Ylne in southwestern Finland (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
Test areas Uusikaupunki-Ylne in
Finland and Brezno in Slovakia

56

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

Cases and solutions

Fig. 2
Simplified geological map of
the Finnish test area, after
Suominen and others (1994)
and Vorma and Niemel
(1994)

the central part of the country. Approximately 85% of the

area is mountainous, with maximum altitude of 2043 m
a.s.l., while the remaining 15% is composed mainly of intramontane depressions of mean altitude about 400 m
a.s.l. The geographical units include the Nzke Tatry (Low
Tatras) Mts., Polana Mts., Slovensk Rudohorie Mts., and
the Breznianska Kotlina depression.
The largest part of the area lies in the drainage basin of
the river Hron. The northern slopes of the Nzke Tatry
Mts. are drained by the river Vh, and the southeastern
part of the area by the river Rimava.
The town of Brezno (20000 inhabitants) is the main administration center of the region. Approximately 70% of
the region is covered by spruce, beech, and oak forests.
Industrial and agricultural activities such as timber production and cattle and sheep breeding are concentrated
in the valley of the regionbs principal river, the Hron.
In geological composition and structure, the area is highly complex. Almost all the important geological units of
the western Carpathians are represented, ranging stratigraphically from Early Paleozoic to uppermost Tertiary
formations (Biely and others 1996). The characteristic
feature is the nappe structure, formed mainly during the
Paleoalpine deformation stage. The structural units are
shown in Fig. 3.
The Tatricum Unit (western part of the Nzke Tatry Mts.)
is composed of crystalline basement primarily made up
of various granitoids and gneisses and of sedimentary
cover such as Mesozoic carbonate rocks. Likewise, the
Veporicum Unit in eastern part of the Nzke Tatry Mts.
and northern part of the Slovensk Rudohorie Mts. is
composed of gneisses, crystalline schists, and various
granitoids and of sedimentary cover, mainly limestones,
dolomites and, to a lesser extent, marls and marstones.
The Fatricum, Hronicum and Silicicum Units are represented by the Paleoalpine nappes, which were thrust over
the Tatricum and Veporicum Units. The nappes are composed predominantly of Mesozoic carbonates and, in
places, low-metamorphosed sandstones, quartzites, and
shales. The sedimentary rocks of the Inner Carpathian
Paleogene and Neogene basins provide the fill in intramontane depressions. Present deposits are mainly composed of gravel, sand, clay, sandstones, and claystones.
The Neogene volcanics are part of the intermediary andesite volcanic phase of the Carpathian arch and have a

Fig. 3
Generalized geological map of the Slovakian test area. 1
Tatricum basement, 2 Tatricum cover unit, 3 Fatricum, 4
Veporicum basement, 5 Veporicum cover unit, 6 Hronicum,
7 Silicicum, 8 Inner Carpatian Paleogene, 9 Neogene
basins, 10 Neogene volcanics, 11 main faults

stratovolcanic structure. In composition they are made

up of andesite lava flows and volcanoclastics. Quaternary
sediments of several genetic types, mainly of deluvial,
profluvial, and fluvial origin, are broadly distributed in
the area. The alluvial deposits of the Hron and Rimava
rivers and their tributaries are predominantly composed
of gravels and sands.
The most important groundwater sources in the test area
are bound to extensive Mesozoic limestones and dolomites which, together with Quaternary alluvial deposits,
host the principal groundwater resources of Slovakia.

Materials and methods

Finland
During 19781982 the Geological Survey of Finland (GSF)
carried out a hydrogeochemical mapping of shallow
groundwaters in reconnaissance scale, covering the whole
country with a relatively even sampling grid at the density of 1 sample per 50 km 2 (Lahermo and others 1990).
This nationwide mapping project has been followed in

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

57

Cases and solutions

Fig. 4
Groundwater sampling sites
and pH values in the
Uusikaupunki-Ylne area

parts of the country by denser sampling programs associated with the mapping of Quaternary deposits or with
special projects carried out by the GSF. The hydrogeochemical data base for the test area presently contains
general and analytical information for 32 springs and
captured springs, 128 dug wells and 55 wells drilled into
bedrock. The groundwater was sampled at the density of
1 sample per 8 km 2 (Fig. 4).
Water temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, and dissolved CO2 and O2 were determined in the field in connection with the sampling. The water samples for heavy
metals were filtered through a disposable 0.45-mm membrane filter into 100-ml polythene bottles and acidified
with 0.5 ml concentrated HNO3 for preservation. The
samples collected in the nationwide hydrogeochemical
mapping project during the period 19781982 were analyzed for heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd) by
atomic absorption spectrometery (Lahermo and others
1990). Afterwards, more effective and accurate analytic
methods were employed (Table 1). At present the metal
and rare element concentrations in water are exclusively
measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
(ICP-AES) and mass spectrometric methods (ICP-MS).
Untreated water samples for the study of anions were
collected in 500-ml polythene bottles and analyzed by ion
chromatography (IC). The chemical composition of the
groundwaters from the Uusikaupunki-Ylne area is summarized in Table 2.
Slovakia
During 19911994, the Dionz tr Institute of Geology,
GD (superseded since 1 January 1996 by the Geological
Survey of Slovak Republic, GSSR) carried out a nationwide hydrogeochemical mapping of shallow groundwaters
of the Slovak Republic (Rapant and others 1995). The
samples were collected from the first, uppermost aquifer
in summertime when groundwater levels are more or less
stationary and climatic conditions stable. The sampling
density was 1 sample per 3 km 2.
In mountainous areas the samples were collected from
springs, and in lowlands mostly from wells and drill
holes. The following physical and chemical characteristics
were measured in the field during sampling: water temperature, electrical conductivity (adjusted to 25 7C), pH,
58

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

dissolved O2, acidity at pH 4.5 (dissolved CO2), and alkalinity at pH 8.3 (HCO3 ). In addition, the discharge (l s 1)
of springs and flowing wells was measured. The samples
were prepared for the study of trace elements by filtering
them through a membrane filter (0.45 mm), and chemical
stabilization was carried out by adding 1 ml concentrated
HNO3 to 100 ml of water.
The groundwater samples were analyzed in the hydrogeochemical laboratory of INGEO Inc. for aggressive CO2 and
chemical oxygen demand or KMnO4 consumption
(CODMn), and for the concentrations of an additional 30
inorganic ionic species and elements. Table 3 describes
the analytical techniques applied, detection limits, and
the analytical instruments employed. As a check on the
field measurements, alkalinity and pH values were also
determined in the laboratory. Parallel samples, accounting for about 6% of all collected samples, were analyzed
as an external control.
The total number of groundwater samples from the Slovak test area was 637, of which 621 were springs, six adits,
five drill holes, and five large-diameter dug wells. Table 4
summarizes the chemical composition of the groundwaters. Also presented are descriptive statistical parameters,
such as the upper permissible limits according to the
Slovak technical standard for drinking water, and the
number of samples with excessive values.

Contamination index (Cd )

One approach to the assessment and visualization of areas characterized by anomalous or hazardous concentrations of defined elements and ionic species is to calculate
and depict on maps the degree of contamination through
a contamination index, which takes into account both the
number of parameters exceeding the upper permissible
limits or guide values of the potentially harmful elements, and the concentrations exceeding these limit values. Calculation of the contamination degree, Cd, is made
separately for each sample of water analyzed, as a sum of
the contamination factors of individual components exceeding the upper permissible value. Hence, the contamination index summarizes the combined effects of several

Cases and solutions

Table 1
Analytical methods applied for the Finnish samples. Methods and detection limits for groundwater samples at the chemical
laboratory of the Geological Survey of Finland. ICP-MSpinductively coupled mass spectrometry; ICP-AESpinductively coupled
plasma atomic emission spectrometry; ICpion chromatography
element/ compound

detection limit mgl P1

method

analytical equipment

Ag
Al
As
B
Ba
Be
Bi
Br
Ca
Cd
Cl P
Co
Cr
Cu
FP
Fe
K
Li
Mg
Mn
Mo
Na
Ni
NOP
3
Pb
Rb
Sb
Se
Si
SO42P
Sr
Th
Ti
Tl
U
V
Zn

0.02
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.03
200
100
0.05
100
0.05
0.3
0.1
50
30
10
0.2
100
0.05
0.1
400
0.2
200
0.05
0.1
0.05
1.0
600
200
0.2
0.02
1.0
0.02
0.1
0.1
0.5

ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
IC
ICP-AES
ICP-MS
IC
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
IC
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-AES
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-AES
ICP-MS
IC
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-AES
ICP-AES
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS
ICP-MS

Perkin Elmer Science Elan 5000

Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Dionex 2000 i
Jarell-Ash Atom Comp Series 800
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Dionex 2000 i
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Dionex 2000 i
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Jarell-Ash Atom Comp Series 800
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Jarell-Ash Atom Comp Series 800
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Dionex 2000 i
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Jarell-Ash Atom Comp Series 800
Jarell-Ash Atom Comp Series 800
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000
Perkin-Elmer Science Elan 5000

quality parameters considered harmful to household water. The scheme for the calculation of Cd is the following:
n

Cd p A Cfi
ip1

where
Cfi p

CAi
P1
CNi

Cfipcontamination factor for the ith component,

CAipanalytical value of the ith component,
CNipupper permissible concentration of the ith component (N denotes the normative value).
The elements and ionic species with analytical values below the upper permissible concentration values are not
taken into consideration.

In Finland, two indices were calculated: the degree of

contamination for health-risk -based parameters (F ,
NO3 , UO2 2, As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Rn, and Se), and
the degree of contamination for technical-aesthetic parameters (pH, KMnO4 consumption, SO4 2, Cl , Ag, Al,
Cu, Fe, Mn, Na, and Zn). In Slovakia, only one index was
calculated, for the following quality parameters: T.D.S,
SO4 2, Cl , F , NO3 , NH4 c, Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe,
Hg, Mn, Pb, Sb, Se, and Zn.
Technical standards for drinking water are different in
Finland and Slovakia. In both countries, all elements and
ionic species with national upper permissible limits or
guide values (Anon 1993, 1994a,b) were included in the
calculations. Since the limit value for U has not been officially established in Finland, the limit value of 20 mg/l 1
used in the United States EPA regulations was applied.
The parameters can be considered as the best and most
common indicators of groundwater pollution in Finland

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

59

Cases and solutions

Table 2
Characteristic chemical composition of groundwater in the Finnish test area. The limit value for U is not official. NDpnumber of
samples below the detection limit. Npnumber of samples. KMnO4pKMnO4 consumption value
element
Ag
Al
Alkalinity
As
B
Ba
Be
Bi
Br P
Ca
Cd
Cl P
Co
Color
Cr
Cu
EC (25 7C)
FP
Fe
HCOP
3
K
KMnO4
Li
Mg
Mn
Mo
Na
Ni
NOP
3
O2
Pb
pH
Rn
Sb
Se
Si
SiO2
SO42P
Sr
Tl
U
V
Zn

x
mg l P1
mg l P1
mmol l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg Pt/l
mg l P1
mg l P1
mS m P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
%
mg l P1
Bq l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1

~0.02
279
1.17
0.522
46.4
17.9
0.152
~0.03
~0.2
22.4
0.185
29.3
0.724
29.2
0.551
14.7
28.7
0.867
0.457
71.8
5.92
15.1
9.03
5.44
121
0.402
23.1
2.77
8.09
69.8
0.468
6.29
72.7
0.097
~1.0
6.19
13.6
23.9
102
0.024
1.61
0.548
89.1

s
325
1.04
1.07
105
15.5
0.162
24.7
0.232
101
1.40
39.9
0.485
51.6
41.9
0.782
1.62
63.6
10.0
14.2
9.62
5.81
322
0.701
63.9
3.31
23.7
31.6
0.631
0.724
139
0.088
2.25
4.60
26.9
315
0.034
5.47
1.04
347

min.

max.

limit exceedances

ND

~0.02
1.1
0.05
~0.2
1.76
0.414
~0.5
~0.03
~0.2
1.94
~0.05
0.80
~0.05
5.00
~0.3
0.320
3.50
~0.05
~0.03
3.05
0.320
0.900
0.210
0.15
0.717
~0.1
1.52
~0.2
1.0
12.4
~0.05
4.80
2.0
~0.05
~1.0
1.61
3.45
~0.2
9.07
~0.02
~0.1
~0.1
1.8

0.052
1950
4.99
11.5
870
136
1.08
0.211
4.70
260
1.60
1080
9.31
300
3.14
710
437
3.95
17.3
304
90.0
81.1
39.7
53.7
3040
5.01
697
26.6
149
164
6.87
9.20
830
0.550
21.4
14.7
31.5
193
4050
0.217
60.8
8.21
4480

10
200
P
10
300
700
P
P
P
P
5
100
P
20
50
1000
P
1.5
0.5
P
P
20
P
P
200
70
150
20
25
P
10
6.09.5
300
P
10
P
P
250
P
P
20
P
3000

142
0
0
68
0
0
160
164
157
0
58
0
26
0
60
0
0
2
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
66
0
9
65
0
9
0
0
51
156
0
0
1
0
106
33
47
0

170
170
212
170
170
170
170
170
170
212
212
212
170
212
170
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
77
212
212
170
212
212
212
194
212
212
170
170
170
170
212
212
170
170
170
170
211

and Slovakia, and descriptive of the most hazardous

quality problems in groundwaters (with the exception of
dissolved humus, which is not pertinent in Slovakia).

0
75
P
1
3
0
P
P
P
P
0
10
P
79
0
0
P
45
36
P
P
53
P
P
27
0
5
1
5
P
0
74
13
P
3
P
P
0
P
P
2
P
1

represent one and the same aquifer. Contamination from

geological or anthropogenic sources tends to be a regional phenomenon, however, and typically the same kinds of
sources and controlling factors of contaminations are relevant for adjacent small aquifers as they are for a single
large one.
Results
In Finland, technical-aesthetic contamination was found
in more than half of the test area, especially in the west
The groundwater-containing surficial formations sampled coast (Fig. 5). Most often these problems were related to
in Finland were typically small, and all samples reprehigh acidity and excessive amounts of dissolved organic
sented different aquifers. Thus, the results cannot be gen- carbon or humus, as well as to high Al and Fe concentraeralized to the degree to which they can in the extensive tions in the wells. Health-risk-based contamination was
sedimentary basins of Slovakia, where several samples
recorded in a few isolated areas (Fig. 6), mostly asso60

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

Cases and solutions

Table 3
Analytical methods and detection limits for groundwater
samples used in the Slovak test area. AAS-Fpflame atomic
absorption spectrophotometry; SPFMpspectrophotometry;
AAS-ETApatomic absorption spectrophotometry
electrothermic atomization; ISEpion-selective electrodes;
AAS-CVpatomic absorption spectrophotometry cold vapor
method; ITHPpisotachophoresis; AAS-MHSpatomic
absorption spectrophotometry hydride-generation method;
Tpacidobasic titrations
element
compound

method

analytical equipment

10
1.0

ICP-OES
AAS-MHS

10
1000
0.5
100
2200
80
0.5
0.5

ICP-OES
ICP-OES
AAS-ETA
T
T
T
AAS-ETA
AAS-ETA

FP
Fe
HCOP
3
Hg

100
10
100
0.2

ISE
ICP-OES
T
AAS-CV

K
Li
Mg
Mn
Na
NHc
4
NOP
3
Pb
PO43P
Sb

100
2.0
1000
5.0
100
50
500
1.0
50
0.2

AAS-F
ICP-OES
ICP-OES
ICP-OES
AAS-F
SPFM
ITHP
AAS-ETA
SPFM
ICP-MHS

1.0

AAS-MHS

Liberty 200, Varian

Spectr AA 300 s GTA,
Varian
Liberty 200, Varian
Liberty 200, Varian
4100 ZL, Perkin Elmer
pX, OP 208/1 Redelkis
P
P
4100 ZL, Perkin Elmer
Spetr AA 300 s GTA,
Varian
pX, OP 208/1 Redelkis
Liberty 200, Varian
P
Varian 1475 B s
VGA-76
Varian 1200
Liberty 200, Varian
Liberty 200, Varian
Liberty 200, Varian
Varian 1200
Spekol 11, Carl Zeiss
ZKI 02, Labeco
4100 ZL, Perkin Elmer
Spekol 11, Carl Zeiss
Spectr AA 300 s GTA,
Varian
Spectr AA 300 s GTA,
Varian
Spekol 11, Carl Zeiss
ZKI 02, Labeco
Liberty 200, Varian
Spectr AA 300 s GTA,
Varian

Al
As
Ba
Ca
Cd
Cl P
CO2 agr.
CODMn
Cr
Cu

Se
SiO2
SO42P
Sr
Zn

detection
limit mg l P1

500
300
10
1.0

SPFM
ITHP
ICP-OES
AAS-F

ciated with elevated concentrations of fluoride, nitrate,

and radon.
A map depicting contaminated groundwaters was constructed for the test area in Slovakia using the Cd index
(Fig. 7, see also Bodi and others 1996). If two or three
adjacent sampling points (depending on areal extent of
the aquifers) showed elevated Cd values, a regionally contaminated zone is shown. Individual water samples with
Cd 1 0 are plotted as anomalous points. The degree of
groundwater contamination is depicted with a threegrade scale (three shades of red) as follows: low (Cd~1),
medium (Cdp13), and high (Cd 1 3). In the case of both
regionally contaminated zones and single anomalous
points, the elements and ionic species responsible for the
groundwater contamination are depicted on the map with
chemical symbols.
The cartographic representation of Cd for the Slovak test
area allowed areas with naturally contaminated and anthropogenically polluted groundwaters to be distinguished. The geogenic contamination is mainly derived
from the weathering of sulfide mineralizations, typically
containing As, Cd, and Sb. Aluminum and SO4 2 may
also be mobilized through the oxidation of sulfide minerals with the resultant production of an acid environment.
Zones (Cd 1 3) of arsenic contamination, where the As
concentrations in places climb to 1 mg l 1, were apparent
in the Low Tatras Mts. in the area of Jasenie-Kysl (upper left in Fig. 7), which is characterized by crystalline
massif with W-Au-As-Mo ore mineralization. Furthermore, the contents of Sb in groundwater sometimes exceeded 2 mg l 1 in the Magurka-Dbrava mining district,
which hosts antimony mineralizations.
The marginal zones of the aforementioned mining areas
appeared as medium contaminated areas (Cdp13). Several regionally contaminated zones with low contamination index (Cd ~1) were characterized by slightly elevated abundances of Se and Al, especially in areas of
Neogene volcanic rocks and granitoid massifs. Typical
anthropogenic ionic species derived from agricultural
pollution are NO3 , NH4 c, Cl , and SO4 2. The low intensity of cultivation in the areas means that anthropogenic
contamination is represented only by isolated anomalous
points or by small polygons with low degree of contamination (Cd ~1) around farms.

Fig. 5
Degree of contamination
(technical-aesthetic
parameters) in the
Uusikaupunki-Ylne area

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

61

Cases and solutions

Table 4
Characteristic chemical composition of groundwater in the Slovak test area. NDpnumber of samples below the detection limit,
Npnumber of samples
element
Al
As
Ba
Ca
Cd
Cl P
CO2 free
CO2 agr.
CODMn
Cr
Cu
EC
FP
Fe
HCOP
3
Hg
K
Li
Mg
Mn
Na
NHc
4
NOP
3
O2
Pb
pH
PO43P
Sb
Se
SiO2
SO42P
Sr
T.D.S.
Zn

mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mS m P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1
mg l P1

min

max

limit exceedances

ND

170
10
50
28.1
~0.5
3.29
10.1
17.4
2.06
~0.5
~0.5
213
0.06
0.02
91.9
~0.2
1.07
~2.0
8.78
~5.0
2.75
0.13
6.71
8.76
~1.0
7.16
~0.05
10.0
~1.0
12.1
28.2
170
187
10

410
60
80
33.2

5.0
0.5
5.0
1.60
~ 0.5
0.53
0
0
0.32
~ 0.5
~ 0.5
19
0.05
0.005
1.83
~ 0.2
0.05
~ 2.0
0.5
~ 5.0
0.05
~ 0.05
~ 0.5
2.1
~ 1.0
4.57
~ 0.05
~ 0.2
~ 1.0
1.04
0.74
~10
17.7
~ 1.0

4690
887
660
471
12.9
79.4
72.6
75.9
25.1
70
8.2
1957
3.0
0.737
497
1.70
16.2
5.6
79.3
118
39.2
35.5
254
13.7
14.0
8.40
3.6
2350
3.0
78.5
1280
5000
2007
541

200
50
1
P
5
100
P
P
3
50
100
P
1.5
0.3
P
1.0
P
P
125
100
P
0.5
50
P
50
6.08.0
P
10
10
P
250
P
1000
5

104
466
167
0
569
0
0
0
0
451
231
0
612
276
0
621
0
0
4
615
1
508
76
0
537
0
385
398
386
0
0
2
0
451

637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637
637

6.14
9.62
14.8
2.23
191
0.17
0.05
92.9
1.19
10.0
3.19
1.50
14.7
2.21
0.59
0.18
120
9.92
67.1
430
169
30

122
19
0
P
5
0
P
P
104
1
0
P
2
4
P
1
P
P
0
1
P
6
9
P
0
17
P
16
0
P
6
P
2
1

Fig. 6
Degree of contamination
(health-risk-based parameters)
in the Uusikaupunki-Ylne
area

Discussion
Areas with high levels of potentially harmful geogenic elements or anthropogenic pollutants can be delineated by
compiling maps on the basis of the contamination index
Cd . Such maps combine the information presented in
separate hydrogeochemical maps of individual elements
62

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

and ionic species (monoelement maps). A division into

technical-aesthetic and health-based indexes was found
useful in Finland. The health-based index could usefully
be further divided into two parts: contamination derived
from geological sources (F ,UO2 2, As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni,
Pb, and Rn) and from anthropogenic sources (NO3 and
Se). In the Finnish test area, the anthropogenic contamination is mostly related to diverse agricultural practices.

Cases and solutions

In the areas of potential geogenic contamination, a detailed risk assessment should be made by using geological, geophysical, and geochemical maps to guide the exploitation of aquifers and prevent the use of contaminated ones (Idman 1997).
The approach used in the Slovak test area, that is the
classification of the contamination as of low, medium, or
high grade, provides a suitable method in particular for
environmentally oriented specialists and decision-makers,
to evaluate actual and potential groundwater contamination. In lightly contaminated areas, only those parts of
the area will be recommended for detailed survey in
which important aquifers or drinking-water resources are
presumed to be at risk, assessed on the basis of geological and geochemical conditions. For the areas assessed as
medium contaminated, more detailed follow-up work is
recommended to identify and explain the origin and
source of the groundwater contamination. For highly
contaminated areas, after the nature and origin of the
contamination is clarified, possible remedial measures
can be recommended. In reconnaissance scale, the regional distribution of groundwater contamination can be
presented on gray tone maps, which show interpolated
and smoothed Cd values (Fig. 8).

Conclusion
Fig. 7
Degree of groundwater contamination in the Brezno area, map
fragment. Shading shows the degree of groundwater
contamination (darkphighest). Major contaminating elements
are indicated with chemical symbols (Al, Cd, Se). Other
symbols show the geological age of the aquifer, rasters the type
of permeability and numbers the degree of water-bearing

The applicability of the contamination index Cd was

tested in two areas, Finland and Slovakia, radically differ-

Fig. 8
Groundwater contamination degree map of Slovakia

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

63

Cases and solutions

ent in natural and geological conditions. Hydrogeochemical mapping data and the upper permissible concentrations or guide values set by national or international
health organizations for household water were used in
the compilation. The contamination index Cd is ideal for
evaluating and displaying cartographically the overall degree of groundwater contamination. The proposed index
could be used not only in mapping of groundwater contamination but also equally well be applied to map the
contamination in other components of the environment,
such as surface waters, stream sediments, and soils. Such
evaluation, based on the monitoring of a large number of
dissolved elements and ionic species, provides a clear
picture of the qualitative properties and degree of
groundwater contamination, useful for environmentalists
and administrative decision-makers alike.

64

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

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