Course Material For Paper-5

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For B Sc, 5th Semester, Paper-5
Department of Physics
Course Material Prepared for Physics Students-201617
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c Maharanis Science College for Women, Mysore
5th Semester Physics Course Material b
Amplifier
Fifth semester B Sc Physics
Paper-5

(Compulsory Paper-1)
(14 weeks 2 Lecture hours per week)
Spectroscopy and Electronics
Transistor amplifiers, two stage transistor RC coupled amplifier, mathematical analysis, frequency response curve, half
power frequencies bandwidth.
2 hrs

Oscillators
The feedback concept-positive and negative feed back. Mention of the Barkhausen criteria. Types of oscillator-Hartley oscillator.
2 hrs
Spectroscopy
The electron
e
Determination of m
of an electron by Thomson method. Determination of the charge of the electron by Millikans oil-drop
method.
2 hrs
Logic gates
Construction of AND, OR & NOT logic gates using Diodes &
Transistors (two input). Symbols and discussion of truth table using Boolean expressions for NOR, NAND and XOR logic
gates.
2 hrs
Atomic spectra
A qualitative account of Sommerfelds relativistic atomic
model. Excitation and ionization potentials-Frank-Hertz experiment. Vector model of an atom. Electron spin. Space
quantisation. Magnetic moment of an electron due to its orbital motion. Stern-Gerlach experiment-experimental details
and theory, Spin-orbit interaction and the fine structure of
spectral lines. Quantum numbers and selection rules. Paulis
exclusion principle, Electronic configuration of atoms. Valence
electron. Brief mention of LS and JJ coupling for multi electron atoms, Zeeman effect-types, Experimental details of normal Zeeman effect, explanation of the normal Zeeman effect
on the basis of the vector model of the atom. Expression for
the Zeeman shift.
9 hrs
Books for Reference

1. Halliday and Resnick: Fundamentals of Physics, 9th edition, Wiley India, 2011.
2. Arthur Beiser: Concepts of modern physics, 6th edition,
TMH, New Delhi, 2008.
3. A. K. Saxena: Atomic and Molecular Spectra and Lasers,
1st edition, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 2009.
4. C. N. Banwell and E. M. McCash: Fundamentals of
Molecular spectroscopy, 4th edition, TMH, 1994.
5. Satya Prakash: Optics and Atomic Physics, 11th edition,
Ratan Prakashan Mandir, 1994.
6. R. Murugeshan and K. Sivaprasath: Modern Physics,
12th edition, S. Chand and Co., 2005.
7. F.R. Richtmeyer. E.H. Kennard and T. Lauritsen : Introduction to modern Physics
8. R S Sedha : A text book of applied electronics, S Chand &
Company Ltd., Multicolour, Reprint 2014.
9. Donal P Leach, Albert Paul Malvino and Gautam saha:
Digital Principles and Applications, 6th edition, 2010.
10. B L Theraja and R S Sedha: Principles of electronic devices and circuits (Revised edition), 2011.
11. Bapat YN : Electronic circuits and Systems, TMH , New
Delhi, 2013.
12. Alan Motttershead: Electronic devices and circuits, Prentice hall of India ltd, New Delhi, 2012.
13. A K Saxena: Principles of Modern Physics, Narosa publishing house pvt. Ltd., 4th edition, 2014.
14. V K Mehta, Rohit Mehta: Principles of Electronics, S
Chand & Company Ltd., Reprint 2015.
15. Dr. S. N. Ghoshal: Atomic Physics (Modern Physics), S
Chand & Company Ltd., Reprint 2010.
16. Jacob Millman Christos C Halkias, Satyabrata Jit: Millmans Electronic Devices and Circuits, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi, 4th edition,
5th Reprint 2014.
Molecular spectra
Salient features of molecular spectra, Rotation and vibration
and electronic spectra of molecules. Associated quantum
numbers and selection rules. Theory of pure rotation spectra.
Raman effect-Salient features, Experimental setup, Quantum
theory, Intensity and polarization of Raman lines, Applications.
4 hrs
Electronics
Network Theorems
Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem, application to the analysis of DC circuits.
2 hrs
Semiconductor Devices
Types of semiconductors, Diode current equation, I-V characteristics, Static and dynamic resistance of a diode, Bridge
rectifier, Expression for ripple factor and efficiency. Filters,
Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown. Regulated power
supplies-shunt regulator using zener diode.
3 hrs
Transistors
Type and configuration, Methods of transistor biasing-voltage
divider bias, Fixing of operating point, Drawing of load line. Effect of temperature on operating point, Thermal runaway. 2 hrs
mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics
>
fPage 2( 34 )
1 The Electron
If the distance between the screen and C is L. From Fig. 1,

we have CO=L, DB= and OO =s. Now, triangles OCO and
DCB are similar so that we have:
1.1 e/m of electron by Thomsons method

The apparatus, shown in Fig. 1, consists of an evacuated tube
T with an electron gun at one end and a fluorescent screen at
the other end. The electron gun consists of a filament F which
can be heated and made to emit electrons. These electrons
are accelerated towards the anode A by applying a potential
difference between F and A. The accelerated electrons emerge
through a hole in the anode in the form of a narrow beam. The
beam passes between two deflecting electrodes P and P, and
trikes the screen at a point O producing a steady spot of light at
the point.
2L
l LE ( e )
2L 1 eE l 2
= 2
2
l 2 m v0
v0 m
(3)
In the experiment, a uniform magnetic induction B is now

applied along the Z-axis, with the electric field still present. B
is then adjusted such that the spot at O is shifted back to O
(Fig. 1) on the screen. This happens when the force exerted by
E on the electrons is equal and opposite to the force exerted
on them by B . Mathematically, we have
Screen
Electron Gun
s=
or
Substituting for from Eq. (1.1) we get
O
Slit
L
l /2
AC=CD=l/2
eE
B ev 0
E-Plates
or
v0 =
E
B
(4)
Substituting this value of v 0 in Eq. (1.3), we get,

Fig. 1.1: Diagram of Thomsons electron tube set up.
s
A potential difference V is applied between the deflecting

plates A & B. If the distance between the plates is d , then a uniform electric field, E = V /d is established between them. The
direction of E is along the Y-axis. If the charge of the electron
is e then the electrons experience a force eE along Y-axis. The
acceleration along the Y-axis is a = eE /m, where m is the mass
of the electron. Before entering the electric field, the electrons
will be traveling entirely along the X-axis, with a velocity v 0 .
Since there is no force on the electrons along the X-axis, the
x-component of the velocity continues to be v 0 . If the length of
the deflecting plates is l , the time t for which the electrons
travel in the electric field is t = l /v 0 . Since the initial velocity
of the electrons in the Y-direction is zero, and since they move
with an acceleration a = eE /m along Y-direction for t sec, the
deflection of the electrons when they reach the end of the
plate is
( )
1
1 eE l 2
= 0 + at 2 =
(1)
2
2 m v0
=
=
=
e
m
l LE ( e )
E 2 /B 2 m
l LB 2 ( e )
E
m
l LB 2 ( e )
E = V /d
V /d m
Vs
Vs
=K 2
2
l Ld B
B
where V is the voltage between the two plates distant d apart,

K = 1/(l Ld ) is a constant (called tube constant) which depends
on the geometry of the electron tube. It is either available as a
standard data or can be calculated from a measurement of l ,
L and d . Thus, in the Thomsons experiment, if V , s and B are
measured, the specific charge e/m for electron can be calculated.
1.2 e/m of electron by Millikans oil drop method
After leaving the electric field, the electrons continue to move

in their final direction along a straight line, and strike the
screen at a point O (Fig. 1) to produce a steady spot of light at
that point. Thus the Spot of light appears to have shifted from
O to O on the screen. This shift s = OO is measured in the experiment. Thus the path of an electron in the tube is described
by two equations, namely
Automizer
1 2
at
and
x = v0 t
2
2v 02
y
x2 =
(2)
a
This is an equation of a parabola. So the path of electron is a
parabola as shown in Fig. 1. If the straight line OB is extrapolated (Fig. 1), it meets the X-axis at C which is exactly the midpoint between A and D (since the path is a parabola). Therefore
AC = CD = l /2.
y
Illumination
(5)
d
A
Microscope
P1
P2
Fig. 1.2: millikans oil drop set up.

X
fPage 3( 34 )
The experimental arrangement consists of a pair of horizontal parallel metal plates A and B. Fine oil drops are sprayed
above A using an atomizer so that a few drops can fall through a
hole in A, into the space between the plates. These drops are illuminated by strong light and observed through a microscope.
A potential difference can be applied across the plates, and its
direction reversed by means of a reversing key.
When an oil drop falls through the air between the plates, it
experiences two forces, namely, its weight and the force of viscosity exerted by the air. If the mass of the drop is m, its weight
is mg . If it is moving down with a speed v, then, according to
Stokes Law, the force of viscosity acting in the upward direction is 6av, where is the coefficient of viscosity of air and
a is the radius of the drop. As the drop falls under gravity its
speed increases, and simultaneously the force of viscosity also
increases. When the speed attained is such that the forceu
of
viscosity is exactly equal to the weight of the drop, the resultant force on the drop will be zero, and the drop falls with a
uniform speed v 0 called terminal velocity. Then we have,
mg
6av 0
(1)
6av 1
(2)
It is now possible to reverse the polarities of P 1 and P 2 again,

so that the drop experiences a resultant downward force (qE +
mg ). Then the drops move down. The force of viscosity is now
upwards. When this balances the resultant downwards force,
the drop moves with a uniform velocity v 2 downwards, and we
now have
qE + mg
or
6av 2
qE
6av 2 mg
6a(v 2 v 0 )
E
(3)
from Eq. (1.1)
(4)
or
6a(v 0 + v 1 )
6a(v 0 + v 1 )
E
(6)
The results of Thomsons experiments showed that the cathode ray particles travel with velocities ranging from 0.1c to 0.2c
where c is the velocity of light in the vacuum. This velocity can
be increased by increasing the potential difference between the
plates. The value of e/m is always found to be the same and is
(5)
If is the density of the spray liquid, then m = volume =

(4/3)a 3 (since drops are spherical). So Eq. (1.1) becomes
or
6av 0
9v 0
2g
1.3 Comments on Thomsons method and its implications
Similarly, from Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) we get

qE
Therefore one can calculate a and substitute it in Eq. (1.4). If V

and d are known, we have E = V /d . Thus E is known. If v 0 and
v 1 are measured, we can calculate q on the drop from Eq. (1.4).
Likewise, we can calculate q by measuring v 0 and v 2 and by
using Eq. (1.5).
In the experiment, the drops are sprayed, and these tiny
drops are allowed to fall down. By applying an electric field,
the drops are made to move upwards. But not all the drops will
move up. For a given E , only those drops for which qE > mg
move up. After the drops move up, the direction of E is reversed
so as to bring the drops down. After repeating this procedure
several times only a few drops, for which the equations discussed above hold) are left in the field of view of the microscope. One of the drops is selected for observation and the
electric field is switched off. That drop is now allowed to fall
down under gravity, and its terminal velocity v 0 is measured.
For this purpose a transparent scale is provided in the eyepiece of the microscope. The fall of a drop over a known distance on this scale can be timed, and the velocity calculated.
When the drop comes down, E is switched on. It is made to
move up. Now the velocity v 1 is measured (in the presence of
E ). It is then made to move down by reversing the key. Again
the velocity (downward) v 2 is measured. Several sets of such
readings are taken for a particular individual drop. q is calculated using Eqs. (1.4) and (1.6).
It is observed that the value of q does not remain the same
in all trials. This is because the drop may pick up stray charges
from the air, or lose charges to the air from time to time. If
q l q 1 , q 2 q 3 , q 3 q 4 , etc. represent the amount of charge
acquired or lost by the drop in the sequence of trials, it is found
that these differences are always integral multiples of a certain
unit. This means that there is an elementary unit of charge,
and that the drop has acquired or lost an integral number of
such units. Identifying this elementary unit of charge with the
charge e of the electron, we can calculate e as follows:
The differences q l q 1 , q 2 q 3 , q 3 q 4 , etc. are all calculated The smallest value of these differences is picked out. Let
it be q 0 . An integer n is found by trial such that the difference
between any two arbitrary values q i and q j is an integral multiple of q 0 , that is, q j q i = q 0 /n, where n is an integer. Thus
q o /n is the elementary unit of charge, and this should be equal
to e. Dividing this value by the mass of electron(std. data) e/m
is calculated.
The accuracy of the result is limited by the accuracy with
which the coefficient of viscosity of air can be determined.
The terminal velocity is attained by the drop within a very short

distance after entering the region between the plates. Let a
potential difference V be now applied between the plates A
& B. Then a uniform vertical electric field E = V /d is produced between the plates where d is the distance between the
plates. This field, depending on the polarities of P 1 and P 2 (see
Fig. 1.1), is either upwards or downwards. When the drops of oil
are sprayed, the drops are electrically charged by friction. Let
the charge on a drop be q. The force exerted on it by E then qE .
This force is either upwards or downwards depending on the
nature of charge q and the direction of E . By changing the polarities of A and B (by using the. reversing key) it is possible to
adjust force qE to be in the upward direction only. If qE > mg ,
the drops move upwards. So, only those drops for which the
resultant force qE mg keeps the drops moving upwards between the plates A & B with a uniform velocity v 1 prevail. For
these drops we must have
qE mg
4
a 3 g
3
fPage 4( 34 )
independent of the nature of the metal used as the cathode or

the gas in the discharge tube. The three main sources of error in Thomsons method are: (i) the deflection suffered by the
particle is too small, (ii) the electric and magnetic fields are not
strictly uniform and (iii) the particles are emitted with different velocities. More refined experiments have been designed
in which these sources of error are eliminated. The present accepted value for e/m is found to be 1.7592 1011 C kg1 .
Towards the end of 19th century, it was discovered that, certain metals, when irradiated by ultraviolet (photoelectric effect), or when heated to a high temperature (thermionic emission), emit negatively charged particles. These particles have
the specific charge same as that for electron. Same observation
is made in the case of cathode rays. Such observations led to a
conclusion that all atoms carry a fundamental unit of negative
charge, called electrons.
Therefore the number of ions which carry 96490 C of charge

or the number of atoms contained in one gram atom of hydrogen is given by
2 Atomic spectra
2.1 Sommerfelds relativistic atomic model
Spectral lines of H and He atoms can be explained fairly accurately by using Bohrs atomic model. The wavelengths of these
spectral lines may also be calculated accurately from Bohrs
theory. However, studies with high resolution spectrographs
showed that H , H and H lines of hydrogen spectrum consist of a group of closely spaced lines(e.g., H line consists of 2
lines separated by 0.13 ). This kind of closely spaced nature of
spectral lines is referred to as fine structure of atomic spectra,
and was not explicable from Bohrs theory. This would mean
that, instead of a single energy level, an atom consists of sets of
closely spaced energy levels.
In order to explain the fine structure of spectral lines (or the
nature of existence of groups of closely spaced energy levels
in an atom), Sommerfeld made certain modifications to Bohrs
atom model as follows:
Millikan found that the value of e was fairly constant for drops
of large size but was greater for drops of smaller size. After a
careful study he showed that the Stokes law governing the motion of small spheres through the medium of a liquid needed
modification when applied to the motion of tiny droplets moving in air. He corrected the formula for the force due to viscosity to the form:
=
96490
= 6.0231 1023
1.6020 1019
N , by definition, is nothing but Avogadro number.
1.4 Comments on Millikans method and its implications
6av
1 + (/a)
The path of the electron around the nucleus, in general

is an ellipse with the nucleus at one of the foci. The circular orbit of Bohrs model is a special case of an ellipse
where the major and minor axes are equal.
where is the mean free path of air molecules and is a constant determined experimentally. With these corrections, the
value of e was found to be 1.594 1019 C. Further improvements of the technique lead to the precise value of e equal to
1.6020 1019 C.
Millikans method is direct and a precise for the determination of e, yielding fairly accurate results.
It has proved that an electron carries a charge e and that the
charge on an ion, whether positive or negative, is numerically
equal to e. This establishes that electricity is atomic in nature.
For this reason, an electron is sometimes called an atom of
electricity.
It must be mentioned here that the knowledge of e helps in
determining the Avogadros number* which is a fundamentally
important parameter in the studies of Physics and Chemistry
of materials.
The velocity of an electron moving in an elliptic orbit

varies considerably at different positions on the orbit.
This is necessary from the point of view of conservation
of angular momentum of electron. The velocity is hence
greater when the electron is near the nucleus but smaller
away from the nucleus. Due to the variation in velocity
of the electron, its mass varies as per Einsteins special
theory of relativity.
From these considerations Sommerfeld was able to mathematically explain the fine structure of Hydrogen spectra. This
model is hence called Sommerfelds relaticistic atom model.
2.2 Critical potentials

According to Bohrs Theory, an electron in a hydrogen atom can
only have those energies which are given by the expression,
Problem
22 mZ 2 e 4
(1)
n2h2
where m mass of the electron, e electronic charge, Z
atomic number of the atom and h Plancks constant. The
lowest energy of the electron is given with n = 1, i.e.,
E
When a charge of 96490 C flows through an acidulated water,

a mass of 1 gram-atom of hydrogen is liberated. The charge
on a hydrogen ion is the same as that on an electron i.e.,
1.6020 1019 C. Find the Avogadro number.
22 mZ 2 e 4
h2
If an electron possesses this value of energy it is said to be in
the ground state.
E1
Solution
1 gram-atom of hydrogen = 1.008 gram
Charge carried by 1 gram-atom of hydrogen = 96490 C (given)
* It is the number of atoms contained in one gram-atom of an element, or number of molecules contained in one gram-molecule of an element. Gram-atom
or gram-molecule of an element is its weight in grams numerically equal to its atomic weight or molecular weight respectively
fPage 5( 34 )
In order to raise an electron from the ground state to an energy E k , the energy that should be supplied to it is
=
=
22 mZ 2 e 4 22 mZ 2 e 4
+
Ek E1 =
k 2n2h2
h2
(
)
2
2 4
2 mZ e
1
1 2
h2
k
where k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
IP
E k
(2)
E
A
If the values of E k are expressed in eV, then these values

are called excitation potentials. With k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the energy
values of E k are called first, second, third, etc. excitation potentials, respectively. So, excitation potential indicates the energy (in eV) needed to raise the electron from ground level to
higher levels of energy.
V1
V3
2.3.2 Analysis
The electrons emitted by the filament F will have different initial velocities. After emerging from the grid, these electrons
will have to travel against a retarding force before reaching the
plate. If the retarding potential difference between G and P is
V0 , the work that should be done by an electron against the retarding voltage is eV0 . Usually, only a small number of electrons carry sufficient initial kinetic energies
to do this work, and so reach the plate. Thus the plate current
I P will be very small. As the potential difference VG between F
and G is increased from zero, the electrons are accelerated towards G, and acquire an additional kinetic energy of eVG . As VG
is Increased, more and more electrons will acquire sufficient kinetic energy to reach P. Thus I P increases. This gives the part
AB of the graph (Fig. 2.3). At some stage during the increase
of VG , some of the electrons acquire a kinetic energy equal to
the 1st excitation energy (E 1 ) of the atoms of the gas. The electrons will then collide elastically with the atoms of the gas, and
transfer their energy to the atoms, thereby exciting them from
the ground state to the first excited state.
The colliding electrons, which have given up their energy to
the atoms, will not be left with sufficient kinetic energy to reach
the plate. If VG is increased, more and more electrons acquire
sufficient energy excite the atoms. Thus more and more electrons lose their energies. So the number of electrons reaching
the plate sharply decrease. Thus I P starts decreasing sharply at
the point B of the graph (Fig. 2.3). If VG is increased still further, electrons which start from F (Fig. 2.3) will have acquired a
kinetic energy equal to E 1 even before reaching G. When these
electrons give up their energy to atoms by collision, they will
again be accelerated as they move through the remaining distance to the grid. These electrons will, therefore, be able to
reach the plate. Thus I P again increases, as in the part CD of
the graph (Fig. 2.2). As VG is increased still further, then at some
stage the electrons starting from F will acquire a kinetic energy
equal to E 1 long before reaching the grid, give up their energy
to the atoms of the gas by collision, again get accelerated as
they move towards the grid, again acquire a kinetic energy E 1
very close to the grid, and give up their energy to atoms by collision. Since these collisions take place very close to the grid the
electrons will not be in a position get accelerated once again, so
that they will not be able to reach the plate. Thus I P again starts
decreasing sharply as at the point D of the graph (Fig. 2.3).
Similarly the point E of the graph corresponds to three in-
2.3.1 The setup and procedure

The excitation potentials of a gas can be determined using the
experimental arrangement of Franck and Hertz. The experimental gas is enclosed in a tube T as shown (see Fig. 2.2). At
one end of the tube, a filament F is electrically heated to emit
electrons. A metal grid G and a plate P are at the other end of
the tube as shown in Fig. 2.2. The grid is closer to the plate than
to the filament.
F
T
(Gas-filled tube)
E
Fig. 2.2: The Frank-Hertz experiment set up.

A variable potential difference is connected between F and G; F
is made negative and G is made positive. The grid voltage (VG )
is noted. A small potential difference is applied between G and
Pe, the plate being made negative with respect to the grid. The
plate current (I P ) is measured by means of a galvanometer I .
Starting from zero, VG is varied in small steps and the corresponding I P are noted down. A graph of I P versus VG is drawn.
Typically, this graph will be as shown in Fig .2.3.
V2
Fig. 2.3: Variation of current with applied voltage.
2.3 Frank-Hertz experiment
(2E1)
VG
Obviously, because of the negative sign in the energy equation, as the electron is raised to higher and higher states, its energy approaches 0. Once the energy becomes zero, the electron
will then become free and can escape from the atom. The atom
is then said to be in an ionized state. The minimum energy
that should be supplied in order to ionize an atom is, therefore,
equal to |E 1 |. The value of this ionization energy, expressed in
eV, is called the ionization potential of the atom. The excitation and ionization potentials of a gas are together known as
the Critical Potentials of the gas.
C
(E1)
fPage 6( 34 )
z-axis
elastic collisions by the electrons, the last collision taking place

close to G. If the grid potentials corresponding to the points B,
D, E, etc. of the graph are V1 , V2 , V3 , etc., then we have
Nucleus
Pl a
ne
of e
lect
ron
1)
+
ms
Electron
orb
it
Fig. 2.4: Depiction of the concept of vector atom model.

In the case of hydrogen, in which there is only one electron,
the electron is (normally) in the state n = 1, for which the only
value of l is zero, and the only value of m l is also zero. The
electron can have
ms
1
2
or m s =
1
2
In the case of Helium, there are two electrons. Both these electrons can be accommodated in the orbit n = l , l = 0. m l = 0 because m s may be +1/2 for one electron and m s = 1/2 for the
other electron, so that at least one quantum number namely
m s will be different for the two electrons, while all the other
three quantum numbers (n, l , m l ) remain same.
But in the case of Lithium, in which there are three electrons, two electrons can be in the orbit n = 1, l = 0, m l = 0 with
m s = +1/2 and m s = 1/2 respectively. If the third electron is
also in the
orbit n = 1, l = 0, m l = 0, then it should have m s = +1/2, in
which case all its four quantum numbers will be identical with
those of the first electron. On the other hand, if m s = 1/2,
then all its four quantum numbers will be identical with those
of the second electron. Thus the third electron cannot be in the
orbit n = 1 and it should necessarily go into the orbit n = 2.
Orbits with n = 1, 2, 3, . . . are respectively called the K, L,
M, N, etc. shells. The sub-orbits for any given value of n are
called subshells. The subshells are designated by the letter
s, p, d , f , . . .. For a shell with the principal quantum number n,
there will be n number of subshells, namely, l = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n1).
In each subshell with a given value of l , there can be (2l + 1)
values of m l . For each value of m l , there can be 2 values (+1/2
and 1/2) for m s . Therefore, the number of states in a shell of
principal quantum number n is given by
2.4 Vector atom model

In the vector-model of the atom we retain the classical picture
of an electron moving in a planar orbit round the nucleus, but
incorporate the rules of quantization into the picture. In this
model, the value of n (principal quantum number) determines
the major axis of the elliptical orbit of the electron, and hence
its energy. For a given value of n, and hence for a given major axis, the value of l determines the eccentricity of the ellipse
and hence the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of
the electron. For a given value of l , and hence for a given magnitude of the orbital angular momentum, the value of m l determines the angle made by the normal to the orbital plane of
the electron with a well defined direction (z-axis) in space, and
hence the z component of the orbital angular momentum. The
two possible values of the magnetic spin quantum number determine the two possible angles made by the direction of the
spin axis of the electron with the z-axis.
Paulis exclusion principle states that no two electrons in
an atom can have all the four quantum numbers identical. This
means that two electrons can at best have three of the quantum
numbers equal, the remaining quantum number being necessarily different.
z-axis
q
Thus the excitation energy E 1 can be calculated. In Fig. 2.3, the

excitation potential of the gas is V1 .
Higher excitation potentials may be determined by other
experiments. The first excitation potential is usually called the
resonance potential. The existence of excitation potentials indicates that an atom absorbs energy only in certain discrete
specific amounts. This lends support to Bohrs theory of the
atom.
The ionization potential of the gas can be determined using
an experimental arrangement similar to that shown in Fig. 2.3,
but with the grid closer to the filament. The distance between
the filament and the grid is so small that collision between electrons and the atoms of the atom will be rare in this region, and
most of the collisions take place only between the grid and the
plate.
Electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated towards
the grid, and they acquire a kinetic energy T = eVG . After
emerging from the grid and moving towards the plate, the electrons are turned back toward the grid because of the retarding
potential difference between the grid and the plate.. As VG is
increased from zero, the electrons subsequently gain enough
kinetic energy to be able to collide inelastically with the atoms
of the gas and ionize them. When this happens, the positive
ions left behind will be able to reach the plate thus causing a
plate current. Therefore, there will be no plate current until the
grid potential VG reaches the critical value. If this potential is
V0 , then the kinetic energy acquired by the electrons will be eV0
and this will be equal to the ionization energy of the atom. The
corresponding ionization potential of the is V0 .
s(
s
eV3 eV2 = eV3 eV3 = . . . = E 1
eV2 eV1
1)
eV3 = E 3 ; . . .
eV2 = E 2 ;
l (l
E1;
L=
eV1
ml
No. of
states
2 [(2 0 + 1) + (2 1 + 1) +
(2 2 + 1) + . . . + (2 (n 1) + 1)]
=
=
=
2 [2 {0 + 1 + 2 + . . . (n 1)} +
(1 + 1 + 1 + . . . (n terms)]
}
]
[
{
n(n 1)
+n
2 2
2
2n 2
Thus there are 2n 2 number of different states which differ from

each other by at least one quantum number.
X
fPage 7( 34 )
Table 2.1: No. of electrons accommodated in each

subshell of an atom.
Subshell
s
p
d
f
g
the fact that each electron moving in its orbit is equivalent to

current in a loop of wire. Such a loop sets up a magnetic field
and behaves like a magnetic dipole having some magnetic moment. The magnetic moment vector is normal to the plane of
the orbit but opposite in direction to l since electrons carry
negative charge.
No. of
electrons
2(2l + 1)
2
6
10
14
18
value
of l
0
1
2
3
4
Therefore the number of electrons which can be accommodated by in any shell with principal quantum number n is 2n 2 .
In any subshell with a given value of l , there can be 2(2l + 1)
electrons. The number of electrons which can be accommodated by various subshells is shown in Table 2.1.
The number of electrons which can be accommodated in
the various shells may therefore be shown as in Table 2.2.
e
Table 2.2: No. of electrons accommodated
in the first four sub-shells of atoms.
Shells
n value
K
1
L
2
M
3
Subshells
l value
s
0
s
0
p
1
s
0
p
1
d
2
No. of
electrons
10
N
4
s
0
2
p
1
6
d
2
f
3
10
14
Fig. 2.5: Larmor precession of electrons around the nucleus
and the vector l .

When an atom is placed in an external magnetic induction
B , each electron orbit experiences a torque which tries to set
the l vector parallel to B . Let is the angle made by l with reference to the direction of B (Fig. 2. 5). As the torque is acting on
a revolving system, the vector will precess about B like a spinning top. This motion is referred to as Larmor precession.
The energy possessed by the electron depends upon its velocity of precession which in turn depends upon . If all values of could be possible, there would have been an infinite
number of energy states. But Zeeman effect shows only a few
additional lines and not a continuous spectrum. This means
that the value of which l makes with the direction of B is restricted. These restriction (a rule of nature) is generally referred
to as space quantization, and the restricted electron orbits are
said to be space quantized. The restrictions of space quantization are such that the projection of l in the direction of B , equal
to l cos , is always an integer.
Thus the magnetic orbital quantum number m l can have
any integral value, varying from l to +l including zero, i.e.,
for a given value of 1, there are (2l + 1) values of m l . If l = 0 ( s
sub-shell), m l is also zero. If l = 1, ( s sub-shell), m l = 1, 0, +1.
Similarly, if l = 2 (d sub-shell), m l = 0, 1, 2, and so on. Since
m l is always a whole number, it means that the component of
the angu1ar momentum along the magnetic field is restricted
to integral multiples of h/2. As already mentioned, for l = 2,
the possible value of m l are 0, 1, 2 so that the angular momentum (h/2) can have five possible inclinations with respect to the direction of the magnetic field. The corresponding
values of for these 5 values of m l are given by the equation
m l = l cos , as shown in Fig. 2.5.
2.5 Electron spin

It is known that some of the lines in the spectra of alkali elements consists of closely spaced doublets (for example the D1
and D2 lines of sodium). This is known as the fine structure
of spectral lines. In order to account for this fine-structure,
Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit put forward the hypothesis that an
electron possesses, in addition to its orbital angular momentum, an intrinsic angular momentum due to its spin. The magnitude of the spin angular momentum of the electron is given
by
S =
s(s + 1)
(1)
where s = 1/2. This number s is referred to as spin angular momentum quantum number (or spin). Just as there is a magnetic
moment associated with the orbital angular momentum of an
electron, there is a magnetic moment s associated with the
spin angular momentum of the electron. It is found that
e
e
s =
s(s + 1) =
(2)
S
mc
mc
where e and m are the charge and mass of electron, respectively and c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
2.6 Orbital magnetic moment of electron-space

quantization
To account for the observations of Zeeman effect , it became
necessary to introduce a quantum number called magnetic orbital quantum number m l . This quantum number arises from
When a source of spectral lines is placed in a strong magnetic field, a line is split up into three components when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic field and into two components when viewed in a direction parallel to the magnetic field. This phenomenon, observed by Zeeman(1896), is referred to
as Zeeman effect
fPage 8( 34 )
s representing the spin quantum number can assume only

direction: it may be
two possible positions with respect to B
parallel to it or anti-parallel to it (see Fig. 2. 5(b)). Its projection along the direction of the magnetic field is denoted by m s ,
called magnetic spin quantum number which can have only
two values, viz., +1/2 or 1/2.
Similar restrictions apply to the positions of the total angular quantum number j (
j =
l +
s) in the presence of magnetic
field. Since in the case of a single electron, j can have only
odd half integral values, the projection of j in the direction of
magnetic field must have odd half integral values, as shown in
Fig. 2.6.
An atom with its magnetic moment may be regarded as an elementary magnet. When such an atomic magnet moves in a
uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque in the field direction. If the magnetic field is inhomogeneous, the atom experiences a force which would accelerate it in the field direction. As a result, the atom would get displaced from its straight
path. This displacement/deviation of the atom may be calculated as follows:
p(B + dB/dy)l cos

S
ml = +2
l cos
pB
ms = + 21
|l |=2
ml = 0
ms = 21
Fig. 2.8: Description of the forces working on the atomic

magnet.
ml = 1
ml = 2
(a)
Let m and p and M be the mass and pole strength and

magnetic moment of the atomic magnet, respectively. Let this
atomic magnet enter an inhomogeneous magnetic field B of
length l in between the pole pieces, with a velocity v along xdirection, as shown in Fig. 2.7. Let B be the field strength at
one pole of the atomic magnet and d B /d y be the magnetic
field gradient in the y-direction. Then, due to inhomogeneity, the other end of the atomic magnet experiences a field of
B +d B /d y. As a result, the forces on the two poles of the atomic
magnet will be pB and p(B +d B /d y)l cos as shown in Fig. 2.8.
These two forces naturally rotate and displace the atomic magnet. The rotation is due to the couple of forces pB at the two
ends, and the displacement is due to the difference of force
p(d B /d y)l cos between the ends M and N (see Fig. 2.8). This
displacement causes acceleration of atomic magnet a y in the
y-direction, given by:
(b)
direction and the

Fig. 2.5: Projection of
l (a) and
s (b) along B
l and m
s .
concept of space quantization of m
B
mj = + 32
mj = + 12
3
j =
j =
mj = 12
mj = 32
direction.
Fig. 2.6: Projection of
j along B
2.7 The Stern-Gerlach experiment
ay
This is the first ever experiment on the existence of electron

spin, performed by Stern and Gerlach in 1921. Neutral silver
atoms were used in this experiment. For the normal state of
silver atoms (for which L = 0 and J = S1/2), the entire magnetic
moment of the silver is due to the spin of one electron. The
purpose of this experiment was to detect the existence of such
magnetic moment and to measure its value. The diagram of
the Stern-Gerlach set up as shown in Fig 2.7.
S1
S2
1
ay t 2
2
( )
1 M cos d B l 2
2 m
dy v
( )
1 dB l 2
t = l /v
2 m dy v
where l is the length of magnetic path (see Fig. 2.7),

= M cos is the component of magnetic moment along ydirection and t is the time of flight across it. Thus, if we know
m, d B /d y, l and v, we can calculate .
Screen
Fig. 2.7: Diagram of the Stern-Gerlach experimental setup.

=
=
N-Pole
Magnet
p(d B /d y)l cos

m
M cos d B
pl = M
m
dy
Therefore the displacement y of the atom

along the field direction is given by
Collimating
slits
=
=
S-Pole
Oven
ml = +1
fPage 9( 34 )
2.8 Quantum numbers
This led to the necessity of introducing another quantum number called orbital quantum number, l . l is actually a measure
of the angular momentum of the electron revolving around the
nucleus in an elliptical orbit. l can be represented by a vector which is parallel to the axis of rotation of the e!ectron and
whose direction is given by the direction of advance of the right
hand screw rotated with the motion of the electron, as shown
in Fig. 2.10.
For each value of n, only certain discrete values of l are possible. For example, for n = 1, l can have only one value, equal
to zero; for n = 2, l can have values 0 and 1; for n = 3, l = 0, 1, 2;
and so on. In general, for a given n, l can have values equal to
0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n 1.
While n gives the principle shell or major energy levels, l
gives the possible orbital shapes or sub-shells (or sub-levels).
Subshells with l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . are referred to as s, p, d , f , . . . levels, respectively. For example, an electron with n = 2, l = 1
is said to be a 2p electron. An electron with n = 3, l = 2 is
called 3p electron and so on. The electron with orbital quantum number l is also assigned the orbital angular momentum
p l , given by
Bohrs theory could successfully explain the spectrum of hydrogen in terms of only one quantum number. It was soon discovered that the spectra of other atoms were much more complicated. Even the spectrum of hydrogen revealed several new
lines when measurements were made by more refined instruments. There was a need to for more quantum numbers for a
satisfactory explanation of the various energy levels of atomic
spectra. Four quantum numbers are actually needed for the
purpose. These are explained below:
2.8.1 Principle of quantum number (n)
From Bohrs theory, for an electron of mass m revolving round
a nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r with a velocity v, the
angular momentum of an orbit is quantized and is given by the
condition
mvr
h
2
(1)
where h is Plancks constant and n = 0 is a positive integer

called principal quantum number. It refers to the number of
the principal shell or energy level to which the electron belongs. Thus, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., the electron is said to be in the
first, second, third, etc. shells. These shells are respectively referred to as K-shell, L-shell, M-shell and so on.
pl
h
= l
2
(2)
While considering more complex atoms, each electron outside

the nucleus is assigned a principal quantum number n and an
orbital quantum number l . The total orbital angular momen
tum quantum number is denoted by L which is the vector sum
of the individual orbital quantum numbers. However, L is restricted to integral values only. For example, for a 2-electron
case for which l = 1 and l = 2, the sum vector L can have

any of the three possible values (L = 1, 2 or 3) corresponding
to coupling of l = 1 and l = 2 vectors. This is explicitly shown
in Fig. 2.11.
2.8.2 Orbital quantum number (l )
l
electron
2.8.3 Spin quantum number
Fig. 2.10: The orbital angular momentum vector.
s=
1
2
S=1
l=1
s=
l=1
L=3
l=2
s=
1
2
s = 12
S=0
l=1
l=2
(A)
1
2
L=2
l=2
(B)
(A)
L=1
1
2
s=
1
2
s=
1
2
s = 12
(C)
Fig. 2.11: Coupling of l = 1 and l = 2 vectors to give three

possible values of L = 3, L = 2 and L = 1 vectors [cases (A), (B)
& (C)].
A few months after Bohr established his atomic theory on the
basis of circular orbits, Sommerfeld extended Bohrs model to
include the possibility of elliptical orbits also. In the case of
the elliptical orbits, both the distance of the e1ectr0n from the
nucleus and its angular position change during its revolution.
Corresponding to a particular principal shell, an electron could
revolve in anyone of several elliptical orbits round the nucleus.
s=
S=
3
2
s=
1
2
s=
1
2
S=
1
2
(B)
Fig. 2.12: The total spin vector for a two and a three electron
system [case (A) and (B)].
X
fPage 10( 34 )
2.9 Coupling Schemes
If the spectral lines of H, Na, K, etc. are observed under high

magnification, each spectral line is found to be a double line.
These closely spaced doublets arise from the fact that an electron has an inherent spin, denoted by s. The electron spin
angular momenta get added to the orbital angular momentum and changes the energy relations. The electron spin is
known to have only two directions, namely, clockwise and anticlockwise. Accordingly, only two values of spin are possible, + 12
(clockwise) and 12 (anti-clockwise). In other words the electron with a spin quantum number s possesses spin angular
momentum p s given by
h
= s
s
2
ps
S=1
S=1
J =3
L=2
For a 4-electron system,
J =2
J =1
Fig. 2.14a: The L-S coupling scheme for L = 2, S = 1 case.

In the cases of complex atoms involving two or more electrons,
there are several ways in which different quantum number vectors may combine to give the vector representing the atom as a
whole. The method of combination depends upon the interaction or coupling between the component vectors. Two types
of coupling are very important in this regard. These schemes
are referred to as L-S coupling and j - j coupling schemes.
In complex atoms, the total spin quantum S is obtained by

adding vectorially the individual spin quantum numbers of
these electrons. The vector S is, however, restricted to certain

restrictions. For an atom having odd number of electrons, the
values of S are odd multiple of half-integers ( 12 , 32 , 52 , etc.). For
an even numbered electron system, S is restricted to integer

values (0, 1, 2, 3,etc). These are illustrated for a 2 and 3 electron
systems in Fig. 2.12(A) and 3(B). Thus,
L=2
L=2
(3)
S=1
2.9.1
S = 0, 1
1 3
S= ,
2 2
S = 0, 1, 2
L-S coupling:
S=
3
2
J=
7
2
S=
3
2
3
2
S=
3
2
L=2
J=
1
2
3
2
L=2
L=2
L=2
2.8.4 Total angular momentum quantum number, j
and so on
s=
1
2
s=
j=
l=2
21
Fig. 2.14b: The L-S coupling scheme for L = 2, S =
5
2
l=2
j=
In many cases, such as the alkali elements, it is a single electron which is responsible to bring about changes in the atomic
configuration, giving rise to optical spectrum. The total angular quantum number j of a single electron is known to be the
vector sum of the orbit and spin quantum numbers. The total
angular momentum p j of electron is thus given by
=
h
= j
2
2.9.2
(4)
j - j Coupling
Under certain circumstances, the interaction between the spin

and the orbital vectors in each electron may be stronger than
that between either spin vectors or the orbital vectors of different electrons. In this case, the spin and orbital vectors of each
electron combine to give j . The j vectors of all the electrons
then combine to yield total angular quantum number J . This
Since s is always equal to 12 , the value of j must naturally be a

half integer. Explicitly, j can have only two values, namely, l + 12
or l 12 , except when l = 0, in which case j can have the value
1
5
3
2 only. Thus for [l = 2, j can have the values 2 and 2 . These
possibilities are shown in Fig. 2.13.
case.
This type of coupling occurs most frequently in atoms. This

scheme is also called Russel-Saunders coupling. In this, all the
orbital quantum numbers of electrons combine to form a resultant L and all the spin quantum numbers combine to form
a resultant S. The total angular quantum number of the atom
is then given by J = L + S. These coupling interactions are subjected to the restriction that J must be an integer if S is an integer; and J must be an odd multiple of 12 if S is an odd multiple
of 12 . For example, for L = 2 & S = 1, J = 3, 2, or 1. For L = 2 and
S = 32 , we have J = 72 , 52 , 32 or 12 . These possibilities are illustrated
in Fig. 2.14.
It is clear from Fig. 2.14(a) and (b) that the number of possibilities of J for L > S is (2S +1). And for L < S, J can have (2L +1)
values.
3
2
Fig. 2.13: The vector coupling (addition) of l and s vectors to

give j vector.
pj
3
2
fPage 11( 34 )
scheme of coupling may be represented by the equation

J
=
=
(l 1 + s 1 ) + (l 2 + s 2 ) + (l 3 + s 3 ) + . . .
(l i + s i )
2.10.1 Valance electrons

Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer-most shell of
the atom. They are typically the electrons which are involved
in forming bonds to other atoms (as opposed to the other socalled core electrons which do not interact much with other
atoms or molecules).
The electron configuration of an atom is the particular distribution of electrons among available shells. It is described by
a notation that lists the sub-shell symbols, one after another, as
shown in Fig. 2.6. The maximum number of electrons accommodated by the s, p, d , f subshells are respectively 2, 6, 10 and
14. Table 1 serves as an example for writing electronic configuration (electron structure diagram) for an element.
(5)
=
=
j1 + j2 + j3 + . . .
ji
where j i = l i + s i
(6)
However, for most of the atoms L-S coupling scheme is applicable.
2.10 Paulis exclusion principle

The energy state of an electron in an atom is determined
by a set of 4 quantum numbers, namely, (i) principal quantum number n, (ii) angular momentum quantum number l ,
(iii) magnetic orbital quantum number m l and (magnetic spin
quantum number m s . Pauli discovered that no two electrons
in an atom can have identical values for all the four quantum
numbers. This means that no more than one electron can occupy each energy state. This principle is extremely important
in determining the maximum number of electrons that can be
accommodated in each quantum group (shell). For example,
for the K-shell, n = 1, l = 0 and m l = 0 and m s = 21 . Hence the
set of values of n, l , m l and m s which satisfy Paulis principle
are:
n
l
ml
ms
1
0
0
+ 12
2
0
0
+ 12
Electron
configuration
He
1s 2
Li
1s 2 2s 1
Be
1s 2 2s 2
Cl
17
1s 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5
19
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1
1
0
0
12
2
0
0
12
2
1
1
+ 21
2
1
1
12
2
1
0
+ 21
2
1
0
12
2
1
1
+ 12
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
5f
5s
5p
5d
6f
6s
6p
6d
7s
7p
Fig. 2.6: Order of filling up of shells according to Hunds rule.

When we move across the periodic table from carbon to nitrogen to oxygen, the number of valence electrons increases
from 4 to 5 to 6. As we go from fluorine to neon to sodium,
the number of valence electrons increases from 7 to 8 and then
drops down to 1 when we start the new period with sodium.
Within a group starting with carbon and going down to silicon and germanium the number of valence electrons stays the
same.
2
1
1
12
there can be 8 electrons with states (2, 0, 0, 12 ), (2, 0, 0, 12 ),

(2, 1, 1, 12 ), (2, 1, 1, 12 ), (2, 1, 0, 12 ), (2, 1, 0, 12 ), (2, 1, 1, 12 ),
(2, 1, 1, 12 ). As already discussed, in general, for a given n, there
will be a maximum of 2n 2 electrons that can be accommodated
in the shell (see S 5).
The above-mentioned four quantum numbers completely
specify the position of an electron in an atom. The principal
quantum number n gives the major energy shell, the orbital
quantum number l gives the sub-shell, the magnetic quantum number m l gives the sub-sub-shell and the spin quantum
number m s gives the direction of spin.
The consideration of the four quantum numbers makes the
energy level diagram highly complicated. But this complexity
is somewhat reduced because many energy transitions which
appear possible do not take place. Certain rules called selection
or exclusion rules specify the states only between which electrons can transit. This is precisely why atomic spectra appear
in the form of distinct lines.
1s 2 2s 2 2p 4
2
1s
This clearly means that there can be only two electrons with
states (1, 0, 0, 12 ) and (1, 0, 0, 12 ) that can be accommodated in
the K-shell of an atom.
For L-shell, n = 2, l = 0, 1, m l = 0, 1, 1 and m s = 12 , 12 .
Thus, from Paulis principle, we can have electrons with 8 different set of states, namely,
n
l
ml
ms
Element
atom
No. of
electrons
in the
atom
2.11 Zeeman Effect

2.11.1 Introduction
If a source of radiation, giving a line spectrum, is placed in
a suitable magnetic field, then the spectral lines are split up
into several closely spaced components. This observation is
referred to as Zeeman effect. If the magnetic field is very strong,
then each spectral line is split up into three components. This
observation is referred to as Normal Zeeman Effect. If the magnetic field is relatively weak, then each spectral line is observed
to be split into more than three components. This observation
is referred to as Anomalous Zeeman Effect. It must be noted
that Zeeman effect is a single phenomenon. The terms Normal and Anomalous are only used contextually, and for historic reasons.
X
fPage 12( 34 )
Electromagnet

It is observed that the central line is linearly polarised, parallel to the magnetic field, whereas the component lines on either side are linearly polarised at right angles to the magnetic
field. If the spectrum it is observed along the direction of the
magnetic field, it is found that the central line is missing and
that the component lines on either side are circularly polarised
one being clockwise, and the other anticlockwise.
It is found that the difference in frequency between the
central line and the component lines is the same for all spectral lines and that it is proportional to the magnetic field, B (see
Fig. 2.2). These observations can be explained as follows:
A magnetic moment L is associated with every angular
momentum L of electron. L and L are oppositely directed (
electron is negatively charged). L and L are actually related by
the equation
Electromagnet
Discharge
Tube
South
Pole
North
Pole
Hole
South
Pole
Spectrometer
Lines of B
L
(1)
2mc
where e electronic charge, c velocity of light in vacuum
and m is the mass of the electron.
When the atom is placed in a magnetic field B , l interacts
with this field, and as a result, the electron gains an additional
potential energy E according to the equation
Fig. 2.1: Diagramatic representation of the Zeeman

experimental set up(see text for details).
2.11.2 Study of Normal Zeeman effect
A source of radiation (a discharge tube) is situated between
the pole pieces of a powerful electromagnet (since we need
a strong field). The strength of the magnetic field can be altered by altering the current through the field-coils. A fine bore
along the axis of the pole pieces is provided to view the source
through this bore. These are shown in Fig. 2.1. In this arrangement, the spectral lines can be viewed along the direction of
the magnetic field.
When the spectrum is observed in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field B , it is generally found
that each spectral line is split up into several components, only
if the magnetic field is sufficiently weak. This observation is
Anomalous Zeeman effect. As theu
strength of the magnetic
field is increased then, at some stage, theu
number of components of each, spectral line is reduced to three. This observation is the so-called Normal Zeeman effect. The transition from Anomalous to Normal Zeeman effect is referred to
as Paschen Back Effect. Having adjusted the magnetic field for
Normal Zeeman effect, the spectrum is observed both in the
direction of B and in a direction r to B . In the direction r to
the direction of B , it is observed that the spectral lines exist in
their normal positions and that, in addition, two components
are found for each spectral line, these components being on
either side of the central line and equally separated from it (as
shown in Fig. 2.2).
L B cos
eB
=
L cos from Eq. (1)
(2)
2mc
where is the angle between the directions of L and L.
From the principle of space quantisation, the projection of
L direction of B can only have the discrete set of values given
by
h
(3)
2
where m l is the magnetic quantum number. If l is the orbital
angular momentum quantum number, we have
h
L =
l (l + 1)
(4)
2
For a given l , m l can take values 0, 1, 2, . . . l . Thus m L can
take (2l + 1) values (orientations) ( from l to +l including 0).
Now we can write
eB
E =
L cos
2mc
eB
h
=
mL
2mc
2
ehB
=
ml = C ml
4mc
eh
(5)
where C =
B
4mc
L cos = m l
ml = +1
ml = 0
ml = 1
Orbiting
Electron
E + E
E
l=1
E E
E0 l = 0
ml = 0
Spectral lines
In the presence of B
Fig. 2.2: Diagramatic representation of L and
L vectors and
orientation of L w.r.t. applied B .

Spectral line
In the absence of B
Fig. 2.3: Splitting of spectral lines due to Zeeman effect-an

illustration.
X
fPage 13( 34 )
This means that the energy levels can split into as many as that
of m l , i.e., 2l + 1 values. Thus the original energy level E is split
up into (2l + 1) energy levels, l levels above and l levels below
the original level, in addition to the original level itself. For example, between l = 0 to l = 1 levels, there can be only one transition (one spectral line) in the absence of external magnetic
field. But, in the presence of B , the level corresponding to l = 1
splits into 2l + 1 = 3 levels (i.e., m l = 0, +1, 1). With the selection rules m l = 0, 1, there can be three transitions. Hence
the spectrum becomes a system of 3 closely spaced lines. This
case is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
If denotes the frequency of spectral lines, from Plancks
law we have
(E C ) E 0
=
h
E E0 C
=
h
h
C
= 0 +
(6)
h
get crowded towards a definite frequency. The intensity also

shows an abrupt change at this frequency, giving the appearance of a sharp edge to the band. This edge is called a band
head. The head may lie either at the short wavelength edge or
long wavelength edge of the band.
To a first approximation, the total energy of a molecule can
be expressed as the sum of three independent terms: the electronic energy,. the rotational energy (arising from the rotation
of the molecule as a whole) and the vibrational energy (arising from the vibrations of the nuclei in the molecule). Thus we
have
E
0 =
0 =
e
B
4mc
(E C ) E 0
h
C
h
4c
(1)
E
(2)
h
If the molecu:e remains in its ground state of electronic and
vibrational energies, and if it transits between different rotational energies, then pure rotational spectra are observed.
If the molecule remains in its ground state of electronic energy, and if transitions occur between different vibrational and
rotational energies, we observe vibration-rotation spectrum of
the molecule.
If transitions occur between different electronicvibrational-rotational energy levels, we observe electronic
spectra of the molecule.
(7)
is also referred to as Zeeman shift. Thus, in an experiment,

by measuring for a given B we can determine e/m of an
electron, given by
e
m
E R + EV + E e
As we know, if the molecule transits from a higher energy level

E to a lower energy level E , the difference in energy E = E E
is emitted as radiation of frequency v = E /h where the symbols carry their usual meaning. For each allowed transition
we get one line in the emission spectrum of the molecule. If
external radiation having a continuous spectrum (i.e., carrying all frequencies in a range) passes through an assembly of
molecules, the molecule may absorb an energy E from the
radiation and transits from a lower energy level E to a higher
energy level E , where E = E E . This gives rise to a dark line
of frequency in the absorption spectrum. is given by
where 0 is the frequency of the spectral line in the absence of

B (called the parent line frequency). The difference between
the frequencies 0 and those of the additional lines is now obviously given by
(8)
The value of e/m so obtained is found to be in a very good

agreement with the value e/m obtained by other methods.
3.2 Quantum numbers associated with rotation,

vibration and electronic spectra
3 Molecular Spectra
When molecules undergo transitions, their energy levels
3.1 Introduction to rotational, vibrational and change. The corresponding quantum numbers also change.
These changes are denoted by means of . For example
electronic spectra
the change in J values are denoted by J . In nature these

changes of quantum numbers are restricted to only certain values. These restrictions are generally referred to as selection
rules. The selection rules for various quantum numbers are
discussed below.
For light to be emitted or absorbed, the total angular momentum of the molecule has to change since the photon that
is emitted/absorbed in a transition carries one unit of angular momentum. Since the vibrational states are not associated
with any angular momentum, this implies that the rotational
state and/or the electronic state must change. Here the selection rules have to separate cases.
Molecular spectra generally occur in three regions, namely, microwave & far infrared, near infrared and visible & UV regions.
The spectra in the microwave and far infrared regions
is called pure rotational spectrum. In the case of diatomic
molecules the pure rotational spectrum consists of nearly
equally spaced lines. Spectra in the near infrared region are
called the vibration-rotational spectrum. These consist of a
number of bands (group of closely spaced lines, observable
under high resolution). In the case of diatomic molecules the
lines in each band are nearly equally spaced, with the spacings
nearly the same as in the pure rotation spectrum.
Spectrum which are observable in the visible and UV regions are referred to as electronic spectra. Any electronic spectrum consists of systems of bands, each band system consisting of several bands. The structure of the band system is approximately the same as that of the vibration-rotation spectrum. The lines in a band generally get closer to each other and
3.2.1 Pure rotational transitions (Within a vibrational level

in a given electronic state)
In this case the wavelengths in the microwave range. Homonuclear molecules (like O 2 N2 etc) the net dipole moment is zero.
X
fPage 14( 34 )

decreases from E J to E J , (with J < J ), the difference E in energy, equal to E J E J , is emitted as radiation. The frequency
of this radiation is given by
So there is no rotational spectra since their rotation cannot interact with electromagnetic radiation. The selection rule for he
change of orbital angular momentum is l = 1.
3.2.2 Rotational-vibrational transitions, i.e. within a given
electronic state
In this case the wavelengths are in IR region. Here, in the

case of homonuclear molecules (permanent moment is zero),
do not have rotational-vibrational spectra since their vibration
cannot interact with the light.
v = 1 (this is called harmonic-oscillator approximation),
2, 3, . . .
l = 1 (+1 yields R-branch and 1 yields P-branch lines)
J
J
Here the wavelengths are in visible or UV region. Analogous

with the situation in atoms, selection rules can be stated for
electronic transitions in molecules, utilizing the total electron
angular momentum and spin, i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., l 1, S =
12 .
b) v = 0, 1, 2, 3s1, . . .
c) l = 0, 1 Here l = 0 is forbidden in a pure rotationalvibrational transition, i.e. within an electronic state but is permitted in conjunction with electronic transitions since the total angular momentum of the molecule might be different in
the lower and upper electronic state respectively.
In the case of pure rotational transitions, the change in the
total angular momentum quantum number J for a molecular
transition is restricted by the selection rules: J = 1. The selection rules for pure vibrational transition is v = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
m1 m2
m1 + m2
J J = 1
for emission
(7)
for absorption
(8)
Emissions
J =5
Energy Levels
J =3
J =2
J =1
J =0
Emission lines
J = +1
Thus, the diagram of transitions between different rotational energy levels is indicated as shown in Fig. 3.1. If the
molecule is in an energy level E J , it can undergo a transition
only to the energy level E J 1 during emission of radiation. The
energy levels, and the allowed transitions, are shown in Fig. 3.1.
When the energy changes from E J to E J 1 the frequency of the
emitted radiation is given by (Plancks law)
(4)
=
=
=
(5)
where m 1 and m 2 are the masses of the two atoms of the

molecule.
If the electronic and vibrational energies of the molecule
remain at their minimum values, and if the rotational energy
Fig. 3.1: Various possible transition between various

J -levels of a molecule. The spectral lines are equally
spaced (see text for details).
is defined by
(6)
Spectrum
(3)
integer values
J J = +1
Absorption lines
J = 1
where I is the moment of inertia of the molecule, given by r 2

where is the so-called reduced mass of the molecule and r is
the interatomic distance. J is called rotational quantum number which determines the different possible energy levels of the
molecules. Possible values of J are
J
with J > J
J =4
The simplest molecule is a diatomic molecule in which two

atoms are bound together by attra?tive forces. To a first approximation, the distance between the two nuclei is assumed
to be constant. The molecule then behaves as a rigid rotator.
According to quantum mechanics, such a rotator can possess
only a discrete set of energy values given by the equation
=
Absorptions
3.3 Elementary theory of pure rotational spectra

of molecules
EJ
E
1
= (E J E J )
h
h
Not all transitions between different rotational energy

states are allowed. According to Wave Mechanics, only those
transitions which obey the following selection rule are allowed:
3.2.3 Transitions between electronic states
J (J + 1)h 2
82 I
)
1(
E J E J 1
h
[
]
1 J (J + 1)h 2 (J 1)J h 2
h
82 I
82 I
Jh
82 I
(9)
Let us consider two consecutive lines in the spectrum arising from rotational transitions, namely E J E J 1 , and E J 1
E J 2 respectively. The frequencies of these spectral lines are
X
fPage 15( 34 )
3.4.2 Experimental arrangement for the study of Raman effect
given by the equation:

J (J 1)
(J 1)(J 2)
=
=
=
Jh
42 I
(J 1)h
42 I
J (J 1) (J 1)(J 2)
Jh
(J 1)h
42 I
42 I
h
42 I
(10)
Construction Apparatus (developed by Wood) used to

study Raman effect in liquids is shown in Fig. 3.2. Basically
the apparatus consists of a glass tube (called Raman tube)
about 1015 cm long and 12 cm diameter containing the liquid (clean and without any bubbles) under study as shown in
Fig. 3.1. One end of this tube is closed by an optically flat glass
to for a window (W ). The other end of this tube is drawn in
to the form of a horn (H ) to avoid radiation entering the tube
from behind.
(11)
(12)
Obviously is independent of J ( RHS does not contain J ).

This means that the pure rotational spectral lines are equally
spaced, as shown in Fig 3.1.
Reflector R
Water In
W
J
Collimating slits
Raman Tube
3.4 Raman effect
B
LIQUID
3.4.1 Introduction
Lens
J
Water Out
When a beam of monochromatic light of a frequency is

passed through certain organic liquids like benzene, toluene
etc., the scattered light contains frequencies both greater than
and less than . This observation was first made by Sir C V Raman in 1928. This phenomenon is called Raman effect.
Monochromatic light
Filter F
Source $S$
Fig. 3.2: Diagram of the experimental arrangement used by

Raman in his study of liquids.
Explanation Light scattered from the molecules of the

scattering material at right angles to the incident direction contains radiations not only of incident frequency but also radiations of frequencies v = (or wavelengths = ).
The change in frequency (or wavelength ) is known as
Raman shift. The Raman shift is different for different substances and is independent of the frequency of the incident
light.
Working Polychromatic light from a source S (mercury

lamp) is made monochromatic by passing it through a filter
F . The out-coming monochromatic light ( = 4853 ) is then
allowed to fall on the liquid enclosed in the Raman tube AB .
Semi-cylindrical polished aluminium reflector R is used to further increase the intensity of illumination. The tube is surrounded by a water jacket J which runs cold water to prevent
overheating of the liquid due to intense radiation.
The scattered light coming out of the window W is first collimated by the slits, and focussed by a lens L to be recorded
by a spectrometer which is aligned appropriately to obtain a
good quality spectrum. The spectrometer is obviously of high
resolving power and relatively short focal length.
The scattered light in the study of Raman effect using ordinary light is feeble. Hence, a sufficiently long time of exposure
is needed to obtain Raman spectrograph consisting of a good
number of Raman lines in addition to the central Rayleigh line.
Stokes and Anti Stokes lines In the Raman spectrum, the

lines of frequencies (or wavelengths + ) are called
Stokes lines and the lines of frequencies + (or wavelengths
) are called Anti-Stokes lines.
Mathematically, if = 0, then = and the scattered frequency (or wavelength) is the same as that of the incident radiation. This appears as un-modified spectral line at the center
of Raman spectrogram. This spectral line is known as Rayleigh
line since this line occurs due to Raleigh scattering (or coherent
scattering).
Stokes lines of frequency (or +) appear in the Raman spectrum on the lower frequency (or longer wavelength)
side of the un-modified line. Similarly, the Anti-Stokes lines of
frequency + (or ) appear in the Raman spectrum
on the higher frequency (or shorter wavelength) side of the
un-modified line. A typical Raman spectrograph is shown in
Fig. 3.1.
Quantum theory of Raman effect In the development of

the theory of Raman effect, the phenomenon is considered to
be the result of collisional interaction of light photons with the
liquid (target) molecules. The theory may be explained as follows:
Let a photon of frequency and energy h fall on the target
molecules to undergo collision. Here we can analyse the process in two cases:
If the collision is elastic there is no transfer of energy from the
photon to the molecule and vice-versa. The photon is therefore
scattered without any change of energy, Hence, the frequency
of the scattered photon is the same as that of the incident photon (which is equal to ). This gives rise to the Rayleigh line in
the Raman spectrum.
If the collision is elastic: Let the photon of energy h collide
with a molecule having kinetic a energy 12 mv 2 and intrinsic energy E . After collision, let 1 be the frequency of the scattered
Raman Lines
Anti-Stokes lines
Stokes lines
Rayleigh line
Fig. 3.1: Typical Raman spectrum. See text for details.
Camera
fPage 16( 34 )
photon and v 1 be the velocity of molecule whose intrinsic energy changes to E 1 . Now, from the law of conservation of energy we must have
1
h + E + mv 2
2
1
h1 + E 1 + mv 12
2
Note on intensity of Raman lines As already mentioned,

the stokes lines are more intense as compared to the intensity
of anti-stokes lines in a Raman spectrum under ordinary temperatures. This may be explained as follows: At normal temperatures, the number of molecules in the lower state of energy is larger than the number of molecules in the higher energy state. Hence, the probability of molecules absorbing energy to get excited to higher level (which gives rise to stokes
lines) is more than the probability of molecules giving away
their energy to the incident photon (which gives rise to antistokes lines). Thus, in the Raman spectrum, the Stokes lines
are generally brighter than anti-Stokes lines However, as the
temperature is increased, the intensity of anti-Stokes lines increases with temperature. This is because, as the temperature
increases, more and more molecules go to excited state due to
vaporisation, thereby increasing the brightness of anti-Stokes
lines.
In the Raman spectra of diatomic molecules, the most intense Raman line is observed to get displaced to the lower frequency side (or longer -side). This displacement is seen to
be equal to the main infrared vibrational absorption band of
the scattering molecules at low temperature. The production
of the Stokes line is due to the absorption of energy of the incident radiation by the molecule get itself excited from the vibrational level with vibrational quantum number v = 0 (ground
state, most highly populated state at ordinary temperatures),
to the upper vibrational state with v = 1.
It is also observed that Raman lines having large displacements from the Rayleigh line (i.e., Rayleigh line position) show
a structure which correspond to that shown by the rotational
structure of the vibrational-rotational spectra of the scattering
substance.
Molecules with two identical nuclei (e.g., O2 , N2 , etc.) and
with a centre of symmetry (such as O-C-O) show a characteristic alternation of intensities in their rotational Raman spectra.
This effect is known to be due to the effect of nuclear spin. If
each of the two nuclei has a spin I , it is found that the ratio of
the intensities of two successive lines in the rotational Raman
spectrum is equal to (I + 1)/I ) if I = 0. If I = 0, it is found that
every alternate line is completely absent.
For example, in the case of the O2 , every alternate line is
observed to be absent. This shows that the oxygen nuclei have
zero spin angular momenta. In the case of H2 , it is found that
the ratio of the intensities of successive lines is 3 : 1. Therefore,
(I + 1)/I = 3, so that I = 12 . Thus, each of the hydrogen nuclei
(which are protons) has a spin 1/2. Thus, nuclear spin can be
calculated by measuring the intensities of the pure rotational
Raman lines.
(1)
In the Raman set up, the water jacket maintains the Raman tube at a constant temperature. Hence there would be
no change in the kinetic energy of the molecule, i.e., v =
v 1 and 12 mv 2 = 12 mv 12 . Eq. (3.1) would therefore become
h + E
=
=
h1 + E 1
E1 E
1 +
h
E
1 +
E = E 1 E
h
(2)
Here, again we have two sub-cases as follows:

Stokes lines Here, if a part of the energy of the incident
photon is absorbed by the molecule, i.e., the incident photon
looses some energy so that E 1 > E . The energy gained by the
molecule is positive, i.e., E > 0. Now, Eq. (3.2) becomes
E
= 1 +
h

1 +
E
h
(3)
In words, the frequency of the scattered photon is less than the

frequency of the incident photon. This gives rise to the stokes
lines in the Raman spectrum.
Anti-Stokes lines Here, the molecule which is already excited by gaining energy from an incidental photon collides with
the incident photon of frequency . As a result, the scattered
photon gains energy from the already excited molecule. Thus,
E > E 1 , and E < 0. For this case, if we denote the frequency of
scattered photon by 2 , then Eq. (3.2) may be written as
h
h2 E
or 2 = +
E
h
(4)
In words, the frequency of the scattered photon is greater than

the frequency of the incident photon. This gives rise to the
anti-stokes lines in the Raman spectrum.
Characteristics of Raman lines Raman spectral lines
have the following important characteristics:
1. The Stokes lines are always more intense than antiStokes lines.
Note on polarisation of Raman lines Raman effect is

caused by the changing polarisability of molecules. When light
is incident on a molecule, its oscillating electric field induces
an oscillating electric dipole moment in the molecule. If an
electric field E induces a dipole moment

p , we can write
p = E where is called the polarisability of the molecule.

If the molecule is rotating or vibrating, changes periodically with the same period as that of rotation or vibration. If
an incident light induces an oscillating dipole moment of frequency , and if has a frequency J (usually J << ). Then
is modulated by J to give rise to frequencies + J and J
2. The Raman lines are symmetrically displaced with respect to the parent or original line (Rayleigh line).
3. The frequency difference between the modified lines and
parent line (, called Raman shift) represents the frequency of the corresponding infra-red absorption line
for the scatterer. This indicates that the study of Raman
shift has information about the molecular structure of
the scatterer
4. The Raman lines are generally seen to be strongly polarised
fPage 17( 34 )
in addition to the original line (Rayleigh line). Consequently

the dipole emits radiations of frequencies 1 = J (Stokes)
and 2 = + J (anti-stokes). If there is no change in , then
Raman lines would not have been emitted.
is seen to be different in different directions depending
on the nature and structure of the molecule. It is also found
that if varies symmetrically then the resulting Raman lines
will be completely plane polarised. The intensity of the line
will also be large. On the other hand, if varies asymmetrically, the resulting Raman lines will be partially polarised. So,
in a Raman experiment, if the intensity is observed to be maximum (I max ) in one position of the analyser, and it is zero when
the analyser is rotated by 90 , then the radiation is completely
said to be plane polarised.
If the Raman lines are partially polarised, then the intensity will never become zero for any position of the analyser. Let
this minimum non-zero intensity be denoted by I mi n . Now, the
ratio I mi n /I max is called the degree of depolarisation, denoted
by . The parameter is observed to depend on the degree of
asymmetry, and hence on the variations of .
Observed vibrations of any molecule may be resolved into
certain basic vibrations called the normal modes of vibration of the molecule. Some of these normal modes are completely symmetric, and they consist of simultaneous symmetric stretching of all the chemical bonds in the molecule. This
mode leads to the symmetric changes in , and hence give
rise to completely plane polarised Raman lines with large intensity. Other modes of vibration lead to lines of different degrees of depolarisation, whose intensities are generally small.
Thus strong and completely plane polarised Raman lines may
be associated with symmetric stretching modes of vibrations
of molecules.
Raman spectrum is particularly useful in the case of

homonuclear diatomic molecules, like O2 , N2 , etc, which
do not give infra-red spectra. v is further given by
v = {1/(2)} k/
where k is the force constant and is the reduced mass
of the molecule. Hence, if is known, then by measuring (which is equal to v ), we can determine k for the
molecule.
3. Poly-atomic molecules are known to give infrared spectra only if their normal modes of vibration are accompanied by oscillating electric dipole moments. On the other
hand, they give rise to vibrational Raman spectra only
if they are accompanied by a periodically changing polarizability. Hence, by observing whether a poly-atomic
molecule is only infrared-active, or only Raman-active,
or both, etc., we can extract information about the the
symmetry properties of the vibrations in the poly-atomic
molecules.
Case 1: Linear Molecule
Mode-1
Mode-1
Mode-2
For example, the three normal modes of vibration

of a triatomic (Linear and nonlinear molecule cases)
molecule are shown in Fig. 3.3. Whether linear molecules
(like CO2 , N2 O, etc.) and for the nonlinear molecules
(like H2 O) are Raman-active or IR-active is shown in
Table-3.1.
Table 3.1: Information about whether

a molecule is IR-active, Raman-active, or both
= (3h 2 )/(42 I )
where I is the moment of inertia of the molecule. Hence,
I can be found from . I and the bond length are connected by the relation
where = (m 1 m 2 )/(m 1 + m 2 )
where m 1 and m 2 are the atomic masses that constitute

the diatomic molecule. Hence, if I and are known,
(bond length) can be determined.
Type
of
Molecule
Modes
of
vibration
Infraredactivity
Ramanactivity
Linear,
X-Y-X
Mode-1
Mode-2
Mode-3
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Linear,
Y-Y-X
Mode-1
Mode-2
Mode-3
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Mode-1
Mode-2
Mode-3
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Nonlinear
X
2. In the vibrational Raman spectra of diatomic molecules,

is given by
x << 1
Table 1 indicates that, in the case of Y X Y type of

molecules, there will be no lines corresponding to common vibrational frequencies in both infra-red and Raman spectra. But for linear molecules of the type Y Y
X , there are lines corresponding to common vibrational
where x is the so called un-hormonicity of vibration and

v are the frequencies of vibration of molecules. Hence,
practically the Raman shift directly gives the frequencies in the case of diatomic molecules. This aspect of
Mode-2
Fig. 3.3: Modes of vibration of linear and nonlinear

triatomic molecules.
1. The Raman spectrum of a molecule, together with its microwave and infrared spectra, enables us to determine
many of the structural parameters of the molecule. For
example, for a diatomic molecule, (Raman shift) in
the rotational Raman spectrum is given by :
= (1 2x)v v
Mode-3
Case 2: Nonlinear Molecule
Applications of Raman effect Important applications of

Raman effect may be briefly listed as follows:
I = 2
Mode-2
fPage 18( 34 )

frequencies in both spectra. All three lines corresponding to common frequencies in both spectra exist if the
molecule is nonlinear X Y X type. Observations of
this kind are very useful in understanding the structure
of poly-atomic molecules.
I2
4 Network theorems
4.1 Introduction
Network theorems are the theorems derived from the fundamental laws of an electrical circuits, such as Ohms law, Kirchhoffs laws, current and voltage divider rules, etc. These theorems are in general very handy in solving electrical network
problems over a wide range of complexity, including ac and dc
conditions, with minimum mathematical rigorousness.
Several network theorems are available in the literature.
Use of these theorems depends on the situation in which
an electrical network is analysed or solved. Among these,
Thevenins theorem and Nortons theorem are most commonly
used under normal electrical situations. In this section, we
shall discuss these two theorems as applied dc networks.
R1 + R3 E
R3
0
R1 + R3
R 3
R 3
R2 + R3 + RL
R3 E
(R 1 + R 3 )(R 2 + R 3 + R L ) R 32
R3 E
R 1 (R 2 + R 3 + R L ) + R 3 (R 2 + R L )
R3 E
R 1 R 3 + (R 1 + R 3 )(R 2 + R L )
(2)
Thus the current through R L is given by Eq. (4.2). Now, from

Thevenins theorem, the circuit in Fig. 4.2 may be represented
by he simple circuit as shown in Fig. 4.3.
A
RT h
V0
RL
B
Fig. 4.3: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network in Fig. 4.2.
4.2 Thevenins theorem

4.2.2 Open circuit voltage V0
This theorem states that a complex network consisting of linear, bilateral active or passive elements with two accessible terminals can be reduced to a simple circuit as shown in Fig. 4.1
where V0 is the open circuit voltage at terminals A & B and
RT h is called looking back resistance or Thevenins resistance.
Actually, RT h is the resistance of the network between terminals A & B (see Fig. 4.1) when all the sources between A & B are
replaced by their respective internal resistances.
Complex
active
network
This is nothing but the voltage between A and B when the load
is disconnected in Fig. 4.2(there is no voltage drop across R 3
when R L is disconnected). This is just equal to the voltage
across R 3 in Fig. 4.2. This is given by
V0
RT h
V0
E R3
R1 + R3
(3)
4.2.3 Thevenins resistance RT h

This is nothing but the resistance between terminals A and B
when the load is disconnected in Fig. 4.2, and is given by
Fig. 4.1: Meaning of Thevenins theorem

=
RT h
4.2.1 Illustration
Let us consider a simple dc network as shown in Fig. 4.2 where

we would like to find the current through the load R L (i.e., between terminals A & B). From mesh analysis method we can
write
IL
R2
I1
R3
=
=
RL
I2
Fig. 4.2: Typical dc network to illustrate Thevenins theorem.

=
(R 1 + R 3 )I 1 R 3 I 2
R 3 I 1 + (R 2 + R 3 + R L )I 2
0 (for mesh-2)
(R 1 + R 3 )
R 3
R 3
(R 2 + R 3 + R L )
][
(for mesh-1)
I1
I2
[
=
E
0
(4)
Now the current I L through the load R L is given by (Ohms law)
A
R1
R1 R3 + R2
R1 R3
+ R2
R1 + R3
V0
RT h + R L
E R3
R 1 +R 3
R1 R3
R 1 +R 3
+ R2 + RL
from Eq. (4.3) & (4.4)
E R3
R1 R3 + R1 R2 + R3 R2 + R1 RL + R3 RL
E R3
R 1 R 3 + R 2 (R 1 + R 3 ) + R L (R 1 + R 3 )
E R3
R 1 R 3 + (R 1 + R 3 )(R 2 + R L )
(5)
This is exactly the same as the equation for I 2 by mesh voltage

method vide Eq. 4.2. Hence Thevenins theorem is consistent
with fundamental laws of circuit theory.
]
(1)
fPage 19( 34 )
4.3 Nortons theorem
5.2 p-n Junction
This theorem states that a complex network consisting of linear, bilateral active or passive elements with two accessible terminals can be reduced to a simple circuit containing a current source ISC and a shunt (parallel) resistance RN as shown in
Fig. 4.4. Here ISC is called short circuit current and RN is nothing but the Thevenins resistance of the network. Actually, ISC is
the current obtained by shorting the terminals between which
R L is connected (i.e., by making R L = 0).
A p-n junction is formed by scientifically joining a p-type

semiconductor to an n-type semiconductor made of crystalline either Ge or Si. Different techniques are employed to
make these junctions. These techniques are not the subject
of present discussion. A layer forming a junction between a
p- and n-type semiconductors is generally referred to as a p-n
junction.
Once a p-n junction is formed, the majority charge carriers from p-side (holes) and n-side (electrons) diffuse into each
other because of the concentration gradient across the junction. They get neutralised near the junction. The process of
diffusion goes on till a state of equilibrium is reached. Under
equilibrium, the positive potential developed at the n-region
and the negative potential developed at p-region prevent further diffusion of electrons and holes. Thus there exists a potential or barriers potential (VB ) following the formation of a
p-n junction. Due to recombination of holes and electrons produce a narrow region at the junction where there is no mobile
charge carriers. This region is called depletion region because it
is depleted of free and mobile charge carriers though it contain
certain number of fixed or immobile ions. These are shown in
Fig. 5.1.
Complex
active
network
ISC
RN =RT h
Fig. 4.4: Meaning of Nortons theorem. Here I SC is also called

Nortons current, often denoted by I N .
4.3.1 Illustration
Let us consider a simple dc network as shown in Fig. 4.2 where
we would like to find the short circuit current for the network
(i.e., RN or ISC ). This is the driving current when R L is made
zero (i.e., by short circuiting the load terminals) as shown in
Fig. 4.5. This current is equal V0 /RT h where V0 is the open circuit voltage for the network (voltage between A and B when R L
is disconnected). From discussions on Thevenins theorem we
have
RT h
V0
R1 R3
+ R2
R1 + R3
E R3
R1 + R3
Immobile ions
p-type
n-type
+
++++++++
++++++++
++++++++
++++++++
++++++++
and
Mobile charges
The short circuit current ISC (or I N ) is now given by

]
[
V0
V0
=
ISC = [I L ]RL =0 =
RT h + R L RL =0 RT h
(6)
The polarity of the barrier potential at the junction is shown by

+ and signs. For Ge, VB 0.3 V and for Si, VB 0.7 V at room
temperature. The value of VB actually depends on the doping
density, electronic charge and temperature. The width of the
depletion region is about 0.5 m under normal conditions.
ISC =IN
A
RT h =RN
RL
5.3 p-n junction diode
A p-n junction formed by a p-type and an n-type semiconductors is referred to as p-n junction diode. It essentially carries two ends of different polarity, and hence the name diode.
When a dc source is connected to a junction diode, depending
upon the polarity of the battery, the diode behaves differently.
If the + terminal of a battery is connected to p-region and
the terminal to the n-region as shown in Fig. 5.2, the junction is said to be forward biased because it allows current to
flow across the junction which can be explained as follows: The
holes in the p-region are repelled by the +ve potential and attracted by the ve potential. Electrons are repelled by the ve
potential and attracted by +ve potential. As a result, both electrons and holes are driven towards the junction where they recombine, and the semiconductor behaves like a good conductor. This constitute a large current flow through the semiconductor. Thus the junction offers very low resistance when for-
Fig. 4.5: Norton equivalent circuit for the network in Fig. 4.2.
5 Semiconductor devices
5.1 Introduction
All the solid state electronic devices are based on semiconductors. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the two important
intrinsic semiconductors which are widely used in the fabrication of electronic devices. The conductivity characteristic
of these are drastically modified by doping them by donor or
acceptor type of impurities to them for a specific application.
Thus commercially available n-type and p-type semiconductors are obtained. These aspects are explained in detail under
the section of band theory of solids.
Mobile charges
Fig. 5.1: Diagram of a p-n-junction.
Thus, from Nortons theorem, the network in Fig. 4..2 may be

represented by a simple circuit as shown below:
ISC
Depletion
region
VB
fPage 20( 34 )
ward biased. In this case the polarity of the battery is opposite

to that of the barrier potential VB .
It is to be noted here that, within the crystal there is movement of electrons and holes, whereas, outside the crystal only
free electrons move in the external circuit.
symbolic circuit
n
+
Forward bias
symbolic circuit
Reverse bias
For Si
0.3 V
B
0.7 V
+
Reverse bias
For Ge
Voltage V
Fig. 5.2: Reverse and forward bias connection of a junction

diode.
Fig. 5.3: Forward bias characteristics of a diode. Note that the

knee voltage is nothing but the barrier voltage of the junction.
When the battery connection to the diode is reversed as shown

in Fig. 2, the junction is said to be reverse biased. In this case
holes are attracted by the ve terminal of the battery and electrons by the +ve terminal so that both holes and electrons
move away from the junction. As a result, the depletion region
slightly widens to offers very high resistance, and there would
be no current flowing across the junction. In this case the polarity of the battery is the same as that of the barrier potential
VB .
When the diode is reverse biased (by reversing the battery connection in forward bias case, as in Fig. 5.2), V -I characteristics
are as shown in Fig. 5.4. Under reverse bias condition, practically no current due to majority charge carriers is observable.
However, a small current of the order of a few micro amperes
due to the flow of minority charge carriers across the junction
is seen. This current is called reverse saturation current or leakage current. If the reverse voltage is increased to large values,
the junction breaks down, current increases sharply, and the
device is destroyed. Thus, a diode acts only in the forward
bias condition. This property makes the diode to be useful as a
switch and also as a rectifier ( i.e., to convert ac to dc).
5.3.1 Diode current equation

In a typical circuit (Fig. 5.2), the mathematical expression for
the net current I through a diode as a function of applied voltage V is referred to as diode equation, or diode law. For an ideal
diode, this is given by
(
)
I = I 0 e eV /(kT ) 1
(7)
Voltage V
For Si
where I 0 is the dark current (current thro the diode in the absence of light), e is the electronic charge, k is the Boltzmann
constant and T is the absolute temperature. The value of I 0 is
different for different diodes. It is the measure of the recombination in the diode material. I 0 always decreases with increase
in T and decreases as the material quality increases. At normal
temperature (300 K), the value of kT /e is equal to 25.85 mV. It
is called the thermal voltage.
For a non-ideal diode, or a real diode, the current equation
is given by
(
)
I = I 0 e eV /(nkT ) 1
(8)
For Ge
Fig. 5.4: Reverse bias characteristics of a diode. Note that the

knee voltage is nothing but the barrier voltage of the junction.
5.4 Rectifiers
Conversion of ac voltage to dc-voltage is referred to as called
rectification. A rectifier is a device which brings about this conversion. Most of the electronic circuits and devices operate on
dc source. Rectifiers are thus used to provide dc from domestic ac supply. A p-n junction diode can be used as a rectifier.
Rectifiers are of three types: (i) half wave rectifier (ii) full wave
rectifier and (iii) bridge rectifier.
where n is a number between 1 and 2 called ideality factor. It

increases as the current decreases. The plot of diode current
equation with I along Y -axis and V along X -axis is referred to
as diode characteristics.
5.3.2 Forward and revers bias characteristics of a diode
Study of the variation of diode as a function of voltage in a
diode circuit shown in Fig. 2 constitute the V -I characteristics
of a diode. Typical forward bias characteristic of a p-n junction
is shown in figure Fig. 5.3. The forward increases exponentially
in the beginning till the voltage reaches a certain value called
threshold voltage or knee voltage (0.3 V for Ge diode and 0.7 V
Current I A
Rd = dI/dV =1/slope = BC/AB
Forward bias
Current I
for Sidiodes). After this value, the current increases sharply.

The dynamic resistance of the junction is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics curve as shown
in Fig. 5.3.
5.4.1 Bridge rectifier

A bridge rectifier is a rectifier circuit made of four diodes connected in the form of Wheatstone bridge network. It is basically
a full wave rectifier but it has an advantage of having no need
to draw a center tapping terminal which we do in the case of
X
fPage 21( 34 )
a full wave rectifier. A bridge rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 5.

The action of rectification may be briefly explained as follows:
Current through load, I L The output current waveform

of a full wave rectifier is similar to the one shown in Fig. 5.
While computing the rms value of this current, the integration
is carried out between limits 0 to . Between these limits the
current I r ms (or I d c ) is defined by the equation
D4
D1
RL
Vo
G
D2
D3
I r ms
Fig. 5.5: Typical bridge rectifier circuit using four diodes.

=
Working During one half of ac cycle when P is +ve

with respect to G, diodes D 4 and D 2 are forward biased,
and the current flows through the load R L following the path
PD 4 BR L GD 1 Q (see Fig. 5.5). In the next half cycle, diodes D 3
and D 1 are forward biased so that the current flows through R L
following the path QD 3 BR L GD 1 Q (Fig. 5.5). In this way, during
both half of ac, the current flows through R L in the same direction. Thus the output voltage Vo across R L is a dc voltage, and
the process of rectification is accomplished.
=
=
Vm sin t
Vo
Vm sin t
for 0 and
(9)
for 2
(10)
I L2 d (t )
2
Im
sin2 t d (t )
I L = I m sin t
1 cos 2t
d (t )
2
0
]
2 [ 2
Im
Im
sin 2t
t
2
2
0
2
Im
Im
=p
2
2
2
Im
2
(13)
I r ms
I r2ms I d2 c
I r ms =
Id c
Id c
v
u
u I2 I2
u
r ms
dc
t
2
I dc
v
u 2
u I r ms
t
1
I d2 c
2
Im
/2
1 from Eq. (5) & (6)
2
4I m /2
2
1 = 0.4834
8
2
I r2ms I dc
(14)
Thus the ripple factor in the output of a bridge rectifier will be

0.4834, which is a considerably large number. A pure dc is a
current which has ripple factor close to zero. Hence Eq. (6) indicates that the ripple factor in the output of a bridge rectifier
is to be removed in order to get a pure dc load current.
Efficiency of a bridge rectifier, It is defined as the ratio

of the dc power delivered to the load by the bridge rectifier to
the ac power supplied to it. The dc power P d c is given by the el2
ementary equation P d c = I dc
R L . Similarly, the ac power input
to the rectifier P ac is given by the equation P ac = I r2ms (R L + r f )
where r f is the resistance offered by the two diodes (which are
in forward biased state) which conduct current in the bridge
t
2
Fig. 5.6: Output voltage waveform of a bridge rectifier.

Vo = Vm / 2
Vo
0
where I m = Vm /R L is the peak current through R L that corresponds to Vm .
Vm
where Vm is the amplitude of the waveform called peak inverse

voltage, (PIV). The average output voltage is denoted by Vdc .
The ve sign in the second equation means that, during the
second half cycle of ac, the output is inverted. Vd c is is obtained
by dividing the area of the waveform over one cycle by the base
2. Thus
[
]
2
1
Vdc =
Vm sin t d (t ) +
Vm sin t d (t )
2 0
]
1 [
Vm cos t |0 + Vm cos t |2
=
2
Vm
2Vm
=
(11)
[(1) + 0 + 1 (1)] =
2
V0 2Vm 2I m
I dc = I av =
=
=
(12)
R L R L
Ripple factor The ripple factor r is defined as the ratio of

the rms value of the fluctuations in the ac load current (I r ms )
to the dc load current. That is,
dc Voltage across load The waveform of the output voltage across R L appears as shown in Fig. 5.6. This waveform may
be represented by the equation
Vo
fPage 22( 34 )
rectifier. Hence we now have
=
% =
The choke input filter has the following important advantages:

(i) It limits the peak current flowing through the rectifier diodes
so that there is little possibility of any damage to the diodes and
(ii) It holds the output voltage nearly constant in spite of load
variations.
I 2 RL
Pd c
= 2 dc
P ac
I r ms (R L + r f )
(
)
2I m 2
RL
( )2
I
pm
(R L + r f )
2
2
4I m
2
2R L
2
I m (R L + r f
5.5.2 -filter
8
rf
2 1 + R
This is also called capacitor input filter. This filter differs from
the choke input filter in having a shunt capacitor C 1 as its first
component connected across the rectifier. This filter is based
upon the voltage smoothing action of a capacitor (i.e., when
the voltage across its terminals tends to increase, it opposes
this increase by storing up energy in an electrostatic field and
when the voltage across its terminals tends to fall, the capacitor maintains it by converting the stored energy back into the
voltage or current flow).
0.811
rf
1+ R
0.811
1+
rf
RL
100% =
81.1
rf
1+ R
(15)
5.5 Filters
+
To
rectifier
We know that, the output dc of any rectifier circuit invariably

contains a ripple factor which needs to be eliminated in order to obtain a pure dc output. Filters are the circuits which
accomplish this purpose of removing ripples from the output
of rectifier circuits. Important types of filters in wide use are
(i) L-section filter and (ii) -section filter. These are briefly explained below:
+
L
C1
(a)
(b)
Rectifier output
Filter output
Fig. 5.8: -section filter network and its output waveform.
This filter, also known as choke input filter, consists of a coil

connected in series with the rectifier output. The action of this
filter depends upon the current smoothing action of the choke
(i.e., when a current through a choke tends to increase, it opposes the growth of the current by storing energy in a magnetic field and when the current through it tends to decrease,
it maintains the current flow by taking energy away from the
magnetic field. This leads to smoothing of the dc output). A
choke offers a low resistance to the passage of direct current,
whereas it offers a high impedance (equal to L) to the passage of fluctuating or alternating currents. Thus the d.c. passes
through it while the a c. pulsations are largely reduced.
The actual choke input filter is shown in Fig. 5.7. The choke
coil L at the input of the filter readily allows dc from the rectifier to pass through but opposes ac current. Any fluctuations/ripples still left in the current after it has passed through
the choke are largely by-passed around the load through the
shunt capacitor C connected parallel to the load R L . A small
fluctuation is still present in the filter output as shown in
Fig. 7(b). But this is quiet small.
As it is clear from Fig. 5.8, the rectified output containing ripple first charges the capacitor C 1 to the peak value of its pulsation. It then slowly discharges itself through the choke L and
the load R L . As a result, the filter output voltage tends to drop
slightly. But a new voltage peak from the rectifier recharges the
capacitor. The output voltage thus remains near the peak value
between successive pulses as shown in Fig. 5.8(b). The filtered
output voltage in this case is thus greater than that from the
choke input filter. The ripples still present in the output voltage are further reduced by the inductor Land the capacitor C 2 .
A highly filtered supply is thus obtained.
The ripple factor in this case will be considerably less compared to the ripple factor in the output of the L-section filter.
Thus -section filters are relatively more effective than the Lsection filters.
5.6 Zener diode

It is a heavily doped silicon or germanium p-n junction diode
designed for use in the reverse breakdown region without
spoiling the junction. When the reverse voltage is increased,
a point is reached when the junction breaks down and the
reverse current increases sharply to a value which depends
only on the external resistance connected in series with the
diode. The minimum voltage corresponding to breakdown of
the junction of the Zener diode is called breakdown voltage denoted by Vz . Once V Z is reached, the current increases very
sharply so that the voltage across becomes practically constant
irrespective of the current. At Vz , the resistance offered by the
junction is almost zero. This property of the Zener diode is
made use of in voltage regulator circuits.
+
L
RL
Filtered
output
GND
V
Filtered
output
GND
V
5.5.1 L-section filter
(a)
RL
(b)
To
rectifier
C2
Rectifier output
Filter output
Fig. 5.7: L-section filter network and its output waveform.

fPage 23( 34 )
If Vi exceeds the Vz , the Zener diode starts conducting. Let I be

the total current drawn from the supply. This current branches
into I z through the zener plus I L through the load R L as shown
in Fig. 5.10. In the circuit, the value of R s is calculated as follows:
If (mA)
Vz
Vf (V)
Vr (V)
0
I
Circuit Symbol
for Zener diode
Ir (A)
Fig. 5.9: V -I characteristics of a Zener diode. Circuit symbol

for this device is also shown for reference.
Vi
Iz
Vz
IL
Vo
(2)
Vi Vo
Iz
(under breakdown)
(3)
I z R z = I L RL
(4)
Eq. (2) can now be written as

Vi
R s (I z + I L ) + Vo
R s (I z + I L ) + I L R L
R s I z + I L (R L + R s )
(
)
Rs
R s I z + Vo 1 +
RL
(5)
For known values of I z , R s and R L , Eq. (5) gives the relation between the input and the output voltages in a zener regulator
circuit.
5.6.2 Action of regulation
The voltage regulation action of a zener is explicable by the current divider rule of electric circuits. When the zener is its breakdown, it conducts current in the circuit. Then, in Eq. (5), variation of Vo is either due to variation in I L or variation in Vi . If
R L is decreased, then I L increases, and there will be a decrease
in I z by same percentage so that I remains constant. Thus the
output voltage Vo remains a constant. Similarly, if I L decreases,
I z increases by the same amount and keeps the output voltage
constant. This ensures voltage regulation.
If Vi increases, then I , the voltage drop across R s , and I z will
all increase so that I L and Vo remain constant. Similarly, when
Vi decreases, I and I z decrease. This results in an increase in
I L so that Vo remains constant. All these explanations are valid
only when the zener is conducting (i.e., under breakdown condition).
+
5.7 Transistor
Vo
RL
It is a three terminal semiconductor device where a p- type material is sandwiched between two n-type materials (npn transistor) or an n-type material sandwiched between two p-type
materials (pnp transistor). The middle portion is very thin,
and is lightly doped. It is called base. The two end portions
are known as em emitter and collector. The emitter is heavily
doped while collector is doped to a level intermediate between
GND
Fig. 5.10: Typical circuit to study a Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Because R L and the zener are connected in parallel, we must

have
Since the reverse voltage across a Zener diode remains a constant at its breakdown value (Vz ), it can be used as a voltage
regulator. A typical circuit to use a Zener as a voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 5.10. The input voltage Vi in Fig. 5.10 is an
unregulated output of a rectifier. The resistance R s is a current
limiter which limits the zener current to within its rated value.
Rs
Rs
5.6.1 Zener diode as a voltage regulator(shunt type)
Rs
(1)
Vi Vo
I R s + Vo R s =
I
Vi Vo
from Eq. (1)
I z + IL
When the zener current reaches its maximum, i.e., when the
zener is in its breakdown condition, practically all current flows
through the zener only, i.e., I I z . Hence under breakdown,
Eq. (2) can be written as
The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region which, in turn, depends on the doping level. Since
the junction in heavily doped in a Zener diode, the depletion
region is very narrow. The breakdown voltage creates a very
strong field ( 108 V/m) across the junction. This field breaks
the covalent bonds and thereby generates electron-hole pairs.
Any further increase in reverse voltage is enough to produce a
large number of electron-hole pairs which leads to a large current. This type of breakdown is referred to as Zener breakdown.
The so-called the avalanche breakdown occurs in ordinary
diodes. The junctions of such diodes are comparatively lightly
doped so that the depletion region is wide. For low reverse voltages, the electric field is not strong enough to produce breakdown. But the minority charge carriers get accelerated by this
field and collide with the atoms of the semiconductor in the depletion region. Due to this collision, covalent bonds are broken
and electron-hole pairs are produced. These newly produced
charge carriers are also accelerated by the electric field, resulting in more collisions and hence more production of charge
carriers. Thus an avalanche of charge carriers results. This
leads to a sharp increase in reverse current. Avalanche breakdown happens at reverse voltages normally above 6 V.
The forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode
is shown in Fig. 5.9. The forward characteristic is similar to that
of an ordinary p-n junction diode. But the breakdown voltage
Vz is obtained by extrapolating the straight line portion of the
reverse characteristic. Zener diodes of different specific breakdown voltages in a wide range are commercially available in
the market.
Vi
I z + IL
fPage 24( 34 )

emitter to the base, giving an emitter-to-base current I e . The
base is very thin, and the contact area between base and collector is very large compared to the contact area between emitter
and base. Due to this, very few of the holes, entering the base
from the emitter, recombine with electrons in the base. Most
of them travel from the base to the collector, since the junction
barrier between the base and collector allows such a motion. A
small fraction of the holes flows in the external circuit between
the base and emitter. In practice about 90% of the holes entering the base from the emitter reach the collector. This gives rise
to a base to collector current I c .
Let a reverse-bias be supplied between the base and the
collector by means of the battery B 2 ( of B 2 to c & + of B 2
to b) as shown in Fig. 5.12. This increases the potential difference across the base and the collector. This increase does not
prevent the flow of holes from the base to the collector.
The base-to-collector current I e is almost the same as the
emitter-to-base current I e . But the resistance offered by the
emitter-base junction to the flow of the current I e is small since
a forward bias is applied across that junction. The resistance
offered by the base-collector junction to the flow of the current
I c is large because a reverse-bias is applied across that junction. The current is thus transferred from a low resistor to a
high resistor. This is the origin of the word transistor. As a result of this, there is gain in power. This is the principle on which
the use of a transistor as an amplifier is based. The mode of
connections shown in Fig. 5.12 is called the Common base or
grounded base connection.
base and emitter. The collector is bigger in size than the emitter and hence has a higher current handling capacity. Thus the
transistor consists of two p-n junctions. Under proper biasing
conditions, the collector side has a higher resistance than the
emitter side. Thus, when a current flows through the transistor,
the voltage across the collector side is higher than that of the
emitter side which leads to voltage amplification. The name
transistor is derived from transfer-resistor. For proper functioning of a transistor, the emitter to base junction should be
forward biased and collector to base junction should be reverse
biased. A standard circuit symbol for a transistor is shown in
Fig. 11.
npn transistor
EmitterBase Collector
e
b
c
n
Circuit symbol
c
b
npn
n
e
pnp transistor
e
EmitterBase
c
b
pnp
e
Circuit symbol
Collector
Fig. 5.11: Two basic types of transistors and their symbols.
Output
characteristics
plot for the
given
transistor
Type and configuration of transistors Transistors have

several types. Primary types are (i) junction transistors, (ii) field
effect transistors, (iii) Diffusion transistors, (iv) unijunction
transistors, (v) single electron transistors, (vi) nanofluid transistors and mitigate transistors. Under each of these groups
there are several sub-types available in the market.
A transistor can be used in either of the three configurations, namely (i) common base configuration, (ii) common collector configuration and (iii) common emitter configuration.
IC
IB
IA
5.7.1 Action of a transistor
VC
Let us consider a p-n-p transistor. Under equilibrium conditions (no batteries connected), there will be a barrier potential
difference across each of the n-p junctions. The central n-part
will be positive, with the p-parts on either side being negative
These barriers prevent the diffusion of holes from the emitter
to the base and also from the collector to the base. The barriers
also prevent the diffusion of electrons in the opposite directions. However, the diffusion of electrons from the emitter and
collector to the base, and the diffusion of holes from the base
to the emitter and collector, are allowed.
B1
+
+
+
Pmax line
V
Fig. 5.13: Method of determining the operating point of a

transistor.
5.7.2 Operating point
The characteristics of a transistor must be known before it is
used in a circuit. The biasing voltages should be such that
the transistor functions properly (linearly) under these biasing
conditions. The biasing voltages decide the operating point of
the transistor. Usually the operating point is decided by looking at the output characteristic of the transistor. The general
output characteristics plot for a transistor is shown in Fig. 5.13.
Three independent points, viz, A, B & C are marked therein.
Each transistor will have the maximum voltage and current
limits. These points are marked as Vmax and I max in the characteristics (Fig. 5.13). The operating region is the area of voltage and current within the maximum limits for a transistor.
The maximum power P max that a transistor can take is also
to be considered in determining the operating point. This is
done by marking a line corresponding to various I and V values
(Fig. 5.13). The points like A, B and C are all operating points or
p
B2
GND
Fig. 5.12: pnp transistor in action.

Let us assume that a forward bias is supplied between the emitter and the base by means of the battery B 1 ( of B 1 to b & +
of B 1 to e) as shown in Fig. 5.12. The junction barrier across
the emitter and base is then reduced, and holes travel from the
VA
Note: Operating point should so selected on the linear

portion of the graph that the products like IA VA , IB VB ,
IC VC , etc. are always less than the corresponding Pmax
EmitterBase Collector
e b ++
c
p
VB
fPage 25( 34 )
Fig. 5.15: Method of determining the Q-point of a transistor.

The line joining the value of I c at A and the value of Vce at B
gives the load line for CE-mode.
quiescent points or Q-points for the transistor. Once the operating point is selected, the biasing must be such that the corresponding current and voltage values (indicated by the actual
graph) are attained.
Thus operating point for a transistor is the set of bias voltages such that the transistor behaves linearly in the region of
its application provided that the bias voltages keeps the power
within the limit defined for the transistor.
The plot in Fig. 5.15 only defines the overall operation of the
transistor device. The transistor circuit limitations must also
be taken into account in defining the actual operating point.
The collector-emitter loop of the circuit (in CE mode) is shown
in Fig. 5.16 from where the collector-emitter voltage can be
written as
5.7.3 Self biasing of transistors:
Ic
As we know, in basic transistor circuits, always two batteries are

shown. However, when a transistor practically used in a circuit,
the different biasing voltages are derived from a single battery
by using different resistances. This is known as self-biasing.
There are different methods of providing bias for a transistor.
Important methods which are in use are: (i) base bias or fixed
current bias, (ii) base bias with emitter feed back, (iii) base bias
with collector feed back and (iv) voltage divider (or potential
divider) bias. Among these, the potential (or voltage) divider
bias method is most widely used.
RC
RC
RE
c
b
Vce
npn
R2 GND
Ic
R2 GND
Ic
RE
The dc load line is a graphical technique for finding the operating point of a transistor circuit. For example, Fig. 5.15 shows
how the load line is drawn from the output characteristics of a
transistor in CE mode.
These curves are

drawn for different
fixed values of Ib
Operating point or Q-point
i ne
B Vce
(3)
(4)
Vcc
Rc +Re
Ic = 0 and Vce = Vcc
loa
dl
i ne
Vce
These extreme points are marked in Fig. 5.16 and a straight line
connecting them is called the dc load line. The load line depends only on the values of Vcc , R c and R e . By superimposing
the load line on the output characteristics, the operating point
can be determined. This is shown in Fig. 5.17. Points A and B
determine the load line, and the central point on the load line
determines the operating point for the transistor.
The Q-point can be chosen any where on the dc load line.
But usually the centre of the load line is chosen to accommodate large signal output voltage swing.
Ic
0
(2)
Fig. 5.17: Typical dc load line for a transistor drawn as per

Eqs. (3) & (4). Points A and B are called zero current and zero
signal points.
Output characteristics of a transistor in CE mode
dl
Vce = 0, and Ic =
dc
loa
(1)
Vce = Vcc from Eq. (1)

Vcc
Ic =
from Eq. (2)
Rc + Re
for Vce = 0,
5.7.4 DC load line:
dc
1
Vcc I c (R c R e ) I c = I e
Vcc
Vce
Rc + Re Rc + Re
1
Vcc
Vce +
Rc + Re
Rc + Re
for I c = 0,
Fig. 5.14: Method of potential divider bias widely used in most

of the practical transistor circuits. Vcc is always connected
such that the base is forward biased while the collector is
reverse biased.
Vcc I c R c I e R e
This is an equation for a straight line with slope equal to

1/(R c + R e ) and y-intercept equal to Vcc /(R c + R e ). This
straight line has two extreme points as shown in Fig. 5.16.
These points are specified by
RE
=
=
pnp
=
=
c
b
GND
Fig. 5.16: The C-E loop of a transistor circuit in CE mode.
RC
R1 Vcc
+
Vcc
npn
Ie
Potential divider bias method: This is a very useful

method of self biasing in linear discrete circuits because it provides a good bias stability. It is also called universal bias circuit
or base bias with one supply or voltage divider bias. The name
voltage divider is derived from the fact that resistors R 1 and R 2
form a potential divider across Vcc . The voltage drop across R 2
forward biases the emitter, whereas, Vcc supply reverse biases
the collector. This is a very popular bias circuit because the dc
bias circuit is independent of the transistor.
R1 +Vcc
fPage 26( 34 )
5.7.5 Temperature dependence of operation of a transistor
faithful amplification. Resistors, capacitors and inductors are

also required for completely build amplifiers.
The output gain of a single amplifier is inadequate for practical purposes. Hence, additional amplification over two or
more stages is necessary. To achieve this, the output of each
amplifier stage is coupled in some way to the input of the next
stage. This arrangement of coupling is referred to as cascade
arrangement. The resulting system is referred to as multistage
amplifier. In practice, the amplifier employed in the audio and
video devices is always a multistage amplifier, the number of
amplification being 5 or more.
Coupling between any two consecutive stages is made directly, or by using R-C section or a transformer. In these cases,
the amplifier is called direct coupled amplifier, R-C coupled
amplifier or transformer coupled amplifier respectively.
For faithful amplification, the Q-point(i.e. zero signal current

and voltage, IC & VC E ) must remain fixed. The Q-point of a
transistor changes when (i) temperature changes and (ii) the
transistor is replaced by another of the same type or another
type. Therefore, it is necessary to make the Q-point independent of these variations. This is referred to as stabilisation.
Thus the process of making Q-point independent of variations
in temperature and transistor parameters is referred to as transistor stabilisation.
Variation with transistor parameters Any two transistors, same type or different type, do not have the same transistor parameters. This is basically because the thickness of
the base is not same. This is due to inadequacy in the technology of manufacturing these devices. As a result, a considerable
spread (or variation) in the characteristics among two transistors of the same type. For example, let = 0.98 for a transistor.
The value of for this transistor will be = /(1 ) = 49. If,
for a substitute transistor, = 0.99, then for this transistor
becomes 0.99/(1 0.99) = 99. Hence, an increase of by 1%
doubles the value of . Thus, replacing a transistor in a given
circuit may result a large shift in operating point.
Vcc
R1
Signal
Vo
T2
T1
R2
Vi
Re
Ce
R4
Re
Ce
GND
I B + (1 + )IC BO
First Stage
Second Stage
Fig. 6.1: Typical two stage R-C coupled CE amplifier circuit.
where IC BO is the collector-base reverse current and is the

forward current ratio for the transistor. For every 10 rise of
temperature the value of IC BO increases considerable, and is
doubled in the case of Germanium transistors. Consequently,
the Q-point shifts from the middle of the active region to nearsaturation line. This results in distortion and clipping of output
signal.
As the temperature increases, there is an increase in collector leakage current IC AO . This heats the collector junction,
and the covalent bonds in the collector junction are broken.
This leads to further increase in IC AO . Continuation of this process leads to destruction of the transistor itself. Thus, the self
destruction of an un-stabilised transistor due to the junction
temperature exceeding its rated value is referred to as thermal
runaway.
6.2 2-stage R-C coupled CE amplifier

A two-stage R-C coupled CE amplifier circuit is shown in
Fig. 6.1. The two stages of amplification are also schematically
shown in Fig. 6.1.
The general ac equivalent for Fig. 6.1 is shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.2 is drawn under the following realistic and simplified assumptions:
In Fig. 6.2, Re and Ce are not shown. This is because, at
all frequencies, CE is assumed to short RE . This is equivalent to directly connecting the emitter to ground.
R s 0. Hence R = R 1 R 2 and R = R 3 R 4 . C D exists when emitter-base junction is forward biased and
C T exists due to existence of depletion region between
the base and the collector. While C D is of a large value,
C T is very small. C i is given by C i = C D + C T (1 + g m RC ).
C W is the stray capacitance due to wiring. Normally
C D 100 pF, C W 1 pF
6 Amplifiers
6.1 Introduction
Amplifier is a device which amplifies certain characteristics
(like voltage, current, power) of a signal input to it. It draws
electric energy from an external source to accomplish this
work. The output of an amplifier will just be a replica of the
input signal but modified. Any changes in the input is faithfully reproduced at the output of the amplifier in a magnified
way.
Amplifier circuits may be prepared with the help of active
devices like transistor, FET, etc. These devices draw dc power
from a battery and use it to amplify the input signal. The active device should amplify the signal linearly in order to obtain
Cc
R3
Cin
Variation with temperature & thermal runaway The collector current IC of a transistor is given by the equation
IC
Rc2
Cc
Rc1
6.2.1 Theory
Theory of a multistage amplifier is mainly about providing a
mathematical explanation of its frequency response over the
whole range of frequencies of its application. Hence ac circuit
analysis of the amplifier circuit becomes essential.
The circuit analysis of Fig. 6.2 is quite complicated because
of a good number of loops in the circuit. However, practically
meaningful conclusion can be derived by certain realistic assumptions. The frequency response of the amplifier is hence
X
fPage 27( 34 )

With these assumptions, the ac equivalent circuit for the 2stage RC coupled CE amplifier is simplified to the form shown
in Fig. 6.3.
Cc
Vo
divided in to three regions, namely, mid, low and high frequency regions. These are described below:
RC2
Ic
CT
C
IC2
hie
hf eIb
GND
Ci
hie
With these assumptions, the output impedance Z of the amplifier is given by
GND
Cc
CW
RC1
CT
1
Z
hf e Ib1
hie
hre Vc1
or Z =
Vi
hi e I b
Vo
h f e I b Z
AM
Vs
Rs
1
1
+
Rc hi e
hi e Rc
hi e + Rc
(5)
and
(6)
(7)
The mid-frequency gain of the amplifier A M is now given by
Ci
The input rms voltage Vi and the output rms voltage Vo across
Z are now given by (sign implies that h f e I b is the current
flowing in a direction opposite to that of I b )
First Stage
IC1
1/hoe
Ib1
RC
hie
Vi
Fig. 6.3: AC equivalent circuit for the 2-stage ce amplifier at

mid-frequencies.
hre
Vc2
Ib1
hf
e Ib2
Second Stage
1/hoe
Cin
Vo
CW
Ib
Fig. 6.2: General AC equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. 6.1. Here
R s input source resistance, R = R 1 R 2 , R = R 3 R 4 , C i =
C D + C T (1 + g m RC ) where C D and C T are the diffusion capacitance
in the junction between emitter and base and transition capacitance
of the depletion region, respectively. Other symbols carry their usual
meaning in the context of transistor circuit analysis.
=
=
=
hf e
Vo h f e I b Z
=
Z
=
Vi
hi e I b
hi e
hf e
hi e Rc
from Eq.(5) above

hi e hi e + Rc
h f e Rc
h f e Rc
|A M | =
hi e + Rc
hi e + Rc
(8)
Here, the negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out
of phase by 180 as compared to the phase of the input voltage.
6.2.2 Response at mid frequencies

1. T1 and T2 , connected in CE mode, are assumed to be
identical (this is practically true). Hence h i e = h i e and
h f e = h f e .
Conclusions From Eq. (8) the following are clear:

1. A M is constant and independent of the input frequency
2. Since R s 0, R 1 becomes parallel to R 2 and gives a resultant R. However, since R becomes parallel to h i e and
R h i e , the effective value of R h i e h i e .
2. For a single stage amplifier, the gain is given by A v =

h f e R c /h i e . Comparing this expression to Eq. (8) we find
that A M < A v for mid-frequencies
3. The transistors are always so chosen that the value of

h r e is very small, in the order of 104 . Hence h r e is neglected. Further, 1/h oe and R c are parallel and (1/h oe
R c . Hence 1/h oe R c R c .
3. The difference in gain A between single stage and 2stage RC coupled CE amplifiers is given by
4. R s and the reactance C i are very small compared to h i e .

Hence R s and C i are neglected.
5. At mid frequencies X C e and X C c are both negligible. Similarly, at mid frequencies, C i , C T and C W are all negligible.
=
=
Av AM
h f e Rc
hi e
h f e Rc
hi e + Rc
h f e R c2
h i e (h i e + R c )
fPage 28( 34 )
The output gain A L at low frequencies is now given by (defined

as the ratio of output to input voltages)
6.2.3 Response at low frequencies

Here the following assumptions are made:
AL
1. Transistors T1 and T2 (Fig. 6.1) are identical. Hence h i e =

h i e and h f e = h f e .
hi e h f e I b Z
Vo
1
=
j
Vi
h
i e Ib
hi e
2. R s 0, R 1 and R 2 become parallel to each other to give

R. But h i e R Hence R is neglected.
3. T1 and T2 are so chosen that h r e 0, 1/h oe RC 1/h oe

is parallel to R c . Hence h r e and 1/h oe are both omitted.
4. In the low frequency range, the reactance (X C e ) offered

by the bypass capacitor C e is negligible, and hence C e is
omitted. Similarly, the reactance of C i and C T are also
negligible. However, at low frequencies, the reactance of
C c is considerable.
|A L | =
With these simplifications, the ac equivalent circuit for the 2stage ce amplifier (Fig. 6.1) comes out to be as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Ic
hie
Vi
CC
Vo
RC
hie
AM
AL
I2
AM
The rms value of Vi is given by

hi e I b
(9)
1
1
+
1
R c h i e + j C
c
j
h i e + R c C c
1
1
(
)
+
=
j
Rc hi e j
R c h i e C c
C c
)
(
j
R c h i e C c
j
h i e + R c C c
(10)
If I 1 and I 2 are the currents through R c and h i e & C c as shown

in Fig. 6.4., then we have
(
)
j
h f e I b Z = I 2 hi e
C c
h f e Ib Z
I2 =
(11)
j
h i e C c
=
=
h i e I 2 I 2 opposite to I b
hi e h f e I b Z
from Eq. (11)
j
h i e C c
h i e + R c C c
from (10)
h f e Rc
(13)
h i e + R c C c
h f e Rc
(
hi e + Rc
)2
1
C c
(14)
)2
h f e Rc
hi e + Rc
h i e + R c C c
h f e Rc
h i e + R c C c
hi e + Rc
j
1
(h i e + R c )C c
)2
(
1
1+
(h i e + R c )C c
(16)
(17)
6.2.4 Response at high frequencies

At high frequencies the following approximations hold:
1. T1 & T2 are identical and hence h i e = h i e & h f e = h f e .
2. R s is negligible so that R 1 becomes parallel to R 2 . Further, R = R 1 R 2 is small compared to h i e . So, R 1 and R 2
are both negligible.
The output voltage across h i e is given by (Ohms law) (see

Fig. 6.3)
Vo
h i e C c
(
)
j
R c h i e C c
At f = f 1 (or at = 1 ) we have
)2
(
p
1
2 =
1+
(h i e + R c )1C c
)2
(
1
2 = 1+
(h i e + R c )1C c
(
)2
1
1 =
(h i e + R c )1C c
1
1 =
(h i e + R c )2 f 1C c
1
f1 =
2C c (h i e + R c )
The output impedance Z is given by

1
Z
hf e
GND
=
=

low frequencies.
Vi
h i e C c
From Eqs. (8) & (14) we have
hf eIb
I1
hf e Z
Lower cutoff frequency f 1 This term is defined

p as the frequency for which the gain becomes equal to 1/ 2 times the
gain at mid frequency. In other words, at f = f 1 , we have
AM
AM p
AL = p
or
= 2
(15)
AL
2
I2
Ib
from (9)&(12)
C c
3. T1 & T2 are so chosen that h r e is negligible. In addition,

1/h oe R L . Since 1/h oe is in parallel to R c , 1/h oe becomes negligible.
(12)
4. At high frequencies X C e and X C c are both negligible.
X
fPage 29( 34 )
At f = f 2 , substituting from Eq. (8) and (22) we get
5. At high frequencies, C d in the first stage is negligible because it depends on the output impedance of the first
transistor which is quite small. However, in the output
section C d is enhanced due to C W , and is not negligible
in the output section.
p
2
With these assumptions, the ac equivalent circuit for the 2stage RC coupled CE amplifier may be shown as in Fig. 6.5.
Ic
Ib
hie
Vi
RC
hf eIb
Vo
hie
CD
hi e + Rc
hi e Rc
or 2 f 2C d
f2
GND
high frequencies.
h f e Rc
hi e + Rc
)2
(
)2
+ 2 C d h i e R c
hi e + Rc
h f e Rc
(
)2 (
)2
h i e + R c + 2C d h i e R c
1+
(h i e + R c )2
(
)2
2 C d h i e R c
(h i e + R c )2
2C d h i e R c
hi e + Rc
2C d = 2 f 2C d
1
1
+
hi e Rc
(
)
1
1
1
+
2C d h i e R c
(24)
The bandwidth BW for the amplifier is now given by (defined

as the difference between f 2 and f 1 )
From Fig. 6.5, the input voltage is given by

(18)
The output impedance Z is given by
|A M |
p
2
or
AM p
= 2
AH
BandWidth
Voltage gain
|A H |
60
Upper cutoff frequency f 2 The upper cutoff frequency is

that frequency, in the
pregion higher than the mid frequency, for
which the gain is 1/ 2 times the gain for mid frequency. That
is, at f = f 2 , we have
Input Frequency (Hz)
|A H |
20
Ao / 2
hf e
Vo h f e I b Z
=
=
Z [from (18)& (20)]
Vi
hi e I b
hi e
(
)
hf e
hi e Rc
[from (19)]
h i e h i e + R c + j C d h i e R c
h f e Rc
(21)
h i e + R c + j C d h i e R c
h f e Rc
(22)
(
)2
)2 (
h i e + R c + C d h i e R c
Mid frequency range
Low
Ao Frequency
40 range
AH
Fig. 6.6: Typical frequency response curve of a

2-stage RC-coupled CE amplifier circuit.
108
The output gain A H is now given by
107
(ve sign h f e I b is opp. to I b ) (20)
106
h f e I b Z
104
Vo
High
Frequency
range
The output rms voltage Vo is now given by
103
A typical graph of overall frequency response of a 2-stage RCcoupled CE amplifier is shown in Fig. 6.6.
102
1
1
+ j C d =
+
Rc hi e
hi e Rc
hi e Rc
(19)
(25)
Ao / 2
1
Z
Upper cutoff
f2
hi e I b
(
)
1
1
1
1
+
2C d h i e R c
2C c (h i e + R c )
[
(
)
]
1
1
1
1
1
+
2 C d h i e R c
C c (h i e + R c )
Lower cutoff
f1
Vi
BW
(23)
fPage 30( 34 )
7 Oscillators
Table 7.2: Classification of oscillators
based on the generated frequency ranges
7.1 Introduction
Oscillator is a device that incorporates active and passive circuit elements to generate sinusoidal or other repetitive waveforms. An oscillator delivers an output voltage of a given waveform without the application of an external input signal. It converts direct current (dc) power from the supply to the alternating current (ac) power in the load. The function of an oscillator
is thus opposite to that of rectifier which converts ac power into
dc power.
An oscillator can generate waveforms at any frequency in
the range from a few cycles per hour to several hundred million cycles per second. It can produce almost purely sinusoidal
waves of nearly a constant frequency, or can produce waves
rich in harmonics. Oscillators are commonly used in radio and
television transmitters and receivers, radars and also in various
other communication systems.
Frequency range
Audio frequency (AF) oscillators
a few Hz 20 kHz
Radio frequency (R.F) oscillators
20 kHz 30 MHz
Very high frequency (VHF) oscillators
30 MHz 300 MHz
Ultra high frequency (UHF) oscillators
300 MHz 3 GHz
Microwave Oscillators 3
GHz several GHz
7.3 Fundamental Principle of Oscillators:

In an oscillator, a negative resistance is provided to compensate for the losses in the circuit. In a feedback oscillator, the
external positive feedback sufficient to make the overall gain
infinity provides the negative resistance required for overcoming the natural damping of oscillations. In a negative resistance
oscillator, internal positive feedback is present and serves to
provide the required negative resistance.
7.2 Types of oscillators

Oscillators may be classified in a variety of ways. Depending
on the nature of the generated waveform, oscillators may he
divided into two categories. Sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators and relaxation oscillators. Sinusoidal oscillators produce
a sinusoidal or a nearly sinusoidal waveform of a definite frequency. Relaxation oscillators generate non-sinusoidal waveforms, such as, square and saw tooth waveforms.
Oscillators may also be classified depending on the particular device producing the oscillations. On this basis, oscillators
may be of negative-resistance type or feedback type. The negative resistance oscillators use an active device that possesses
a current-voltage characteristic curve of negative slope within
some range of its operation. The tunnel diode is a negative resistance device that is used in oscillators.
The feedback oscillators, on the other hand, contain a regenerative (positive) feedback amplifier in which the loop gain
is so adjusted that the overall gain becomes infinity.
Both sinusoidal and relaxation oscillators may be negative
resistance and feedback types. Sinusoidal oscillators of feedback type may further be classed as LC (Inductor-Capacitor)
and RC (Resistor-Capacitor) oscillators.
Sinusoidal oscillators are sometimes classified in accordance with the frequency of the generated signals. Thus oscillators which generate signals in the audio frequency range
are known as audio frequency oscillators. Similarly, oscillators
generating signals in the radio frequency range are called radio
frequency oscillators, and so on. Such classification of oscillators is shown in Table 7.1.
Practically available values of L and C confine the application of LC feedback oscillators mainly for the generation of radio frequency signals. The commonly used oscillators of this
category are Tuned collector, Hartley, and Colpitt oscillators.
Practical considerations limit the use of RC oscillators to
generate signals mainly in the audio frequency range. Important RC oscillators include Phase shift and Wien bridge oscillators. Beating two radio frequency signals produced by LC oscillators may also generate audio frequency oscillations. Such
audio oscillators are known as beat frequency oscillators.
Oscillator Class
In an oscillator no external signal is applied. The initial signal to trigger the oscillations is usually supplied by the noise
voltage. This noise voltage originates when the power supply
is switched on. Since the frequency spectrum of noise is very
wide, it always possesses a component voltage at a frequency
that is correct for the oscillator operation.
7.3.1 Concept of a feedback Oscillators:

We know that the overall gain of an amplifier, when a fraction
of the output signal is returned to the input in opposition to the
externally applied signal, is given by
Af
A
1 + A
(1)
where A is the gain of the amplifier without feedback, is the

feedback fraction, and the quantity (A) is the loop gain or
the feedback factor. If the feedback loop is so connected that
the feedback signal is in phase with the externally applied input signal, Eq. (1) reduces to:
Af
A
1 A
(2)
From Eq. (2) we see that if A = 1, A f becomes infinity. The

amplifier then delivers an output even with zero input voltage,
i.e., the amplifier becomes an oscillator. The condition of unity
loop gain A = 1 is known as Barkhausen criterion. This condition implies that|A| = 1 and the phase of A is 0 or any
integral multiple of 360 (w.r.t. input signal). Thus the basic
conditions for oscillations in a feedback amplifier are: (i) the
magnitude of the loop gain must be equal to unity, and (ii) the
feedback must be of regenerative type.
X
fPage 31( 34 )

Vi
Amplifier with
Gain A
respective oscillator circuits, as we shall see in the following

sections.
The basic requirements of a feedback oscillator are:
Vo
(i) An amplifier with external regenerative feedback to provide a negative resistance in the circuit
(ii) Some circuit nonlinearity to define the amplitude of oscillations
Feedback
Network
(iii) A frequency determining network to produce oscillations of desired frequency and
(with FB fraction
Fig. 7.1: Basic block diagram of an oscillator circuit.
(iv) A dc power supply to serve as the energy source.
We shall now analyze the case of positive feedback amplifier. Let an external signal voltage Vs be applied to the input
of an amplifier of gain A, as shown in Fig. 7.1. The feedback
loop is not closed and the input voltage Vi to the amplifier is
equal to Vs and the output voltage Vo of the amplifier is equal
to AVs . Let the feedback loop be now closed so that a part of
the output voltage Vo = AVs is added to the externally applied signal voltage Vs . Thus the input voltage to the amplifier
increases to a value Vt where Vt = Vs + AVs . This, in turn, is
amplified A times, and a fraction of the amplified signal is
fed back, so that the input voltage after this cycle of operation
becomes Vt = Vs + A(Vs + AVs ). Proceeding in this way we
see that, after several cycles of operation, the amplifier input
voltage becomes
Vt
Vs + AVs + A(AVs ) + A(A 2 2 Vs ) + . . .
Vs {1 + A + (A)2 + (A)3 + ....}
7.4 Hartley Oscillator

7.4.1 Description and working
A Hartley oscillator using a junction transistor in the CE mode
is shown in Fig. 7.2. The resistors R 1 , R 2 and R E , and the supply
voltage Vcc establish the dc operating point. Capacitors C B and
C E are respectively the blocking and the bypass capacitors.
V1
L2
V2
+Vcc
R1
(3)
pnp
When 0 < A < 1, Eq. (3) can be expressed as

Vt
L1
C
CB
Vs {1 + (A) }
1 A
(4)
R2
RE
Eq. (4) indicates that, as n , (A) 0 and the input voltage to the amplifier settles down to a value Vt = Vs /(1 A).
Hence, under this condition, a positive feedback amplifier delivers a steady output. We therefore conclude that a positive
feedback amplifier behaves as amplifier so long as the loop
gain is less than unity.
When A > 1, we find from Eq. (3) that the amplifier input voltage goes on increasing and becomes infinitely large as
n . Hence instability results. But an amplifier cannot handle as large an input signal as possible. In fact, nonlinearities
in the amplifier circuit limit the build up of the signal and a
steady state is reached within a very short time. In this state,
the magnitude of the loop gain becomes exactly unity due to
reduction of gain by the circuit nonlinearities. As a result, each
cycle of the generated waveform is identical with the preceding one. Then the signal fed back to the input is equal to that
present in the preceding cycle. The oscillations thus become
sustained. The amplifier becomes an oscillator.
Thus we find that, if the loop gain is greater than unity in
a positive feedback amplifier, the instabilities set in and the
circuit tend to oscillate. The oscillations are sustained when
A = 1.
The frequency of oscillations is determined by the amplifier circuit parameters. But it is desirable that the frequency
of oscillations be predictable, and in some cases, adjustable.
Hence a frequency determining circuit is required in all oscillators. The LC and RC networks perform this function in the
CE
Vcc
Fig. 7.2: Typical Hartley oscillator circuit-transistor version.

Since the transistor operates in the CE mode, it introduces 180
phase shift between its input and output voltages. The output voltage appears in the tank circuit. A part of this voltage,
namely, V1 appearing across the inductance L 1 is the feedback
voltage. The feedback voltage is 180 out of phase with the output voltage so that a new phase shift of 0 or 360 around the
loop can be achieved. The capacitor C and the inductors L 1
and L 2 form the frequency determining circuit.
The frequency of oscillation of the Hartley oscillator is
given by
f
1
=
2 2 hoe L L +C (L + L )
1 2
1
2
h
(5)
ie
where h oe and h i e are the hparameters for the transistor in

use (with common emitter mode), L 1 , L 2 and C are the inductances and capacitance included in the tank circuit(see
Fig. 7.2).
In practice (i.e., under actual conditions) hhoe L 1 L 2 is a negliie
gible term as compared to C (L 1 + L 2 ). Further, if we denote the
total inductance L 1 + L 2 as L, the above equation reduces to
f
1
1
1 1
=
p
p
2 C (L 1 + L 2 ) 2 LC
(6)
fPage 32( 34 )
From Eq. (6) we find that the frequency of oscillations is approximately given by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. In the above analysis, we note that the mutual inductance
M between L 1 , and L 2 is neglected.
Hartley oscillators are primarily used in the RF range because the values of L and C required for generating such frequencies are convenient from the practical point of view. The
frequency of oscillations can be varied by changing either L or
C or both. Smooth variation of L over a large range is difficult,
but it is easy to vary the value of C . Hence, in practice, capacitative tuning is employed for a smooth variation of frequency.
Input
A
Output
Y =A
Fig. 8.1: Symbol and truth table for a NOT gate.
8.2.2 OR Gate
An OR gate has two or more inputs with one output. The logic
symbol and truth table are shown in Fig. 8.2. The output Y is
1 when either input A or input B or both are 1s, that is, if any
of the input is high, the output is high.
8 Logic circuits
8.1 Introduction
Inputs
In electronics circuits like amplifiers, oscillators, etc., the signal

(current or voltage) has been in the form of continuous, timevarying voltage or current. Such signals are called continuous
or analogue signals. In the case of waveform in which only discrete values of voltages are possible, it is convenient to use binary numbers to represent such signals. A binary number has
only two digits, namely, 0 (meaning 0 V) and 1 (meaning 5 V).
In digital electronics we use only these two levels of voltage.
Such signals are called digital Signals. In digital circuits only
two values (represented by 0 or 1) of the input and output voltage are permissible.
Output
Y = A +B
Y
B
Fig. 8.2: Symbol and truth table for a 2-input OR gate.
8.2.3 AND Gate:

AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output
Y of AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both
1. The logic symbol and truth table for this gate are given in
Fig. 8.3.
Logic circuits or digital circuits are the ones built by certain

digital elements called logic gates. Logic gates, and hence digital circuits, produce digital signals in a specific manner dictated by the principles of Boolean algebra. Logic circuits are
used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots, industrial control systems, and in telecommunications.
Inputs
8.2 Logic gates
A
Y
A gate is a digital circuit that follows curtain logical relationship

between the input and output voltages. Therefore, they are
generally known as logic gates. The name gate comes because
they control the flow of information. The five common logic
gates used are NOT, AND, OR, NAND and NOR gates. Among
these, NOT, AND and OR are called the basic gates. All other
types of gates are derived from the three basic gates. The basic
nature and truth tables for the three basic gates are explained
below:
Output
Y = A B
Fig. 8.3: Symbol and truth table for a 2-input AND gate.
8.2.4 AND, OR and NOT gates

.
8.2.1 NOT gate
Construction & working of 2-input AND gate using diodes

Consider the two-input AND circuit in Fig. 8.4. When either A
or B or both A and B are at 0, the diode D 1 or D 2 or both D 1
and D 2 conduct and the supply voltage drops across R so that
the DMM shows no voltage, i.e., 0. Only when both A and B
are connected to 1 (i.e., +5 V terminal), the diodes do not conduct, and the battery voltage is shown by the DMM (i.e., Y = 1).
Thus, only when all of the input terminals are at 1, the diodes
in Fig. 8.4 are reverse biased, and the output becomes 1. Thus
AND logic is obtained.
This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It
produces a 1 output if the input is 0 and vice-versa. In other
words, it produces an inverted version of the input at its output. This is why it is also known as an inverter. The commonly
used symbol together with the truth table for this gate is given
in Fig. 8.1.
fPage 33( 34 )

Working of the NOT gate: We know that a transistor conducts only when the base is forward biased and the collector is
reverse biased. Hence, in Fig. 8.6 DMM gives Y = 1 only when
the input A is connected to 0. If A is connected to 1, the transistor does not conduct, and the DMM reads zero. Thus a NOT
gate can be obtained by using a transistor as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Y =AB
DMM
D1
Y =AB
5V
D2
Symbol
GND
2-input AND gate
2-input AND gate using transistors A typical 2-input

AND gate using transistors is shown in Fig. 8.7. We know that a
transistor connected in CE-mode as shown in Fig. 8.7 works as
a NOT gate. Thus, the output at the terminal X will always be
A B . This is further connected to the base of the third transistor which again works as a NOT gate. Thus the output at Y will
Fig. 8.4: 2 input AND gate circuit using diodes.

Construction & working of a 2-input OR gate using diodes
be A B = A B .
Y =A+B
DMM
D1
Y =A+B
+5 V
D2
1
5V
2-input OR gate
GND
Symbol
X
Fig. 8.5: 2 input OR gate circuit using diodes.
AB
Working of the OR gate: Consider the two input OR gate

in Fig. 8.5. If either A or B , or both A and B are connected to 1,
the diodes conduct so that a voltage is seen in the DMM, i.e., Y
becomes 1. Only when both A and B are connected to 0, the
diodes do not conduct, and the voltage across R is zero. Hence
the DMM gives zero reading, i.e., Y = 0 is obtained. Hence the
circuits in Fig. 8.5 give OR gate logic.
However, It is not possible to get a NOT logic function using
diodes. Hence, for obtaining a NOT logic, we need to employ a
transistor as shown in Fig. 8.6.
npn
npn
Y =AB
LED
GND
npn
B
Y
B
2-input AND-symbol
Fig. 8.7: 2-input gate circuit using transistors.
Construction of NOT gate from a transistor
Symbol
A
2-input OR gate using transistors A typical 2-input OR

gate using transistors is shown in Fig. 8.8. We know that a transistor connected in CE-mode as shown in Fig. 8.8 works as a
NOT gate. Thus, the output at the terminal X will always be
A + B since the two transistors are in parallel. This is further
connected to the base of the third transistor which again works
1
Y +A
GND
as a NOT gate. Thus the output at Y will be A + B = A + B .
npn
DMM
Y =A
+5 V
A
Y = A+B
B
2-input OR gate symbol
X
A+B
npn
GND
NOT gate from a transsistor
npn
LED
Y =A+B
GND
Fig. 8.6: NOT circuit using a transistor.
npn
Fig. 8.8: 2-input gate circuit using transistors.
fPage 34( 34 )

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Fifth semester B Sc Physics

Spectroscopy and Electronics

Books for Reference

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5th Semester Physics Course Material b

If the distance between the screen and C is L. From Fig. 1,

1.1 e/m of electron by Thomsons method

In the experiment, a uniform magnetic induction B is now

E on the electrons is equal and opposite to the force exerted

on them by B . Mathematically, we have

Substituting for from Eq. (1.1) we get

Substituting this value of v 0 in Eq. (1.3), we get,

A potential difference V is applied between the deflecting

where V is the voltage between the two plates distant d apart,

1.2 e/m of electron by Millikans oil drop method

After leaving the electric field, the electrons continue to move

mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics

Fig. 1.2: millikans oil drop set up.

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5th Semester Physics Course Material b

It is now possible to reverse the polarities of P 1 and P 2 again,

from Eq. (1.1)

If is the density of the spray liquid, then m = volume =

1.3 Comments on Thomsons method and its implications

Similarly, from Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) we get

Therefore one can calculate a and substitute it in Eq. (1.4). If V

The terminal velocity is attained by the drop within a very short

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5th Semester Physics Course Material b

independent of the nature of the metal used as the cathode or

Therefore the number of ions which carry 96490 C of charge

N , by definition, is nothing but Avogadro number.

1.4 Comments on Millikans method and its implications

The path of the electron around the nucleus, in general

The velocity of an electron moving in an elliptic orbit

2.2 Critical potentials

When a charge of 96490 C flows through an acidulated water,

mDr N Srinivas, Department Of Physics

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5th Semester Physics Course Material b

If the values of E k are expressed in eV, then these values

2.3.1 The setup and procedure

Fig. 2.2: The Frank-Hertz experiment set up.

Fig. 2.3: Variation of current with applied voltage.

2.3 Frank-Hertz experiment

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elastic collisions by the electrons, the last collision taking place

Fig. 2.4: Depiction of the concept of vector atom model.

2.4 Vector atom model

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Thus the excitation energy E 1 can be calculated. In Fig. 2.3, the

eV3 eV2 = eV3 eV3 = . . . = E 1

Thus there are 2n 2 number of different states which differ from

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Table 2.1: No. of electrons accommodated in each

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