Measuring

Avogadros Number

Goals of the laboratory:

The exercise is intended to:
Emphasize mole - mass relationships.
Demonstrate a method for estimating Avogadros Number.

Introduction
Moles
The mole is the fundamental SI (Systme International) unit for the amount
of a chemical substance, defined by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemists) as:
The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be
specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles,
or specified groups of such particles.
In practical terms, one mole of an element is the mass, in grams, equal to the
elements atomic mass, e.g., 55.85 g per mole for iron.
Avogadros Number
For the last two centuries, scientists have recognized that atoms are very,
very small. However, for a long time, there was no good way to assess just how
small atoms really are, and more specifically, how many atoms there are in a
mole the numerical value of Avogadros number. The mole concept can be
used without knowing Avogadros number, but it is still very important for
fundamental understanding.
A number of ways to experimentally evaluate Avogadros number have been
employed, with varying levels of success. The electrochemical method
employed for this lab is one of the better (though not best) methods.1
Experimental Approach
The key to methods for measuring Avogadros Number is that they not
depend, even indirectly, on knowing Avogadros number beforehand. So we will
start by evaluating the types of information and methods used for this lab:

1The method used her is also tied to Faradays Law of Electrolysis, which has practical
applications in fields such as metal refinement and electroplating.

MEASURING AVOGADROS NUMBER Exp. 2 - 1

1. The mass-mole relationship. The mole concept predated modern atomic

theory, including any knowledge of protons, neutrons, and electrons. One
can calculate the number of moles of an element produced or consumed in a
reaction simply by dividing the mass increase or decrease by the elements
atomic mass.
19

2. The charge on an electron. The charge of an electron, 1.60210 coulombs

(the coulomb is the fundamental unit of charge in physics) was deduced
from the Millikan oil drop experiment (almost any general chemistry text will
discuss this). This experiment evaluated the charge on a single electron
using important physics principles, but it did not in any way need (or provide)
any information about the size of individual atoms.
You may not be very familiar with the unit coulomb, but a closely related unit,
the ampere (amp), is commonly employed for electrical current an
ampere is simply an electrical current of one coulomb of charge per second.
Many home wiring circuits are designed to handle 20-amp currents, i. e.,
currents of 20 coulombs per second.
Measurements of current and time allow you to figure out how much charge,
in coulombs, has passed through a circuit. If a current of 2.50 amps is
passed through a circuit for 5.00 minutes (300. seconds), then the total
electrical charge is:

2.50coul 300. s 750. coul

s
Since the absolute value of charge on an electron is 1.60210
the number of electrons passed is:
electron
750. coul
4.68 1021 electrons
19
1.602 10 coul

19

coulombs,

Message: measuring current and time allows you to calculate number of

electrons, without prior knowledge of Avogadros Number.
In this lab, current will be provided by a power source that allows control of
the current (within a limited range). The sources software will record the
actual current over time, and then calculate the cumulative charge
transferred (essentially adding up the current time products measured
every 0.5 s during the measurement period).
3. Charges on metal ions: When a piece of metal placed in water is connected
to the + end of an electrical power supply (another strip of metal attached
to the negative end of the power supply is also in the same solution), most
metals dissolve, forming positively charged ions (cations). Charges on ions
(= number of electrons lost per metal atom) are known from the formulas of
compounds the ions form. In most cases, both copper and zinc metals
Exp. 2 - 2 - MEASURING AVOGADROS
NUMBER

dissolve to form ions with 2+ charges. Their dissolutions correspond to the

following chemical equations:
2+

Cu(s) Cu (aq) + 2e

or

2+

Zn(s) Zn (aq) + 2e
Each atom of metal dissolved provides 2 electrons to the electrical current.
This also corresponds to two moles of electrons per mole of metal. So if you
know the number of moles of copper or zinc that has dissolved, you simply
multiply the value by 2 to find the number of moles of electrons released.

MEASURING AVOGADROS NUMBER Exp. 2 - 3

Putting together the pieces:

Here is the basic experimental procedure:
A metal strip (either copper or zinc) is
selected and weighed (Figure 1a).

The metal strip is placed into a

solution and connected to an electrical
power supply that will apply a
measured electrical current. The
current passing through the circuit will
cause some of the metal strip to
dissolve to form 2+ ions (Figure 1b).

The metal strip is dried and then

reweighed. The difference between
the original mass and the mass after
the reaction corresponds to the mass
of metal dissolved (Figure 1c).

The process is repeated several times

for a total of five periods of reaction.

The following outlines the steps for using

this data to calculate Avogadros Number. You
will carry these calculations out in Excel.

Figure 1. Overview of
experimental procedure. (1) A
strip of metal "M" (either Cu or
Zn) is selected and weighed.
(b) The metal is placed in a
solution, connected to the +
terminal of a power supply,
and current is passed through
the circuit. During this time,
some of the metal dissolves to
form M2+ ions (Cu2+ or Zn2+).
(c) The metal strip is dried
and reweighed to determine
its mass loss. The process is

From the mass of dissolved metal (mass difference between Figures 1a and
1c) and the metals atomic mass, calculate the number of moles of metal
that dissolved. For example, if you were using Zn (65.38 g/mol) and 0.123 g
Zn dissolved, the calculation would be:
0.123 g Zn (mol Zn/65.38 g Zn) = 0.00188 mol Zn
For both copper and zinc, there are two moles of electrons per mole of
metal, so simply multiply the number of moles of metal by 2 to find the
moles of electrons lost by the metal. So if 0.00188 moles of Zn dissolved, the
moles of electrons would be:
0.00188 mol Zn (2 mol e/mol Zn) = 0.00376 mol e
During the reaction step (Figure 1b), the power supply measures the actual
current continuously, and can provide the integral of current time for the
measurement period. This product (coulombs / second sections) gives you
the charge in coulombs. Dividing that number by the charge of an electron
(absolute value) will tell you the number of electrons lost by the metal. A
sample calculation was provided on the previous page.

 At this point, you will have both the number of electrons and the moles of
electrons. Simply dividing the number of electrons by moles of electrons
gives number per mole, which is Avogadros Number.

 A single measurement is generally not satisfactory since each measurement

will have some associated error. You could carry out the same calculation for
each time interval and average the values. A slightly more sophisticated way
to do this is to plot the data, with the total number of electrons along the yaxis, and the total moles of electrons along the x-axis. The data should
produce a straight line (in theory).
Excel allows you to fit a straight line through data (see the next section), and
to find the mathematical equation for the line in the form
y = mx + b

(m = slope, b = y-intercept)

Since the y-axis is number of electrons and the x-axis is moles of electrons,
the slope gives you the number of electrons per mole of electrons the
numerical value of Avogadros Number. This plotting method has the
advantage of minimizing the effect of random error the slope calculation
used largely eliminates the effect of random error of individual
measurements on the final result.
Fitting data to a line
Many experimental methods, including the *Business-speak to Scienceone used in this lab, are designed to provide, speak
ideally, linear relationships between y and x Business
Science
Plot
values, i. e., the y and x values should follow Chart
Trendline
Regression line
an equation of the form y = mx + b. A
graphical display of the data should appear *Excel is marketed a lot to
linear. However, experimental data is never business-oriented clients, and
tends to use different terms for
perfect, so it is not possible to come up with
plots and regression lines than
one straight line (one combination of slope, m, and intercept, b) that fits the
data perfectly.
The mathematical process of linear regression2 uses statistics-based
calculations to find the best combination of slope and intercept to fit the data.
The result is the regression line. Carrying out a regression calculation
manually is very tedious. However, Excel and most scientific calculators have
built-in linear regression calculations. (See Appendix F, particularly Section IV,
for Excel operations. Directions for carrying out linear regressions using a
variety of common calculators may be posted on the CHM161 Blackboard site,
and should also be available from the manufacturer.)
Programs for computing linear regressions will normally also provide the
2
correlation coefficient, R , a value between 0 and 1 that is a measure of how
2
well the regression equation fits the data. The closer R is to 1 (100%), the
more precisely the line fits the experimental data points. A value of 0.9950
would indicate that the equation for the line accounts for 99.50% of the change
2 The regression calculation essentially converts information about many data points to two
parameters, m and b. Regression implies that a large amount of information all of the data
has been simplified or regressed into just a few parameters (slope and intercept).

in y values with x, i.e., only 0.50% of the change in y-values doesnt fit the
equation.

Experimental
Safety:
this lab. Normal safety procedures, particularly eye protection, are required for

Procedure overview
The basic outline of the experimental work was provided in the Introduction.
A few more details follow:
The metal strip will be cycled through the process (dried and weighed, put into
the circuit for several minutes, and dried and weighed again) a total of five
times so that the total in- circuit time is about 25 minutes.
You will collect your data on your report data page, and also enter it into a
spreadsheet and use Excel to calculate the number of electron and moles of
electrons (cumulative) after each time interval. You will plot the data to find
the slope of the line, which is numerically equal to Avogadros Number.
While this data analysis can be completed after the experimental work is
complete, it is overall much more efficient to set up the spreadsheet and
start data analysis as soon as the experimental work is started.

Procedure
(1)

Your instructor will assign you to work with either

copper or zinc metal (you can distinguish these by
their colors).
Take two strips of the assigned
metal and clean them with steel wool. (For copper,
heavy wire may be used instead of flat strips.)

a.

b.

Rinse the strips with deionized

water and then dry them with tissues or a paper
towel.

c.
of

Figure 2.
Metal strips
with spacer /
support and
electrical

Clip the two strips on either side

the plastic spacer / support, as shown in Figure 2.
The spacer holds the metal strips in place, and
prevents them from contacting each other.

(2)Add approximately 25 mL Na2SO4 solution to a beaker (100 mL size) and then

add deionized water until the total volume is about 80 mL. Precise volume
measurements are not important.
(3)Use Figure 3 (top of next page) as a guide to setting up the apparatus.
a. AC power adapters for both the Constant Current System (CCS) control and
the LabQuest unit should be plugged in. The control knob on the CCS should
be
fully
counterclockwise.
b. The data cable from the CCS controller should be plugged into one of the
analog inputs of the left side of the LabQuest unit (typically into Channel 1
(CH1)).

c. Turn on the LabQuest unit (see Figure 3 for location of power button). It
usually takes a minute or so for the system to boot up. The LabQuest
system should automatically recognize that it is connected to the Constant
Current System.
d. Connect the current leads from the CCS controller to the two metal strips.

Figure 3. Connections for experimental setup. Both the LabQuest data

collection unit and the Constant Current System (CCS) control box have AC
adapters that must be plugged into electrical outlets. The data cable from the
CCS should be plugged into one of the ports on the left side of the LabQuest.
Start with the CCS current control dial turned fully counter-clockwise. The current
leads from the CCS should be attached to the metal strips. Also note: (1) The
LabQuest power on/off switch is on the upper left of the unit. (2) The LabQuest
unit has three buttons to the right of the monitor screen. The upper button allows
control of data collection.

(4)Note which connector has the red marker to indicate that it is the (+)
(positive) connection. This indicates the electrode which should get
dissolved during the reaction.
(5)While watching the current reading on the LabQuest unit, turn the knob on
the CCS clockwise until the current is about 0.50 amps. Note the position of
the dial (it will typically be at approximately the 2 oclock or 3 oclock
position), then return the dial to its fully counterclockwise position (current
0.000 A).
(6) Disconnect the electrical current lead from the metal strip connected to the
(+) power supply (red marking), and remove the metal strip from the
solution. (Leave the other metal strip in place for the rest of the procedure.)
(7) Finding the initial mass of the metal strip:
a. Rinse the metal strip with deionized water, and then gently wipe it dry with a
tissue.
Gentle wiping is sufficient.
b. Allow the metal strip to dry for about 1 minute, and then weigh it to
milligram precision.
Be sure to zero the balance before weighing the metal strip.

Include units, and be sure to record all digits (including trailing zeroes, e.g.,
12.920 g, not just 12.92 g).
Note which balance you used, and use the same balance for all
weighings.
This mass corresponds to the initial mass of the metal strip.

(8) Return the metal strip to the solution and reattach the power supply
connection.
Be sure the CCS dial is fully counterclockwise.

(9)To start a run:

a. Click on the Collect button on the LabQuest unit (see Figure 3).
b. As soon as the LabQuest displays the data collection screen, adjust the CCS
so that the current reading is roughly 0.50 amps (any reading from 0.45 to
0.55 should be fine).
c. Click on Graph (upper edge of the LabQuest display), and then click on
Autoscale Once (see Figure 4a). This will adjust the display so that the x-axis
continuously updates.
d. The data collection screen should typically look similar to what is shown in
Figure 4b.

Figure 4. (a) Option for autoscaling the display screen. This will adjust the
display so that the x-axis (time) automatically updates throughout data collection.
(b) Typical display screen during an experimental run. Note that the initial
current is varying the current starts at zero, and then is manually adjusted to a
value of around 0.50 A. Note that this display also shows the actual current and
the time.

(10) To end a run:

a. Allow the run to continue for about 5 minutes (300 seconds).
b. Turn the CCS dial fully counterclockwise so that the current drops to zero,
and then promptly push the Collect button (same button used to start data
collection) to stop data collection.
c. Immediately disconnect the lead from the metal strip (the one connected to
the red current lead), and remove the strip from the solution.
What else is happening in the reaction?
At the (+) electrode (red connector), electrons are being pulled out, leading to
conversion of the neutral metal to its 2+ ions (Cu2+ or Zn2+).
At the () electrode (black connector), electrons are being pushed into water,

leading to the formation of OH (hydroxide ion) and H2(g). You should notice
bubble formation at this electrode.

2+
When the OH from the () electrode mixes with the M from the (+) electrode,
they form a solid, M(OH)2 (Zn(OH)2 or Cu(OH)2). You may notice that the
mixture becomes cloudy.

Steps (11) and (12) may be carried out in either order.

(11) Reweighing the metal strip.
a. Rinse the metal strip with deionized water, and then wipe it gently with a
tissue.
b. Allow the strip to dry for about 1 minute, and then weigh it again on the
same balance that you used for the earlier measurements.
See notes for Step (7).
(12) Integrating the data.
a. Click on Analyze, then click on Integrate, and finally click on the Current
box, as illustrated in Figure 5a.
b. Record the time and the value of the integral that is displayed, as illustrated
in Figure 5b.
Note that if the entire run were carried out at a constant current, you could
get the same value of the integral simply by multiplying the current by the
time (in seconds).
The numerical integration used by the LabQuest software accounts for
variations in the current over the course of the run.
c. For the first measurement only, click on Analyze again and then select
Statistics and then Current. Record the mean (average) value for the
current.

Figure 5. (a) To carry out integration, click Analyze, then Integral, and then
check the Current box. (b) Typical screen showing integrated data. The
integrated area is shown in red, and the numerical value of the integral is
displayed in the box on the right. The integral is the sum of all of the product of
current time values for each measurement period. Since current has units of
coulombs per second, and time is in seconds, the integral value has units of
coulombs (electrical charge).

(13) Once you have recorded the integration value (and the mean current value
for the first run), reset the LabQuest by clicking File, then New, and selecting
the option to discard the current data.

(14) Repeat steps (8) (13) four more times (for a total of five measurement
sets). For each of these:
a. Reattach the metal strip (as in Step (8)).
b. Start a run (as in Step (9)).
c. Allow the run to proceed for about 5 minutes, then stop it (as in Step (10)).
d. Reweigh the metal strip (as in Step 11).
e. Record the integral value (as in Step 12).
f. Reset the LabQuest (as in Step 13).
Cleanup Checklist
Turn off the LabQuest unit, and then unplug both the LabQuest unit and
the Constant Current System.
Remove both metal strips from the solution. Rinse them with deionized
water, and return them to the supplies for this lab.
Pour your metal sulfate salt into the specified waste container.
Rinse the beaker and spacer with deionized water.
Wipe your work area clean.

Data Analysis
Setting up the spreadsheet for data analysis
(1) Your spreadsheet should ultimately have a form similar to what is
shown below (Figure 6). Note that:
You many organize your spreadsheet differently from what is shown. The key
points are that it be organized and labeled (including units) so that someone
else may understand what you are doing, and the results columns should be
computed appropriately.
Figure 6 differs from what you will have in a number of ways: the metal is
silver (not copper or zinc) and forms 1+ ions (not 2+ ions), and the
calculations are based on a different electrical current (about 0.10 ampere,
not 0.50 ampere). The figure shows a basic layout and type of entries
needed, not the actual numerical values.
In this example, labels for each column are provided in row 3, and units are
provided in row 4. (Column A, the step number, and J, the number of
electrons, have no units.)
The top entries for electron charge and atomic mass of the metal are
optional they may be convenient when setting up the calculations.
This example is organized with the raw data simply the time elapsed for
each step, the mass of the metal strip at each step, and the coulombs at
each step (from the integrals) organized on the left in Columns B, C, and D.
Calculated values are on the right.
The entries in Row 5 (Step 0") corresponds to the metal strip before any
current has passed through. A row corresponding to the starting point no
metal dissolved, no electrons passed must be included in the spreadsheet.
Mass changes, total times, and associated values are all cumulative, i.e.,
compared to the start (Step 0), not to the individual step.
Computed values are generally displayed to 3 significant figures. (There
are a few exceptions, e.g., the Steps 1, 2, and 3 mass changes are only to 2
significant figures, consistent with the data. The integration values from the
LabQuest are good to 4 significant figures.)

Figure 6. Example spreadsheet

Spreadsheet calculations
(2) Figure out how you will use Excel to calculate the values in columns F, G, H,
I, and J.
a.
For the mass change (Column F in the
illustration), you want to subtract the mass
at the end of each step from the initial
mass (shown here in cell C5). If you simply
enter the formula =C5-C6" in cell F6, it will
work correctly for that cell, but it will give
erroneous results if you copy it down to cells
F7 through F10. Excel will automatically
update the cell addresses to C6 C7, etc.
Excel provides a couple of different ways to
lock a cell address in a formula so that it
doesnt change when you copy the formula
to another cell. The two methods (using a $ in front of one of the address
elements, or naming the fixed cell) were introduced in Lab 1.
As illustrated in the spreadsheet on the right (the (a) column), you can type
the formula
= C$5-C5
into cell F5. Alternately ((b) column), you might name cell C5 (e.g, start)
and use the cells name in the formula, e.g.,
= start C5
In either case, when you copy the formula down, cell initial mass value (in
C5) will be retained, but the mass that is being subtracted will be updated to
C6, C7, etc.
See Appendix F Section VIII for more information about controlling formulas
in Excel.
b. The number of moles (Column G in the illustration) is calculated simply by
dividing the mass change by the elements atomic mass. In this example,
the atomic mass was entered in cell H1 (only the numerical value, without

units the units were entered into an adjoining cell). You may name the cell
(see Appendix E Part VIII), e.g., call it Ag (you would probably opt for Cu
or Zn or some other appropriate name). Then the calculation may be set
up as =F6/Ag. You could also use H$1 to lock in the cells position in
the calculation, and use the formula =F6/H$1.
c.

The moles of electrons (Column H) depends on the ions formed. When

dissolved, both copper and zinc yield 2 moles of electrons, so you can
calculate the moles of electrons by multiplying the moles of metal ion by 2.
+
(In the example shown, Ag
ions are formed, so each mole of silver
corresponds to one mole of electrons, so that columns G and H are the
same. That will not be the case for your spreadsheet.)

d. The total charge, in coulombs (Column I) may be calculated a few different

ways. One approach is to enter 0" for the first cell (I5 here), then for the
cell below it, I6, enter =I5+D6" (where D6 = coulombs for Step 1). When
you copy this formula down the column, both cell references increments,
i.e., the I7 formula will be =I6+D7". This calculation gives cumulative
charge. Alternatively, enter the formula =sum(D$5:D5) for cell I5 and
then copy it down (convince yourself that this should work!).

e. The number of electrons (Column J) is calculated by dividing the number of

coulombs by the charge on an electron. In the example shown here, the
electron charge is entered in the top row. You can name that cell (e.g.,
electron) and use that in the formulas (see earlier examples). Alternately,
you can simply enter the value of electron charge (absolute value),
1.6021019, in the calculations. For Excel, enter scientific notation using Eformat, e.g., the charge on an electron is 1.602E-19 (no spaces, E may be
capital or lower case).
f.

If you enter formulas properly for the Step 1" calculations, you should be
able to copy each formula down so that they are in place for the Steps 2 - 5
calculations. As you enter data, the results will automatically fill in.

Plotting your data

(3) Prepare a plot of your data.
a. The x-axis should be moles of electrons (not moles of metal), and the y-axis
should be number of electrons. In the example provided above, the x-axis
data would be in cells H5 - H10, and the y-axis data J5 - J10.
b. A number of methods for setting up plots are describe in Section IV of
Appendix F. Probably the simplest way to get started here is to select both
data sets:
Click and drag over the cells for the x-axis, and then ...
... pressing the Ctrl button, click and drag over cells for the y-axis.
c. Now click Insert on the main ribbon (top of the screen), and the
select the Scatter plotting option, and then the option showing
only points.
A plot should appear, showing data points, but no lines.
This should not be a connect-the-dots plot!
Even without a line shown, the data points should
appear to be linear.
Make sure the correct data is plotted along each axis. See Figure 7.
d. The plot should have a title, and the x- and y-axes should be labeled. With
the plot selected, select Layout to access options for a title and axis labels.
Include your name and any partners name in the title, along with a
description of the plot itself.
See Appendix F Section IV for details on titles and axis labels. The plot title
and axis labels should be descriptive, not just x-values, etc.

Figure 7. a. Typical plot when data is plotted correctly data falls approximately
along a line,
and the y-axis values are very large (o 1) and the x-axis values are small (< 1).
b. and c. These plots show typical behavior when the calculations were not
carried out properly: b: mass changes calculated properly, but y-axis value
based on times for individual runs, not cumulative time; c: time changes
calculated properly, but mass change based on individual steps, not
cumulative mass changes. d. This plot initially appears similar to the proper
plot as shown in (a), but the x-axis and y-axis are reversed.

(4) Add a trendline to your plot. (In scientific circles, the preferred term is
regression line, but Excel caters to the business world and uses its
terminology.)
a. Information about fitting lines (and other types of equations) to Excel plots is
provided in Section IV of Appendix F.
b. Simply right-click on one of the plotted points to select the data and bring up
a menu with a Add Trendline option; click on this to bring up the Trendline
Options menu.
c. Make sure the Trend/Regression Type is
set to Linear (the default option).
d. Also click on the Display equation on chart
and Display R-squared on chart options (e
bottom of the Trendline Options menu), then
click Close.
A
straight
line
going
through
your
data (not necessarily through each point, but
hopefully close) should appear, along with a
Trendline Label box.
e.

The equation (upper line) shown in the Trendline Label box should show the
equation of the line which, from a statistical point of view, best represents
the data. The values displayed should be in scientific notation, but the
default settings set the display to one significant figure (e.g., 6E23).

Right-click on the box, and select the Format Trendline Label... option.
In the Format Trendline Label menu, select Number Scientific 2 decimal
places Close.

 The information in the Trendline Label box should now show values in
scientific notation, to three significant figures.
The equation will probably look something like 5.90E+23x + 3.09E+19".
23
The value in front of the x, 5.90E+23 (5.9010 ) is the slope of the line
and represents the experimental value for Avogadros Number.
2

Below the equation is the R value, the statistical correlation coefficient for
the line, often viewed as a goodness of fit measurement. For this type of
2
2
experiment, R > 0.98 should be the norm. Values of R between 0.98 and
2
0.95 probably indicate significant problems with laboratory technique. R <
0.95 would indicate very serious problems with the experimental data or
serious miscalculations.
Evaluating your results
(5) Evaluating your experimental value of Avogadros Number:
a. Slope units: The slope value is the numerical part of your measurement, but
does not explicitly show units (Excel deals only with pure numerical values).
The units for a slope are found by dividing the units for the y-axis values by
the units for the x-axis values:

Slopeunits:

y axisunits numberof electrons(nounits)

x axisunits
molesof electrons(moles)

mol1

Hence, the units for your slope are mol (= per mole).
b.

Evaluating the percent error of the experimental value. The accepted value
23
for Avogadros Number is 6.02210 per mole (it is actually known to more
decimal places than that). Calculate the percent error in your experimental
value, taking the accepted value as the reference (true) value. Percent
error calculations were covered in Lab 1 and are reviewed in Appendix D.
The percent error calculation may be carried out either in Excel, or
freehand using a calculator.

(6)

Print two versions of the spreadsheet (a copy of each version for each
student in the partnership) the printout will be part of the lab report. Print
out two version of the spreadsheet (one copy of each per student).

a. The first copy should be the normal spreadsheet itself.

If it appears that a sheet will print out over more than one page (look at Print
Preview), try switching the orientation to Landscape (Page Layout
Orientation) and/or adjusting column widths.

b. For the second copy, click the combination of CTRL and ` (upper left,
under the tilde, ~). This switches the display to formulas.
Again, try to adjust the printout to a single page prior to printing.

Additional questions:
Understanding the integral value:
The concept of integrals is usually
introduced in calculus classes, but the
concept is actually very simple. Figure 8
shows a plot of current versus time with the
figure divided into vertical slices. You
could evaluate the area under the curve
slice-by-slice:
average the starting and
ending current for each slice and multiply
that by the time interval for the slice, and
Illustration for
then add up the areas for all of the slices. Figure 8.
This is how the Vernier software evaluates integration of a current-time plot
the integral. If you can find a mathematical and the relationship of the
integral to the average current.
equation for the curve, calculus evaluates
the integral in a similar manner, but essentially allows you to find what the
total area would be as the slices got thinner and thinner.
What you should recognize is that if you can evaluate the average current
throughout the total time period, the product of the average current and the
time should be equivalent to the integral. The first additional question
addresses this point.
Irrespective of which method is used, the units are based on current (coul/s)
time (s), so the resulting value has units of charge (coulombs).
Evaluating systematic errors:
No experimental measurement is perfect, and anyone doing experimental
scientific work should be concerned about this.
Random errors in data will normally just produce random errors in results;
since random errors will be both high and low (unpredictably), they will cause
end results to be high or low (unpredictably).
Systematic errors will result in data that is consistently either too high or too
low (results are biased), and it should be possible to predict the effect of
particular errors on final results. The best way to evaluate the effect is to carry
out a thought experiment ask the question If this data were systematically
in error (and I didnt know about it), would the final result that I calculated be
higher or lower than it should have been? The key to doing this is to recognize
that the numbers you measure are the ones you used in the calculations, while
the ideal numbers (without errors) would be different. If you were to carry out
the same calculations with ideal values, how would that change your result?
Example 1: When you measured the density of a solid in Lab 1, lets say that
you measured the dimensions of the object correctly, but you did not zero the
balance properly before you weighed your object and the balance was reading
2.050 g before your measurement (and you failed to notice this). Does this

error cause the calculated density to be too high or too low? Assume that the
3
volume of the object was 42.1 cm (accurate), and mass you observed was
90.125 g (inaccurate). Is your experimental density too high or too low?
3

You calculate the density by dividing the mass by volume: 90.125 g/42.1 cm
3
= 2.14 g/cm . Thats the observed (experimental) density. However, the true
mass was lower: 90.125 g 2.050 g = 88.075 g. If you use the true mass in the
calculation, you find density =
3
2.09 g/cm , lower than the observed value. You can predict the effect without a
detailed calculation: since density = mass/volume, plugging a high value for
mass causes the calculated density to be too high.

Example 2: In a procedure similar to the one

in Lab 1, you measured the dimensions of
your object using a ruler that was defective,
as illustrated in Figure 8. The end of the ruler
was broken off so that it started at 0.15 mm,
not at 0.00 mm (and you did not notice the
problem).
What effect would this have on
the density you calculate (the observed,
Figure 13.
1Measurement of
experimental density)? Would it be larger or
objects
dimensions
using
smaller than the true density? Assume that damaged ruler (scale starts at
your mass measurement for the object was 0.15 mm, not at 0.00 mm).
Figure 9.
10
correct.
Figure 11.
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12.fasdfas
Before reading on, try thinking this through. Do not just decide too high or
too low, but also figure out how you would explain your answer.
If the ruler were damaged as shown in the figure, then each of the
dimensions you measured would be too large. For example, you would measure
a length of 2.81 cm based on Figure 8. However, the true length is less than
that (2.66 cm). Similar errors would occur for other dimensions.
Using the erroneous measurements, the experimental (observed) volume
would be higher than the true volume. (It does not matter whether the shape is
rectangular or cylindrical or some other shape the net effect is the same).
Since density = mass/volume, calculating density with a measured volume
that is too high will cause the measured (experimental) density to be lower than
the true density (dividing by a number that is too high causes the answer to be
too low). Alternately, you can say that if you recalculate with the correct,
smaller true volume, the answer (true density) would be higher (dividing by a
smaller number gives a larger answer).
As part of the data analysis, you will be asked to consider the effect of some
potential systematic errors on your calculated value for Avogadros number.
A suggestion about how to evaluate effects of errors in your data: If you still have
your Excel worksheet open, right-click on the Sheet 1 tab, and select the options
to Move or Copy, then select the Make a Copy option. You can use this copy of

your data set to experiment with the effect of various errors. For example, you
can change the value of the current, and take a look at what this does to the
slope of the plot.

Prelab Questions
1. What safety precautions are required for this lab?
2. Describe the basic procedure for this laboratory.
3. You carry out an experiment using a procedure similar to that described for
this laboratory, except that the metal you use is aluminum, which will form
3+
Al ions when dissolved. The power supply you use provides a current of
1.20 amperes. The aluminum originally weighs 12.486 g. After you have
passed current through the circuit for 5 minutes 30 seconds, the aluminum
weights 12.449 g. Answer the following:
a. How many grams and moles of aluminum dissolved?
b. How many moles of electrons had to pass through the circuit to account for
the amount of aluminum calculated in (a)?
c. What total charge, in coulombs, passed through the circuit? (This is
assuming that your power supply does not calculate an integration value
you will need to calculate the charge based on the current (coul/s) and time
(in seconds).)
d. How many electrons are required to account for the charge calculated in (c)?
Answers: (a) 0.037 g Al, 0.00137 mol Al; (b) 0.00411 mol electrons; (c)
21
396 coul; (d) 2.4710 electrons
4. Can you carry out the types of calculations outlined in Question 3 using
Excel?
5. Do you know some ways to lock a cell address in Excel? (See Appendix F
Section VIII.)
6. What will you plot to determine Avogadros number? Can you prepare such a
plot using Excel, including adding a linear regression line and formatting the
plot?
7. Assuming you have read through the procedure, you should have a good
idea about what data you will need to record. Have you set up a data table
on the Data page? (Doing that ahead of time will help you complete the lab
more easily.)

Postlab Questions
At the completion of the lab, you should be able to:
Calculate moles from mass and atomic (or formula) mass.
Find simple relationships between moles of one substance and moles of
another (e.g., moles of metal and moles of electrons).
Find charge (in coulombs) from current and time. (LabQuests integration
calculation did provided the charge for most of your data analysis, but the
calculation of charge from time and current was addressed in the additional
questions.)
Make conversions between coulombs of charge and number of electrons.
Use Excel to carry out data analyses similar to those used for this lab. This
includes calculations where you need to calculate the difference between a
starting value and changing values (e.g., similar to the calculation of grams
of metal that dissolved).
Use Excel to prepare plots, including labeling and formatting.
Use Excel to carry out a linear regression calculation, showing the regression
2
line and associated information (equation for the line, R value) on the plot.

Name

Section

Partner

Date

Measuring
Avogadros Number
Prelab Quiz

Report

Lab Grade

Data

Record your data on this page in a clear and orderly manner, with most data
arranged in a table. The data table should be clearly labeled with a
descriptive title. Note that you can set up your table before lab!
All data should be recorded to the precision allowed by the apparatus (e.g.,
0.001 g for
balances).
Include UNITS for all measurements.
Do NOT carry out calculations / data analysis on this page.

Report
This report form presumes that you have completed the spreadsheet calculations
and plots as described in the Data Analysis section. A copy of your spreadsheet
should be attached to your report (at the end).
1. Based on your data analysis,
a. What was the equation for the linear regression line for your plot?

b. What is your experimental value for Avogadros number? Include units.

2. What is the percent error in your experimental value? Show calculations.

ATTACH COPIES OF BOTH SPREADSHEET PAGES (SHEET WITH MASS

MEASUREMENT DATA AND CALCULATIONS AND SHEET WITH VOLUME
DELIVERY DATA AND CALCULATIONS.)
ATTACH TO BACK OF
REPORT.

3. What was the R value for your data plot? Based

on the scale shown on the right, how would you
characterize the fit of your data? (Note: This
scale pertains only to this experiment.)

R2

<

0.999
0.995
0.990
0.980
0.980

Excellent
Very good
Good
Satisfactory

Additional questions
4. For the first run, you should have recorded the time period for the reaction,
the integral of the current, and the mean (average) value for the current.
The charge calculated from the product of the mean current time should be
the same as the charge from the integral value (within round-off errors).
a. Calculate the charge based on mean current and time.

b. Does this value agree with the integral? The best way to evaluate this is to
calculate the percent difference between the two values. (The percent
difference should be small if it is more than 2%, you probably have made
some sort of miscalculation.

5. The following are what if type questions: If there were some sort of
systematic error in your experiment, what effect would that have on your
final result (calculated value of Avogadros Number)? Would your
experimental (observed) value be higher, lower, or the same as the value
you would have found had everything proceeded correctly. For each of the
following, analyze the error and its consequences, and explain your answer
clearly. Keep in mind that the observed value is calculated with the
numbers you collected or otherwise used in the calculations you complete
the calculations without being aware of the problem. In your answer, you
must clearly distinguish between the experimental (observed) value and the
true value. (Note: The word it generally causes problems as in It will be
higher. This may be interpreted as The experimental value will be higher
or as The true value will be higher. Be specific!)
a.

The balance you used for weighing the metal strip does not zero properly,
and consequently, all of your mass measurements are high by precisely 0.050
g (e.g., if you read 20.450 g, the real value was 20.400 g). What effect
would this have on your experimental value of Avogadros Number?

b.

The electrical leads from the Constant Current

System are damaged slightly, leading to a small
short-circuit that results in 10% of the
measured current passing through the short
circuit without going through the metal strips.
The current displayed (and hence the value of the
integral) are based on the total current, but only
90% of this actually leads to dissolution of metal.
What effect would this have on your experimental
value of Avogadros Number? (Note that you
complete your calculations assuming that 100%
of the current is applied to dissolving the metal
strip.)