BI256 Notes

Day 1
4 tissue types: Epithelial (free surface, barrier, transport functions and
absorption, columnar epithelium in gut lining, stratified epithelium in
epidermis).
Muscle tissue: Cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle.
Nerve tissue: transmission of nerve impulses- control of regulatory functions,
central and peripheral.
Connective tissue: Tissue connecting other tissue, large support function,
bones (cartilage), blood (water matrix) and cytoskeleton (connective tissue
proper). Cellular + matrix components.
11 organ systems. Each organ system has accessory organs which contribute
to digestion. Larger animals are more complex in organization (through
evolution). As body size increases: Surface area to volume ratios have
important consequences for animal respiration, heat.
Surface area increases as the square of body length (SA=L2). Volume
increases as the cube of body length (L3).
Benefits of being large: Buffers against environmental fluctuations, provides
protection. Cost of maintaining body temperature is less per gram of body
weight than in small animals. Energy costs of moving a gram of body weight
over a given distance less for larger animals. White mouse expends more
energy (ml of O2 per kg per hour) than a horse due to larger surface area,
losing more heat. Complexity overcomes surface area limitations, such as
respiratory system.
Body Cavities and Germ layers (embryonic)- Gut and coelomic cavity. 3
layers are Ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Development: Progressive
changes in individuals from beginning to maturity.
Blastulation: Blastula (a cluster of cells created by cleavage), a few to
several thousand. A blastocoel is a fluid filled cavity surrounded by one layer
of germ cells. A cell cluster of these is known as a blastocyst.
Gastrula: Invagination of one side of a blastula, to create 2 germ layers (endo
and ecto). The new internal cavity, surrounded by 2 germ layers, is known as
archenteron or gastrocoel. A blastopore is an opening into a gastrocoel.
Cnidarians: Jellyfish, 2 germ layers, complete gut.

NOTES NEEDED.Formation of complete gut: endodermal tube, formed by

inward movement of archenteron. Surrounded by blastocoel. Has two
openings: Blastopore and second opening by merging the of the archenteron
tube with the ectoderm.
Most develop a complete gut with a second opening.

NOTES NEEDED. Formation of 2nd body cavity (coelomic) possible, splits in

schizocoely and pinches of in entercoely.
Formation of coelom: fluid filled body cavity, surrounded by mesoderm,
formed by schizo or entero. 3 germ layers and 2 cavities formed upon
completion. Advantages: Enables internal organs to grow larger and more
sophisticated. Protects and cushions organs from injuries.
Mesentery: Supports organs in cavity, so they dont float around in gut.

Day 2
Diversity is not random, there is a definite order. Taxon means group.
Phylogeny is looking at evolutionary trees.
Animals organized in nested hierarchy according to evolutionary
relationships revealed by ordered patterns in sharing of homologous
features. Darwin: Theory of common descent or ancestry. Natural system
because outside of the bar of the human context.
1.5 MILLION (less than 20%) animals named, and this is less than 1% of the
extinct animals. (Estimate). 3 goals in systemization: To discover all species
of animals, to reconstruct their evolutionary relationships and to classify
animals according to their evolutionary relationships via an informative
taxonomic system. System of common descent, most recent common
ancestor and its descendants.
Carolus Linnaeus: Developed classification scheme based on morphology
(structure). Binomial Nomenclature. King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. Over 30 ranks for
complex groups (fish, insects). Super class and sub class. Homo sapiens:
Genus then species.
Common Descent, smallest distinct groupings of organism sharing (not
shared with higher taxa) patterns of ancestry and descent. Reproductive

community, excluding members of other species from reproductive

community. Sexually (interbreeding) and asexually reproducing populations.
Distribution, geographic range, cosmopolitan and endemic, and evolutionary
duration (distribution through time). Occupy a particular ecological habitat in
a particular space. Temporal and spatial. Cosmopolitan means a wide range
of distribution. Endemic is a very limited range.
Modern definition of species: A species should constitute a population
lineage with a history of evolutionary descent separate from other such
lineages. First asked by Darwin contemporary: Thomas Huxley. Easy to use
term but difficult to define or agree upon.
Major goal is to infer he evolutionary tree or phylogeny that relates all living
and extinct species. Character: Organismal features: morphological,
chromosomal, and molecular. Homology: Character similarity due to common
ancestry. Homoplasy: Non-homologous similarity, misrepresents common
ancestry. i.e. Evolutionary convergence of fusiform (elliptical) shape (sharks
and penguins) or as a wing of a butterfly, bat and bird, are homologous.
Functionally may differ locomotion by walking, swimming or flying. In bats
and birds, forelimbs are homologous, and wings are not (evolved from
different ancestors).
Cladistics: Classifies organisms into monophyletic groups (reflecting actual
evolutionary process). Cladogram: Clades presented as a branching diagram.
Shows ancestral relationships between animals, based upon sharing of
derived characteristics (synapomorphies). Clade: Group consisting of a single
organism and all its descendants. Character variation (difference, polarity).
Outgroup is known as the ancestral state (no evolution, or pleisomorphy).
Boxes represents clades (groups) of descendants + common ancestors.
Vertebrates> Tetrapods> Mammals.
Relationships between taxonomic groups: Monophyly: Most recent common
ancestor and all of its descendants. Paraphyly: Most recent common ancestor
and most of its groups of members, but not all of its descendants. Polyphyly:
Does not include the most recent common ancestor, and contains at least
two separate evolutionary origins (convergent evolution).