THEMES SP

-Explain why Europe saw no lasting peace in the period between the
peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the Peace of Paris in 1763. (2003)
The main condition of a lasting peace is the presence of a balance of
power in which none of the major states can be able to attack another
one. During the time of POW and POP, Europe never had such a balance of
power that would result in a lasting peace.
At the end of the thirty years war in 1648, their were four nations
dominating their regions- France in Western Europe, Sweden in Northern
Europe, Spain had the greatest colonial power and Austria was strong
versus weakening states of Bavaria, Poland and Ottomans. France was the
first nation to start a major military campaign against other nations.
During the reign of Louis XIV, France launched many attacks on German
states and Spain to invade all of the lands West of Rhine. However, a
coalition of many nations prevented France from capturing the area they
wanted. However this defeat was not big enough to end French
supremacy in Western Europe. A few years after the Campaign of Rhine,
Louis XIV wanted to combine the dynasties of Spain and France, which
caused the War of Spanish Succession. In this war many powers in Europe
were allied against France. Austria was newly strengthened by its Hungary
acquisition and it was allied with some of the emerging states of Europe
like England and Prussia. At the end of this was, in 1713, in the Peace of
Utrecht, England acquired many lands such as Gibraltar, Minorca, New
foundland etc. and rights over the slave trade in the Atlantic. Austria got
the Italian and Netherland provinces of Spain, while Prussia was accepted
as a major power after this war. Spain was very weakened after this war
and never able to recover again. However, the balance of power was not
maintained.
While these were occurring in Western Europe, there was another major
war going on in Northern Europe, the Great Northern War. The northern
power, Sweden was fighting against Denmark, Russia and Poland.
Although Karl XII was able to score some victories against Poland, Russia
destroyed the army of Swedes in Poltova. After the end of this war Russia
emerged as a powerful nation under the leadership of Peter the Great.
The final very important war occurred between 1648-1763 Seven Years
War (1756 to 1763). In this war Prussia and England fought against France
and Austria mainly. The theatres of this war ranged from Canada to
Silesia. As a result of this war, England became a totally colonial and naval
power. In Eastern Europe, Austria and Russia were opponents while
Germany was the area controlled by mostly Prussians. France remained as
a very powerful continental power, which prevented other nations from
being aggressive.
Various other reasons during this period
-Internal strife in European nations (upper middle class - Gentry in Britain
and Bourgeoise in France); Glorious revolution and Civil War in England,
Expansion of territories by the new monarchs (The New Monarchs was a

concept developed by European historians during the first half of the 20th
century to characterize 15th-century European rulers who unified their
respective nations, creating stable and centralized governments).

Small side note:

War of the Spanish Succession (just a short note)

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) was the first world war
of modern times with theatres of war in Spain, Italy, Germany,
Holland, and at sea.
Charles II, king of Spain, died in 1700 without an heir.
In his will he gave the crown to the French prince Philip of Anjou.
Philip's grandfather, Louis XIV of France, then proclaimed him king of
Spain, and declared that France and Spain would be united.
French power was already feared in Europe and a Grand Alliance of
England, Holland, Prussia, and Austria aimed to put the Archduke
Charles of Austria on the Spanish throne instead of Philip. War broke
out and the French were defeated in several battles. The English
general, the Duke of Marlborough (Churchill), and the imperial
general, Prince Eugene, commanded the forces of the Grand
Alliance.
In 1711, Emperor Joseph I of Austria died. His successor as emperor
of the Holy Roman Empire was the Habsburg Archduke Charles of
Austria. Immediately it became obvious that the European balance
of power would be even more seriously threatened if Charles got
Spain as well as Austria than it would be if Philip became king of
Spain.
The renewed threat of Habsburg world power enabled Louis XIV of
France to obtain favourable Peace terms in the Treaty of Utrecht
(1713).
His grandson, Philip, became after all king of Spain on the condition
that Spain and France would never be united. Great Britain received
Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, the Hudson Bay territories
and the monopoly of the slave trade with Latin America. The
Austrian emperor at first refused to sign but a year later recognized
the new order in the Peace of Rastatt (1714)

-Explain the reasons for the rise of the Netherlands as a leading

commercial power in the period 1550-1650 (2004b)

Reason - Geographical location (heart of Europe and great proximity to the Atlantic) and
relatively free political atmosphere combined with forces of change leading to Commercial
revolution.

Small country with limited natural resources. Natural action to turn to service industry. Since
not many nations were providing shipping or banking or insurance services at that time, the
profits in these sectors were quite high. Agriculture would not have been profitable in such a
small country so people turned to shipbuilding and finishing of raw materials. The
Netherlands managed to build the largest commercial fleet of Europe in the 17th Century and
Amsterdam became the most important financial center in Europe.
The free political atmosphere also played a role. The Netherlands was made up of smaller
provinces each electing a stadholder. The provinces had great local sovereignty. They mostly
elected the same stadholder from the House of Orange to increase the bond between them.
Still, the provinces had great control over the Central government, which was less powerful
than in other countries. There was a central legislative assembly, but it didnt have much
power. The government was mostly dominated by rich merchants who were quite successful
in advancing these interests.
Thanks to overseas exploration, increasing domestic markets due to population growth
starting in the 16th century and increasing productivity trade greatly expanded in the 16th and
17th century. Shipping emerged as a lucrative service industry thanks to favorable factors such
as location and politics.
Also the low interest rate in the Netherlands, which was about 3% in terms of real interest
rate led to the expansion of investment in the country and this led directly to the expansion of
the economy.

- Compare and contrast the economic factors responsible for the decline
of Spain with the economic factors responsible for the decline of the Dutch
Republic by the end of the seventeenth century. (2009)
Overview
The purpose of this question was to investigate the phenomenon of economic
decline on the part of two major European powers by the end of the seventeenth
century. Spain and the Dutch Republic were two enormously wealthy and
powerful European states in the sixteenth century. Within one hundred years,
both were in a state of economic downturn. The question investigates what
happened economically and the reasons why.
Both Spain and the Dutch Republic declined economically for similar reasons:
unrelenting foreign competition, smothering military expenditures, crippling
inflation, and population issues.
There were, however, major differences between the two.

The economic decline of Spain was self-inflicted; the economic decline of

the Dutch Republic was a crisis of geography.

The economic decline of Spain was absolute; the economic decline of the
Dutch Republic was relative.

The economic decline of Spain was due to the catastrophic

mismanagement of resources; the economic decline of the Dutch Republic was
the result of hubris caused by a stellar management of resources.

The economic decline of Spain stemmed from the lack of a middle class;
the economic decline of the Dutch Republic can be traced back to the middle
class.

The economic decline of Spain came from military defeats; the economic
decline of the Dutch Republic stemmed from military victories.

Score: 9
This essay has a sophisticated thesis that addresses comparisons and contrasts
in the decline of both Spain and the Dutch Republic. The student identifies
comparisons and differences for decline. The essay has excellent thematic
organization, with multiple examples of compelling and convincing historical
proof. Analysis is mature and insightful, connecting historical events of the
sixteenth century to economic decline in the seventeenth century. The essay is
very strong on cause and effect. This essay earned a score of 9, not a score of 8,
because while 8-scoring essays are analytical, essays that receive a 9 better
develop and present their arguments, which this essay does very well.

ESSAY SUMMARY

Common economic factor 1) Shortage of resources. Much of Spains economic

power laid in its colonies. Spain received many vital resources in which Spain
traded including gold and crops not native to Europe like chocolate. Once
Spanish territories collapsed, Spain lost much of its power. Likewise, the Dutch
Republics power came from East India Dutch trading company. The Dutch had
dominated trades in East Asia in 1600s. Further in 17 th and 18th centuries the
East India trading company began to collapse. This was mainly due to French and
British interests in the region. This resulted in shortage of resources for the Dutch
Republic which included opium and other Asian crops.
2) Increase in competition for power The greatness of the Dutch economic
power had made Britain jealous and therefore the English parliament tried to
weaken the Dutch power. This resulted in passage of Navigation Acts which
stated that goods being imported into Britain must be done on a British ship.
Much of the Dutch power came from its superior ships and naval transportation.

The Dutch also faced increased competition in Asian markets. Dutch lack of size
and military strength prevented the Dutch from remaining competitive in
overseas markets. Spain on the other hand suffered from increased competition
in the Spanish . Elizabeth I and Britain encouraged pillaging of Spanish ships.
Pirates like Francis Drake proved successful at doing so.
3) Financial issues In the Dutch republic Bank of Amsterdam became bank to
the world. The florin was held to the gold standard and allowed for universal
exchange rates. Furthermore the Bank of Amsterdam accepted currencies from
around the world, further strengthened the Dutch treasury. In Spain, Philip II and
other Spanish leaders attempted to revive the Spanish economy by printing
more money in order to stimulate the economy. This had the inverse effect of
depreciating the currency and snow balling Spains collapse.
4) Spain spent a lot of resources and embarked on a religious campaign against
protestants. The failure of the Spanish armada proved to be an economic
disaster and nearly bankrupted the treasury. The Spanish inquisition also
eliminated some of Spains smartest and brightest minds. Without such people
Spains merchants and guilds suffered. Dutch Republic encouraged religious
toleration Huguenots, Protestants, Jews, Catholics alike came in large numbers
to Amsterdam and in the process Amsterdam became an intellectual and
economic center, further strengthening the Dutch treasury.

-Analyze the reasons for the decline of the Holy Roman Empire as a force
in European politics in the period 1517 to 1648 (2008b).
The Holy Roman Empire was ruled by an emperor chosen by electors
(seven in 1517 and eight in 1648). Economically, there were tolls among
the many small German states; politically, many states held
noncontiguous territory, and the seven electors were usually unable to
agree on foreign policy, except to oppose the Turks. The Holy Roman
Empire was dysfunctional after the Protestant Reformation. The
protestant reformation made people question the existing authority: the
church. Exposing the weakness of the church greatly diminished its role as
a unifying force if the HRE. It ultimately created conflict by dividing up the
religious world in the HRE into those that were Catholic (south) and those
that were protestant (north). As a result of the Protestant Reformation and
the Peasants War, the German states were independent as to religion
and secularized. After the Schmalkaldic wars and the resulting the Peace
of Augsburg (1555) the religious divide further increased. The
Schmalkaldic league of German princes fought for Lutheranism. France,
although Catholic, joined in the war to defend protestant rights because
they wanted to weaken their enemy. The Peace of Augsburg which
signalled the end of all the fighting was a victory for protestantism and
states rights. States were given the choice to be catholic or protestant.

The Holy Roman Empire was united by language but almost evenly
divided religiously.
Further dynastic power politics, both the rivalries within the Holy Roman
Empire and those of European powers outside the Holy Roman Empire,
contributed to its decline. The Thirty Years War was a civil war with
religious entities, small states, and nobles fighting one another as well as
the emperor and centralization. The war began when the HRE tried to
impose religious uniformity on its domains. Both HRE and Spain were
weakened as a result of the war while England, France and Netherlands
became significant powers in Europe. The war resulted in the loss of
territories by both the Dutch and the Swiss, and Alsace-Lorraine came
under French control. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) emphasized the
autonomy of the German states (manly little states were created in
Germany and some of them were really small) . After Westphalia the
German states were virtually independent, except for foreign policy that
required unanimous agreement of all electors. This resulted in feudal
chaos. Furthermore, the territorial devastation after the Thirty Years War
left few resources and little interest for European involvement. German
universities were in decline because of dogmatic controversies, commerce
was decaying, there was little capital, the Rhine mouth was controlled by
the Dutch, and banking was in decline.
Key Dates for the Decline of the Holy Roman Empire
1500: Charles V comes to the throne.
1515: Beginning of pressure and rivalry from Valois France (Francis I).
1517: Luthers 95 Theses.
1524: Peasants War.
1526: Turkish Wars begin (end in 1566).
1546: Schmalkaldic War begins (ends in 1547).
1555: Peace of Augsburg; Charles V resigns and splits the Hapsburg lands
in two.
1618: Thirty Years War begins (ends in 1648).
1648: Peace of Westphalia.
Loss of Alsace
Loss of Holland from Spanish Hapsburgs
Loss of Lorraine
Loss of Pomerania
Loss of Switzerland
-Analyze various ways in which the Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
represented a turning point in European history (2009).
This question was intended to have the students place the Thirty Years
War in a larger diplomatic, social, political, and/or economic context.
Students were not required to use those particular categories of analysis,
but they were expected to analyze several outcomes of the Thirty Years
War that established it as a major transition from one era of European
history to the next.
Decline of the importance of religion as a motive for conflict

The alliances across the ProtestantCatholic divide (Frances support

for Sweden; Lutheran support for the Holy Roman Empire later in the
war) and the rivalries within the Protestant and Catholic camps
ultimately had the effect of making religion less important as a
motive for conflict.
The reaffirmation and extension of the cuis regio eius religio
principle, set at the Peace of Augsburg, as a part of the Peace of
Westphalia also tended to dampen religious differences as a source
of conflict.
Students may talk about the rise of toleration in the post-1648
European world.
Students may also discuss a rise of secularism and the decline of
papal influence, made very clear at the Westphalia negotiations
where the papal representative was ignored. The pope never signed
the treaties of Munster and Osnabruck, known together as the Peace
of Westphalia.
The Peace of Westphalia effectively halted the Counter-Reformation
in the German states. It added Calvinism to the list of acceptable
faiths.
The end of the Holy Roman Empire as an effective entity
By the end of the war, the (Austrian) Hapsburgs had given up any
pretensions to wielding effective power over the German-speaking
states in Central Europe.
o United Provinces and Swiss cantons withdrew from the Holy
Roman Empire.
The more than 300 German states became virtually sovereign
states. They had the right to ratify any laws, taxes, wars, etc. in the
Reichstag. Some students will erroneously refer to the post-1648
Austrian world as the beginning of the Hapsburgs eventual demise.
The Austrian Empire turned its attention to eastward expansion
against the Ottoman Empire. Students may discuss the
reorganization of the Austrian state.
o BohemiaandHungarynowundertightercentralcontrolandreCatholicized.
Rise of France
Students will often discuss the rise of France, led by Cardinal
Richelieu, who masterminded the anti-Hapsburg policy, both
Austrian and Spanish.
France received portions of Alsace and Lorraine at the Peace of
Westphalia.
Students may go on to discuss how Louis XIV built on this
foundation, raising France to unparalleled heights in the later
seventeenth century.
The decimation of the German states and the rise of Prussia
Some historians argue that the destruction caused by the war
(perhaps as much as a third of the German population perished) set
back the Germanic states economic development relative to
England and France. The economic power of the Hanseatic League
was effectively ended.

The Thirty Years War also confirmed the long-term division of

Germany into numerous small statesnone of which could rival the
power of England or France. Some students may imply that this
fragmentation was initiated by the Thirty Years War and the Peace
of Westphalia.
Some students may discuss the beginning of the rise of Prussia as a
reaction to its ordeal during the Thirty Years War, led by the Great
Elector Frederick William (1640-88) and trace Prussias leadership to
eventual German unification under Bismarck.
By the Peace of Westphalia, Prussia received eastern Pomerania,
Halberstadt, and Magdeburg.
Changes in the process of diplomacy
The Peace of Westphalia assumed the principle of mutual
recognition of sovereignty and marked the beginning of the modern
system of diplomatic relations; a Staatensystemor modern system
of sovereign states.
Some students will refer to subsequent treaties (e.g., Utrecht,
Vienna, and Versailles) as examples of Westphalias influence.
Decline of Poland and rise of Sweden
The Thirty Years War contributed to the decline of Poland. Polands
defeat by Sweden ended Polands attempts to dominate the Baltic
Sea region.
The Thirty Years War led to the beginning of a brief period of
Swedish ascendancy that lasted for about sixty years. Students may
discuss Gustavus Adolphus as the leader of that development and
may allude to Charles XII (16971718) as carrying on that
development.
By the Peace of Westphalia, Sweden received Bremen, Verden, and
western Pomerania (including city of Stettin).
End of Spanish influence in Northern Europe, Dutch independence
Spanish influence eroded in Northern Europe. The achievement of
Dutch independence in 1648 deprived Spain of an effective foothold
in Northern Europe and greatly diminished it as a rival to England
and France.
United Provinces was recognized as a sovereign state and received
from Portugal the right to have outposts in Brazil and Indonesia and
gain greater control over maritime trade; closure of the Scheldt to
ocean-going vessels was confirmed.
Students may discuss how advances in military organization (e.g.,
the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus) led to more organized
armies (regiments) where the central authority wielded more control
instead of nobles/mercenary commanders. Gustavus Adolphus also
implemented new tactics with more flexible lines of pikemen and
muskets and more mobile artillery. Improved military training led to
more professionalized fighting forces that were not disbanded at the
end of the war or the campaign season. With Wallenstein we see the
approach to warfare as a business for personal aggrandizement with
more enforced rules of engagement.

Army size increased significantly. During the Thirty Years War, the
French army had 125,000 men and grew to 250,000 by the Dutch
War (1672-78). The Swedish army had 150,000 men by 1632
(growth due to conscription).
All of this required supporting bureaucracies to expand, as well as
increased taxes, placing new burdens on the populations, especially
the lower orders.

- Compare and contrast the economic and social development of Russia

with that of the Netherlands in the period 16001725.(2010b)
The purpose of this question is to investigate the similarities and
differences in Dutch and Russian socioeconomic development from 1600
to 1725. Though the time parameter begins in 1600, the majority of the
essays will focus primarily on the periods after 1648 in the Netherlands
and after 1689 in Russia. The year 1725 saw the death of Peter the Great,
so this is a clue as to the focus of many of the essays. There are obviously
more profound differences than there are similarities between the Dutch
Republic and Russia. For this reason the essays will appear somewhat
unbalanced, focusing more on contrasting than on comparing. In the spirit
of the prompt, however, essays that receive scores in the higher ranges
must both compare and contrast.
In the 17th century four common themes characterized both the Dutch
Republic and Russia:
Both were faced with the challenge of restive nobility.
Both were struggling to finance massive military expenditures.
Both were trying to make their economies modern to compete with
powerful neighbors.
Both were experimenting with ways to increase government revenues.
Because of the common fiscal issues similar to both countries, discussion
of similarities will focus much more on economic issues than on social
issues.
On closer examination, the Dutch Republic and Russia were far more
different than they were similar:
Russia had a relatively large noble class 7 percent of the population;
the nobility in Holland was restricted primarily to two thousand families
out of a population of roughly two million.
Russia was desperately trying to domesticate a large and dangerous
boyar class; the primary challenge to the Dutch government from the
nobility was found in the States General.
Peter the Great was trying to transform the Russian service nobility
from a social class based on blood to an aristocracy based on merit;
the nobility of the Netherlands was defined by commercial excellence.
Russia was clamping down on its serfs after numerous Cossack and
agrarian revolts; serfdom in the Netherlands had disappeared almost
two centuries earlier.

Russia was a rigidly stratified society divided between noble and serf;
the Dutch Republic was socially much more fluid and dynamic.
Women in Russia were a major source of labor; women in the Dutch
Republic were beginning to emerge as a truly modern class of leisure.
There was no commercial class in Russia; the middle class in the
Netherlands was what virtually defined the country.
Russia was primarily agricultural; the Netherlands was the worlds
leader in commerce and mercantilist polices.
Russia was frozen in a backwater of medieval agricultural practices; the
Netherlands was the worlds economic leader.
Russia was trying to secularize the Church and rein in the Old
Believers; the Dutch Reformed Church had been an institution of
religious toleration for over a century.

Notes from essay

First half of 17th century Netherlands golden age; time of great
prosperity and wealth; banking (Bank of Amsterdam); shipping; colonies in
East Asia; Dutch East India Company
First half of 17th century Russia backwards, agricultural society, political
instability; 200 years of rule by the Mongols had made the country socially
and economically backward. Although they had vast amounts of land and
resources, the Russians were plagued by tyrants such as Ivan the terrible
and political debacles such as assassinations.
Second half of 17th century Netherlands started losing its economic
position due to England and France who tried to sabotage Dutch success.
But it still remained reasonably strong economically.
Late 17th century Peter the Great undertook extensive reforms in an
attempt to establish Russia as a great nation. He created a strong navy,
reorganised army according to Western standards, secularised schools,
administered greater control over the reactionary Orthodox Church. He
focussed on development of science and on developing commerce and
industry. He created a gentrified bourgeoisie population. Through several
wars with Turkey he secured access to the Black Sea. In 1709 he defeated
the Swedish army. In 1712 he established the city of St. Petersburg
(Window to the West)and moved the capital there from its former location
in Moscow. He died in 1725.
- Compare and contrast how TWO of the following states attempted to
hold together their empires in the period circa 1850 to 1914; AustriaHungary; Russia; Ottoman Empire (2010)
Overview
This question asked students to compare and contrast the attempts of two of three states
(Austria- Hungary, Russia, Ottoman Empire) to hold together their empires in the period circa
1850 to 1914. Students were expected to identify problems common to those states and

compare and contrast the attempts made to maintain imperial power. The intent was not only
to assess students knowledge of late- 19th- to early-20th-century history, but also to
encourage attention to Eastern Europe.
Score: 9
This essay has a well-developed thesis and makes excellent comparisons and contrasts. It
provides great information on the Ottoman Empire and refers to atrocities against the
Bulgarians and Armenians. It also provides relevant information on Austria-Hungary,
revealing the depth of the students understanding (as demonstrated by the explanation of the
alliance with Germany). The level of sophistication exceeds that of most other essays.
ESSAY
During the late 1800s and early 1900s many Empires such as Britain and France were on
the rise. However, others particularly the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were
disintegrating and collapsing from within and without , despite their best attempts to maintain
power and control over their people. Although both differed in the manner in which they
attempted to appease the nationalistic ambitions of ethnic minorities within their Empires,
they both nevertheless used violence and an alliance with Germany to maintain their position
of power.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, nationalism drove many ethnic minorities in the
Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires to demand more freedom. The Hapsburg rulers in
Austria did little to appease the nationalistic ambitions of its many ethnicities including the
Croats, Slovaks and Serbs. The furthest they went was to establish a dual monarchy with
Austria and Hungary having two separate legislatures but the same king. Tis was done as
Hungarians or Magyars were the largest minority in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The
Ottoman Empire on the other hand, was willing to grant autonomy or even independence to
various ethnicities in their empire to appease nationalists, be they Greece, Serbia or Egypt.
Many of these former Ottoman territories such as Greece and Serbia would fight their former
master as the Ottomans desperately held on to whatever territories they still possessed.
Understandably the Austro-Hungarians and Ottomans were not always so passive in
attempting to retain power as they fought a number of wars in order to grip onto their slipping
power. Austria for instance fought several wars with Prussia throughout the mid-1800s in
order to attempt securing power in Central Europe. They also violently quelled revolt and
rebellions throughout the Balkans and Poland. The Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, was
often attacked by other nations around it. Greece, for example, fought several wars against
the Ottomans in order to reclaim and liberate Greeks in other parts of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia, as another example, began the Crimean war as an attempt to wrestle parts of the
Balkans. The Ottomans all the while, desperately fought these defensive wars to protect their

However, the Ottomans also used violence to deal with internal unrest as well. For eg,.
Ottoman troops committed numerous atrocities against Bulgarians during mid to late 1800s in
an attempt to solidify Ottoman rule there. The Controversial Armenian Genocide, for
instance, was also another attempt to pacify an ethnic minority within the empire.

Regardless, as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire declined even further, both looked
to Germany in order to improve their own situation. The Austrians entered into an alliance
with their former archenemy Germany who gave them a blank check. The ottomans allowed
Germany to assist in industrialization and building of railroads throughout the MiddleEast.
However, the alliance these two nations had with Germany made them join the Central
powers in WWI. Although the alliance these two nations had with Germany gave them a few
more years to survive, in the end it was for naught as the central powers lost WWI and these
two Empires were dissolved. The austro-Hungarian empire dissolved into several states,
including Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia all of which would play a relatively minor
role in global affairs for the rest of history. The Ottoman empire collapsed, its monarchy
disbanded; its successor state Turkey was in fact so weakened that Greece itself was almost
able to recapture Constantinople during the Greek-Turkish war of 1920-1923 and in a way
symbolically re-establish the Byzantine Empire. Had they succeeded the Ottomans
wouldalmost have definitely been delivered a symbolic death blow.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND NOTES

Austria-Hungary

Following upheavals of revolutions of 1848, Austria-Hungary imposed martial law

and issued a Patent of 1851 to restore absolutism.

Francis Joseph ruled 18481916.

1850s wave of centralization brought improvements aimed at dissuading people

from liberty: reform of legal system; creation of free trading area within the empire;
subsidized highways and railroad construction.

1855 Bach signed Concordat with Catholic Church, restoring privileges and
extending ecclesiastical authority; banned Protestant teachers from Catholic schools;
banned civil marriages; limited Jews rights to property.

Professional armies under Jelacic, Radetzky and Windischgratz crushed rebellions in

Bohemia, Hungary and Northern Italy.

Emerged as one of the two dominant powers for German unification.

1859 defeated by French and Piedmontese.

1860 (October) Diploma reestablished conservative federalism.

1861 (February) Patent constitution, bicameral parliament, maintained German

dominance, kept German-speaking bureaucracy.

1866 Austro-Prussian War attempted to promote German-speaking dominance;

reflected reliance on German-speaking bureaucracy and middle class for support.

Repression of ethnic minorities and political opposition:

o Germans35percent
o Magyars23percent
o Czechs23percent
o Romanians19percent

1867 Ausgleich created Dual Monarchy, allowed Hungarian to be language of

administration in Hungary, limited rights of emperor as king of Hungary, and gave
more power to nobility. Hungarians ruled domestic policy; Austria retained control of
foreign policy, military, common system of finances. Austria received a constitution
establishing a parliamentary system with the principle of ministerial responsibility,
but Francis Joseph largely ignored or bypassed this.

1867 full legal rights were extended to Jews.

1868 Nationality Law gave rights to languages in schools, churches, government

offices; Croatia was given semiautonomy.

1882 Dual Alliance (with Germany) became Triple Alliance.

1903 Hungary demanded separation of Hungary's army from the Imperial Army;
Francis Joseph threatened imposition of universal male suffrage.

1907 universal male suffrage introduced in Austria. Two strong parties gradually
emerged: Social Democrats and Christian Socialists.

1908 Bosnian Crisis.

1914 Francis Ferdinand assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black

Hand, a Serbian nationalist group.

Russia
Tsars
o AlexanderI(18011825)
o NicholasI(18251855)
o AlexanderII(18551881)
o AlexanderIII(18811894)
o NicholasII(18941917)

Increased distrust of Western bourgeois life was evident, particularly among

Slavophiles.

1856 defeated in Crimean War, followed by Peace of Paris: Russia gave up

Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia and accepted neutrality of Black Sea.

18601870s Expanded eastward across Siberia to Vladivostok.

1861 serfs emancipated; replaced services owed to nobles with taxes to the state.

1863 Polish uprising, repressed by Russia. Russification was initiated; Russian

law, language and administration were imposed on all areas of life.

1864 Polish serfs were emancipated to punish the nobility.

1864 Alexander II established Zemstvos (district or village assemblies).

1870 Alexander II established dumas (councils) with authority to assess taxes and
establish education and public services. He also created local and provincial courts,
and a judicial code that accepted the idea of equality before the law.

Populism, or the Peoples Will, based on ideas of village commune-based society

promoted by Alexander Herzen and more militant individuals and groups, such as
Vera Zasulich, wanted to overthrow the autocracy.

The military was modernized, but Third Section police were retained, and there was
increased use of secret court martials for political cases.

18751914 levels of violent anti-Semitism increased in the last quarter of the 19th
century. Persecutions and pogroms were widespread, leading to increased levels of
emigration. Between 1881 and 1889 an average of 23,000 Jews left Russia each year.

1878 Treaty of San Stefano with Turkey created large independent state of
Bulgaria, which Russia would dominate. In reaction, Congress of Berlin (1878)
reduced Bulgaria and recognized Serbia, Montenegro and Romania as independent
states.

Invasion was undertaken of Turkestan, smaller Muslim states and Afghanistan, which
Britain made a puppet monarchy.

Protective tariffs, promoted by Sergei Witte and foreign investment, enabled largescale industrialization, especially in steel production.

Alexander II responded to increasing agitation from Nihilists by disbanding the Third

Section.

1881 Alexander III thought reform was a mistake and expanded secret police
powers and pursued Russification program.

1881 Russia rejoined the resurrected Three Emperors League.

1887 Reinsurance Treaty with Germany.

1892 Alliance with France (later Britain as well).

Industrialization increased; by 1900, 35,000 miles of railway were constructed,

including large parts of the trans-Siberian connection between Moscow and
Vladivostok.

1903 Lenin forced a split in the Russian Social Democratic Party ranks at the
London Congress into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

Russo-Japanese War 1904-05 resulted in loss of prestige; food shortages (brought on

by transport needed for war) led to protest and unrest.

Bloody Sunday tsars troops fired on a peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds,

wounding thousands. Led to calls for strikes and unions. Responses: October
Manifesto (in 1906 modified by the Fundamental Laws).

The Duma and an Upper House, half of whose members would be appointed by the
tsar, were re- created. Land reforms under Peter Stolypin opened the doorway for
private ownership of land (no more village ownership).

1912 Bolsheviks organized their own party, based on Lenin's program of

leadership by a party elite, and a dual social revolution (discontent in countryside and
among the proletariat).

Ottoman Empire

1853 war with Russia in the Crimea erupted when Russia demanded the right to
protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a right already granted to the French.

1854 Great Britain and France declared war on Russia.

1856 Treaty of Paris admitted Turkey to European concert and promised to respect
independence of the empire.

18561876 Hatt-i-Humayun
o created Ottoman national citizenship for all persons in the empire;
o ended the civil authority of religious hierarchy;
o recognized equality before the law (regardless of religious affiliation);
o opened the army to both Muslims and Christians
o reformed taxation policy and secured property rights;
o promoted the abolition of torture and prison reform ;and
o attempted to battle graft and inefficiency in the government.

1860 insurrection in Syria and conflict between Muslim Druses and Maronite
Christians intervention by France restored order.

18611876 Abdul Aziz reign included rapid spread of Western influence, building
of railroads from Danube to Black Sea, increased literary output, journalism, and
increased calls for liberal reforms.

1863 Banque Imperiale Ottomane founded.

1864 Vilayet Law reorganization established larger provinces under governorsgeneral, with subdivisions beneath.

1867 Abdul Aziz visited Great Exposition at Paris; first sultan to travel abroad.

1867 Suez Canal opened.

1875 uprising occurred in Bosnia.

1876 April Uprising of Bulgarians was violently crushed; thousands of Bulgarians

were slaughtered.

1876 Abdul Aziz was deposed; eventually replaced by Abdul Hamid II. Later that
year a constitution was proclaimed, guaranteeing freedom of conscience, individual
liberty, freedom of press, education, representative government, equality in taxation.
The reform process is known as the Tanzimat.

1878 Treaty of San Stefano created the large independent state of Bulgaria, which
Russia would dominate; a product of pan-Slavism.

Reaction: Congress of Berlin (1878) reduced Bulgaria and recognized Serbia,

Montenegro and Romania as independent states.

The Tanzimat was largely set aside by the sultan, who tried to use Islam to counteract
the forces of nationalism in the empire. His actions only fed the desire for Turkish
nationalism.

1881 French occupied Tunis.

1882 British occupied Egypt.

1888 Railway from Hungary to Constantinople was opened.

1889 Committee of Union and Progress (a.k.a. Young Turks) was formed; found
support in bureaucracy and army.

18901897 Armenian Revolutionary movement. In 1894-95 about 200,000

Armenians were slaughtered in eastern Anatolia in response to Turkish fears about
Armenian nationalism.

1908 revolution led by Young Turks led to reimposition of the Constitution. Abdul
Hamid II supported a counterrevolution.

1909 Abdul Hamid II was deposed. His replacement, his brother Mohammed V,
was weak and helpless. He lasted until the fall of the empire in 1918.

1912 First Balkan War.

1913 Second Balkan War.