Computer System

Grade: XI

Shashi Shekhar Acharya

Computer system
Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and peripheral devices that are
necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for example, requires an operating
system. A system of interconnected computers that share a central storage system and various peripheral
devices such as a printers, scanners, or routers. Each computer connected to the system can operate
independently, but has the ability to communicate with other external devices and computers.

Computer Architecture
Computer Architecture: computer architecture refers to specification of the relationship between different
hardware components of a computer system. It may also refer to the practical art of defining the structure
and relationship of the subcomponents of a computer like no of register, size of cache. Modern computer
architectural performance is often described in MIPS per MHz (millions of instructions per second per
millions of cycles per second of clock speed). This metric explicitly measures the efficiency of the
architecture at any clock speed. Since a faster clock can make a faster computer, this is a useful, widely
applicable measurement. Historic complex instruction set computers had MIPs/MHz as low as 0.1. The
"instruction" in the standard measurements is not a count of the ISA's actual machine language instructions,
but a historical unit of measurement, usually based on the speed of the VAX computer architecture.
Von Neumann Architecture (IMP)
See notes written earlier with figure
Computer Organization
Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the computer architecture .It deals with how
operational attributes are linked together to meet the requirements specified by computer architecture .
Some organizational attributes are hardware details ,control signals ,peripherals . Deals with all physical
components of computer systems that interacts with each other to perform various functionalities. Examples
of Organizational attributes includes Hardware details transparent to the programmer such as control signal
and peripheral.
Components of an computer system
The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another. However, the
basic organization remains the same for all computer systems.
The following five units correspond to the five basic operations
performed by all computer systems.

Input Unit
Storage Unit
Output Unit
Processing
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Control Unit

Input Unit

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An input device is a hardware or peripheral device used to send data to a computer. An input device allows
users to communicate and feed instructions and data to computers for processing, display, storage and/or
transmission. Input Devices: Those devices which help to enter data into computer system. E.g. Keyboard.
Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing. Its size
affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of memory unit are:

It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing.
Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of
calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage
unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), another component of the processor, performs
arithmetic, comparison, and other operations. Arithmetic operations include basic calculations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Comparison operations involve comparing one data item
with another to determine whether the first item is greater than, equal to, or less than the other item.
Depending on the result of the comparison, different actions may occur.
Control Unit: The control unit is the component of the processor that directs and coordinates most of the
operations in the computer. The control unit has a role much like a traffic cop: it interprets each instruction
issued by a program and then initiates the appropriate action to carry out the instruction. Types of internal
components that the control unit directs include the arithmetic/logic unit and buses. Functions of this unit
are:

It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
It does not process or store data.
Microprocessor/ CPU

A microprocessor is a programmable device which can execute a program written as per its instruction set.
A microprocessor is like a small CPU that contains ALU, CU and Memory (Set of Registers).
ALU(Arithmetic and Logical Unit) is used to perform the arithmetic( + , -- , * , / ) and logical( < , > , = )
operations. CU(Control Unit) controls the overall operations of the microprocessor by generating
appropriate control signals like Read Memory, Write Memory, Read I/O, Write I/O etc. Registers are used
to hold data and instruction that is under execution. First microprocessor was designed by Intel Corporation
and its name was Intel 4004.
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There are two main components of the CPU. One is the control unit, which accesses instructions stored in
RAM, interprets what they mean, and then dispatches them. The other is the Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
that performs arithmetic (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logic (i.e. greater than, less
than, equal to) operations needed to process the instructions.
Components of CPU
(Note: You can explain here the ALU, CU and Memory unit discussed in previous page)
The Four Primary Functions of the CPU
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In processing this data, the CPU
performs four basic steps:

Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes this
address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which instructions the
CPU should execute next.
Decode: All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions. Assembly code
must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to your CPU. This step is called
decoding.
Execute: While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do calculations with
its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a different address.
Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data is written to
the memory.
BUS

Microprocessor is processing device of every

computing device. It is like an artificial brain. It needs
to communicate with outer world. For example, it
needs to communicate with Input devices to get data,
it needs to communicate with memory to process
data according to instructions written in memory
and finally it needs to communicate with output
devices to display the output on O/P devices. To
communicate with external world, Microprocessor
make use of buses. A collection of wires through
which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another. This is a bus that connects all
the internal computer components to the CPU and main memory. The size of a bus, known as its width, is
important because it determines how much data can be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus
can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bitbus can transmit 32 bits of data.
The system bus consists of three types of buses:
Address Bus: Address bus is a part of the computer system bus that is dedicated for specifying a
physical address. It is a group of wires or lines that are used to transfer the addresses of Memory or I/O
devices. It is unidirectional. In Intel 8085 microprocessor, Address bus was of 16 bits. This means that
Microprocessor 8085 can transfer maximum 16 bit address which means it can address 65,536 different
memory locations. This bus is multiplexed with 8 bit data bus. So the most significant bits (MSB) of address
goes through Address bus (A7-A0) and LSB goes through multiplexed data bus (AD0-AD7).
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Data Bus: As name tells that it is used to transfer data within Microprocessor and Memory/Input or Output
devices. It is bidirectional as Microprocessor requires to send or receive data. The data bus also works as
address bus when multiplexed with lower order address bus. Data bus is 8 Bits long. A data bus simply
carries data. Typically, the same data bus is used for both read/write operations.

When it is a write operation, the processor will put the data (to be written) on to the data bus.
When it is the read operation, the memory controller will get the data from the specific memory
block and put it in to the data bus.

Control Bus: Microprocessor uses control bus to process data that is what to do with the selected memory
location. Some control signals are Read, Write and Opcode fetch etc. Various operations are performed by
microprocessor with the help of control bus. This is a dedicated bus, because all timing signals are generated
according to control signal.
Memory- Cache (L1, L2) , Buffer, RAM, ROM
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the
storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then
this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to
65535.
Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by
operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Level of cache memory

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A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level numbers refers to distance from
CPU where Level 1 is the closest. All levels of cache memory are faster than RAM. The cache closest to
CPU is always faster but generally costs more and stores less data then other level of cache.
Level 1 (L1) Cache: It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip.
It has small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.
Level 2 (L2) Cache: It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16 MB.
The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a type of L2 cache. The
common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 Mb.
Level 3 (L3) Cache: This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the
computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache. The personal computer
often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has
limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor
device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside
in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories

It is known as main memory.
Usually volatile memory.
Data is lost in case power is switched off.
It is working memory of the computer.
Faster than secondary memories.
A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory.
These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to
main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories

It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.

Difference between primary and secondary memory

Primary memory

Secondary memory

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The memory devices used for primary memory are

semiconductor memories

The secondary memory devices are magnetic and

optical memories.

The primary memory is categorized as volatile and

non-volatile memories, RAM is the volatile memory
and ROM is the non-volatile memory

The secondary memory is always non volatile

The primary memory is composed of programs and

data that are presently being used by the microprocessor

The secondary memory is enough capable to store

huge amount of information

The primary memories are more effective and fast to

interact with the micro-processor

The secondary memories are somewhat slow in

interacting with the microprocessor, when compared
with the primary memory.

Primary memory is known as main memory

Secondary memory is known as additional memory

or back memory

These memories are also called as internal memory

These memories are also called as external memory

Primary memory is temporary

The secondary memory is permanent

Commonly used primary memory (main memory)

available in the range of 512 MB to 8 GB RAMs.

Generally secondary memories range between 80 GB

to 4 TB Hard Disc Drives.

The primary memory devices are connected to the

computer through slots

The secondary memory devices are connected to the

computer through Cables

Buffer
A buffer is a data area shared by hardware devices or program processes that operate at different speeds or
with different sets of priorities. The buffer allows each device or process to operate without being held up
by the other. In order for a buffer to be effective, the size of the buffer and the algorithms for moving data
into and out of the buffer need to be considered by the buffer designer. Like a cache, a buffer is a "midpoint
holding place" but exists not so much to accelerate the speed of an activity as to support the coordination
of separate activities.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is read/write memory
which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as
easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed
randomly but it is very expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the
computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used
with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types

Static RAM (SRAM)

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and
no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed
on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM

It has long life

There is no need to refresh
Faster
Used as cache memory
Large size
Expensive
High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing
the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for
most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are
composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

It has short data lifetime

Need to be refreshed continuously
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Lesser in size
Less expensive
Less power consumption

SRAM VS DRAM
1. SRAM is static while DRAM is dynamic
2. SRAM is faster compared to DRAM
3. SRAM consumes less power than DRAM
4. SRAM uses more transistors per bit of memory compared to DRAM
5. SRAM is more expensive than DRAM
6. Cheaper DRAM is used in main memory while SRAM is commonly used in cache memory
ROM (Read Only Memory)
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ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven. ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally
can only be read, not written to. ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be "booted
up" or regenerated each time you turn it on. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data
in ROM is not lost when the computer power is turned off. The ROM is sustained by a small long-life
battery in your computer.
If you ever do the hardware setup procedure with your computer, you effectively will be writing to ROM.
Following are the various types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are
burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually,
an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an
insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure
to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:

Non-volatile in nature
These cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More reliable than RAMs
These are static and do not require refreshing
Its contents are always known and can be verified

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Difference between RAM and ROM

Options
Elaboration
Accessibility

RAM
Random Access Memory
In reference with the processor, the
information stored in the RAM is easily
accessed

Working type

Both the read and write operations can

be performed over the information that is
stored in the RAM

Storage

RAM memory is only used to store the

temporary information.

Speed

the accessing speed of RAM is faster, it

assist the processor to boost up the speed

Data preserving

Electricity is needed in RAM to flow to

preserving information
The RAM is an chip, which is in the
rectangle form and is inserted over the
mother board of the computer
The price of RAMs are comparatively
high
Physically size of RAM chip is larger
than ROM chip
The RAM memory is categorized into
two types they are the: Statistic RAM
(SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

structure

Cost
Chip size
Types

ROM
Read Only memory
The processor cannot directly access
the information that is stored in the
ROM. In order to access the ROM
information, first the information will
be transferred into the RAM and then
it gets executed by the processor
The ROM memory only allows the
user to read the information. User
cannot make any changes to the
information.
ROM memory is used to store
permanent information and cannot be
deleted.
Speed is slower in comparison with
RAM, ROM cannot boost up the
processor speed
Electricity is not needed in ROM to
flow to preserving information
ROMs are generally the optical
drivers, which are made of magnetic
tapes.
The price of ROMs are comparatively
low
Physically size of ROM chip is
smaller than RAM chip.
The ROM memory is categorized into
three types, they are: PROM
(Programmable Read Only memory),
EPROM (Erasable Programmable
Read Only memory) and EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only memory)

Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a magnetic storage medium for computer systems. The floppy disk is composed of a thin,
flexible magnetic disk sealed in a square plastic carrier. In order to read and write data from a floppy disk,
a computer system must have a floppy disk drive (FDD). A floppy disk is also referred to simply as a floppy.
Since the early days of personal computing, floppy disks were widely used to distribute software, transfer
files, and create back-up copies of data. When hard drives were still very expensive, floppy disks were also
used to store the operating system of a computer.
Floppy disks were quite vulnerable. The disk medium was very sensitive to dust, moisture, and heat. The
flexible plastic carrier was also not very sturdy. The hard plastic case of the 3.5-inch floppy presented a
substantial improvement in this respect. The most common format of this floppy became the double-sided,
high-density 1.44 MB disk drive.
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Advantages:
1) Floppies are cheap and can be used many many times.
2) Floppies are easy to transport and handle.

Disadvantages:
1) Floppies dont have much storage capacity
2) Floppies can get affected by heat
3) They have to handle more carefully

Hard Disk
Magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or
floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store
anywhere from 10 to more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of
1.4 megabytes. The hard disk contains a number of metal platters which have been coated with a special
magnetic material. The data is stored in this magnetic material. Thus, the hard disk is known as a magnetic
storage device.In order to access the data, the platters spin many thousands of times a second and a magnetic
read and write head floats just above the surface of the platter.
When you hear the term 'hard disk crash', this refers to the read/write head crashing down onto the surface
of the hard disk. There is a risk every time this happens that the data stored in the section just where the
head crashes might be damaged. That is why it is a bad idea just to switch the computer off at the wall
without shutting it down properly. Hard disks are measured in Gigabytes and Terabytes. Typical hard disks
range from around 120 Gb - 3 Terabytes. Hard disks also come as stand-alone external drives, as shown
opposite. Hard disks are now used in non-computer equipment as well. For example the PVR (Personal
Video Recorder) such as the Sky satellite box can store many hours of programs because they have a hard
disk inside.

Advantages
1. Necessary to support the way your computer works
2. Large storage capacity
3. Stores and retrieves data much faster than a floppy
disk or CD/DVD
4. Stored items are not lost when you switch off the
computer
5. Cheap on a cost per megabyte compared to other storage
devices

Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.

Far slower to access data than ROM or RAM chips

Hard disks can crash which stop the computer from working
Regular crashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data in that sector
The disk is fixed inside the computer and cannot easily be transferred to another computer.

Magnetic tape
A sequential storage medium used for data collection, backup and archiving. Like videotape, computer tape
is made of flexible plastic with one side coated with a ferromagnetic material. Tapes were originally open
reels, but were superseded by cartridges and cassettes of many sizes and shapes. Tape has been more
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economical than disks for archival data, but that is changing as disk capacities have increased enormously.
If tapes are stored for the duration, they must be periodically recopied or the tightly coiled magnetic surfaces
may contaminate each other.

Advantages
1) A single magnetic tape cartridge can store large
amounts of data up to 1 Terabyte. Large cartridges are
used by big companies and institutions that require
continuous recording and backup of data.
2) Data collection can go on without interruption
overnight or for an entire weekend.
3) Magnetic tape can be recorded over and reused
repeatedly.
4) Large amounts of information is stored.
5) Magnetic tape is inexpensive and budget friendly.

Disadvantages
1) Special equipment must be purchased and set up for recording and storing data. The data can only
be read on the special equipment.
2) If the data is stored near a strong magnetic field or a large speaker, the tape can be damaged.
3) Magnetic tape has a lifespan of 15 years. Data quality gradually erodes over time.
4) It is necessary to keep older tape equipment just to be able to read the stored data.

Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data between a personal
computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically reprogrammed and erased. It is
often found in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras and solid-state drives.
Flash memory is a type of electronically erasable
programmable read only memory (EEPROM), but
may also be a standalone memory storage device such
as a USB drive. EEPROM is a type of data memory
device using an electronic device to erase or write
digital data. Flash memory is a distinct type of
EEPROM, which is programmed and erased in large
blocks.
Flash memory incorporates the use of floating-gate
transistors to store data. Floating-gate transistors, or
floating gate MOSFET (FGMOS), is similar to
MOSFET, which is a transistor used for amplifying
or switching electronic signals. Floating-gate transistors are electrically isolated and use a floating node in
direct current (DC). Flash memory is similar to the standard MOFSET, except the transistor has two gates
instead of one.

Advantages:
1) Faster read and write compared to traditional hard disk drives.
2) Smaller size.
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3) Less prone to damage.

4) Cheaper than traditional drives in small storage capacities.
5) Uses less power than traditional hard disk drives.

Disadvantages:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Flash memory cells have a limited number of write and erase cycles before failing.
Most flash drives do not have have a write-protection mechanism
Smaller size devices, such as flash drives make them easier to lose
Currently costs a lot more per gigabyte than traditional hard drives for large storage capacities.
May require a special version of a program to run on a flash-based drive to protect from prematurely
wearing out the drive.

Optical Disc
A direct access storage device that is written and read by light. The most types are CDs, DVDs and Blurays. As removable media, optical discs superseded the earlier magnetic disk cartridges. Optical media
weigh less, have higher capacities and are not subject to head crashes or corruption from stray magnetic
fields. They also have a 30-year life and are less vulnerable to extreme hot or cold. However, as a
transportable storage medium, USB-based flash drives and external hard drives are also widely used.
Following are the major categories of optical discs based on writability. See CD, DVD and Blu-ray.

Read-Only (Factory Pressed)

Read-only discs are pressed from a master at the time of manufacture and cannot be erased. They include
the music CD, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, DVD-Video and BD-ROM (Blu-ray).

Write-Once (Burnable)
Write-once discs are recorded in the user's environment but cannot be erased. They include the CD-R,
DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R (Blu-ray), WORM discs, as well as magneto-optic (MO) discs in WORM mode.

Rewritable (Phase Change and Magneto Optic)

Rewritable discs can be written and re-written numerous times. Employing phase change technology,
consumer-oriented products include CD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD-RW, DVD+RW and BD-RE (Blu-ray)
(see phase change disc). Magneto-optic (MO) disks combine optical with magnetic technologies

Compact Disc (CD)

Abbreviated as CD, a compact disc is a flat, round, optical storage medium invented by James Russell. The
first CD was created at a Philips factory in Germany on August 17, 1982. The picture is an example of the
bottom of a standard compact disc and is the side the disc player reads. The opposite side of the disc has a
label to help indicate what is on the disc.
The standard CD is capable of holding 72 minutes of music or 650 MB of data. An 80 minute CD is capable
of holding 700 MB of data.There were several types of storage media released before a CD. However, the
most common storage media used before the introduction of the CD was the 3.5" floppy diskette.

VCD (video CD or video compact disc)

VCD (also called video CD, video compact disc or "disc") is a compact disk format based on CD-ROM
XA that is specifically designed to hold MPEG-1 video data and to include interactive capabilities. VCD
has a resolution similar to that of VHS, which is far short of the resolution of DVD. Each VCD disk holds
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72-74 minutes of video and has a data transfer rate of 1.44 Mbps. VCDs can be played on a VCD player
connected to a television set (in the same way that video cassettes can on a VCR) or computer, on a CD-i
player, on some CD-ROM drives, and some DVD players.

Digital Versatile Disc

Short for Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc, a DVD or DVDROM is a disc capable of storing large amounts of data on one disc the
size of a standard Compact Disc. CD/DVD drives were first sold in 1997.
Today they are widely used for storing and viewing movies and other data.
To play DVDs on a computer, you must have a DVD drive and a software
DVD player. The picture to the right is an example of what a DVD movie
may look like, which in this example is a picture of the Matrix DVD
movie.

External storage
External storage is all addressable data storage that is not currently in the computer's main storage or
memory. Synonyms are auxiliary storage and secondary storage. External storage devices are commonly
available in the form of flash drives, USB drives, CDs and DVDs. External storage is often used as a form
of a backup or for transportation of data from one system to another. External storage allows the user to
store information, especially data that is not used frequently, outside the computers main memory without
much additional cost, since the cost per bit of semiconductors is higher than any external storage devices
price.
Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input

device which helps in inputting data to the computer.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional
typewriter, although there are some additional keys
provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys,
but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
Sr.No

Keys

Description

Typing Keys

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

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Function Keys

The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four

directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,

Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous
cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round
ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse
can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages

Easy to use
Not very expensive
Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy
machine. It is used when some information is available on a
paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer
for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the
source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to
select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.
It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
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OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans

text optically character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory. In OCR processing, the scanned-in image or bitmap is
analyzed for light and dark areas in order to identify each
alphabetic letter or numeric digit. When a character is
recognized, it is converted into an ASCII code. Special circuit
boards and computer chips designed expressly for OCR are used
to speed up the recognition process.

OMR
Optical Mark Reading card Short for Optical Mark
Reading or Optical Mark Recognition, OMR is the
process of gathering information from human beings by
recognizing marks on a document. OMR is accomplished
by using a hardware device (scanner) that detects a
reflection or limited light transmittance on or through
piece of paper.
OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or thousands of physical documents per hour. For example,
students may recall taking tests or surveys where they filled in bubbles on paper (shown right) with pencil.
Once the form had been completed, a teacher or teacher's assistant would feed the cards into a system that
grades or gathers information from them.
Bar Code Readers
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-ofsale (POS) scanner, is a hand-held or stationary input
device used to capture and read information contained in a
bar code. A barcode reader consists of a scanner, a decoder
(either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the
reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely
captures and translates the barcode into numbers and/or
letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software application can make sense of the data.
Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port, keyboard port, or an interface device
called a wedge. A barcode reader works by directing a beam of light across the bar code and measuring the
amount of light that is reflected back. (The dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces
between them.) The scanner converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into
data by the decoder and forwarded to a computer.
Digital Camera
A digital camera takes a photograph by using sensors to capture
the light that comes in through the lens. It then converts the light
into binary numbers that are recorded on backing storage. This
digital version of the photograph can then be displayed on the
small screen that is set into the camera. A digital camera also has
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software that lets you delete unwanted photos while they are still stored in the camera. You can connect
your camera to your PC and transfer your photos across. Once they are in the PC you can edit your photos
further by using a good graphics package. Some of the Advantages of a digital camera are It can hold lots
of photos without the need to buy film. You can see what your photo is like straight away and you can
delete any you do not want. The photos are digital so you can transfer them to your PC and then do all sorts
of things with them such as edit, print, store on a writable CD, attach to an e-mail. You do not need to have
photos developed, saving time and money.
MICROPHONE
A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike; both
pronounced /mak/[1]) is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or
sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. In 1876,
Emile Berliner invented the first microphone used as a
telephone voice transmitter. Microphones are used in many
applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke
systems, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and
recorded audio engineering, FRS radios, megaphones, in radio
and television broadcasting and in computers for recording
voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes
such as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.
Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance change
(condenser microphone), piezoelectric generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage
signal from mechanical vibration.
Output devices: An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or
user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus, most
output devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include monitors, projectors, speakers,
headphones and printers.
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

Monitors
Graphic Plotter
Printer
Speaker

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

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A cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor is an analog computer display or television set with a large, deep casing.
This type of monitor uses streams of electrons that activate dots or pixels on the screen to create a full
image. In contrast to this, liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors and plasma television sets, or flat panel
displays, use newer digital technologies. While flat-screens have become increasingly popular, there are
still some advantages to CRT models that can make them better for some situations. The CRT display is
made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or
resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e in the
word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series
of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens
are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some
disadvantages of CRT:

Large in Size
High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have
reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to
the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators,
video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.
Sometimes abbreviated as FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin
screen display found on all portable computers and is the new
standard for desktop computers. Unlike (CRT) monitors, flatpanel displays use liquid-crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting
diode (LED) technology to make them much lighter and thinner
compared to a traditional monitor. The picture shows an example of an ASUS flat-panel display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Example are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)

Topic
Size

CRT

LCD

Because of the CRT in a CRT monitor

LCD monitors are much thinner than CRT

the physical size of these displays is

monitors, being only a few inches in thickness

much larger than an LCD and usually

(some can be near 1 inch thick). They can fit

awkward on small desks.

into smaller, tighter spaces, whereas a CRT

monitor can't in most cases.

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Dead

Although a CRT can have display issues

LCD monitors can encounter dead pixels,

pixels

there is no such thing as a dead pixel on

which causes small black or other colored dots

a CRT monitor. Many issues can also be

in the display.

fixed by degaussing the monitor.

Weight

A CRT monitor can weigh 40 pounds or

LCD monitors can be pretty light, weighing as

more depending on the size of the

little as 8 to 10 pounds.

monitor.
Price

Because of the popularity of LCD

LCD monitors are a newer technology and have

monitors the price of most CRT

more demand so will be more expensive than a

monitors is very cheap. You can also

CRT.

usually pick up a used CRT for next to

nothing.
Viewable

The frame around the glass screen of the

LCD monitors have a slightly bigger viewable

area

monitor causes the viewable area of the

area than a CRT monitor. A 19" LCD monitor

screen to be smaller than an LCD.

has a diagonal screen size of 19" and a 19" CRT

monitor has a diagonal screens size of about
18".

Picture

Viewing
angle

Because of the older technology most

Depending on the quality of the LCD monitor,

CRT monitors will not have as good as

the picture quality can be quite superb and

quality as picture as most LCD displays.

amazing, almost like looking out a window.

Almost every CRT have a better

Not all LCD monitors can be viewed at every

viewing angle than many LCD displays.

angle, which makes it difficult for anyone who

is not in front of the monitor to see the screen.

Glare

Most monitors have a glass screen,

An LCD monitor doesn't have a glass screen,

which can cause much more glare than

virtually eliminating any glare.

an LCD.
Burn

If the same image is left on a CRT for

Unlike a CRT an LCD monitor does is not

days the image can burn into the display

affected by a burn inor ghosting problem.

causing a permanent ghost image to

appear on the screen.

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Some people can see the flicker in a

On an LCD monitor, screen flicker is very

CRT monitor, which is due in part to

minimal if noticeable at all because of the

the refresh rateof the screen refreshing

higher refresh rate.

the image.
Response

The response on early LCD monitors

Any LCD made within the last 5 years have no

was not as good as most monitors at the

refresh rate issues. Making the display just as

time, making games and movies not as

enjoyable as CRT monitors.

enjoyable to play.
Power

A 17" CRT monitor will use as much as

LCD monitors are very energy efficient. A 19"

80 watts, depending on the age.

LCD monitor only uses about 17 to 31 watts on

average.

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper. External device that communicates
with another digital device to print what a user sees on a screen. Printers use small pixels to transfer an
image from the system to another surface. Ink jet and laser printers are the most commonly used varieties
of this device, and are most commonly hooked up to a personal computer. Some printers only print in black
and white, but most include a color option as well.
There are two types of printers:

Impact Printers
Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printer refers to a class of printers that work by banging a head or needle against an ink ribbon to
make a mark on the paper. This includes dot-matrix printers, daisy-wheel printers, and line printers. In
contrast, laser and ink-jet printers are nonimpact printers. The distinction is important because impact
printers tend to be considerably noisier than nonimpact printers but are useful for multipart forms such as
invoices. The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

Very low consumable costs

Very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

Character printers
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Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. The desktop dot matrix printer is the
typical character printer. It is also called a "serial dot matrix printer" or "serial matrix printer."
These are further divided into two types:

Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

Daisy Wheel

DOT MATRIX PRINTER

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of
their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head
consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why
it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages

Inexpensive
Widely Used
Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

Slow Speed
Poor Quality

DAISY WHEEL
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that
is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices
which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages

More reliable than DMP

Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

Slower than DMP

Noisy
More expensive than DMP
Daisy Wheel Printer

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. A high-speed printer capable of printing an
entire line at one time. A fast line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of
line printers are that they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy. Line
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printers are high-speed, business-oriented printing machines that were developed initially for punch-card
business machines, before the dawn of the computer age. They print a line of text at a time, the full width
of the page, rather than using a print head that moves back and forth. They've largely been replaced by highspeed laser printers but remain useful in some business applications because of their low cost and ability to
print multi-part carbonless forms.
These are of further two types

Drum Printer
Chain Printer

DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number
of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132
tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48
character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed
and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages

Very high speed

Disadvantages

Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed

CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may
have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time so they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types

Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Faster than impact printers.
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They are not noisy.

High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters
to be printed on a page.
ADVANTAGES

Very high speed

Very high quality output
Give good graphics quality
Support many fonts and different character size

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive.
Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters
by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable
features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of
printing also.
ADVANTAGES

High quality printing

More reliable

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive as cost per page is high

Slow as compared to laser printer

Plotter
A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper with one
or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer, the plotter can draw continuous point-to-point lines
directly from vector graphics files or commands. There are a number of different types of plotters: a drum
plotter draws on paper wrapped around a drum which turns to produce one direction of the plot, while the
pens move to provide the other direction; a flatbed plotter draws on paper placed on a flat surface; and an
electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged paper with positively charged toner.
Plotters were the first type of printer that could print with color and render graphics and full-size engineering
drawings. As a rule, plotters are much more expensive than printers. They are most frequently used for

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CAE (computer-aided engineering) applications, such as CAD (computer-aided design) and CAM
(computer-aided manufacturing). Hewlett-Packard is the leading vendor of plotters worldwide.
Speaker
Speakers are popular output devices used with computer
systems. They receive audio input from the computer's sound
card and produce audio output in the form of sound waves.
Most computer speakers are active speakers, meaning they
have an internal amplifier which allows you to increase the
volume, or amplitude, of the sound. Speakers usually come in
pairs, which allows them to produce stereo sound from two
separate audio channels. A speaker is a term used to describe
the user who is giving vocal commands to a software program.
A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that
outputs sound generated by the computer. When computers were originally released, they had on-board
speakers that generated a series of different tones and beeps. As multimedia and games became popular,
higher quality computer speakers began to be released that required additional power. Because computer
sound cards are not powerful enough to power a nice set of speakers, today's speakers are self-powered,
relatively small in size, and contain magnetic shielding.
Peripheral device
A peripheral device is defined as a computer device, such as a keyboard or printer, that is not part of the
essential computer (i.e., the memory and microprocessor). These auxiliary devices are intended to be
connected to the computer and used. A computer can calculate and process just fine all by itself, but with
peripherals, it can share its results and accept additional data. Peripherals can be standard, such as a monitor
that lets you see what your computer is doing, or a mouse that moves your cursor to different points on the
screen or allows you to perform operations without complex keystrokes or commands. Businesses can
benefit from finding the right types of peripherals for their workplace computers.
Peripheral devices can be external or internal.
Examples of external peripherals include mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner.
Examples of internal peripherals include CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem.
Today's new devices, such as tablets, smartphones and wearable computing devices are considered
peripherals as they can be connected and used on a computer system. The difference, however, is that these
devices can run independently of the computer system, unlike
a computer mouse, for example.
Types of Peripheral Devices
Input Peripherals: Some devices, such as the keyboard,
mouse or drawing pad, are designed to allow you to share data
to your machine in the form of text commands in a language
the computer understands, or the correct positioning of a
cursor with a mouse. Peripherals can also be used for access
purposes, such as typing in the proper password on the
keyboard to access the program menu. A scanner is another
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input peripheral that can be handy in a business environment for bringing in text or digital images into a
computer. These devices might plug directly into your computer or be connected through a wireless setup.
Output Peripherals: Your business can also use peripherals that enhance what your computer produces.
Printers can share documentation of your system activity, such as an annual report or envelopes to your
customers. Monitors allow you to view the activity on a computer, whether it's a workstation, a network
that needs to be regularly monitored or a display in the lobby. Speakers are also output peripherals and
allow you to hear sounds, which is especially helpful if you take part in online teleconferences and webinars.
Input/Output Peripherals: Some devices give input to your machine and also receive data. External hard
drives, for instance, can be used to store files from your computer as a backup. Hard drives can also be used
to place files on your machine. Peripherals such as a USB flash drive or CD/DVD drive can be an easy way
to move files from one computer to another. A webcam and headset with microphone are other examples
of peripherals that can receive and send data.
Interface
A boundary across which two independent systems meet and act on or communicate with each other. In
computer technology, there are several types of interfaces.

user interface - the keyboard, mouse, menus of a computer system. The user interface allows the
user to communicate with the operating system. Also see GUI.
software interface - the languages and codes that the applications use to communicate with each
other and with the hardware.
hardware interface - the wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to communicate with
each other.

Port
An interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. Personal computers have various types of
ports. Internally, there are several ports for connecting disk drives, display screens, and keyboards.
Externally, personal computers have ports for connecting modems, printers, mice, and other peripheral
devices. Almost all personal computers come with a serial RS-232C port or RS-422 port for connecting a
modem or mouse and a parallel port for connecting a printer. On PCs, the parallel port is a Centronics
interface that uses a 25-pin connector. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) ports support higher
transmission speeds than do conventional ports and enable you to attach up to seven devices to the same
port.
Types of port
Parallel port: Parallel port is a parallel interface for connecting an external device such as a printer. Most
personal computers have both a parallel port and at least one serial port. On PCs, the parallel port uses a
25-pin connector (type DB-25) and is used to connect printers, computers and other devices that need
relatively high bandwidth. It is often called a Centronics interface after the company that designed the
original standard for parallel communication between a computer and printer. (The modern parallel
interface is based on a design by Epson.) A newer type of parallel port, which supports the same connectors
as the Centronics interface, is the EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) or ECP (Extended Capabilities Port). Both
of these parallel ports support bi-directional communication and transfer rates ten times as fast as the
Centronics port.

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Serial Port: A serial port is an interface that allows a PC to transmit or receive data one bit at a time. It is
one of the oldest types of interfaces and at one time was commonly used to connect printers and external
modems to a PC. Modern serial ports are used in scientific instruments, shop till systems such as cash
registers and applications like industrial machinery systems. Compared to a parallel port, the data transfer
rate of a serial port is slower. Normally, a serial port is a male port, while a parallel port is a female port.
System resource configurations are chosen for each port and are identified by COM1, COM2, COM3,
COM4, and so forth. Each COM position represents an input/output (I/O) and an interrupt request (IRQ)
address. The I/O address transfers and receives data to and from a peripheral device such as a mouse or
keyboard.
USB Port:
A USB port is a standard cable connection interface for personal computers and consumer electronics
devices. USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance digital data
communications. USB ports allow USB devices to be connected to each other with and transfer digital data
over USB cables. They can also supply electric power across the cable to devices that need it. Both wired
and wireless versions of the USB standard exist, although only the wired version involves USB ports and
cables. These types of equipment are most commonly used for computer networking:

USB network adapters

USB broadband and cellular modems for Internet access
USB printers to be shared on a home network

For computer-to-computer file transfers without a network, USB drives are also sometimes used to copy
files between devices.
IEEE-1394
IEEE 1394, High Performance Serial Bus, is an electronics standard for connecting devices to your personal
computer. IEEE 1394 provides a single plug-and-socket connection on which up to 63 devices can be
attached with data transfer speeds up to 400 Mbps ( megabit s per second). The standard describes a serial
bus or pathway between one or more peripheral devices and your computer's microprocessor . Many
peripheral devices now come equipped to meet IEEE 1394. Two popular implementations of IEEE 1394
are Apple's FireWire and Sony's i.LINK . IEEE 1394 implementations provide:

A simple common plug-in serial connector on the back of your computer and on many different
types of peripheral devices
A thin serial cable rather than the thicker parallel cable you now use to your printer, for example
A very high-speed rate of data transfer that will accommodate multimedia applications (100 and
200 megabits per second today; with much higher rates later)
Hot-plug and plug and play capability without disrupting your computer
The ability to chain devices together in a number of different ways without terminators or
complicated set-up requirements.

Slot
In computers, a slot, or expansion slot , is an engineered technique for adding capability to a computer in
the form of connection pinholes (typically, in the range of 16 to 64 closely-spaced holes) and a place to fit
an expansion card containing the circuitry that provides some specialized capability, such as video
acceleration, sound, or disk drive control.
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Almost all desktop computers come with a set of expansion slots. These help ensure that you'll be able to
add new hardware capabilities in the future.
Software and Classification
Software is defined as a collection of programs, documentation and operating procedures. The Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines software as a 'collection of computer programs,
procedures, rules and associated documentation and data.' It possesses no mass, no volume, and no colour,
which makes it a non-degradable entity over a long period. Software does not wear out or get tired. Software
controls, integrates, and manages the hardware components of a computer system. It also instructs the
computer what needs to be done to perform a specific task and how it is to be done. For example, software
instructs the hardware how to print a document, take input from the user, and display the output. Computer
works only in response to instructions provided externally. Usually, the instructions to perform some
intended tasks are organized into a program using a programming language like C, C++, Java, etc., and
submitted to computer.
Software Characteristics
Different individuals judge software on different basis. This is because they are involved with the software
in different ways. For example, users want the software to perform according to their requirements.
Similarly, developers involved in designing, coding, and maintenance of the software evaluate the software
by looking at its internal characteristics, before delivering it to the user. Software characteristics are
classified into six major components.

Functionality: Refers to the degree of performance of the software against its intended purpose.
Reliability: Refers to the ability of the software to provide desired functionality under the given
conditions.
Usability: Refers to the extent to which the software can be used with ease.
Efficiency: Refers to the ability of the software to use system resources in the most effective and
efficient manner.
Maintainability: Refers to the ease with which the modifications can be made in a software system
to extend its functionality, improve its performance, or correct errors.
Portability: Refers to the ease with which software developers can transfer software from one
platform to another, without (or with minimum) changes. In simple terms, it refers to the ability of
software to function properly on different hardware and software platforms without making any
changes in it.

In addition to the above mentioned characteristics, robustness and integrity are also important. Robustness
refers to the degree to which the software can keep on functioning in spite of being provided with invalid
data while integrity refers to the degree to which unauthorized access to the software or data can be
prevented.
Classification of Software
Software can be applied in countless fields such as business, education, social sector, and other fields. It is
designed to suit some specific goals such as data processing, information sharing, communication, and so
on. It is classified according to the range of potential of applications. These classifications are listed below.

System software: This class of software manages and controls the internal operations of a
computer system. It is a group of programs, which is responsible for using computer resources
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efficiently and effectively. For example, an operating system is a system software, which controls
the hardware, manages memory and multitasking functions, and acts as an interface between
application programs and the computer.
Application software: The subclass of a computer program which utilizes the capabilities of
computer is called application software. Application here means the application software and the
implementation. The example of application software programs includes media players,
spreadsheets and word processors. When multiple applications are packaged together then it is
called application suite. There is a common user interface in each application suite which makes it
easier for the user to learn different applications. In some cases, such as Microsoft Office, the
various application programs have the ability to interact with each other. This facility is very handy
for the user. For example, a user can embed the spreadsheet in a word processor using the
application software. Application software cannot run without the presence of system software.

Difference between system software and application software

System Software

Application Software

1. It is a set of programs to control computer 1. It is used to solve particular problems of

components and operations.
user.
2. It is general-purpose software.

2. It is specific purpose software.

3. It executes all the time in computer. Because 3. It executes as and when required. For
it controls overall operations and components example, if we need to write a letter, we will
of computer.
open Microsoft Word - an application
software. And after we have written and
printed the letter, we will close Microsoft
Word.
4. The number of system software is less than 4. The number of application software is much
application software.
more than system software.
5. System software is essential for a computer
to work. Without System software (like
operating systems), a computer is useless. We
cannot use computer hardware without system
software. That is why we install an operating
system first of all, after buying a new
computer.

5. Application software is not essential for a

computer to work. For example, if we need to
play some games then we buy a game CD or
download games from internet, and install in
our computer.

6. Examples are: Windows, Dos, Unix, Linux, 6. Examples are: MS Word, MS Excel, MS
Norton Antivirus etc.
Power point etc.

Computer Virus and Anti-Virus

Virus: A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your
knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate themselves. All computer viruses are
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man-made. A simple virus that can make a copy of itself over and over again is relatively easy to produce.
Even such a simple virus is dangerous because it will quickly use all available memory and bring the system
to a halt. An even more dangerous type of virus is one capable of transmitting itself across networks and
bypassing security systems. Since 1987, when a virus infected ARPANET, a large network used by the
Defense Department and many universities, many antivirus programs have become available. These
programs periodically check your computer system for the best-known types of viruses. Some people
distinguish between general viruses and worms. A worm is a special type of virus that can replicate itself
and use memory, but cannot attach itself to other programs.
Trojan horse: A destructive program that masquerades as a benign application. Unlike viruses, Trojan
horses do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. One of the most insidious types of
Trojan horse is a program that claims to rid your computer of viruses but instead introduces viruses onto
your computer. The term comes from the a Greek story of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks give a giant
wooden horse to their foes, the Trojans, ostensibly as a peace offering. But after the Trojans drag the horse
inside their city walls, Greek soldiers sneak out of the horse's hollow belly and open the city gates, allowing
their compatriots to pour in and capture Troy.
Botnets: The web is also where you risk contracting a drive-by bot infection that will enlist your computer
as an agent in a fraudster's arsenal.
"A botnet is a collection of infected PCs that the bad guys now own," Perry said. "Botnets are the source of
all spam they're used for ID theft, extortion, industrial espionage and finding other web pages to infect. I
would call it the Swiss Army Knife of the malware world. It does a lot of things for a lot of people."
Like the majority of malware software, botnets are asymptomatic. Until you wake up and find your bank
account has been drained, that is, or discover that your ID has been appropriated for use by someone else.
Logic Bombs: Logic bombs are small programs or sections of a program triggered by some event such as
a certain date or time, a certain percentage of disk space filled, the removal of a file, and so on. For example,
a programmer could establish a logic bomb to delete critical sections of code if she is terminated from the
company. Logic bombs are most commonly installed by insiders with access to the system.
Trap doors: Trap doors, also referred to as backdoors, are bits of code embedded in programs by the
programmer(s) to quickly gain access at a later time, often during the testing or debugging phase. If an
unscrupulous programmer purposely leaves this code in or simply forgets to remove it, a potential security
hole is introduced. Hackers often plant a backdoor on previously compromised systems to gain later access.
Trap doors can be almost impossible to remove in a reliable manner. Often, reformatting the system is the
only sure way.
Worm: Worms are programs that replicate themselves from system to system without the use of a host file.
This is in contrast to viruses, which requires the spreading of an infected host file. Although worms
generally exist inside of other files, often Word or Excel documents, there is a difference between how
worms and viruses use the host file. Usually the worm will release a document that already has the "worm"
macro inside the document. The entire document will travel from computer to computer, so the entire
document should be considered the worm.
There are five recognized types of viruses:
File infector viruses: File infector viruses infect program files. These viruses normally infect executable
code, such as .com and .exe files. The can infect other files when an infected program is run from floppy,
hard drive, or from the network.
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Boot sector viruses: Boot sector viruses infect the system area of a disk--that is, the boot record on floppy
disks and hard disks. All floppy disks and hard disks (including disks containing only data) contain a small
program in the boot record that is run when the computer starts up. Boot sector viruses attach themselves
to this part of the disk and activate when the user attempts to start up from the infected disk. Examples of
boot sector viruses are Form, Disk Killer, Michelangelo, and Stoned.
Master boot record viruses: Master boot record viruses are memory resident viruses that infect disks in
the same manner as boot sector viruses. The difference between these two virus types is where the viral
code is located. Master boot record infectors normally save a legitimate copy of the master boot record in
an different location. Examples of master boot record infectors are NYB, AntiExe, and Unashamed.
Multipartite viruses: Multipartite (also known as polypartite) viruses infect both boot records and program
files. These are particularly difficult to repair. If the boot area is cleaned, but the files are not, the boot area
will be reinfected. The same holds true for cleaning infected files. If the virus is not removed from the boot
area, any files that you have cleaned will be reinfected. Examples of multipartite viruses include One_Half,
Emperor, Anthrax and Tequilla.
Macro viruses: These types of viruses infect data files. They are the most common and have cost
corporations the most money and time trying to repair. Examples of macro viruses include W97M.Melissa,
WM.NiceDay, and W97M.Groov.
Antivirus
Anti-virus software is a program or set of programs that are designed to prevent, search for, detect, and
remove software viruses, and other malicious software like worms, trojans, adware, and more.These tools
are critical for users to have installed and up-to-date because a computer without anti-virus software
installed will be infected within minutes of connecting to the internet. The bombardment is constant, with
anti-virus companies update their detection tools constantly to deal with the more than 60,000 new pieces
of malware created daily.
There are several different companies that build and offer anti-virus software and what each offers can vary
but all perform some basic functions:

Scan specific files or directories for any malware or known malicious patterns
Allow you to schedule scans to automatically run for you
Allow you to initiate a scan of a specific file or of your computer, or of a CD or flash drive at any
time.
Remove any malicious code detected sometimes you will be notified of an infection and asked if
you want to clean the file, other programs will automatically do this behind the scenes.
Show you the health of your computer

Always be sure you have the best, up-to-date security software installed to protect your computers, laptops,
tablets and smartphones.

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