Q1.

Explain Basic Sun and earth angles, Altitude angle, Zenith angle, solar azimuth angle and
Incident angle? [6]
The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation relative to the earth at
any time (whether that plane is fixed or moving relative to the earth) and the incoming beam
solar radiation, that is, the position of the sun relative to that plane, can be described in terms of
several angles (Benford and Bock, 1939). Some of the angles are indicated in Figure 1.6.1. The
angles and a set of consistent sign conventions are as follows: Latitude, the angular location
north or south of the equator, north positive; 90 90. Declination, the angular position
of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the sun is on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of
the equator, north positive; 23.45 23.45. Slope, the angle between the plane of the
surface in question and the horizontal; 0 180. ( > 90 means that the surface has a
downward-facing component.)

= Surface azimuth angle, the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the normal to
the surface from the local meridian, with zero due south, east negative, and west positive; 180
180.
= Hour angle, the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to
rotation of the earth on its axis at 15 per hour; morning negative, afternoon positive.
= Angle of incidence, the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the normal to that
surface. Additional angles are defined that describe the position of the sun in the sky:
z = Zenith angle, the angle between the vertical and the line to the sun, that is, the angle of
incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.
s= Solar altitude angle, the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun, that is, the
complement of the zenith angle.
s = Solar azimuth angle, the angular displacement from south of the projection of beam
radiation on the horizontal plane, shown in Figure 1.6.1. Displacements east of south are
negative and west of south are positive.

Q2. Demonstrate types of solar radiation, and measuring devices (Pyrheliometer and
Pyranometer) with detail? [6].
A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on a planar surface
and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (W/m2) from the hemisphere above
within a wavelength range 0.3 m to 3 m. The name pyranometer stems from the Greek words
(pyr), meaning "fire", and (ano), meaning above sky.

A solar radiation sensor that can be applied in scientific grade solar radiation observations. It
complies with the secondary standard specifications within the latest ISO and WMO standards.
The scientific name of this instrument is pyranometer. A thermopile pyranometer is a sensor
based on thermopiles designed to measure the broadband of the solar radiation flux density from
a 180 field of view angle. A thermopile pyranometer thus usually measures 300 to 2800 nm with
a largely flat spectral sensitivity (see the Spectral Response graph) the first generation of
thermopile pyranometers had the active part of the sensor equally divided in black and white
sectors. Irradiation was calculated from the differential measure between the temperature of the
black sectors, exposed to the sun, and the temperature of the white sectors, sectors not exposed to
the sun or better said in the shades. In all thermopile technology, irradiation is proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the sun exposed area and the temperature of the shadow
area.
Design
In order to attain the proper directional and spectral characteristics, a thermopile pyranometer is
constructed with the following main components:

Line drawing overview of a thermopile pyranometer, including: (1) cable; (2) thumb screw for
the sun screen; (3) inner dome; (4) thermal sensor; (5) outer dome; (6) sun screen; (7) humidity
indicator; (8) desiccant holder; (9) levelling feet; (10) bubble level

A thermopile sensor [2] with a black coating. It absorbs all solar radiation, has a flat spectrum
covering the 300 to 50,000 nanometer range, and has a near-perfect cosine response.
A glass dome. It limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers (cutting off the part
above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 180 field of view. It also shields the thermopile sensor
from convection.
In the modern thermopile pyranometers the active (hot) junctions of the thermopile are located
beneath the black coating surface and are heated by the radiation absorbed from the black
coating.[3] The passive (cold) junctions of the thermopile are fully protected from solar radiation
and in thermal contact with the pyranometer housing, which serves as a heat-sink. This prevents
any alteration from yellowing or decay when measuring the temperature in the shade, thus
impairing the measure of the solar irradiance. The thermopile generates a small voltage in
proportion to the temperature difference between the black coating surface and the instrument
housing. This is of the order of 10 VW/m2. Typically, on a sunny day the output is around 10
mV. Each pyranometer has a unique sensitivity, unless otherwise equipped with a board
for signal calibration.
Pyrheliometer A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar
irradiance Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto
a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal voltage
is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre.It is used with a solar tracking
system to keep the instrument aimed at the sun
Q3. Explain solar collector, Explain flat plate collectors and working process and sketches their
diagram? [6]
A solar collector is a special kind of heat exchanger that transforms solar radiant energy into
heat. A solar collector differs in several respects from more conventional heat exchangers.
The latter usually accomplish a fluid-to-fluid exchange with high heat transfer rates and with
radiation as an unimportant factor. In the solar collector, energy transfer is from a distant
source of radiant energy to a fluid. The flux of incident radiation is, at best, approximately
1100 W/m2 (without optical concentration), and it is variable.
The wavelength range is from 0.3 to 3 m, which is considerably shorter than that of the
emitted radiation from most energy-absorbing surfaces. Thus, the analysis of solar collectors
presents unique problems of low and variable energy fluxes and the relatively large
importance of radiation.
Flat-plate collectors can be designed for applications requiring energy delivery at moderate
temperatures, up to perhaps 100C above ambient temperature.
In steady state, the performance of a solar collector is described by an energy balance that
indicates the distribution of incident solar energy into useful energy gain, thermal losses,
and optical losses. The solar radiation absorbed by a collector per unit area of absorber S is
equal to the difference between the incident solar radiation and the optical losses as defined
by Equation 5.9.1. The thermal energy lost from the collector to the surroundings by
conduction, convection, and infrared radiation can be represented as the product of a heat
transfer coefficient UL times the difference between the mean absorber plate temperature
Tpm and the ambient temperature Ta. In steady state the useful energy output of a collector
of area Ac is the difference between the absorbed solar radiation and the thermal loss:
Qu = Ac[S UL(TpmTa)]

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS

Thus the temperature midway between the tubes will be higher than the temperature in the
vicinity of the tubes. The temperature above the tubes will be nearly uniform because of the
presence of the tube and weld metal. The energy transferred to the fluid will heat the fluid,
causing a temperature gradient to exist in the direction of flow. Since in any region of the
collector the general temperature level is governed by the local temperature level of the
fluid, a situation as shown in

Q4. Determine the solar time and declination angle at Madison Wisconsin city what is the solar
time corresponding to 10:30 AM central time on February 3, where the city longitude is 89.4
and the standard meridian is 90?

Q5. Estimate the average solar radiation Hav over a horizontal surface for a June 24 at the latitude
of 100 N, if a=0.3, b=0.51 and value of n/N=0.55?