Introduction To Biostatistics (In Arabic)

Introduction to Biostatistics, University of Damascus Dental School
Introduction to
Biostatistics
( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow
1
Statisticians Image
Dull, dry, humorless
Speaks in technical jargon that no one
understands
Wears thick glasses and carries a
calculator in the pocket
Inflexible ( always says You cant do
that!)
Dr Mohammad Y Hajeer, DDS, MSc, PhD
Statisticians Image
Spends Thursday nights in the library
Favorite Movie: Revenge of the Nerds
Doesnt play golf

A necessary evil
SMART!
A statistician is a person that is good

with numbers but that lacks the
personality to become an
accountant.
The opposite sex ignores us because

we are boring.
It was God that made me so beautiful.

If I werent, then Id be a teacher.
Supermodel Linda Evangelista
Bio-Sadistics
Instead of
Bio-statistics
In God we trust.
All others must bring data.

....
Statistical thinking will one

day be as necessary for
efficient citizenship as the
ability to read and write.
H.G. Wells
10
Challenges
Statistical ideas can be intimidating

and difficult
Thus:
Statistical results are often skippedover when reading scientific literature
Data is often mis-interpreted
11
Mis-Interpretation of Data
On average, my class is doing well.
Half of my students think that
2+2=3, the other half thinks that
2+2=5.
12
You may think that:

A Bar Chart is a map of the locations of
the nearest taverns
A p-value is the result of a urinalysis
Martingale residuals are the droppings of
a rare bird
A t-test is a blinded taste test between
black and green tea
13
Data
Pieces of information
Scales of Measurement
Nominal unordered categories
Ordinal ordered categories
Discrete only whole numbers are
possible, order and magnitude matters
Continuous any value is conceivable
14
Data
Many errors in research arise from a
poor planning (e.g., data collection)
Fancy statistical methods cannot
rescue garbage data
Careful planning is prudent
15
Data
Collect exact values whenever possible
Standardize data collection
Consistency
Training on test administration and data collection
Central labs
Central reading of imaging, etc.
16
Statistics

The science of collecting,
monitoring, analyzing, summarizing,
and interpreting data
This includes study design
17
Biostatistics

Statistics applied to biological (life)
problems, including:
Public health
Medicine
Ecological and environmental
Much more statistics than biology,

however biostatisticians must learn the
biology as well
18
Biostatistician Roles

Identify and develop treatments for
disease and estimate their effects.
Identify risk factors for diseases.
Design, monitor, analyze, interpret, and
report results of clinical studies.
Develop statistical methodologies to

address questions arising from
medical/public health data.
19
Why Can it be Interesting?

Combines rigors of mathematics with
uncertainties of the real world.
Can make contribution to advancement of

science, statistics, medicine, and public health.
Can study diseases/health problems in which you
may have an interest (cancers, HIV, reproductive
health, ).
20
Challenge
...
Much of life is composed of a systematic

component (i.e., signal) and a random
component (i.e., error or noise)
Example:
Smoking is associated with lung cancer.

Yet not everyone that smokes, gets lung
cancer, and not everyone that gets lung
cancer, smokes
Yet we know that there is an association (a
systematic component)
21
A Challenge
Our challenge
Identify the systematic component
(separate it from the random
component), estimate it, and perhaps
make inferences with it
22
The Big Picture

Populations and Samples
Sample / Statistics
x, s, s2
Population
Parameters
, , 2
23
Populations and Parameters

Population
A group of individuals that we would like to
know something about
Parameter
A characteristic of the population in which we
have a particular interest
Often denoted with Greek letters (, , )
Examples:
The proportion of the population that would respond to

a certain drug
The association between a risk factor and a disease in
a population
24
Samples and Statistics

Sample
A subset of a population (hopefully
representative)
Statistic
A characteristic of the sample
Examples:
The observed proportion of the sample that responds

to treatment
The observed association between a risk factor and a
disease in this sample
25
Populations and Samples

Studying populations is too expensive and
time-consuming, and thus impractical
If a sample is representative of the
population, then by observing the sample
we can learn something about the
population
And thus by looking at the characteristics of
the sample (statistics), we may learn
something about the characteristics of the
population (parameters)
26
Statistical Analyses

Two steps
Descriptive Statistics
Describe the sample
Inference
Make inferences about the population using
what is observed in the sample
Primarily performed in two ways:
Hypothesis testing
Estimation
27
Issues

Samples are random
If we had chosen a different sample,
then we would obtain different
statistics (sampling variation or random
variation)
However, note that we are trying to
estimate the same (constant) population
parameters
28
Step I Descriptive Statistics

Describe the Sample
Begin one variable at a time
Describe important variables in your
analyses (e.g., endpoints,
demographics, confounders, etc.)
29
Types of Data
Several types of data
Nominal
Ordinal
Discrete -
Continuous
Time-to-event with censoring
The type of data influences the analysis

methods to be employed
30
Nominal Data

Mutually exclusive unordered categories
Examples
Sex (male, female)
Race/ethnicity (white, black, latino, asian, native
american, etc.)
Site
Can summarize in:

Tables using counts and percentages
Bar chart/graph
31
Ordinal Data

Ordered Categories
Examples
Adverse events
Mild, moderate, severe, life-threatening,
death
Income
Low, medium, high
32
Discrete Data
Often only integer numbers are possible

If there are many different discrete
values, then discrete data is often treated
as continuous
Examples: CD4 count, HIV viral load
If there are very few discrete values, then

discrete data is often treated as ordinal
33
Continuous Data

Any value on the continuum is possible
(even fractions or decimals)
Examples:
Height
Weight
Many discrete variables are often treated as
continuous
Examples: CD4 count, viral load
34
Survival Data
Time to an event (continuous variable)
The event does not have to be survival
Concept of Censoring
If we follow a person until the event, then the survival

time is clear
If we follow someone for a length of time but the event
does not occur, the the time is censored (but we still
have partial information; namely that the event did not
occur during the follow up period)
Examples: time to progression (cancer), time to

response, time to relapse, time to death
35
Introduction toDATASET:
Biostatistics, University
of Damascus
Dentalof
School
EXAMPLE
Evans SR,
et. al, Journal
Clinical Oncology, 2002

Obs
AGE
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SEX
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
RACE
CAUSE OF DEATH
Black Non-Hispanic
MAI/MAC Disease
Black Non-Hispanic
.
Black Non-Hispanic
HIV Progression-Other
White Non-Hispanic
.
Black Non-Hispanic
.
Black Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
Hispanic (Regardless of Race)
.
Black Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
.
White Non-Hispanic
Other
White Non-Hispanic
.
.
.
.
.
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
Kaposi's Sarcoma
White Non-Hispanic
CMV Disease
White Non-Hispanic
Kaposi's Sarcoma
White Non-Hispanic
Suicide
White Non-Hispanic
Other Clinical-Non-HIV
White Non-Hispanic
Other Clinical-Non-HIV
White Non-Hispanic
PCP
White Non-Hispanic
.
White Non-Hispanic
Other
White Non-Hispanic
PCP
White
Non-Hispanic
.
Scott Evans, Ph.D., Lynne Peeples, M.S.
36
Data Summaries

It is ALWAYS a good idea to summarize
your data (at least for important
variables)
You become familiar with the data and the
characteristics of the sample that you are
studying
You can also identify problems with data
collection or errors in the data (data
management issues)
Range checks for illogical values
37
Visual Data Summaries

Some visual ways to summarize data
(one variable at a time):
Tables
Graphs
Bar charts
Histograms
Box plots
38
Frequency Tables

Summarizes a variable with counts
and percentages
The variable is categorical (e.g.,
nominal or ordinal)
39
Frequency Table Cause of Death

Cause of Death Frequency
Percent
Motor Vehicle
48
48
Drowning
14
14
House Fire
12
12
Other
19
19
Total
100
100
Homicide
40
Frequency Tables
Note that you can take a continuous
variable and create categories with
it
How do you create categories for a
continuous variable?
Choose cutoffs that are biologically
meaningful
Natural breaks in the data
Precedent from prior research
41
Example: Serum Cholesterol Levels
How to choose the categories?

Talk to physician about risk categories
May look at National Cholesterol
Education Program (NCEP) guidelines
and categories
42
Frequencies of serum cholesterol levels

Cumulative
Cholesterol level
Cumulative Relative
Relative
(mg/100 ml)
Frequency Frequency Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
_______________________________________________________________
80-119
13
13
1.2
1.2
120-159
150
163
14.1
15.3
160-199
442
605
41.4
56.7
200-239
299
904
28.0
84.7
240-279
115
1019
10.8
95.5
280-319
34
1053
3.2
98.7
320-360
9
1062
0.8
99.5
360-399
5
1067
0.5
100.0
_______________________________________________________________
Total
1067
100.0
Note. The choice of intervals (and cut-off values) in a frequency table is
very important. However, there are no established rules for determining
them.
43
Graphical Summaries

Bar Graphs
Nominal data
No order to horizontal axis
Histograms
Continuous or ordinal data on horizontal axis
Box Plots
Continuous data
44
Bar Chart Cause of Death
Frequency
60
40
20
0
Motor Vehicle
Drowning
House Fire
Homicide
Other
Cause of Death
45
Histogram Cigarette
Consumption (1900-1990)
Cigarette consumption
4000
3000
2000
1000
1900
1920
1910
1940
1930
1960
1950
1980
1970
1990
Cigarette consumption between 1900 and 1990

46
The Box Plot
Follow these steps in order to produce a box plot:

1.
Calculate the median m
2.
Calculate the first and third quartile Q1 and Q3
3.
Compute the inter-quartile range IQR=Q3-Q1
4.
Find the lower fence LF=Q1-1.5*IQR
5.
Find the upper fence UF=Q3+1.5*IQR
6.
Find the lower adjacent value LAV=smallest value in the data that is
greater or equal to the lower fence
7.
Find the upper adjacent value UAV=largest value in the data that is smaller
or equal to the upper fence
8.
Any value outside the LAV or UAV is called an outlier and should receive
extra attention
47
Box Plot Depression Scores

depscore
20
15
10
'Box plot of Koopmans depression scores'

48
Box Plot
The width of the plot has no
meaning
25%
25%
25%
25%
of
of
of
of
the
the
the
the
data
data
data
data
<13
13-16
16-18
>18
49

myhajeer@gmail.com
Dr Mohammad Younis Hajeer, DDS, MSc, PhD
50
Introduction to Biostatistics
Part II
( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow

Biostatistics
(a portmanteau word made from biology and
statistics)
The application of statistics to a wide range of topics
in biology.
Biostatistics
It is the science which deals with development and
application of the most appropriate methods for
the:
Collection of data.
Presentation of the collected data.

Analysis and interpretation of the results.

Making decisions on the basis of such analysis

Other definitions for Statistics
Frequently used in referral to recorded data

Denotes characteristics calculated for a set of data :
sample mean
Role of statisticians
To guide the design of an experiment or survey

prior to data collection
To analyze data using
procedures and techniques
proper
statistical
To present and interpret the results to researchers

and other decision makers
Sources of
data
Records
Comprehensive
Surveys
Experiments
Sample
Types of data
Constant
Variables
Types of variables
Quantitative variables
Qualitative variables
) (
Quantitative
continuos
Quantitative
descrete
Qualitative
nominal
Qualitative
ordinal
Methods of presentation of data

presentation
Numerical
presentation
Graphical
Mathematical
presentation
( )
1- Numerical presentation
Tabular presentation (simple complex)
Simple frequency distribution Table (S.F.D.T.)
Name of variable
(Units of variable)
- Categories
Total
Title
Frequency
Table (I): Distribution of 50 patients at the surgical

department of National Hospital of Hamah in May
2008 according to their ABO blood groups
Blood group
A
B
AB
O
Total
Frequency
12
18
5
15
50
24
36
10
30
100
Table (II): Distribution of 50 patients at the surgical

department of National Hospital of Hamah in May
2008 according to their age
Age
(years)
20-<30
304050+
Total
Frequency
12
18
5
15
50
24
36
10
30
100
Complex frequency distribution Table

Table (III): Distribution of 20 lung cancer patients at the chest
department of National Hospital of Hamah and 40 controls in May 2008
according to smoking
Lung cancer
Cases
Control
No.
%
No.
%
No.
Smoker
15
75%
20%
23
38.33
Non
smoker
25%
32
80%
37
61.67
Total
20
100
40
100
60
100
Smoking
Total
Complex frequency distribution Table

Table (IV): Distribution of 60 patients at the chest department of
National Hospital of Hamah in May 2008 according to smoking &
lung cancer
Lung cancer
positive
negative
No.
%
No.
%
No.
Smoker
15
65.2
34.8
23
100
Non
smoker
13.5
32
86.5
37
100
Total
20
33.3
40
66.7
60
100
Smoking
Total
2- Graphical presentation
Graphs drawn using Cartesian coordinates
Line graph
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Histogram
Bar graph
Scatter plot
Pie chart
Statistical maps
rules
Line Graph
MMR/1000
Year MMR
1960 50
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Year
1960
1970
1980
1990
1970
45
1980
26
1990
15
2000
12
2000
Figure (1): Maternal mortality rate of (country),

1960-2000
Frequency polygon
Age
(years)
Males
Females
20 -
3 (12%)
2 (10%)
(20+30) / 2 = 25
30 -
9 (36%)
6 (30%)
(30+40) / 2 = 35
40-
7 (8%)
5 (25%)
(40+50) / 2 = 45
50 -
4 (16%)
3 (15%)
(50+60) / 2 = 55
60 - 70
2 (8%)
4 (20%)
(60+70) / 2 = 65
Total
Sex
Mid-point of interval
25(100%) 20(100%)
Frequency polygon
Males
Females
%
40
Age
35
30
Sex
M
M-P
25
20-
(12%)
(10%)
25
20
30-
(36%)
(30%)
35
15
40-
(8%)
(25%)
45
10
50-
(16%)
(15%)
55
60-70
(8%)
(20%)
65
Age
25
35
45
55
65
Figure (2): Distribution of 45 patients at (place) , in

(time) by age and sex
Frequency curve
Frequency
9
8
Female
Male
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
20-
30-
40-
Age in years
50-
60-69
Histogram
% 35
Distribution of a group of cholera patients by age
30
25
Age (years)
Frequency
2530404560-65
3
5
7
4
2
14.3
23.8
33.3
19.0
9.5
Total
21
100
20
15
10
25
30
40
45
60
65
Age (years)
Figure (2): Distribution of 100 cholera patients at (place) , in (time)

by age
Bar chart .....

%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Single Married DivorcedWidowed
%
Bar chart
%
50
Male
Female
40
30
20
10
0
Single
Married
Divorced
Widowed
Marital status
Pie chart ....

Inversion
18%
Deletion
3%
Translocatio
n
79%
3-Mathematical presentation
Summery statistics

Measures of location
1- Measures of central tendency
2- Measures of non central locations
(Quartiles, Percentiles )
Measures of dispersion
Summery statistics
1- Measures of central tendency (averages)
Midrange
Smallest observation + Largest observation
2
Mode
the value which occurs with the greatest
frequency i.e. the most common value
Summary statistics
1- Measures of central tendency (cont.)
Median
the observation which lies in the middle of
the ordered observations.
Arithmetic
mean (mean)
Sum of all observations

Number of observations
Measures of dispersion

Range
Variance
Standard
deviation
Semi-interquartile range
Coefficient of variation
Standard
error
Standard deviation SD
7 7
7 77
7
Mean = 7
SD=0
7 77
6
Mean = 7
SD=0.63
7 8
13
9
Mean = 7
SD=4.04
Measures of
Central Tendency & Spread

( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow
1
Common statistical terms

Data
Measurements or observations of a variable
Variable
A characteristic that is observed or
manipulated
Can take on different values
Statistical terms (cont.)

Independent variables
Precede dependent variables in time
Are often manipulated by the researcher
The treatment or intervention that is used in a
study
Dependent variables
What is measured as an outcome in a study
Values depend on the independent variable
3
Statistical terms (cont.)

Parameters
Summary data from a population
Statistics
Summary data from a sample
Population
-
A population is the group from which a
sample is drawn
e.g., headache patients in a chiropractic
office; automobile crash victims in an
emergency room
In research, it is not practical to include all

members of a population
Thus, a sample (a subset of a population)
is taken
5
Random samples

Subjects are selected from a population so
that each individual has an equal chance
of being selected
Random samples are representative of the
source population
) (
Non-random samples are not
representative
May be biased regarding age, severity of the
condition, socioeconomic
status etc.
6
Random samples

In experimental studies, patients are
randomly assigned to treatment and
control groups
Each person has an equal chance of being
assigned to either of the groups
Random assignment is also known as

randomization ) (
Descriptive statistics (DSs)

A way to summarize data from a sample
or a population
DSs illustrate the shape, central tendency,
and variability of a set of data
The shape of data has to do with the
frequencies of the values of observations
...
Central tendency describes the location of the
middle of the data
Variability is the extent values are spread
above and below the middle values
a.k.a., Dispersion
DSs can be distinguished from inferential

statistics
DSs are not capable of testing hypotheses
9
Hypothetical study data

(partial from book)
Distribution provides a summary of:
Frequencies of each of the values
23
34
43
51
61
72
etc.
Ranges of values
Lowest = 2
Highest = 7
10
Case #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Visits
7
2
2
3
4
3
5
3
4
6
2
3
7
4
Frequency distribution table

()
2
3
4
5
6
7
Frequency Percent
3
21.4
4
28.6
3
21.4
1
7.1
1
7.1
2
14.3
11
Cumulative %
21.4
50.0
71.4
78.5
85.6
100.0
Frequency distributions are

often depicted by a histogram
12
Histograms
A histogram is a type of bar chart, but
there are no spaces between the bars
Histograms are used to visually depict
frequency distributions of continuous data
Bar charts are used to depict categorical
information
e.g., MaleFemale, MildModerateSevere,
etc.
13
Measures of central tendency

Mean (a.k.a., average)
The most commonly used DS
To calculate the mean

Add all values of a series of numbers and
then divided by the total number of elements
14
Formula to calculate the mean

X
n
Mean of a sample
Mean of a population
X (X bar) refers to the mean of a sample and refers to the

mean of a population
EX is a command that adds all of the X values
n is the total number of values in the series of a sample and
N is the same for a population
15
Measures of central
tendency (cont.)
Mode
Mode
The most frequently

occurring value in a
series
The modal value is
the highest bar in a
histogram
16
Measures of central
tendency (cont.)
Median
The value that divides a series of values in
half when they are all listed in order
When there are an odd number of values
The median is the middle value
When there are an even number of values

Count from each end of the series toward the
middle and then average the 2 middle values
17

Each of the three methods of measuring
central tendency has certain advantages
and disadvantages
Which method should be used?
It depends on the type of data that is being
analyzed
e.g., categorical, continuous, and the level of
measurement that is involved
18
There are 4 levels of measurement

Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
1. Nominal
Data are coded by a number, name, or letter
that is assigned to a category or group
Examples
Gender (e.g., male, female)

Treatment preference (e.g., manipulation,
mobilization, massage)
19
Levels of measurement (cont.)

2. Ordinal
Is similar to nominal because the
measurements involve categories
However, the categories are ordered by rank
Examples
Pain level (e.g., mild, moderate, severe)

Military rank (e.g., lieutenant, captain, major,
colonel, general)
20

Ordinal values only describe order, not
quantity
Thus, severe pain is not the same as 2 times
mild pain
The only mathematical operations allowed

for nominal and ordinal data are counting
of categories
e.g., 25 males and 30 females
21

3. Interval
Measurements are ordered (like ordinal
data)
Have equal intervals
Does not have a true zero
Examples
The Fahrenheit scale, where 0 does not

correspond to an absence of heat (no true zero)
In contrast to Kelvin, which does have a true zero
22

4. Ratio
Measurements have equal intervals
There is a true zero
Ratio is the most advanced level of
measurement, which can handle most types
of mathematical operations
23

Ratio examples
Range of motion
No movement corresponds to zero degrees
The interval between 10 and 20 degrees is the
same as between 40 and 50 degrees
Lifting capacity
A person who is unable to lift scores zero
A person who lifts 30 kg can lift twice as much as
one who lifts 15 kg
24

NOIR is a mnemonic to help remember
the names and order of the levels of
measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
25
Measurement scale
Permissible mathematic
operations
Best measure of
central tendency
Nominal
Counting
Mode
Ordinal
Greater or less than

operations
Median
Interval
Addition and subtraction
Symmetrical Mean
Skewed Median
Ratio
Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division
Symmetrical Mean
Skewed Median
26
The shape of data

Histograms of frequency distributions have
shape
Distributions are often symmetrical with
most scores falling in the middle and fewer
toward the extremes
Most biological data are symmetrically
distributed and form a normal curve (a.k.a,
bell-shaped curve)
27
The shape of data (cont.)
Line depicting
the shape of
the data
28
The normal distribution

The area under a normal curve has a
normal distribution (a.k.a., Gaussian
distribution)
Properties of a normal distribution
It is symmetric about its mean
The highest point is at its mean
The height of the curve decreases as one
moves away from the mean in either direction,
approaching, but never reaching zero
29

Mean
The highest point of

the overlying
normal curve is at
the mean
As one moves away from

the mean in either direction
the height of the curve
decreases, approaching,
but never reaching zero
A normal distribution is symmetric about its mean
30

Mean = Median = Mode
31
Skewed distributions

The data are not distributed symmetrically
in skewed distributions
Consequently, the mean, median, and mode
are not equal and are in different positions
Scores are clustered at one end of the
distribution
A small number of extreme values are located
in the limits of the opposite end
32

Skew is always toward the direction of the
longer tail
Positive if skewed to the right
Negative if to the left
The mean is shifted
the most
33

Because the mean is shifted so much, it is
not the best estimate of the average score
for skewed distributions
The median is a better estimate of the
center of skewed distributions
It will be the central point of any distribution
50% of the values are above and 50% below
the median
34

About 68.3% of the area under a normal
curve is within one standard deviation
(SD) of the mean
About 95.5% is within two SDs
About 99.7% is within three SDs
35
36
Standard deviation (SD)

SD is a measure of the variability of a set
of data
The mean represents the average of a
group of scores, with some of the scores
being above the mean and some below
This range of scores is referred to as
variability or spread
Variance (S2) is another measure of

spread
37
SD (cont.)
In effect, SD is the average amount of
spread in a distribution of scores
The next slide is a group of 10 patients
whose mean age is 40 years
Some are older than 40 and some younger
38

Ages are spread
out along an X axis
The amount ages are

spread out is known as
dispersion or spread
39
Etc.
Adding deviations
always equals zero
40
Calculating S2
To find the average, one would normally
total the scores above and below the
mean, add them together, and then divide
by the number of values
However, the total always equals zero
Values must first be squared, which cancels
the negative signs
... ..
41
Calculating S2 cont.
S2 is not in the
same units (age),
but SD is
Symbol for SD of a sample

for a population
42
Calculating SD with Excel

Enter values in a column
43
SD with Excel (cont.)
Click Data Analysis

on the Tools menu
44
Select Descriptive
Statistics and click OK
45
Click Input Range icon
46
Highlight all the

values in the column
47
Click OK
Check if labels are

in the first row
Check Summary
Statistics
48
SD is calculated precisely
Plus several other DSs
49
50

It is more difficult to
see a clear distinction
between groups
in the upper example
because the spread is
wider, even though the
means are the same
51
z-scores
-
The number of SDs that a specific score is
above or below the mean in a distribution
Raw scores can be converted to z-scores
by subtracting the mean from the raw
score then dividing the difference by the
SD
X
z
52
z-scores
Standardization
The process of converting raw to z-scores
The resulting distribution of z-scores will
always have a mean of zero, a SD of one,
and an area under the curve equal to one
The proportion of scores that are higher or

lower than a specific z-score can be
determined by referring to a z-table
53
z-scores -
Refer to a z-table
to find proportion
under the curve
54
Partial z-table (to z = 1.5) showing proportions of the

area under a normal curve for different values of z.
z-scores (cont.)
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.0
0.5000
0.5040
0.5080
0.5120
0.5160
0.5199
0.5239
0.5279
0.5319
0.1
0.5398
0.5438
0.5478
0.5517
0.5557
0.2
0.5793
0.5832
0.5871
0.5910
0.3
0.6179
0.6217
0.6255
0.6293
0.5596
0.5636
0.5675
Corresponds
to
the 0.5714
area 0.5753
0.5948
0.5987
0.6026
0.6064
0.6103
0.6141
under
the
curve
in
black
0.6331
0.6368
0.6406
0.6443
0.6480
0.6517
0.4
0.6554
0.6591
0.6628
0.6664
0.6700
0.6736
0.6772
0.6808
0.6844
0.6879
0.5
0.6915
0.6950
0.6985
0.7019
0.7054
0.7088
0.7123
0.7157
0.7190
0.7224
0.6
0.7257
0.7291
0.7324
0.7357
0.7389
0.7422
0.7454
0.7486
0.7517
0.7549
0.7
0.7580
0.7611
0.7642
0.7673
0.7704
0.7734
0.7764
0.7794
0.7823
0.7852
0.8
0.7881
0.7910
0.7939
0.7967
0.7995
0.8023
0.8051
0.8078
0.8106
0.8133
0.9
0.8159
0.8186
0.8212
0.8238
0.8264
0.8289
0.8315
0.8340
0.8365
0.8389
1.0
0.8413
0.8438
0.8461
0.8485
0.8508
0.8531
0.8554
0.8577
0.8599
0.8621
1.1
0.8643
0.8665
0.8686
0.8708
0.8729
0.8749
0.8770
0.8790
0.8810
0.8830
1.2
0.8849
0.8869
0.8888
0.8907
0.8925
0.8944
0.8962
0.8980
0.8997
0.9015
1.3
0.9032
0.9049
0.9066
0.9082
0.9099
0.9115
0.9131
0.9147
0.9162
0.9177
1.4
0.9192
0.9207
0.9222
0.9236
0.9251
0.9265
0.9279
0.9292
0.9306
0.9319
0.9332
0.9332
0.9345
0.9357
0.9370
0.9382
55
0.9394
0.9406
0.9418
0.9429
0.9441
1.5
0.09
0.5359

myhajeer@gmail.com
Descriptive Statistics
Part II

( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow

Descriptive Biostatistics
The best way to work with data is to
summarize and organize them.
Numbers that have not been
summarized and organized are called
raw data.
Descriptive measures

A descriptive measure is a single
number that is used to describe a set

of data.
Descriptive measures include
measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion.
3
Measures of Central Tendency

Central tendency is a property of the
data that they tend to be clustered about
a center point.
Measures of central tendency include:
mean (generally not part of the data set)
median (may be part of the data set)
mode (always part of the data set)
4
Measures of Dispersion

Dispersion is a property of the data
that they tend to be spread out.
Measures of dispersion include:
range
variance
standard deviation
Arithmetic mean

The mean or arithmetic mean is
the "average" which is obtained by

adding all the values in a sample or
population and dividing them by the
number of values.
General formula--population mean
General formula--sample mean

1. Uniqueness -- For a given set of
data there is one and only one mean.
2. Simplicity -- The mean is easy to
calculate.
3. Affected by extreme values -The mean is influenced by each value.
Therefore, extreme values can distort
the mean.
10
Median
The median is the value that
divides the set of data into two equal

parts. It is the midpoint of the data
set.
The number of values equal to or
greater than the median equals the
number of values less than or equal
to the median.
11
Finding the median

1. Arrange (sort) the data in order of
increasing value in a sorted list.
2. Find the median.
a. Odd number of values (n is odd)
12
Finding the median

b. Even number of values
(n is even)
median = average of the two
values in the middle
13

1. Uniqueness -- There is only one
median for each set of data.
2. Simplicity -- It is easy to calculate.
3. Effect of extreme values -- The
median is not as drastically affected by
extreme values as is the mean.
14
15
Mode
The mode is the value that occurs
most often in a set of data.

It is possible to have more than one
mode or no mode.
16
Variability of data

Dispersion refers to the variety
exhibited by the values of the data. The
amount may be small when the values
are close together.
17
Range
The range is the difference between
the largest and smallest values in the set
of observations.
These values are often called the
maximum and the minimum.
18
Variance
Variance is used to measure the
dispersion of values relative to the
mean.
When values are close to their mean
(narrow range) the dispersion is less
than when there is scattering over a wide
range.
19
Calculation of the sample variance
= sample variance
= individual value
= sample mean
n = number of values
20
Variance of a population
= population variance
N = population size
= population mean
21
Degrees of freedom
In computing the variance there are
n - 1 degrees of freedom because if
n -1 values are known, the nth one is
determined automatically.
This is because all of the values of
( - ) must add to zero.
22
Differences in calculations
Values of
because
whereas
and
are different
divides by n-1
divides by N.
23
Sample standard deviation

The standard deviation is the square root of
the variance. The standard deviation
expresses the dispersion in terms of the
original units. Since the variance of a sample
is , we take the square root.
24
Population Standard Deviation

For a population, the standard deviation
is s which is the square root of the
population variance.
25
26
Coefficient of variation

Coefficient of variation is a measure of
the relative amount of variation as
opposed to the absolute variation.
C.V. is independent of the units of

measure. It can be useful for comparing
different results from people investigating
the same variable.
27
28

Hypothesis Testing & p-values
( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow

p value

Sampling
population
Normal distribution

.
SD
.

.

..
..

:

.

( :

) ..
: ( )

.. ..

.
: :
.
1000 10000

Prove .

disprove .
..
...
( )
. Null Hypothesis

:

.

...

) Griffiths et al (2000
184

( )
() .

.
211
123 .
Intervention . Control

population

.
effective
( Intervention ) Control
()
..
...

!! effectiveness
:

int=con
.

.... ...

( )d 88 .
) SD(d
). SE(d

...
SD1
SD2 .... SD pooled

(
)

( )d ...
Int-Con
Int-Con d
) SEpooled (d .

: ( )d
) SEpooled (d
Int-Con

.

88 (
) 16.1 5.46
( ) z
.
:
%95
1.96
( )
.

(
)
( )
.

reject .
:

.
p-value
%95
..
:
( )z
( ) .
= %5 (1.96 = )z
p-value
%95 :
Glazener et al 2001
(...)z
p-value
( )z :

( ) ()
p-value
... 0.0324
p-value
p-value
p-value
Statistical Significance
Test p-value
.

(
) .
%5
...
p-value
p-value
p-value

.
p-value
.

:
:
(
) .
.
.

( . ) p
p
.
: 1

.

:

..

.
:2 ()

1

Statistically
.... significant difference
%5
..

:3

( )p-value

:

(
) . p

: 4

()
p
...

Type I Decision Error . Type I Error

p-value
.

:
p-value
..
...
...
Statistical Power

.
Statistical Power

.. Type I Error

False-Positive
...
Statistical Power
Study Power
( : )
..
. Type II Error
- False-Negative
( ) .

.....
Statistical Power
Power of the study

.
:
p Statistically significant
...
Statistical Power
Statistical Power

..

= 1 .

= 1 .
Statistical Power
p

..

..

... ...

.
p

....

.

p-value
...
p

p
.

myhajeer@gmail.com

Tests for comparing two groups
( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow

...

..
( -)
.1 Objectives
and Aims
.2
.3
.4
.5
Hypothesis
( ) Type of Data
Distribution
Summary
Measure

:
.
Paired
Observations :
Cross-over Trials
Matched pairs of
. subjects

Exploratory Data ...
Analysis

... Baseline Sample Characteristics

:

( . )Morrell ete al 1998
233

)120( Intervention Group 113
. Control Group
12
. :
( ) (
)
12

Health related Quality of
HRQoL ... Life

.
. SF-36
( ) 100
( ).

( )

Cross over trials
Matched pairs ..

.

. Case-control Studies
:
: (
) 12 .

.

....

:
.....

....

HRQoL
.

:H0
HRQoL Baseline

= .
: HA HRQoL

.

Paired t test

Paired t test
Assumptions

t
t . n-1

.

...

36
7.3
16.5 2.8
( )
n-1 35
t = 2.66
35 = df
p-value 0.01 0.02
. 0.012

%95
... 1.7 12.9
%95 HRQoL
1.7
12.9
() 7.3 .

Wilcoxon Signed rank
. matched pairs test

Wilcoxon Singed Rank Test
t
..
.

0.012
( . ) %5

:
. .. ...

..

.
..
Two-sample ...
t test

Two-sample t-test for comparing means

n1 + n2 2

p-value .

%95 :
1.2 = %95 10.5 .

.

.

..
... ...

..
.. Mann-Whitney U test
..
Log Rank Test
... Survival Data
.

Mann-Whitney U test

.. Mann-Whitney

Wilcoxon Mann Whitney
Mann-Whitney

. Wilcoxon
W . U
W
Wilcoxon
..
U Mann-Whitney

.

Mann-Whitney U test

z
1
p-
. value

...
...

Discrete Or Count Data

(

) ..
...

...
...

One-Way ANOVA
Analysis of Variance
...
Kruskall-Wallis

.

myhajeer@gmail.com
2
Tests for comparing two groups
( )PhD Glasgow
- Sheffield
- Glasgow

( -)
.1 Objectives
and Aims
.2
.3
.4
.5
Hypothesis
( ) Type of
Data
Distribution
Summary
Measure

( )

( )

( )

.
( + )
Cross-tabulated
2 X 2
() () 4
...

.

.

:
:

. Chi-squared test

( : :
).

..
:
.

r x c

r c

.
Yates :

0.247

. 0.620

Fishers Exact Test
2 X 2
1 Yates
.

2 2

...

.

X 2
Factor
( )
Ordinal
( :
... ) 5 1

. Chi-square test for trend

McNemar
.
...

Non-Normal distributions
Degrees of Freedom

myhajeer@gmail.com

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