Intro To Electronics Opamp 2015

Introduction to Electronics
Part - III
Mrinal K Mandal
mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Department of E & ECE
I.I.T. Kharagpur. 721302.
www.ecdept.iitkgp.ernet.in
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain differential amplifier.
+Vps
Inverting
vi1
Non-inverting
vi2
=
v o A d (v i 2 v i 1 ) .
vi1
Ro
Ri
vi2
+
-
vdep
vo
-Vps
Circuit symbol.
Equivalent circuit.
Ideal op-amp characteristics:

Input resistance (Ri) is infinite, output resistance (Ro) is zero.
Open-loop voltage gain (Ad) is infinite.
Bandwidth, common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) are infinite.
2
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur
Practical op-amp
Practical op-amp circuit: IC -741C.

3
Practical op-amp
IC741C characteristics:
Input resistance Ri 2 M, output resistance Ro 75 .
Open-loop voltage gain Ad 105.
Can handle a few mA (take ~k resistances).
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
105
Gain
Actual output voltage :

A cm
v=
A d (v i 2 v i 1 ) +
(v i 2 + v i 1 ) .
o
2
1.0
10 Hz
1 MHz
CMRR =
Log(Freq.)
Frequency response of an IC741C.
Gain B.W. = 1 MHz.
Ad
A cm
Ad
= 20log10
A cm
dB.
Consider ideal op-amp to solve op-amp problems:

1. Voltage difference between the inputs is zero (vi1 = vi2).
2. The input draws no current (i+ = i- = 0).
4
IC741C
Input voltage.
Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Offset null adjustment: use a three terminals variable resistor between 1, 5 and
the variable point to +/-VCC.
5
Op-amp Applications
Non-inverting amplifier:
Rf
i2
i1
R1
2
3
Vi
Vi
6
6 Vo
Rf
Vo
R1
Vi
Inverting amplifier circuit.
v o v i
vi 0 vi
2nd method:
=
=
, i2
.
R1
R1
Rf
From the voltage divider formed by Rf and R1,
v v i
v
R1
Now, i 1 =i 2 i = o
,
v
=
v
i
o
R1
Rf
R1 + Rf
v
Rf
vo
Rf
o =+
1
.
1
.
=+
vi
R1
vi
R1
Rf
Av =+
1
( closed loop voltage gain ) .
R1
6
=
i1
Op-amp Applications
Given that R2 = R1||Rf. Calculate the closed loop
voltage gain.
Answer: A v = 1 +
Rf
R1
i1
R1
v o , v i 1 v i 2 and
For=
finite Ad , v i 2
R1 + Rf
vo.
(v i 2 v i 1 ) Ad =
Av =
Rf
i2
R1
vi 2
vi1 3 +
Vo
R2
Vi
1 + Rf R1
vo
=
.
v i 1 + (1 + Rf R1 ) A d
Ad
Ro
Input resistance, Rin =
.
1 +
Ri , output resistance, Rout =
A
+
A
A
1
v
d
v
Calculate Rin and Rout, and the bandwidth of the following non-inverting circuit.
A d =2 105 , Ri =2M , Ro =75 , R1 =1k , Rf =39 k , R 2 =1k , f unity =1 MHz.
Answer: Av = 40, Rin 10 G, Rout
106
0.01 , and bandwidth =
= 25 kHz.
40
7
Op-amp Applications
Inverting amplifier:
R1
i1
2
3
Vi
Rule 1: input 2 is at zero virtually

grounded.
Rf
i2
Rule 2: i1 = i2.
Vo
Virtually
grounded
i1
=
v o =
i 1Rf =
v i
Rf
.
R1
Rf
( closed loop voltage gain ) .
R1
Av =
Vi
= R1.
i1
R 2 R1
For finite Ad , Av =
.
1 + (1 + R 2 R1 ) A d
Input resistance, R=
in
vi 0 vi
.
=
R1
R1
Design an inverting amplifier with closed loop gain of 20 and input resistance of
10 k. Answer: R1 = 10 k, Rf = 200 k.
8
Importance Of Feedback Resistor

Negative feedback:
Rf = 100 k
R1 = 10 k
Vi
2
3
Rf = 100 k
R1 = 10 k
Vo
Va
Vo
Vi
Voltage divider.
Transient response:
=
t 0,=
V i 0.1 V and=
Vo 0.
At
From the voltage divider,
100 k
VA
=
0.1 0.091V .
100 k + 10 k
Op-amp sees enormous input unbalance inputs force output to go negative

Va decreases continues until Vo = -1 V and Va = 0 V.
Op-amp Applications
Voltage follower:
Non-inverting amplifier with R1 , Rf 0.
2
3
Av =+
1
Vo
Rf
=
1.
R1
Unity gain amplifier with 100% negative feedback.

Rin , Rout 0.
Vi
I1
Weighted summer:
V1
I1
R2
I2
V2
R1
Rn
Vn
Rf
2
In
3
V1
V2
Vn
In
=
, I2
, ...=
.
R1
R2
Rn
Applying KCL,
I f = I 1 + I 2 + ... + I n
0 Vo V1 V 2
V
=
+
+ ... + n
If
Vo
Weighted summer circuit.
Rf
R1
R2
Rn
V
V
V
Vo =
Rf 1 + 2 + ... + n
R 1 R2
Rn
R2 =
Rn =
Rf
=
(V1 +V 2 + ... +V n ) For R 1 =
... =
10
Op-amp Applications
Implement the following function. The biasing voltage is 10 V. Current through
the feedback resistor should not exceed 1 mA.
vo =
(v 1 + 5v 2 ) .
Answer:
10
=
=10 k .
min
10 3
v1 v 2
vo =
Rf
+
=
(v 1 + 5v 2 )
R 1 R 2
R 1 = Rf = 10 k , and
Rf
V1
10 k
2 k
V2
10 k
2
3
Vo
5 2 k .
R=
Rf =
2
Weighted summer circuit.
11
Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled inverting amplifier:
Rf
IB1
C1
R1
vi
2
3
IB2
C2
R2
Capacitor-coupled inverting
amplifier circuit.
vo
RL
Non-inverting terminal must be

grounded via a resistor to provide
a dc bias path for the input base
current.
IB1 flows through Rf. Therefore.
take Rf = R2 to avoid the offset
effect.
Z in R1 + X C 1 R1( at f >> 1 C1 ).
For C 2 , X C=
R1 + RL .
2
R
A v =
f .
R1
12
Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled non-inverting amplifier:
Rf
IB1
R1
C1 3
vi
IB2
C2
R2
Capacitor-coupled noninverting amplifier circuit.
vo
RL
Non-inverting terminal is grounded

via R2 to provide a dc bias path for
the input base current.
Take R2 = Rf ||R1 to avoid the offset
effect.
The input C1 and R2 behave like a
high pass filter.
Z in R 2 + X C 1 R 2( at f >> 1 C1 ).
Calculate the capacitances from the following relationships:

At lowest frequency of operation,
X=
(R 2 + rs ) 10 ( rs is the source resistance ).
C1
X C=
Ro + R L .
2
Rf
1
.
A v =+
R1
13
Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled voltage follower:
Rf
IB1
2
C1 3
vi
IB2
R2: same reason as before.

6
C2
vo
RL
R2
Capacitor-coupled noninverting amplifier circuit.
IB1 flows through Rf. Therefore.

take Rf = R2 to avoid the offset
effect.
Z in R 2 + X C 1 R 2( at f >> 1 C1 ).
Therefore, choose high values for
R1and R2 in comparison to RL
(typically more than 100 k).
Calculate the capacitances as before:

At lowest frequency of operation,
X=
(R 2 + rs ) 10 ( rs is the source resistance ).
C1
X C=
Ro + R L .
2
A v 1.
14
Op-amp Applications
Differencial amplifier:
Inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , V i 1.
R2
Vi1
Vi2
R1
R3
VR4
2
3
Non-inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , VR 4 .
Use superposition theorem:
Vo
R4
Difference amplifier circuit.
For V i2 = 0, output voltage V 01 =
R2
V i 1.
R1
R
For V i1= 0, output voltage V 02= 1 + 2 VR 4 .
R1
R R4
R4
V i 2 V 02 = 1 + 2
V i 2 .
R3 + R 4
R1 R 3 + R 4
R + R2 R4
R
Vo = V 01 +V 02 = 1
Vi 2 2 Vi 1
R1 R 3 + R 4
R1
R2
=
R 3 R1 and
=
R 4 R=
V
For
,
(Vi 2 Vi 1 ) .
2
o
R1
Now, VR 4 =
A d (V 3 V 2 ) A c (V 3 +V 2 ) 2.
Non-ideal op-amp: Vo =
15
Op-amp Applications
Differential input impedance:
R2
Rin1
Rin2
R1
R1
VR2
2
3
R2
R1
6
Vi
Vo
R2
Difference amplifier circuit.
+
-
R1
VR2
R1 i
Vi +-
R1 i
Vo
R2
VR2
Virtually
short
R2
Difference amplifier with a single source.
Inverting amplifier R in 1 R 1.
Non-inverting amplifier R in 2 R 1 + R 2 .
Ridiff: differential resistance as seen by the source Vi.

Applying KVL,=
v i i R 1 + i R 1.
v
i
2R 1.
Ridiff = i =
16
Op-amp Applications
v1
Output of the differential amplifier:

R4
Vo
(V V ) .
R3 o 2 o 1
R1
v2
Using superposition theorem,
R 2 )(V1 V 2 ) +V1
=
Vo 2
Calculation of Vo2: Similarly,
Vo
{(R
R3
A2
A3
Vo
R3
R4
Instrumentation amplifier.
Vo 1 =
(1 + R1 R2 )V1 (R1 R2 )V1
1
A1
R2
(R1 R 2 )V1.
when V1 =
0 Vo 1 =
(R
R4
R1
Calculation of Vo1:
when V 2 =
0 Vo 1 =
(1 + R1 R2 )V1.
Instrumentation amplifier:
(R
R 2 )(V 2 V1 ) +V 2
R 2 )(V 2 V1 ) +V 2 (R1 R 2 )(V1 V 2 ) V1} (R 4 R 3 )
R
=
(V 2 V1 )(R 4 R3 ) 1 + 2 R 1
2
17
Op-amp Applications
Amplifier with a T-network:
vx
R2 i2
R3 i3
vi
R4
2
i1
vi 0
= i 2.
R1
( 1)
Applying KCL at the T-junction,

i2 + i4 =
i3
i4
R1
=
i1
Vo
The amplifier circuit.
0 v x
R2
0 v x
R4
v x v o
=
R3
1
1
1 vo
v x
+
+
= ( 2)
R
R
R
R3
3
4
2
R2
( from eqn.1)
R1
v i
Also v x =
0 i 2R 2 =
R2 1
1
1 vo
+
+
=
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 3
RR 1
1
1
Av =
2 3
+
+
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
v i
18
Op-amp Applications
Current-to-voltage converter:
i1
is
2
3
Rs
i 2= i 1= i s .
v o =
i 2Rf =
i s Rf .
Rf
i2
Vo
Transform the current source to a voltage

source becomes an inverting amplifier
v i i s R=
R=
Rf .
=
with
s, R1
s, R2
The circuit.
Rf
i2
iD
2nd method:
2
3
Applications: widely used in different types

of detectors, sensor applications.
Vo
Simplified transimpedance amplifier.

19
Op-amp Applications
Voltage-to-current converter:
RL
iL
R1
i1
2
3
Vi
i L= i 1=
Problem: floating load.
Vo
vi
.
R1
vi
The circuit.
Rf
i2
vi
i1 R1
v1
v2
2
3
Modified circuit for a grounded load:
v=
v=
i LR L .
L
1 v=
2
6 vo
i3
R3
i4
R2
RL
The circuit.
iL
vL
Now, i 1 = i 2
v i v 1 v 1 v o v L v o
=
=
R1
Rf
Rf
Rf
v L v=
(v i v 1 )
o
R1
( 1)
20
Op-amp Applications
Rf
i2
vi
i1 R1
v1
v2
2
3
Applying KCL at the load-end,

i 3= i L + i 4
6 vo
i3
R3
i4
R2
RL
iL
vL
v o v L
v
iL + L
=
R3
R2
vL
v L v o =
R 3 i L +
R
2
( 2)
The circuit.
From( 1) and( 2),
Rf
vL
(v i v 1=
) R 3 i L +
R1
R2
i LR L
Rf
(v i i L=
R L ) R 3 iL +
R1
R
2
Rf
R L Rf
iL R L
R3 R 3
=v i
R1
R
R1
2
R L Rf
R R
iL
1 L = f v i ( 3)
R3 R 1
R 2 R 1 R 3
iL must be independent of RL: co-efficient of

RL = 0.
R
1
. ( must be satisfied)
f =
R3 R 1 R 2
iL =
Rf
1
vi =
vi .
R3 R 1
R2
21
Op-amp Applications
Zero crossing detector:
2
3
vi
i1
Vo
Rf
iL
R1
2
3
Vo
vi
The circuit.
12 V,
For A d 10 , biasing voltage =
5
Vsat 12 1=
11 V
The non-inverting amplifier.
Take Rf /R1 according to

Vth condition.
Vth 11 105 =
0.11 mV.
Problem: noise voltage can trigger the change in output voltage.

vth
Vi
(mV)
t(mS)
Input voltage.
Vo
(V)
t (mS)
vo
t
Output voltage.
Non-ideal op-amp takes finite time to respond because of bandwidth limitation.22

Op-amp Applications
Negative impedance converter:
Rin =
R2
R1
2
3
i2
Vo
Vs
Vs Vo
V V
I R
=
o s =
2 2
Now, I s =
R3
R3
R3
=
is
is
R3
Negative impedance
converter.
Vs
Is
Vs R 2
R1R 3
R2
1
=
.
Rin
R1R 3
23
RC Integrator
Consider the output across the capacitor at high frequency i.e. f >>1/Ton.
Loop current is i =
vin
R + 1 jC
...(1)
The frequency condition, 1 C << R gives

Integrator circuit
vin
R
...(2)
Now, voltage across the capacitor is
1 t
vC = i dt
C 0
1 t
vC
vin dt
0
RC
...(3)
...(4)
Low pass filter at high frequency
At high frequency, the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the time
integration of the input voltage.
24
RC Integrator Waveforms
Integrator circuit
vc
at very high
frequency
vc
at medium
frequency
25
Op-amp Applications
Integrator:
R
iR
vi
+ vc 2
+
-
Vo
Op-amp integrator circuit (simplified).
Frequency response.
dv
vi
=
C o [v C =
v o ]
iR =
iC =
R
dt
t
1
v o
v i (t ) dt .
RC 0
26
Op-amp Applications
Problem with the integrator circuit:
The output saturates if
input Vin has a non-zero DC component,
input bias current is non-zero,
input offset voltage is non-zero.
Off-set voltage effect:
- vc +
iR
R
2
3
Let at t = 0, vc = 0,
t1
Vo
Vos
Effect of off-set voltage.
1
v o = Vos + v C = Vos +
v i (t ) dt
RC 0
V
=
Vos + os t 1
RC
[v i
=
Vos ].
Therefore, in steady state, the op-amp output

voltage will saturate.
27
Op-amp Applications
Integrator:
The feedback resistance Rf provides a

discharging path for vc.
Rf
+ vc R1
vi
2
3
t1
1
v i (t ) dt
v o( t 1 ) = Vo( t 0 )
RC t0
Vo
Vos
R2
A practical op-amp integrator
circuit when both Vos and IBs are
present.
To avoid affecting normal integration

operation, take Rf 10R1.
Rf
Here, Vo( t 0=) 1 + VOS .
R1
vo has a DC component but the saturation

problem can be avoided.
When both IB and Vos are present:
t1
1
v o( t 1 ) = Vo( t 0 )
v i (t ) dt
RC t 0
Rf
V
t
=
+
V
+
I
R
R
Here,
(
)
1
||
(
)
o 0
1 .
OS B f
R
1
To negate the effect, take R 2 = R1 || Rf .

28
Op-amp Applications
Integrator: frequency response
Rf
100 dB
+ vc R1
vi
2
3
R2=R1 ||Rf
Vo
R2
A practical op-amp integrator circuit.
Lower cut-off frequency ( good shape ):
Rf /R1 dB
0 dB
fa
fb
Log (f)
Frequency response of the integrator.
Higher cutoff frequency:
vo
Rf
Rf || 1 sC
Rf
Rf =
1.
=
.
=
=
2
2 2
v
R1 1 + C Rf
i
R1
R1 1 + 2C 2Rf 2 R1 2
2
R
1
f
.
fa =
2C 2Rf 2 =
1.
2 R f C
R
1
vo
vi
1
.
fb =
2 R 1 C
29
Op-amp Applications
Draw the output voltage waveforms for the two following cases:
1 M
vc
10 k
1V
t (mS)
Input pulse.
2
3
vc
10 nF
10 k
Vo
Circuit 1.
Solutions:
1
1 dt
v o( t ) =
RC 0
in 0 t 1 mS
Vo
Circuit 2.
1
For circuit 1: let at t = 0, vc = 0,
10 nF
t (mS)
t (mS)
-10 V
For circuit 1.
-10 V
For circuit 2.
t
4
10
=
t V
Charging time onstant 1= RC = 0.1 mS .
10 109 10 103
Discharging time onstant 2 = Rf C = 10 mS .
1 mS , v o =
at t =
104 103 =
10 V.
30
RC Differentiator
Consider the output across the resistor at low frequency i.e. f <<1/ Ton.
Loop current is i =
vin
R + 1 jC
...(1)
The capacitor has enough time to charge up until vc

is nearly equal to the source voltage.
The frequency condition, R << 1 C gives
Differentiator circuit
vin
1 jC
Now, voltage across the resistor is vR= iR= C
vR R C
dvin
dt
...(4)
vin
dvc
R
dt
i
jC
=
vc
...(2)
...(3)
High pass filter at low frequency.
At low frequency, the voltage across the resistor is proportional to the time
differentiation of the input voltage.
31
RC Differentiator Waveforms
Some other waveforms.
32
Op-amp Applications
Differentiator:
R
+ vc vi
C
iC
2
3
Vo
Differentiator circuit (simplified).
Frequency response.
vC v i ,
v o =
v R =
i R R
dv
= C C R
dt
dv
= RC i .
dt
Problems:
At low frequencies, the gain is very small.
At high frequencies, the gain is high: instability.
Noise problem: since the output voltage is proportional to the slope of the
input voltage (dvi/dt), the contribution of noise voltage across C may be more
than the actual input at low frequency (higher slope associated with high
frequency components).
33
Op-amp Applications
Improved differentiator:
Cf
Ri
vi
Ci
2
3
-Rf /Ri
Gain(dB)
Rf
6
Vo
Log(f)
0 (dB)
-1/(2Ci Rf)
-1/(2Cf Ri)
A practical differentiator circuit.
Frequency response.
The maximum possible gain of the circuit is Rf /Ri.

The capacitance further attenuates the high frequency components: avoid
high frequency instability, provides better noise rejection.
34
Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear

Logarithmic amplifier:
VD
R1
Vi
2
3
=
i D I 0 ( exp (v D VT ) 1) I 0 exp (v D VT )
vi
vi
i
=
v D VT ln=
D R
1
I 0R1
Vo
Logarithmic amplifier.
v
vo =
v D =
VT ln i
I 0R 1
Limitation: The output voltage is a function

of temperature.
Exponential amplifier:
R1
VD
Vi
2
3
i D I 0 exp (v D VT ) =
I 0 exp (v i VT )
6
Vo
v o =
R 1 i D =
I 0R 1 exp (v i VT ) .
Limitation: The output voltage is a function

of temperature.
Exponential amplifier.
35

Precision rectifier:
Vi
2
3
A conventional rectifier cannot rectify below the

cut-off voltage of a diode.
The diode is placed in the feedback path.
is
VL
RL
Half-wave rectifier.
Therefore, the minimum voltage required to

switch ON the diode:
V
v=
( 7 V for IC741 )
i min
Ad
For v i > V
for v i V
A d , vo =
v i +V and v L =
v i ( Diode: ON)
A d , vo =
V and v L =
0.
( Diode: OFF)
CC
Problems:
Low slew rate: when the feedback path is open, the op-amp output saturates
to vo = -Vcc. It takes some time to change to positive voltage: ringing.
Bandwidth limitation.
36

Improved rectifier:
For v i 0, D1 is OFF, and D2 is ON.
v o =
V and v L =
0.
R2
R1
Vi
2
3
D2
6
Vo D1
VL
For v i < 0, D1 is ON, and D2 is OFF.

R +r
R
R
v o = 2 D v i 2 v i and v L 2 v i V .
R1
R1
R1
Improved half-wave rectifier.
Problems:
Slew rate problem reduces.
Bandwidth limitation.
37
Op-amp Applications
Lowpass filter :
R2
R2
+ vc -
+ vc R1
2
3
vi
R1
vi
Vo
Vo
Inverting lowpass filter.
Non-inverting lowpass filter.
R || X C
1
Non-inverting: fC =
, A dc =
1 + R 2 R1 , and A ac =
1+ 2
.
R1
2 R 2C
R || X C
1
R 2 R1 , and A ac =
2
Inverting: fC =
, A dc =
.
R1
2 R 2C
R2 /R1 dB
R2 /R1 dB
0 dB
0 dB
fc
fc
Log (f)
Ideal response: non-inverting
Log (f)
Ideal response: inverting
38
Op-amp Applications
Highpass filter :
R2
R2
C
R1
C
2
3
vi
vi
Inverting: fC =
2
3
Vo
Vo
Inverting highpass filter.
Non-inverting highpass filter.
Non-inverting: fC =
R1
1
R2
, A dc = 1, and A ac = 1 +
.
2 R 1C
R1 + X C
1
R2
, Adc = 0, and Aac =
.
2 R1C
R1 + XC
R2 /R1 dB
R2 /R1 dB
0 dB
0 dB
fc
Log (f)
Ideal response: non-inverting
fc
Log (f)
Ideal response: inverting
39
Op-amp Applications
R1
v o sat
R1 + Rf
Schmitt trigger:
Vi
2
3
vi
6 Vo
Rf
Vsat
R1
vo
Basic Schmitt trigger circuit.
2Vsat
-Vsat
Note that positive feedback has been

used.
Response of an inverting Schmitt

trigger circuit.
The triggering points can be given as

R1
=) v o sat
Upper triggering point (UTP
, and
R 1 + R f
R1
v o sat
Lower triggering point (LTP ) =
.
R 1 + R f
vo
Vsat
vi
-Vsat
LTP
UTP
I/O characteristics.
40
Op-amp Applications
Schmitt trigger with adjustable triggering points:
Vi
2
3
Vo
D1
D2
R2
R3
vo
Vsat
vi
-Vsat
LTP
R1
UTP
I/O characteristics.
Inverting Schmitt trigger circuit.
The triggering points can be given as

Upper triggering point (UTP ) v o
sat
Lower triggering point (LTP ) v o
R1
, and
R 1 + R 3
sat
R1
.
R 1 + R 2
41
Departure From Ideal Op-amp

Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Bias currents: an offset output voltage as before.
Slew rate.
Finite bandwidth.
CMRR.
Effect of offset voltage:
Rf
R1
2
3
Vos
R2
v o =(1 + R 2 R 1 ) (v o +VOS ) .
The offset voltage can drive

the output into saturation.
Use capacitor coupling instead
of direct coupling in cascade
amplifier.
vi
42

Effect of input bias current:
IB1
Vi
3
2
6 Vo
Rf
Vi
IB1
IB2
6 Vo
Rf
IB2
R1
R1
Bias currents in a non-ideal op-amp.
3
2
6 Vo
Rf
R1
R1IB2 +
Equivalent circuit to calculate the
effect of bias currents.
Representation of bias currents using

an ideal op-amp.
The output voltage due to the

bias current:
v o =R1I B 2 ( R f R 1 ) =Rf I B 2 .
A correcting DC voltage Vcorr

or a resistor Rf||R1 may be
added at the non-inverting
terminal.
43
Finite bandwidth:
vi1
vi2
3
2
+
-
vo
Gain (dB)
An op-amp without
the feedback.
Ad
0
f1
fu
Log(Freq.)
Rf
1
Ad + 1 .
R1 + Rf
Frequency response.
The frequency response of the op-amp can be represented by a first-order

system.
Ad
vo
( s )=
.
v i 1 v i 2
1 + s 1 where 1 is the 3-dB cutoff frequency.
Therefore, the gain of a non-inverting amplifier with finite gain op-amp is
Av =
Ad
.
Rf
s
+
A +1
1 R 1 + R f d
Rf
Ad + 1 .
The new cutoff frequency: 1
R
+
R
f
1
44

Slew rate: The maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time.
SR =
Vo
V/S.
t
vo
Typical SR for IC741 is 0.5V/ S.
t
Output voltage.
Slew rate vs. GBP:

Slew-rate and the GBP both represent the
high speed capability of an op-amp.
A high GBP is required when signal
bandwidth is high. The GBP takes into
account the gain of your application.
Slew rate corresponds to the slope of the
signal and is expressed in V/s. Both the
frequency of operation and the maximum
output swing are considered.
vo
To avoid distorted output signal:

SR 2 f V peak .
Required
waveform
vo
Slewed
waveform
Large signal - high frequency
effect.
45

Consider an sinusoidal input is applied to a non-inverting amplifier.
v i = Va sin t V.
v o = Va 1 + R f R 1 sin t .
dv o
= V a (1 + R f R 1 ) cos t .
dt
Maximum slope is V a (1 + R f R 1 ) where it crosses zero.
Calculate the maximum frequency of operation avoiding slewing. Slew rate of

the op-amp is 0.5 V/S and vi = 0.5 sint V.
10 k
Solutions:
v o =
0.5 sin t R f R 1 =-5 sin t .
dv o
Maximum slope:
dt
5.
=
max
1 k
Vi
2
3
vo
0.5 106
f=
= 15.9 kHz.
max
5 2
46
Thank you
?
Ph. +91-3222-283550 (o)
Department of E. & E.C.E.
I.I.T. Kharagpur, 721302.
47

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Introduction to Electronics

Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

Ideal op-amp characteristics:

Practical op-amp circuit: IC -741C.

Actual output voltage :

Gain B.W. = 1 MHz.

Consider ideal op-amp to solve op-amp problems:

Inverting amplifier circuit.

Inverting amplifier circuit.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Rule 1: input 2 is at zero virtually

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Importance Of Feedback Resistor

Inverting amplifier circuit.

Op-amp sees enormous input unbalance inputs force output to go negative

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Unity gain amplifier with 100% negative feedback.

Weighted summer circuit.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Non-inverting terminal must be

Capacitor-coupled noninverting amplifier circuit.

Non-inverting terminal is grounded

Calculate the capacitances from the following relationships:

R2: same reason as before.

Capacitor-coupled noninverting amplifier circuit.

IB1 flows through Rf. Therefore.

Calculate the capacitances as before:

Use superposition theorem:

Difference amplifier circuit.

For V i2 = 0, output voltage V 01 =

Difference amplifier circuit.

Difference amplifier with a single source.

Ridiff: differential resistance as seen by the source Vi.

Output of the differential amplifier:

Using superposition theorem,

R 2 )(V 2 V1 ) +V 2 (R1 R 2 )(V1 V 2 ) V1} (R 4 R 3 )

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Applying KCL at the T-junction,

The amplifier circuit.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Transform the current source to a voltage

Applications: widely used in different types

Simplified transimpedance amplifier.

Problem: floating load.

Modified circuit for a grounded load:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

Applying KCL at the load-end,

From( 1) and( 2),

iL must be independent of RL: co-efficient of

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

The non-inverting amplifier.

Take Rf /R1 according to

Problem: noise voltage can trigger the change in output voltage.

Non-ideal op-amp takes finite time to respond because of bandwidth limitation.22

The frequency condition, 1 C << R gives

Now, voltage across the capacitor is

Low pass filter at high frequency

Op-amp integrator circuit (simplified).

Effect of off-set voltage.

Therefore, in steady state, the op-amp output

Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur

The feedback resistance Rf provides a