Letter from the Delegates

Dear Delegates,
It gives us immense pleasure, to welcome you to the LMUN15. We
are extremely excited to see you delegates in the committee and
chalk out a resolution to this interesting, astonishing yet not so
prominent agenda. At this point, we would also like to remind you
that your knowledge on the agenda is very important, however
there are certain other aspects of the conference that are equally
important as well.
Mandate: Every committee of the United Nations has a very
specific mandate. The discussion of an agenda and proposal of
solutions should be within the mandate of the committee.
Procedure: The purpose of putting in the procedures in any
committee is to ensure a more Organized and efficient debate.
Although the executive board shall be fairly strict with the
procedure, the discussion of agenda will be our priority. So dont
restrict your suggestions because of hesitations regarding
procedures.
Research: Knowledge about the United Nations System, the
Council, the Agenda and all the aspects of the agenda helps the
delegate contribute more effectively in the Council. A wellresearched delegate is always appreciated by the executive board.
Being aware of the daunting task that this might seem to most
delegates, we have made an attempt at preparing a
comprehensive, yet unintimidating background guide that we hope
shall serve to guide you through your research. Before you go
ahead and study this guide, please keep in mind that this is merely
to facilitate your research and not the entire research in itself. The
background guide will have a basic outline of the agenda to help
your understanding and express our expectations from you as a
delegate.
We hope to see confident leaders, skilled orators and wellresearched delegates coming together to form an amalgam of
fruitful discussions. Remember to speak up, and please do enjoy
yourselves while what we hope shall be an enriching learning
experience lasts. Do feel free to contact the executive board in case
of any doubts or discrepancies.
Shivish Soni

Udita Goel

Committee History
Introduction
The United Nations (UN) Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) was established as a functional
commission of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) with the adoption of resolution 11(II) on 21
June 1946.1 The Commission is one of several subsidiary bodies established under ECOSOC pursuant to
Article 68 of the Charter of the United Nations (1945), which allows ECOSOC to establish commissions to
work on specific social and economic issues.2 From its inception, CSW was visualized as a body that would
provide information and recommendations for promoting and protecting womens rights across to ECOSOC
and to the international community as a whole.3 This vision has been realized on several occasions, including
in the consultations leading up to the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), and
over several decades in the broader, global conversation on the changing role of women in public and private
life.4
Evolution of CSW
The first session of the Commission occurred in New York in 1947; all representatives were female, which
was significant because it was the first organizational body of the UN to include women as delegates. 5
Currently, ECOSOC provides a forum for CSW to report about significant emerging issues in the economic
and social well-being of women.6 The CSW addresses urgent new issues and creates initiatives aimed at
realizing womens rights.7 Another key function of the CSW is to review the outcomes of previous global
conferences and monitor progress made since each conference was held; this mandate came from the
General Assembly following the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, and was a pivotal moment
in the evolution of the CSW.8 The result of this conference, the Beijing Platform for Action (1995),
reaffirms the need to accelerate the advancement of women across all areas of public and private life,
reinforcing the need to both protect womens fundamental human rights, while simultaneously empower
them to be full participants in decision-making processes. 9 CSW has hosted other conferences that have
encouraged UN bodies to include womens issues as focal points in their own conferences; one result of
this was the 2010 ECOSOC meeting on Emerging Philanthropy to Promote Gender Equality and Womens
Empowerment.10
Mandate
The mandate of the Commission, as established in ECOSOC resolution 48(IV) and expanded in resolutions
1987/22 and 1996/6, established the body as the competent intergovernmental body on matters concerning
the status of women.11 CSW has the mandate to promote the objectives of equality, development and
peace, monitor the implementation of measures for the advancement of women, and review and appraise
progress made at the national, subregional, regional and global levels. 12 Additionally, the body has the task
of notifying ECOSOC should an urgent situation arise related to the violation of womens rights. 13 The most
recent change to the mandate gave the Commission more responsibilities in relation to ECOSOC and its role
and has created a narrower focus on the
1

2
3

Eichelberger, Organizing for Peace: A Personal History of the Founding of the United Nations , 1977, p. 260; UN-Women,
Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013; UN-Women, A Brief History of the CSW [Website], 2011.

Charter of the United Nations, 1945; United Nations, Subsidiary Bodies of ECOSOC [Website].
UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013; UN Chief Executive Boards Secretariat, Gender equality
and the empowerment of women [Website], 2013.
4
UN-Women, Short History of the Commission on the Status of Women, 2013.
5

6
7
8
9

Ibid.

UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013.

Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.

UN Economic and Social Council, Engaging Philanthropy to Promote Gender Equality and Womens Empowerment:
Special Report of the Economic and Social Council, 2010.

UN Economic and Social Council, Status of women (E/RES/48(IV) [Resolution], 1947; UN Economic and Social Council,

Enlargement of the Commission on the Status of Women (E/RES/1987/23) [Resolution], 1987; UN Economic and
Social Council, Measures to strengthen the role and functions of the Commission on the Status of Women
(E/RES/1987/22) [Resolution], 1987.

Galey, Nondiscrimination Against Women: The UN Commission on the Status of Women, 1979, pp. 274-276.
Ibid., p. 276.
14

promotion of gender equality and womens empowerment. Of particular importance is the alignment of the
Commissions work with the outcome of the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women, the Beijing Platform for
Action, and the responsibility given to ECOSOC as the central body responsible for follow-up on the Platform.

15

Governance, Structure and Membership

The Commission has forty-five members, divided between the UN regional groups. 16 Before its membership
was capped at forty-five, the size of the Commission had changed three times since its creation, beginning
with only nine Member States in 1946 and growing to fifteen one year later; followed by 21 in 1987 and
finally 45 members where it stands today.17It was not until the twenty-first century that the current
membership of forty-five Member States solidified. 18
The structure of the Commission is similar to other ECOSOC subsidiary bodies: the entire membership
meets for regular sessions in a plenary, with a smaller group of members elected to chair sessions and
decide the agenda. This smaller group is called a Bureau and their role is to ensure the committee is
functioning smoothly in an organized fashion in order to ensure the success of the sessions of CSW.19
Currently, members of the Bureau serve two years and are elected at the first session of CSW.20
The Commission meets annually for ten consecutive days in either February or March in order to discuss emerging
issues related to womens rights and further reflect on the implementation of existing norms.

21

The Commission
22

specifically addresses one priority theme each year based upon an aspect of the Beijing Platform for Action.

The UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), established in July
2010 by General Assembly resolution 64/289, acts as the Secretariat for the CSW.23 This means that UNWomen provides the organization and substantive support for the Commission leading up to and during its
annual session.24 This relationship is very important to emphasize, as UN-Women is the primary entity
responsible for implementing many of the Commissions decisions, whether that is directly via UN-Women
programming or in partnership with other relevant entities. 25
Functions and Powers
As laid out in ECOSOC resolution 1996/6, the Commissions functions are to:

Assist [ECOSOC] in monitoring, reviewing and appraising progress achieved and problems
encountered in the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at all levels,
and should advise [ECOSOC] thereon;
Continue to ensure support for mainstreaming a gender perspective in United Nations
activities and develop further its catalytic role in that regard in other areas; 26

14

Farrior, United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, 2008, p. 5.

15

16
17
18
19

Farrior, United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, 2008, p. 2-5

Ibid., p. 3.
Ibid.
UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013.
20
21

22

UN General Assembly, The Work of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Men (A/RES/68/121) [Resolution], 2013.
UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013; UN General Assembly, System-wide
coherence (A/RES/64/289) [Resolution], 21 July 2010.

Ibid.

23

24
25

UN Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, 1995; UN Economic and
Social Council, Follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women (E/RES/1996/6) [Resolution], 1996.

UN General Assembly, The Work of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Men (A/RES/68/121) [Resolution], 2013.

UN Chief Executives Board Secretariat, UN-Women [Website].

UN General Assembly, The Work of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Men

(A/RES/68/121) [Resolution], 2013; UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website].

26

Cite

Identify issues where United Nations system-wide coordination needed to be improved in order
to assist the Council in its coordination function;27
Identify emerging issues, trends and new approaches to issues affecting the situation of women or equality
28
between women and men that required consideration and make substantive recommendations thereon;

Maintain and enhance public awareness and support for the implementation of the Platform for
Action.29

As a subsidiary body of ECOSOC, the Commission can make recommendations towards a range of parties,
including States; intergovernmental organizations; the private sector; civil society; specialized agencies,
programmes and funds of the United Nations system; and international financial institutions. 30 Any
conclusions and resolutions written by the Commission are sent to ECOSOC in a report to be adopted. 31
The Commission reinforces the complementary work on womens rights that is undertaken by many other bodies
within the UN system, such as the General Assembly Third Committee and ECOSOC. Further, the Committee on the
Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women, mandated with monitoring the implementation of the

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979) and
the Commission maintain a close relationship, reflecting on each others work and having the
committee chair of CEDAW participate in CSW sessions. 32
Recent Sessions
The most recent session of CSW, the 57th session, was held in March 2013 under the priority theme
Elimination and Prevention of All Forms of Violence against Women and Girls. 33 The Commission
additionally considered the emerging theme Key Gender Equality Issues to be Reflected in the Post-2015
Development Framework, and the review theme The Equal Sharing of Responsibilities Between Women
and Men, Including Caregiving in the Context of HIV/AIDS.34 In the resulting report from the 57th session,
CSW affirmed violence against women as being rooted within the historical hierarchy of male domination
over women and encouraged all forms of law to be used as a way to combat violence against women and the
girl child.35 At this session, the Commission recommended the adoption of two separate draft resolutions by
ECOSOC on future organization and methods of work of CSW, and the situation of and assistance to
Palestinian women.36 The Commission also accepted ten separate documents that it adopted in accordance
with decision 57/10.37
During the 56th session in 2012, the emerging issue was Engaging Young Women and Men, Girls and
Boys, to Advance Gender Equality, and the priority theme was the Empowerment of Rural Women and
Their Role in Poverty and Hunger Eradication, Development and Current Challenges. 38 This session
discussed the importance of helping rural women eradicate hunger, along with reviewing the progression of
financing programs to empower women.39 ECOSOC adopted some of the resolutions passed by CSW from
the 56th session.40

27
28
29
30

Cite
Cite
UN Economic and Social Council, Follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women (E/RES/1996/6) [Resolution], 1996.
UN Population Division, United Nations Population Information Network: A Guide to Population Information on UN System

Web Sites [Website], 2013.

31

UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013.

32

UN-Women, Short History of the Commission on the Status of Women, 2013; UN General Assembly, Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (A/RES/34/180), 1979;

33

UN Economic and Social Council, Commission on the Status of Women: Report on the fifty-seventh session (4-15 March 2013)

34

Ibid.
Ibid.
UN-Women, Commission on the Status of Women: NGO Participation [Website], 2013.

(E/2013/27), 2013.

35
36

37
38
39
40

UN Economic and Social Council, Commission on the Status of Women: Report on the fifty-seventh session (4-15 March
2013) (E/2013/27), 2013.

Ibid.
United Nations, Commission on the Status of Women [Website], 2013.
UN Economic and Social Council, Resolutions and Decisions of the Economic and Social Council (E/2012/99), 2013.

th

The forthcoming 58 session of the Commission, set for March 2014, will discuss the priority
theme Challenges and Achievements in the Implementation of the Millennium Development
Goals for Women and Girls, and the review theme will look at women and girls in education,
41

training, science, and technology.

Conclusion

The Commission on the Status of Women has fought for the advancement of womens and girls
42
rights in all areas of social policymaking over the last 50 years. The Commission works with
43
not only UN bodies, but also non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This active
44
collaboration has made many strides in progressing womens empowerment and equality. The
future of the Commission will involve working with NGOs, along with other intergovernmental
45
and regional organizations and UN organs. The progression for womens empowerment and
equality continues, as CSW commits to addressing new initiatives to improve and achieve
46
international goals in womens rights.

Topic Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights

INTRODUCTION

Sexual and reproductive health is considered as a human right aiming at personal

satisfaction and completion, social inclusion and granting of respect at all stages of human
lives, based upon the principles of human development and achievement of the
fundamental Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Nowadays, poor women/men, young people in developing countries and minority groups
subjected to discriminatory effects, fail to surpass and transgress the socioeconomic
barriers in order to attain a high-standard sexual and reproductive health insurance. For
instance, 529,000 women in sub-Saharan Africa die from complications of pregnancy and
childbirth, whereas sometimes their only option is abortion under unsafe conditions.
Moreover, about 38 million people suffer from HIV and much more are living with sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) which could have been prevented.
Some steps have been made since the 1994 International Conference on Population and
Development (ICPD), but we have to keep fighting for the right to sexual and reproductive
health, even if the opponents hold a strict stance. Therefore, faster progress is needed
especially since we face new challenges. To be more precise, the population of young
people entering their reproductive years is bigger than ever before and demand for health
services and commodities is always growing. Health systems are weak and inadequate to
cover human needs particularly in the poorest areas where maternal mortality and STI
outbreak is at its peak.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) desiring to bring health to people all over the globe
by granting access to timely, acceptable, and affordable health care of appropriate quality,
moves towards the following goals:

Improvement of maternal and newborn health

Family planning choices

Safe abortion

Fight against HIV and STIs

Raising of public awareness on sexual health

Gender equality
The world needs a global health guardian, a custodian of values, a protector and
defender of health, including the right to health. The statement of WHOs DirectorGeneral, Dr. Margaret Chan, should accompany our efforts and discussions to alleviate the
crisis.

The right to health

The importance of that right has been mentioned in many international treaties and
conventions including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESR)/1966, the Convention to Eliminate all forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW)/1979, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)/1989, the European
Social Charter, 1961, and the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981.

The right to health involves the idea that national governments should ensure and
guarantee that everyone is as healthy as possible. This can be achieved through a variety
of parameters such as the availability of health services, the healthy and safe working
conditions, the spreading of health-related education and relevant information on STIs, the
allotment of nutritious food, potable water and housing.
The parameters involved, then, are summarized into Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability,
and Quality (AAAQ). A health care system should be economically affordable, accessible
as well as non-discriminatory and open to all cultures, religions

and traditions. Respect to ethics and cultural provisions and gender requirements should
be paid under the context of public health and health care facilities. Last but not least, the
system of health must be scientifically and medically appropriate to achieve protection and
fulfillment of needs.
Aiming at the promotion of the motto Health for all, the WHO is offering technical,
intellectual and political assistance to government, organisations and institutions in order
to move towards international development and a common approach to health.
Sexual health and rights
According to the WHO, sexual health is defined as follows: a state of physical,
emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality; it is not merely the absence
of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful
approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having
pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence.
For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be
respected, protected and fulfilled. (WHO, 2006a)
Sexual health involves being able to enjoy the positive aspects of sexual and reproductive
behaviour and to make informed choices that fit with your personal values and be offered
the freedom of choice as far as bodily interaction is concerned. For sexual health to be
attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected,
protected and fulfilled.
Sexual health can only be achieved through respect for and protection of the sexual rights.
Sexual rights embrace human rights that are already recognized in national laws,
international human rights documents and other consensus statements. They include the
right of all persons, free of coercion, discrimination and violence, to:

the highest attainable standard of sexual health, including access to sexual and
reproductive health care services;

seek, receive and impart information related to sexuality;

sexuality education and information;

respect for bodily integrity;

be safe from degrading treatment, torture and coercion;

choose their partner;

decide to be sexually active or not;

consensual sexual relations;

consensual marriage;

found a family and enter into marriage with the consent of the intending spouses,
and to attain equality in and at the dissolution of marriage;

have privacy;

decide whether or not, and when, to have children; and

pursue a satisfying, safe and pleasurable sexual life.

Bear in mind that sexual rights do not only refer to women, but to men too.
Definition of reproductive health
The ICPD documents defined reproductive health as a state of complete, physical,
mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all
matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes.
People should be able to have an enjoyable and safe sex life, have the capability to
reproduce and the freedom of choice when and how often to do so, have the right to
decide upon their sexuality and be offered services connected to safe pregnancy and
childbirth.
What are reproductive rights?

Reproductive rights are associated with women's self-determination over their bodies and
sexual lives, and are critical to gender equality and to the formation of democratic and just
societies in a global scale. These rights include and are not limited to the following:

The right to a full range of safe and affordable contraception

The right to safe, accessible and legal abortion

The right to safe and healthy pregnancies

The right to liberty and security of person

The right of women to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on
matters related to their sexuality

The right to comprehensive reproductive health care services provided free of

discrimination, coercion and violence

The right to equal access to reproductive health care for women facing social and
economic barriers

The right to be free from violence, and practices that harm women and girls (such
as female genital mutilation)

The right to a private and confidential doctor-patient relationship

The right to freedom from discrimination (on the basis of sex, gender, marital status,
age, race and ethnicity, health status)

ABUSE OF REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS

In all parts of the world, women suffer discrimination and abuse because of their
reproductive capacity leading to restrictions on sexual autonomy and reproductive
freedom. Some of these abuses are even mandated by law even if internationally
recognized human rights are seriously violated For example, such violations include
womens rights to life, health, non-discrimination, bodily integrity, privacy, liberty, religious
freedom, and freedom from torture.

Worldwide, women suffer from the consequences of unintended pregnancies because

family planning services and safe abortion facilities are thought as illegal or are
inaccessible and unaffordable. Therefore, it is true that every year, twenty million women
undergo an abortion in illegal and mostly unsafe circumstances, resulting in as many as
78,000 deaths, the vast majority of which are preventable.
Across the world, family and community members pressure women to undergo mutilating,
physically inhibiting, and often painful bodily alterations such as female circumcision or
female genital mutilation. Human Rights Watch has documented the dire consequences of
other harmful traditional practices, such as dry sex in Zambia, and ritual cleansing or
widow inheritance in Kenya.
Examples: Discrimination based on womens reproductive capacity and choices takes
many forms. Human Rights Watch has documented how private companies in Mexico,
Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic routinely discriminate against women on the
basis of their reproductive capacity by obliging female job applicants to undergo
pregnancy exams as a condition of work and by denying work to pregnant women. When
Indonesian women migrate to Malaysia to seek jobs as domestic workers, they are
routinely tested for pregnancy and sent back to Indonesia or denied travel if they test
positive. India observes a very high maternal death rate. From Niger to Afghanistan, from
Bangladesh to Tajikistan, girls continue to be forced to marry against their will. In Africa,
more than 200 million women want but lack access to effective and safe contraception. In
Colombia, female members of the FARC rebel group are forced to have abortions in case
they get pregnant. In Jordan no sex education is included in the school curricula. The
aforementioned are thought as a clear violation of reproductive rights and a devastating
form of violence.
An estimated 20 million unsafe abortions occur around the globe every year with
victimized subjects women and adolescent girls. Maternal mortality remains high and HIV
causes the death of women at their reproductive ages. Finally, around 40% of pregnancies
worldwide are unintended since women lack access to contraceptive services.

Discrimination based on womens reproductive capacity often intersects with other forms
of discrimination, such as for example discrimination based on ethnicity or race. In South
Africa, for example, farm owners deny black women farm workers maternity benefits and
other legal rights.

Abortion
An article from the WHO characterizes safe and legal abortion as a fundamental right of
women, no matter which is the geographical topos they are residing, whereas unsafe
abortion is called a pandemic. Throughout history, induced abortions have been a source
of considerable debate and controversy. A person's position on abortion may be described
as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of induced abortion and their
beliefs on the ethical limit of the government's legitimate authority.
On April 18, 2008 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (CoE), adopted a
resolution calling for the decriminalization of abortion within reasonable gestational limits
and guaranteed access to safe abortion procedures.
Some of the most significant and common issues treated in the abortion debate are:
The beginning of personhood (sometimes phrased ambiguously as "the beginning of life"):

When is the embryo or fetus considered a person?

Universal human rights: Is aborting a zygote, embryo, or foetus a violation of human

rights? What about foetuses with genetic disabilities? On the other hand, is not allowing a
woman to terminate her unwanted pregnancy a violation of the woman's human rights?

Circumstances of conception: How important are the circumstances of conception

to the ultimate fate of the embryo or foetus? Does pregnancy induced by rape or

incest, or by poor or non-existent birth control use change the permissibility of

abortion?

Alternatives to abortion: Is adoption a viable and fair alternative to abortion? Are

there resources available to aid mothers who are unprepared for parenthood, but who may
wish to keep their child?

Limit of government authority: Are laws controlling abortion violations of privacy

and/or other personal liberty rights?
The issue of unsafe abortions is also important. Unsafe abortion continues to contribute
substantially to reproductive morbidity and mortality worldwide, being the main cause of
death for women in the developing world. To give an example, it is estimated that every
year 70,000100,000 women die from unsafe abortions, 99 percent of them in developing
countries.
All over the world, women and girls suffer adverse health, social, and economic
consequences of unplanned and unwanted pregnancies because family planning and safe
and legal abortion services are criminalized or made practically inaccessible. Every year,
twenty million women undergo an abortion in illegal and mostly unsafe circumstances,
resulting in as many as 78,000 deaths, the vast majority of which are preventable.
Contraception
Birth control is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or medications which prevent
women from becoming pregnant or giving birth. Such methods are the most important
tools to freedom of choice concerning parenthood and family planning.
Birth control is considered as a really controversial cultural, ethical and political issue
which has provoked numerous debates worldwide. Opponents may be against all forms

of birth control, while those who support all forms of birth control are against methods that
allow an embryo to initiate a pregnancy.
The most common contraception methods include barrier methods, hormonal methods,
1

intrauterine methods, emergency contraception and sterilization .

Only barrier contraception methods (male & female condoms) can protect couples from
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS.
In Africa, only 25 per cent are using contraceptive methods it, whereas in Asia and Latin
America and the Caribbean prevalence of contraceptive use is fairly high respectively.
Religious views on birth control
Birth control is a heated issue of ethics in the religious cycles. In Christianity, the Roman
Catholic Church accepts only Natural Family Planning, while Protestants maintain a wide
range of views from allowing none to very lenient. Views in Judaism range from the stricter
Orthodox sect to the more relaxed Reformed sect. In Islam, permits contraceptives when
they do not threaten health For Hindus both natural and artificial contraceptives are
permitted.
Safe Pregnancy
The right to survive pregnancy is a basic female human right concerning life and is linked
to the right to health care, non-discrimination and reproductive choice/freedom.
Pregnancy and childbirth are not necessarily safe activities for women in Africa and in
other areas of the world. According to World Health Organization (WHO) statistics,

http://www.jansankhya.com/index.php?cmd=35

maternal mortality in African nations has been rising steadily and now stands at 1,000
deaths per 100,000 live births.
Maternal mortality is a complex problem, whether caused by postpartum haemorrhage or
other complications. The fact that this is a womens health issue in countries where men
are the decision makers and women have little economic means or influence over national
policy complicates the problem significantly. Issues of poverty, poorly functioning health
care systems and weak national human resources development and management,
especially within the health care arena, are additional stumbling blocks to reducing
maternal mortality.

ADRESSING SEXUAL HEALTH

Safe sex (also called safer sex or protected sex) is a set of practices that are designed to
reduce the risk of infection during sexual intercourse to avoid developing sexually
transmitted infections (STIs). Conversely, unsafe sex refers to engaging in sexual
intercourse without the use of any barrier contraception or other preventive measures
against STIs.
Safe sex practices became prominent in the late 1980s as a result of the AIDS epidemic,
leading to more emphasis on reproductive health issues beyond reducing fertility. From the
viewpoint of society, safer sex can be regarded as a harm reduction strategy. Safe sex is
about risk reduction, not complete risk elimination.
Although safe sex practices can be used as a form of family planning, the term refers to
efforts made to prevent infection rather than conception. Many effective forms of
contraception do not offer protection against STIs.
To address sexual health we need to appreciate sexuality and gender roles at first point.
Understanding sexuality and its impact on practices, partners, reproduction and pleasure

presents a number of challenges as well as opportunities for improving sexual and

reproductive health care services and interventions. Research on sexuality should surpass
social, cultural and economic factors. Therefore, we need to go beyond reproductive health
by looking at sexual health holistically and comprehensively by adding any knowledge
gained from the field of STI/HIV prevention and care, gender studies, and family planning,
among others.
HIV/AIDS
Rights abuses fuel AIDS: Since the early 1980s, HIV/AIDS has claimed 25 million lives.
40 million people are living with HIV. Its destructive force is fuelled by a wide range of
human rights violations. Such violations include sexual violence and coercion faced by
women and girls, stigmatization of men who have sex with men, abuses against sex
workers and injecting drug users, and violations of the right of young persons to
information on HIV transmission. In prisons, HIV spreads with frightening efficiency due to
sexual violence, lack of access to condoms, lack of harm reduction measures for drug
users, and lack of information. Stigma-related violence prevents many people from
seeking HIV testing, or securing treatment. Often this stigma is associated with
homosexuality, bisexuality, promiscuity, prostitution and drugs use. In developing countries
there is a hidden connotation between HIV and same-sex sexual intercourse, whereas the
dominant mode of HIV spread remains heterosexual transmission.
Abuses follow infection: Persons living with the disease are subject to stigmatization and
discrimination in society. Women whose husbands have died of AIDS are regularly
rejected \, and their property is frequently taken from them. Orphan children or children
with parents who suffer from AIDS have lost their inheritance rights, and they have ended
up in prostitution, or living on the streets where they are subject to police violence and
other abuses.

Economic impact: HIV affects the economics by reducing the taxable population and
leading to slower growth of the economy. Moreover, households with an HIV infected
individual spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households.
Ensuring protection: Human Rights Watch is still the main advocate concerning
protection of people suffering from HIV/AIDS. For AIDS-affected children, this means
protecting girls against sexual abuse and ensuring avenues of legal recourse for children
without relatives to turn to. For injecting drug users, this means embracing harm reduction
strategies and ensuring access to antiretroviral therapy. For sex workers, this means
providing protection and empowering them to demand safe sex of their clients.
The 2005 World Summit recognized the fundamental contribution of Sexual and
Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) to attainment of the MDGs, endorsing the ICPD
call for universal access to reproductive health by 2015. Apart from their intrinsic value,
SRHR are part of the constellation of human rights including gender equality essential to
curbing the spread of HIV and mitigating the impact of the epidemic. Prevention,
treatment, care and support must have as their basis the promotion and protection of
human rights, including the right to control ones own sexuality, free of coercion,
discrimination and violence. Yet, HIV disproportionately affects those groups and
individuals already marginalized and/or least able to realize their rights, and thrives on
gender inequality.
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Female genital mutilation (FGM) often referred to as female circumcision or flogging,
comprises of all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female
genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural, religious or other
2

non-therapeutic reasons . There are different types of female genital mutilation known to
be practised today.
2

http://www.middle-east-info.org/gateway/genocide/

Type I - excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or all of the clitoris;

Type II - excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora;

Type III - excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of
the vaginal opening (infibulation). This type of FGM is very common in Eritrea, Djibouti,
Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and it is an ethnic marker aiming at the control of female
sexuality, without taking into account gender inequality;

Type IV - pricking, piercing or incising of the clitoris and/or labia; stretching of the
clitoris and/or labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scraping
of tissue surrounding the vaginal orifice (angurya cuts) or cutting of the vagina (gishiri
cuts); introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding or for
the purpose of tightening or narrowing it; and any other procedure that falls under the
definition given above.

The most common type of female genital mutilation is excision of the clitoris and the labia
minora, accounting for up to 80% of all cases; the most extreme form is infibulation, which
constitutes about 15% of all procedures.
Where is FGM practiced?
FGM is practiced in at least 26 of 43 African countries; the prevalence varies from 98
percent in Somalia to 5 percent in DR Congo. A review of country-specific Demographic
and Health Surveys (DHS) shows FGM prevalence rates of 97 percent in Egypt, 94.5
percent in Eritrea, 93.7 percent in Mali, 89.2 percent in Sudan, and 43.4 percent in the
Central African Republic.
FGM is also found among some ethnic groups in 27 countries including Oman, the United
Arab Emirates, and Yemen, as well as in parts of India, Indonesia, and Malaysia. FGM has
3

http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact241.html

become an important issue in Australia, Canada, England, France, and the United States
due to the continuation of the practice by immigrants from countries where FGM is
common.

Who performs FGM, at what age and for what reasons?

In cultures where it is an accepted norm, it is practiced by followers of all religious beliefs,
animists and non-believers. The practitioner of flogging is not a doctor, but a traditional
individual who uses primitive instruments (e.g. sharp knives) and no anaesthetic.

The age at which female genital mutilation is performed depends on the region. It is
performed on young babies, girls who are weeks after puberty, adolescents and,
occasionally, on mature women.
The reasons are psychosexual in order to reduce the sensitive tissue of the outer
genitalia and, thus, maintain female chastity and virginity prior to marriage by controlling
sexual desire and guaranteeing fidelity. Sociological reasons are associated with the
cultural heritage and the social inclusion; hygiene reasons are based on the myth that
external female genitalia are dirty and unsightly and by removing fertility is promoted.
Finally, religious reasons have to do with some beliefs that FGM is demanded by the
Islamic faith. However, this tradition is not mentioned in Quran and has no basis under
Islamic law.
Sexual Orientation
When the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United
Nations in 1948, human sexuality has not been put into discussions and little was known

about sexual orientation. The campaigns for equal rights on behalf of gays and lesbians
began decades later.
Article 2 of the UDHR begins with:
"Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status."
In our days, sexual orientation is thought as the personal quality that inclines people to feel
romantic and/or sexual attraction to other individuals taking the forms of heterosexuality,
homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality.
A draft resolution, presented by Brazil in 2003 and co-sponsored by at least 20 countries,
expresses "deep concern at the occurrence of violations of human rights all over the world
against persons on grounds of their sexual orientation" and calls on relevant UN human
rights bodies to "give due attention" to these violations. It calls on States to promote and
protect the human rights of all people, stressing that the enjoyment of universal rights and
freedoms "should not be hindered in any way" on grounds of sexual orientation.

"Greater attention by the UN to this issue could make a real difference to real lives,"
Amnesty International said. "Millions of people across the globe face imprisonment,
torture, violence and discrimination because of their sexual orientation or gender identity,"
the organization added, reminding of the sentencing of 21 men to three years in prison in
Egypt, following a series of arrests and prosecutions of people thought to be gay.

In the words of Amnesty International Everyone has a sexual orientation and a gender
identity. When someones sexual orientation or gender identity does not conform to the
majority, they are often seen as a legitimate target for discrimination or abuse.
Brazil's resolution also reflected a worldwide trend towards greater protection of the
rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. Many governments have
introduced protections against sexual orientation discrimination in domestic law. In the
case of South Africa, Ecuador and several Brazilian states, this protection is enshrined in
the Constitution. Unfortunately, many governments at the UN have vigorously contested
any attempt to address the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.

Though relationship between religion and homosexuality varies greatly across time and
some groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions (such as Judaism, Islam, and
Christianity) regard homosexuality as sacred, while a negative view of homosexuality has
been common in the Abrahamic religions. In the wake of colonialism and imperialism
undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some cultures have adopted new attitudes
antagonistic towards homosexuality. For some homosexuality is considered as sinful,
whereas for others only sodomy is seen as a sin. Also, for some religious faith and spiritual
salvation are the pharmakon to overcome homosexual orientation.
On the other hand, voices exist within each of these religions that view homosexuality
more positively, and many religious denominations may even bless same-sex marriages.
Sexuality can no longer be treated as a marginal and taboo issue at the UN. Sexual
orientation and gender identity are fundamental elements of what makes us human. The
right to freely determine and express these without fear or coercion are therefore human
rights in the fullest sense.

http://www.amnesty.org/en/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity

The Human Rights Committee and the Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights
have long recognized "sexual orientation" as a prohibited ground of discrimination under
the two International Covenants. Both treaty-monitoring bodies have for years called on
governments to end violations based on sexual orientation, from criminalization of
homosexuality to discrimination in employment. In June 2011, the Human Rights Council
5

adopted the first UN resolution on sexual orientation and gender identity, which focused
on discrimination against individuals based on their sexuality. Then, the first UN report on
6

the issue was drafted by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , and its
7

findings opened up a panel of discussion that took place in March 2012-the first formal
debate on that issue.
Violations based on sexual orientation and gender identity have also been increasingly
documented by independent experts appointed by the Commission on Human Rights,
including the Special Rapporteurs on Violence against Women, Extrajudicial Executions,
Torture, the Right to Education and the Right to Health, as well as the Special
Representative on Human Rights Defenders. These discriminatory practices take a state
character since they are committed on behalf of the state including denial of rights to
assembly and expression, arbitrary detention which are added to discrimination in the
working environment or the right to health and education. Additionally, some states have
adopted laws that criminalize same-sex relations and other laws that penalize individuals
due to their sexual orientation or gender identity. Some examples of punishment are death
penalty, hate crimes, rapes, bullying, sex violence, verbal abuses.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has affirmed that homosexuals may
be defined as a particular social group in the meaning of the 1951 Refugee Convention.
At least a dozen countries around the world have provisions in their

http://iglhrc.org/sites/default/files/Resolution_17:19_2011_%20HRC_HRSOGI.pdf
6
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session1
9/A-HRC-19-41_en.pdf
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Discrimination/LGBT/SummaryHRC19Panel.pdf

legislation making it possible for persons facing persecution in their home countries due to
their perceived sexual orientation or gender identity to be recognized as refugees.

FACTS ON SEXUAL & REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS AROUND THE WORLD

Developing Countries
Women in less developed countries are 30 times more likely to die from reproductive
health-related causes than women in industrialized countries. It is one of the hundredth of
facts that is alarming.
In many developing countries, mainly women suffer from complications of pregnancy,
sexually transmitted diseases, unsafe abortion, female genital mutilation, HIV/AIDS.
Measures for the protection of their sexual and reproductive rights are essential.
Latin America
In the Americas abuses of female rights on the area of sexual and reproductive health are
very common and take the form of domestic violence and violence in the workplace. After
decades of dictatorships in some countries, democracy has not meant an end to impunity
for violations of women rights.
Women struggle daily to gain even minimal autonomy over their intimate lives achieving
sexual and reproductive health standards. Women may be subjected to rape, while many
more are denied access to contraceptives and reproductive health services, and refused
the possibility to decide to terminate unwanted pregnancies with safe and legal abortions.
Across the region, millions of abortions are performed every year, most of them under
unsafe conditions, causing millions of deaths. Therefore, access to safe

abortion should be ensured and the establishment of related legislation must be

guaranteed.
Women's right to the highest attainable standard of health is also compromised by the
manner in which some countries address the growing HIV/AIDS epidemic in the region.
Latin America and the Caribbean is the region with the second highest HIV prevalence rate
after sub-Saharan Africa. In the Dominican Republic, for example, women are subjected to
illegal HIV testing without consent when they seek employment or health care, and those
who are tested positive are routinely fired from their jobs and cannot access public
healthcare. In addition, the results are revealed to the families of the women, without prior
consent of the females.
In 1994, the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted the only international treaty
specifically focused on the prevention and punishment of violence against women: the
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence
against Women, the Convention of Belm do Par.
Asia
Discrimination and abuse of females is a common phenomenon in Asia, since violations of
human rights have introduced a crisis in the region. The abuses take several forms and
they depend on womans ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, age, race, class and origins.
Governments across the region have mixed records in protecting women's rights-with
some governments, such as Pakistan, routinely flouting their obligations; others, such as
Indonesia, failing to back up rhetoric with resources and political will; and still others, such
as India, condemning women's rights initiatives to flounder against apathy and
incompetence. In India also, global concern have raised the cases of rapes of women
during 2013.

In recent decades, Asian women's labour force participation and earning power has grown.
Yet women workers across industries endure sexual harassment, poor working conditions,
pregnancy-based discrimination, and glass ceilings. Women often receive less pay than
men for equal work. Abuses are especially common in export-processing zones in
countries such as Bangladesh, China, and the Philippines.
Most governments have failed to prevent or respond effectively to violence against women.
Survivors of violence often confront formidable challenges in obtaining redress-ranging
from gaps in legal protections, onerous procedural requirements, unresponsive police, and
lengthy, costly trials. Furthermore, women who seek help from the justice system may be
doubly victimized. Women are subject to sexual harassment and abuse by the police.
Under Pakistan's Hudood Ordinances, women who report rape may instead be convicted
of adultery if they cannot produce four male witnesses to support their claim. Finally, most
countries fail to criminalize marital rape.
Women and girls' education varies strikingly across the region. In East Asia and most of
Southeast Asia, women's literacy and girls' secondary school enrolment rates are typically
equal or even surpass those of males. However, in South Asia, female literacy rates
remain staggeringly low. Eighty-six percent of Afghan women are illiterate, compared to 57
percent of Afghan men. Change is slow even for younger generations: in some provinces
of Afghanistan, less than 10 percent of girls aged 7-12 attend school, compared to 37-63
percent of boys aged 7-12.
Although many governments in the region have ratified the Convention on the Elimination
of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and a few its optional protocol,
their implementation rarely meets national and international legal obligations. Protection of
women's rights has been uneven and inadequate.

Middle East & North Africa

The human rights of women throughout the Middle East and North Africa are
systematically denied by each of the countries in the region, despite the diversity of their
political systems. People are subjects of confinement and limitations concerning
expression and assembly.
Family planning issues and sexuality matters in countries like Iran, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon
are closely associated with religious codes and laws. Women are treated as inferior into a
patriarchal context and they have not the same rights with men with respect to marriage,
divorce, child custody and inheritance since men are responsible for family decision
making.
Even though women activists are working within sharia law to protect human rights of
women, some others ask for separation of religion and government seeing religious
fundamentalism as a ghost that haunts the lives of girls and mature women. Women in
Jordan who are thought to have "dishonoured" their family have been beaten, shot, or
stabbed to death by their male family members. The Jordanian penal code condones
these killings by providing the perpetrators of these crimes with reduced sentencing under
the law.
The relationship between women and the state in the Middle East and North Africa is
essentially mediated by men. Husbands in Egypt and Bahrain, for example, can file an
official complaint at the airport to forbid their wives from leaving the country for any reason.
Most countries in the region-with the exception of Iran, Tunisia, Israel, and to a limited
extent Egypt-have permitted only fathers to pass citizenship on to their children. Women
married to non-nationals are denied this fundamental right.
While many countries in the region have ratified the CEDAW, most have also entered
extensive reservations to its provisions due to perceived inconsistencies with sharia.
These reservations have allowed countries to evade their responsibilities under the

convention. Persistent and insidious discrimination and violence against women rooted in
custom and law remains widespread in the region undermining the very equality
guarantees that the convention seeks to promote.
Developed Countries
Some of the above mentioned problems may not appear in developed countries (e.g.
female genital mutilation), but the question of reproductive and sexual health concerns
them, too. Sexuality education, issues regarding abortion, rights of homosexuals area
some of the issues that need further discussion in the developed world, especially in
Eastern Europe.
Sexual Education in Europe and the USA
Although some form of sex education (including reproductive stages, and childbirth) is part
of the curriculum at many schools, it remains a controversial issue in several countries,
particularly with regard to the age at which children should start receiving such education,
the amount of detail which is revealed, and topics dealing with human sexuality and
behavior (eg. safe sex practices and masturbation, and sexual ethics).
In the United States in particular, sex education raises much contentious debate. Chief
among controversial points is whether covering child sexuality is valuable or detrimental;
the use of birth control such as condoms and hormonal contraception; and the impact of
such use on pregnancy outside marriage, teenage pregnancy, and the transmission of
STIs. Countries with more conservative attitudes towards sex education (including the UK
and the U.S.) have a higher incidence of STIs and teenage pregnancy.

What has the international community done?

The United Nations adopted in 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women. But a number of States enter reservations to particular
articles on the ground that national law, tradition, religion or culture are not congruent with
Convention principles, and purport to justify the reservation on that basis. Furthermore, it
has to be underlined that the convention does not address reproductive health and rights.

Steps towards the protection of the right to reproductive and sexual health have been
taken at

International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) held in Cairo in

1994 marked the acceptance of a new paradigm in addressing human reproduction and
health.

In the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development Beijing

Conference in 1995
The ICPD was held in Cairo, Egypt, from 5 to 13 September 1994. 179 State delegations
negotiated and finalized a Programme of Action concerning population and development
for the upcoming 20 years. They discussed and debated upon issues like family planning,
birth control, immigration, abortion on demand and infant mortality. The document focused
on the needs of people in linkage with population and development.

The key to this approach is that women are provided with choices and chances concerning
education and health care services. Family planning is set as a goal to be achieved by
2015, or sooner, under the umbrella of reproductive health and rights and it is said that
national resources and international assistance will be offered to make this a reality.

The ICPD was a United Nations conference, organized principally by the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Population Division of the UN Department for Economic
and Social Information and Policy Analysis.
Leaders from around the world re-defined the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
during a recent meeting, by recognizing their commitment to achieve universal access to
reproductive health by 2015. The post-2015 Development Agenda includes several of
aspects related to the issue of sexual and reproductive health. As it has been previously
mentioned, sexual and reproductive health and rights are crucial cornerstones of human
dignity and development, having the potential to guarantee social and economic progress.
These are the most fundamental human rights as they include decisions about ones life,
body, sexuality, health, marriage and childbirth. In our times, the majority of people will be
sexually active and they therefore need legal protection of their sexual and reproductive
rights, as well as information and health care services. Despite general progress, problems
connected to reproduction affect the lives of millions resulting into maternal mortality and
morbidity, STIs, and lack of family planning. The international community needs to address
the burden of sexual and reproductive health problems on peoples lives by placing them
prominently on the post-2015 Development Agenda.
We should coordinate our efforts to end maternal mortality, improve neonatal health, and
halt the spread of HIV. Education should aim at strengthening womens freedom of choice
and bringing into balance demographics with the available resources. Moreover,
coordination should be conducted in order to establish the adequate and necessary ways
to achieve prevention, and if possible, eradication of diseases related to sexual and
reproductive health. The international community should also provide recognition and
protection in national legislation that affirm sexual and reproductive rights, awareness
raising, and access to information and services, without the fear of coercion, discrimination
or violence, regardless of age, sex, race, language, marital status, origins, ethnicity,
culture, HIV, sexual orientation.

The following are some of the suggested steps to guarantee sexual and reproductive
health for all:

Reproductive health should be included within countries national reports

concerning progress towards poverty eradication and development

Promotion of culturally-sensitive approaches that would include respect to human

rights and efforts to combat discrimination

Effective policy-making and allocation of resources in countries of high fertility and

demographic shifts

Well-trained staff and complete services

Investment in programmes aiming at sexual and reproductive health, especially in

the field of research, monitoring and evaluation

Address the needs of core target groups such as adolescents, and the poor

Guarantee maternal health, antenatal care, safe abortion, contraceptive methods,

family planning

Reducing maternal mortality

Combat STIs and especially HIV which leads to stigmatisation, suffering and
orphanage

CONCLUSION

It is true that sexual and reproductive health is included under the umbrella of sexuality
and reproduction as far as human rights are concerned. However, the lack of information,
the barriers due to economic reasons, sexual violence in armed conflicts and camps,
harmful traditional practices (female genital mutilation, forced and early marriage), violence
against women, STIs and the derived stigmatisation, budgetary cuts in the field of health
care, lack of sexual education- among others- lead to the establishment of an unfair world
as far as sexual and reproductive health and rights is concerned. The affected
communities suffer from STIs, unsafe abortions, maternal

mortality and lack of contraception even if technology is thriving and human rights are
thought to be respected in a global scale. In the question of what could be done, the
answer includes but is not limited to the promotion of affordable, non-discriminatory, highquality, and acceptable services, the HIV prevention, the elimination of taboos, the supply
of commodities, the respect to minority groups, the education of young people in schools
and social media, and the access to medical resources such as more contraceptives to
reduce unintended abortions, more antiretroviral drugs, condoms, obstetric equipment.

What we have to keep in mind is that sexual and reproductive health is non-exploitive and
respective of self and others, it depends on the individuals well-being, and in order to be
achieved requires trust, honesty, and communication. Coordinated efforts, discussions,
strong argumentative confrontations and strong will are our sole tools to guarantee the
protection of these rights to all, following the principles of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights as well as those of what is called humanity and acceptance of all human
beings.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Gender and Sexual and Reproductive health and rights

http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/gender/index.html http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/gender/sexual_health.html
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/development/docs/rights_reproductive_health.p df
A position paper of the Department for International Development
http://www.gadnetwork.org.uk/sexual-and-reproductive-health/
http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/UNFPA_SRH_Framework
_FinalVersion.pdf A framework on reproductive rights and sexual and reproductive health

http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/Life-stages/sexual-and-reproductivehealth/policy http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?
type=REPORT&reference=A7-2013-0306&language=EN
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/shalev.htm
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ACT35/026/2013/en/9ebeffa4-fd7c-48ecb748-0e67adeeb148/act350262013en.html
http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/en/
WHO (2012) Maternal Mortality Fact sheet Number 348.
WHO (2012) Fact Sheet Number 364 Adolescent pregnancy

Nanda, G, and Kimberly Switlick and Elizabeth Lule (2005) Accelerating Progress Toward
the MDG to Improve Maternal Health, Health, Nutrition and Population Discussion Paper,
World Bank.
Cohen, Susan A (2009) Facts and Consequences: Legality, Incidence and Safety of
Abortion Worldwide, Guttmacher Policy Review, Fall 2009, Volume 12, Number 4.
WHO (2012) Sexually Transmitted Infections (World Health Organization: Geneva)
Singh S, Sedgh G and Hussain R, Unintended pregnancy: worldwide levels, trends, and
outcomes, Studies in Family Planning, 2010, 41(4):241-250.
UN http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/women/womrepro.htm
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/shalev.htm
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/asp/user/list.asp?ParentID=10305
http://www.un.org/issues/m-women.html
http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/sexual_health/rhr_hrp_10_22/en/i
ndex.html
UN Women, Fact sheet: Violence against Women and the Millennium Development
Goals. UNAIDS The Global AIDS Epidemic, Key Facts (based on 2011 data)

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm
Female Genital Mutilation General Information
http://www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm
http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/FGM.pdf
http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/fgm/
http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/srh_main.htm
http://www.astra.org.pl/srhrEU.pdf
http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/currentissues/femalegenitalcutting
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/
http://www.desertflowerfoundation.org/en/what-is-fgm/
Sex Education http://www.rutgerswpf.org/news/uk-wants-adopt-dutch-teachingpackage-sexual-health-education http://www.globalgiving.org/projects/adolescentsexual-health-education-northern-uganda/updates/

http://www.hsj.gr/volume1/issue1/issue1_review2.pdf
Sexual Orientation rights
http://www.actwin.com/eatonohio/gay/world.htm
http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-347/news
https://campaigns.amnesty.org/campaigns/demand-dignity
http://www.hrw.org/topic/lgbt-rights
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Discrimination/Pages/LGBTSpeechesandstatements.as
px
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Discrimination/Pages/LGBTOpinioneditorials.aspx
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Discrimination/Pages/LGBTVideos.aspx

Religion and homosexuality

http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Religion_and_homosexuality.
html
http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/index.htm
http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/submitted/homosexuality-religion.html
Post-2015 Development Agenda http://unctad.org/en/pages/newsdetails.aspx?
OriginalVersionID=664&Sitemap_x0020_T axonomy=UNCTAD
http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/news/2012/policybrief_post2015.pdf
http://ncdalliance.org/visionfor2015
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/MDG/Pages/Intro.aspx