1.

ANSWER
Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term
image inherently reflects a graphic representation, and in the GIS world, differs
significantly from raster data. Most often, image data is used to store remotely
sensed imagery, e.g. satellite scenes or orthophotos, or ancillary graphics such
as photographs, scanned plan documents, etc. Image data is typically used in
GIS systems as background display data (if the image has been rectified and
georeferenced); or as a graphic attribute. Remote sensing software makes use of
image data for image classification and processing. Typically, this data must be
converted into a raster format (and perhaps vector) to be used analytically with
the GIS. 12 Image data is typically stored in a variety of de facto industry
standard proprietary formats. These often reflect the most popular image
processing systems. Other graphic image formats, such as TIFF, GIF, PCX, etc.,
are used to store ancillary image data. Most GIS software will read such formats
and allow you to display this data. Image data is most often used for remotely
sensed imagery such as satellite imagery or digital orthophotos

2.ANSWER

3.ANSWER
Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data structure where the
geographic area is divided into cells identified by row and column. This data
structure is commonly called raster. While the term raster implies a regularly
spaced grid other tessellated data structures do exist in grid based GIS systems.
In particular, the quadtree data structure has found some acceptance as an
alternative raster data model. The size of cells in a tessellated data structure is
selected on the basis of the data accuracy and the resolution needed by the user.
There is no explicit coding of geographic coordinates required since that is
implicit in the layout of the cells. A raster data structure is in fact a matrix where
any coordinate can be quickly calculated if the origin point is known, and the
size of the grid cells is known. Since grid-cells can be handled as twodimensional arrays in computer encoding many analytical operations are easy to

program. This makes tessellated data structures a popular choice for many GIS
software. Topology is not a relevant concept with tessellated structures since
adjacency and connectivity are implicit in the location of a particular cell in the
data matrix
All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of
geographic features in a database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors
(directional lines) to represent a geographic feature. Vector data is characterized
by the use of sequential points or vertices to define a linear segment. Each
vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y coordinate. Vector lines are often
referred to as arcs and consist of a string of vertices terminated by a node. A
node is defined as a vertex that starts or ends an arc segment. Point features are
defined by one coordinate pair, a vertex. Polygonal features are defined by a set
of closed coordinate pairs. In vector representation, the storage of the vertices
for each feature is important, as well as the connectivity between features, e.g.
the sharing of common vertices where features connect.

4.ANSWERS
TYPES OF PLATFORMS
Platform is a stage to mount the camera or sensor to acquire the information
about a target under investigation. Based on its altitude above earth surface,
platforms may be classified as
(1) Ground borne
(2) Air borne
(3) Space borne
Ground-based platforms
The ground based remote sensing system for earth resources studies are mainly
used for collecting the ground truth or for laboratory simulation studies. 31
Air-borne platforms
Aircrafts are generally used to acquire aerial photographs for photointerpretation and photogrammetric purposes. Scanners are tested against their
utility and performance from these platforms before these are flown onboard
satellite missions.
Space-borne platforms
Platforms in space are not affected by the earth's atmosphere. These platforms
are freely moving in their orbits around the earth, and entire earth or any part of
the earth can be covered at specified intervals. The coverage mainly depends on

the orbit of the satellite. It is through these space borne platforms, we get the
enormous amount of remote sensing data and as such the remote sensing has
gained international popularity.
Depending on their altitude and orbit these platforms may be divided in two
categories.
- Geostationary
- Polar orbiting or Sun-synchronous
Geostationary satellites
An equatorial west to east satellite orbiting the earth at an altitude of 35000 km.,
the altitude at which it makes one revolution in 24 hours, synchronous with the
earth's rotation. These platforms are covering the same place and give
continuous near hemispheric coverage over the same area day and night. Its
coverage is limited to 70oN to 70oS latitudes and one satellite can view one
third of the globe. These are mainly used for communication and meteorological
applications viz. GEOS, METOSAT, INTELSAT, and INSAT satellites.
Sun-Synchronous satellites
An earth satellite orbit in which the orbital plane is near polar and the altitude is
such that the satellite passes over all places on earth having the same latitude
twice in each orbit at the same local sun-time. Through these satellites the entire
globe is covered on regular basis and gives repetitive coverage on periodic
basis. All the remote sensing resources satellites may be grouped in this
category. Few of these satellites are LANDSAT series, SPOT series, IRS series,
NOAA, SEASAT, TIROS, HCMM, SKYLAB, SPACE SHUTTLE etc.
EARTH RESOURCES SATELLITES
There are two groups of Earth resources satellites: first, the manned satellites
which carry photographic and other sensors for the production of images of the
Earth's surface. These images can be interpreted with the aid of photographic
interpretation techniques. Second, the unmanned satellites that carry a wide
range of non-photographic sensors for the production of images of Earth's
surface. These images can be interpreted with the help of both photographic
interpretation techniques and digital image processing techniques.

Manned Earth Resources Satellites

The first manned satellites were designed, and are known, for their participation
in the `space race' while the later satellites, Skylab and Space Shuttle Series,
were space stations designed specifically for experimentation. Example for
`Space Race' satellites are Mercury series (1961), Gemini series (1965) and
Appollo series (1967). Space stations were Skylab (1973) and Space shuttle
series sent by NASA (from April 1981).
Unmanned Earth Resources Satellites
Unmanned earth resources satellites can be classified as Group one - the first
generation satellites which include Landsat 1, 2, & 3, Group two - the second
generation satellites which include SPOT, Landsat 4 & 5, IRS series, Group
three - those having thermal infrared sensors, HCMM, Group four - satellites
having microwave sensors, Seasat, ERS-1 & 2, Radarsat, JERS-1, Shuttle
Imaging Radar (SIR) series.

5.ANSWER
Space Segment
The Space segment consists of a minimum of 24 operational satellites, as shown
in figure 2, to provide optimal global coverage. The satellites are arranged in six
orbital planes, inclined at 55o to the equator. They orbit at altitudes of about
20,150 kilo meters from earths surface and take about 11 hours 58 minutes to
orbit one time. Each 4 satellite carries 4 atomic clocks for transmitting signals
(Pratap Misra et al., 2001).
Control Segment
It consists of 5 worldwide base - stations to monitor the performance of GPS
satellites. They track the exact position of satellites in space; check the system
integrity, behavior of satellite clocks, study atmospheric data and satellite
almanac to ensure their correct operation. The main base station called Master
Control Station (MCS) operates the system and provides command and control
function. The corrected information, which includes ephemeris constants and
clock adjustments, is transmitted to the satellite through the s-band link. The
satellites in turn use these updates in the signal and send to GPS receivers. The
Master Control Station is located at Colorado and five monitor stations (MS) are
located at Ascension Island (Atlantic ocean), Diego Garcia (Indian ocean) and

kwajalein Hawaii (both pacific Ocean) and Colorado Springs (Hofmann et al.,
1992).
User Segment
The user segment includes all the military and civilian users. With GPS receiver,
a user can receive the GPS signals and determine his position anywhere in the
world. All GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into their computer to
notify the given moment of each satellite. The user equipment consists of an
antenna, a receiver, a data processor with software and a control display unit.
The GPS receiver measures the pseudo range, phase and data using navigation
signals from minimum 4 satellites and computes the 3-D position, velocity and
system time (Figure 1). The position is in geocentric coordinates in the basic
reference coordinates system - World Geodetic reference system-1984 (WGS84), which are converted and displayed as geographic, UTM, grid or any other
type of coordinates. Corrections in delay due to 5 ionospheric and

troposphere refraction clock errors, etc., are also computed and

applied by the user equipment/processing software..

Manned Earth Resources Satellites

The first manned satellites were designed, and are known, for their
participation in the `space race' while the later satellites, Skylab and
Space Shuttle Series, were space stations designed specifically for
experimentation. Example for `Space Race' satellites are Mercury
series (1961), Gemini series (1965) and Appollo series (1967). Space
stations were Skylab (1973) and Space shuttle series sent by NASA
(from April 1981).
Unmanned Earth Resources Satellites
Unmanned earth resources satellites can be classified as Group one the first generation satellites which include Landsat 1, 2, & 3, Group
two - the second generation satellites which include SPOT, Landsat 4
& 5, IRS series, Group three - those having thermal infrared sensors,
HCMM, Group four - satellites having microwave sensors, Seasat,
ERS-1 & 2, Radarsat, JERS-1, Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) series.