Part I

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the branch of physical sciences that studies the transfer of heat and
the inter-conversion of heat and work.
Applications of Thermodynamics
1) All types of vehicles that we use cars, motorcycles, trucks, ships, airplanes, and many
other types work on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.
2) All refrigerators, deep freezers, industrial refrigeration system, all types of airconditioning systems, heat pumps, etc.
3) All types of air and gas compressors, blowers, fans run on various thermodynamic
cycles.
4) One of the important fields of thermodynamics is heat transfer, which relates to
transfer of heat between two media. The concept of heat transfer is used in wide range
of devices like heat exchangers, evaporators, condensers, radiators, coolers, heaters,
etc.
5) Thermodynamics also involves study of various types of power plants like thermal
power plant, nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants, power plants based on
renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, tides, etc.
6) Renewable energy is an important subject area of thermodynamics that involves
studying the feasibility of using different types of renewable energy sources for
domestic and commercial use.
Basic Principles and Concepts
Working Substance a fluid in which energy can be stored or from which it can be removed
Fluid is a substance characterized by low resistance to flow and tendency to assume the shape
of its container
Pure Substance is one that is uniform an invariable in chemical composition
Equilibrium is a condition of complete balance
a) mechanical equilibrium
b) thermal equilibrium

b) phase equilibrium
d) chemical equilibrium

System is a region enclosed by specified boundaries

a) Closed system

b) Open System

Surroundings external to the system

Boundary a partition that separates the system from the surroundings
Property is a macroscopic characteristics of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure,
and temperature
a) intensive property those which are independent of mass (specific volume, pressure,
temperature)
b) extensive properties those which are dependent of mass (mass, volume, energy)
State refers to the condition of the system as described by its properties
Process is a transformation from one state to another

Steady State if the system do not exhibit change of its properties with time
Thermodynamic Cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state

Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force

Derived Units

Mass
Length
Time
Force
Pressure

SI Units
Kilogram (kg)
Meter (m)
Second (s)
Newton (N)
Pascal (Pa)

Energy
Work
Power

Joule (J)
Joule (J)
Watt (W)

N-m
N-m
J/s

(kg-m)/s2
N/m2

English Units
Slug, Pound (lbm)
Foot (ft)
Second (s)
Pound (lbf)
psf (lbf/ft2),
psi (lbf/in2)
Btu
Btu
hp

Derived Units

32.2 (lbm-ft)/s2
778 lbf - ft
778 lbf - ft
550 (lbf ft)/s

Properties of Matter
Density

= mass/volume

kg/m3, lbm/ft3

Specific Volume

= volume/mass

Specific Weight

= weight/volume = (mass x gravity)/volume

kN/m3, lbf/ft3

Pressure force applied normal to a unit area

1atm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 760 mmHg = 29.92 inHg
absolute pressure - The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute
pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Pabs = Patm + Pgage

Pabs = 0 = absolute vacuum

gage pressure - Gage pressure is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. In
other words, how much above or below is the pressure with respect to the atmospheric
pressure.
fluid pressure the pressure exerted due to a column of a fluid
P = (specific weight)(height of fluid)
vacuum pressure - Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures
and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric

pressure and the absolute pressure.

atmospheric pressure - The atmospheric pressure is the pressure that an area
experiences due to the force exerted by the atmosphere.