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(b) b 0 b 1 b 2 ;
(c) lim b n = 0,
n
then
a n b n converges.
Pk
n=1 a n }
is a con-
vergent sequence, so by Theorem 3.2(c) it is bounded, and thus part (a) is satisfied.
The problem with using this theorem with {b n } is that it doesnt necessarily converge to 0.
However, we can create a new sequence {c n } based on {b n } which has the properties we need to
apply the theorem. Since {b n } is monotonic and bounded, it converges by Theorem 3.14. Let
b = lim b n . Now we have two cases:
b 0 b Then b n must be decreasing, so define the sequence c n = b n b, which is monotonic decreasing as well, so it satisfies (b). Also, notice that
lim c n = lim (b n b) = ( lim b n ) b = b b = 0,
an cn =
an bn
an b
an bn =
an cn + b
an ,
and the right side of the equation consists of two convergent sequences, so
a n b n con-
verges.
b 0 b Then b n must be increasing, so let c n = b b n , which is monotonic decreasing, so it satisfies
P
(b). Once again, lim c n = 0, so it satisfies (c), so a n c n converges. Then
n
X
so
an cn =
an b
an bn
an bn = b
an
an cn ,
a n b n converges.
Problem 2 (WR Ch 3 #9). Find the radius of convergence of each of the following power series:
(a)
n3 zn
Solution. By Theorem 3.39, the radius of convergence of the power series is given by R =
where is defined as
= lim sup
n
p
3
1 3
n
|n 3 | = lim n n = lim n n = 13 = 1,
n
P 2n
n!
= 1.
zn
a n+1
= lim
lim sup
a n n
n
2n+1
n+1
(n+1)! |z|
2n
n
n! |z|
= lim
2 |z|
< 1,
n +1
P 2n
n2
zn
2
lim n
1
n
2 =
2
= 2,
12
P n3
3n
= 21 .
zn
1 3
s
3
n
lim
n
3
n
13 1
nn
n
n
= lim sup n = lim
=
=
= ,
n 3
3
3
3
3
n
so the radius of convergence is R =
= 3.
Problem 3 (WR Ch 3 #10). Suppose that the coefficients of the power series
a n z n are integers,
infinitely many of which are distinct from zero. Prove that the radius of convergence is at most 1.
Solution. To prove the radius of convergence is at most 1, we must show that if |z| > 1, then
an z n
|a n z n | = |a n | |z|n > |a n |.
Next, note that if an integer a is nonzero, then |a| 1. Therefore, since there are infinitely many
n N such that a n 6= 0, there are infinitely many n N such that
|a n z n | > |a n | 1,
so lim |a n z n | 6= 0, and thus
n
an
1+a n
a n diverges.
diverges.
an
1+a n
converges. Then
an
1+a n
0 by The-
orem 3.23. Since a n 6= 0, we can divide the top and bottom of this fraction by a n to get
1
+1
1
an
1
an
means that for any > 0, there exists some N1 N such that |a n 0| < for all n N1 . Let
= 1, and choose N1 N so that |a n | < 1 for n N1 .
P an
Next, since we assumed that 1+a
converges, that means the sequence of partial sums
n
Pn
ak
of the series { k=1 1+a } converges in R as we increase n to , so it is a Cauchy sequence.
k
This is equivalent to the statement that for any > 0 there exists some N2 N such that
X
m
n
X
a k
ak
for all n, m N2 ,
<
k=1 1 + a k k=1 1 + a k
or, equivalently,
an
am
++
<
for all n, m N2 .
1 + am
1 + an
Now, if we set N = max(N1 , N2 ), then for any k N we have a k 1, so
an
am
an
am
++
<
++
<
for all n, m N ,
1+1
1 + 1 1 + am
1 + an
P
P
but this proves that a2n is Cauchy, and thus a n converges, contradicting our assumption
that it diverges.
(b) Prove that
a N +1
a N +k
sN
++
1
s N +1
s N +k
s N +k
P an
sn
diverges.
++
=
=
= 1
.
s N +1
s N +k
s N +k
s N +k
s N +k
s N +k
s N +k
P
Now assume (by way of contradiction) that asnn converges. Then its Cauchy, so for any > 0
there is some N N such that
am
an
++
<
sm
sn
for all n, m N .
>
1
2
However, since
that
sN
s N +k
sN
s N +k
>
1
2
for all k N.
s0 + + sn
n +1
(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
for all n N1 . Also, since {s n } is a convergent sequence in a metric space (C), its
bounded, so there exists some M > 0 such that |s n s| < M for all n. Putting all this together,
we have
s ++ s
0
n
s
|n s| =
n
+
1
s 0 + + s n (n + 1)s
n +1
(s 0 s) + + (s n s)
n +1
|s 0 s| + + |s n s|
n +1
|s 0 s| + + |s N1 1 s| |s N1 s| + + |s n s|
+
=
n +1
n +1
N1 M (n N1 + 1) 2
<
+
n +1
n +1
N1 M
+ .
n +1 2
In the last step, we let choose N2 to be the smallest positive integer such that N2 >
so that
N1 M
<
n +1
for all n N2 .
N1 M
+ < + =
n +1 2 2 2
for all n N ,
1
n+1
if n is even
if n is odd
2N1 M
1,
(c) Can it happen that s n > 0 for all n and that lim sup s n = , although lim n = 0?
Solution. Let
sn =
1
n
1
n
p
+ 3n
if n = 0
if n = k 3 for some integer k
otherwise
p
Since the number of cubic numbers in {1, . . . , n} is given by b 3 nc, which is the largest integer
less than n, then we have
s0 + + sn 1 + n
=
n =
n +1
1
n
p p
+ b 3 nc 3 n
n +1
2+n 3
0
n +1
1 p
lim sup s n lim
+ 3 n = .
n n
n
1 X
ka k .
n + 1 k=1
()
!
n+1
n
X
X
1
1
ka k =
ka k + (n + 1)(s n+1 s n )
(n + 1) + 1 k=1
n + 2 k=1
1
((n + 1)(s n n ) + (n + 1)(s n+1 s n ))
n +2
1
=
(n + 1)(s n+1 n )
n +2
(n + 1)s n+1 (s 0 + + s n )
=
n +2
(n + 2)s n+1 (s 0 + + s n + s n+1 )
=
n +2
(s 0 + + s n+1 )
= s n+1
n +2
= s n+1 n+1 .
This completes the induction. Now, since {na n } is a complex sequence, and lim na n = 0,
then by part (a) the limit of the arithmetic means of {na n } must also be 0, so to restate this,
!
n
1 X
ka k = lim a n = 0.
lim
n
n n + 1
k=1
5
Therefore,
lim(s n n ) = lim
!
n
1 X
ka k = 0,
n + 1 k=1
by (), and thus lim s n = lim n (and n converges), so finally we have shown that {s n } converges.
p
, and define x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , . . . by
xn +
.
2
xn
p
.
Solution. If a, b R, then
(a b)2 0
a 2 2ab + b 2 0
a2 + b2
ab,
2
with equality holding iff a = b. We will use this last inequality to show that {x n } is bounded
p
below by . We do so by induction. x 0 > is given. Assuming that x n > , we have
p
1
p
p
xn +
x n+1 =
> x n p = .
2
xn
xn
Now we who that {x n } is a decreasing sequence.
1
1
1 x n2
x n x n+1 = x n x n +
xn
=
=
> 0,
2
xn
2
xn
2
xn
using the fact that x n2 > in the last inequality, so we have proven that x n x n+1 > 0 or
equivalently that x n > x n+1 . Since {x n } is a strictly decreasing, bounded sequence, it must
p
converge. Let x = lim x n . Notice that x a > 0, so
1
x n+1 =
xn +
xn +
=
lim x n+1 = lim
n
n 2
2
xn
xn
1
=
x=
x+
2
x
x
=
=
2 2x
x2 =
p
x = .
=
=
p
(b) Put n = x n , and show that
n+1 =
p
so that, setting = 2 ,
n+1 <
2n
2
< pn
2x n 2
2n
(n = 1, 2, 3, . . .).
Solution.
p
p
p
p
x n2 2x n + (x n )2
2
2
1
n+1 = x n+1 = 2 (x n xn ) =
=
= n < pn
2x n
2x n
2x n 2
since x n >
p
. So n+1 <
2n
, and applying this n
n+1 <
2n
<
2n1
times we get
n1
=
2 2
1
< <
2n
.
(c) This is a good algorithm for computing square roots, since the recursion formula is simple
and the convergence is extremely rapid. For example, if = 3 and x 1 = 2, show that 1 / <
1
10
6 < 4 1032 .
Solution.
p
1 2 3
1
1
1
= p = p
.
p =
p <
10
2 3
2 3(2 + 3) 6 + 4 3
24
p
1
< 2 3 1016 < 4 1016 .
5 <
25
p
1
< 2 3 1032 < 4 1032 .
6 <
p 1
p+1
xn + xn
p
p
where p is a fixed positive integer, and describe the behavior of the resulting sequences {x n }.
Solution. If the limit exists, let x = lim x n . Then
x n+1 =
p 1
p+1
xn + xn
p
p
p 1
p+1
xn + xn
p
p
p 1
x + x p+1
p
p
x
=
p px
x=
=
=
xp =
p
x = p .
=
=
To show the limit exists, well show again the sequence is bounded and decreasing. First we show
its bounded. To do so, well have to use Youngs Inequality. It says that if
1
p
+ q1 = 1 and if a, b > 0,
then
a
q
+ pb a q b p . Thus, letting q =
p
1
p1 , we have p
+ q1 = 1, and so
1
x n+1 =
1
p
p
p 1
p+1
q
xn + xn
> x n p1 = p ,
p
p
p
xn
so {x n } is bounded. Next,
p
x n x n+1 = x n
xn
p 1
p+1 x n
=
> 0,
xn + xn
=
+
p1
p1
p
p
p
px n
px n
so {x n } is decreasing.