GENERAL PLANT OPERATIONS ENGINEERING

FOR

DEGREE/DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING/ B. Sc.

(TECHNICAL STREAM)
UNDER JUNIOR OFFICERS PROMOTION POLICY

NEELACHAL ISPAT NIGAM LIMITED

INDEX
Sl
No.
1.

Title
Raw Material Handling Plant
Introduction
Different Raw Materials And Their Sources
Quality Requirements Of Raw Materials
Process And Flow Diagram Of RMHP
Material Handling Equipments
Logistics
Flux
Coke Breeze
Customers of RMHP
Benefits Of RMHP
Safety

2.

1
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6

Coke Ovens And Coal Chemicals

Introduction
Properties Of Coking Coal
Coal Handling Plant
Carbonization Process
Role of Coke in Blast Furnace
Properties of Coke
Coke Sorting Plant
Coal Chemicals
By-Products Of Coke Ovens
Process Flow Chart of CO & CCD
Pollution Control Norms
Safety

3.

Page
No.

8
9
9
11
12
12
13
13
22
23
24
24

Power Plant
Introduction
Major Equipments
Fuel Used
Gas Compressor
Gas Filled Boiler
Steam Turbo Generator
BOP
Steam Turbo Blower
Electric Turbo Blower
Gas Turbine Generator
Gas Cleaning Plant
Heat Recovery Steam Generator

27
27
27
28
28
29
46
49
51
54
64
66

Sl
No.
4.

Title
Sinter Plant
Introduction
Raw Materials Proportioning
Sintering Process
Sinter Making
Quality Parameters
Process Flow Chart
Main Areas And Equipments
Safety

5.

92
93
93
97
100

General Mechanical Maintenance

Introduction
Maintenance Objective
Assignment of Maintenance
Types Of Maintenance Systems
Essentials of Maintenance Process
Latest Trends In Maintenance
Lubrication
Bearings
Keys and Couplings
Technologies of Repair of Steel Plant Equipments
Techno-economics
TQM in Mechanical Maintenance
Hydraulic System
Maintenance Tips
DOs and DONTs

8.

77
77
78
80
90
90

Steel Making
Introduction
Open / Twin Hearth Furnaces - Process
Basic Oxygen Furnace (Ld Converter)
Secondary Steel Making
Casting

7.

68
68
69
70
73
74
74
75

Blast Furnace
Introduction
Raw Materials Used for BF
Quality of Raw Materials
Blast Furnace And Accessories
Techno-economics
Safety

6.

Page
No.

104
104
105
106
107
109
109
113
116
118
120
121
122
133
134

General Electrical Maintenance

Basic Principles Of Transformer

142

Sl
No.

Title
Basic Principles Of Motor
Power Distribution
Power System Equipments
Cables & Relays
SCADA
Electrical Insulation
Testing of Motors
Electronic Devices
Testing, Measuring Instruments And Tools
Drives and Control
PLC
Electrical Safety
Indian Electricity Rules 1956
Maintenance Practices

9.

10.

11

Page
No.
145
152
154
157
162
162
164
164
168
170
187
189
193
197

Technical Services
Track and Loco Maintenance
Environment Management
Computer
Introduction
Hardware and software
Applications Of Computers In Steel Industry
Operating Systems
Computer Language And Programming
Network And Connectivity
Introduction to Windows
Intranet And Internet
Computer Virus
Dos And Donts
Mining
Introduction
Physical Property of Minerals
Mining Equipments
Mines Operation
Safety In Mines

202
225
229
231
234
234
235
236
237
239
240
240
243
243
246
247
250

RMHP

Page 1 of 250

Introduction
Raw Material Handling Plant or Ore Handling Plant or Ore Bedding and Blending Plant play
a very important role in an Integrated Steel Plant. It is the starting point of an integrated
steel plant, where all kinds of raw materials required for iron making/steel making are
handled in a systematic manner, e.g., unloading, stacking, screening, crushing, bedding,
blending, reclamation, etc.
Different types of major raw materials used in an integrated steel plant are :

Iron Ore Lump

Iron Ore Fines

Sand

Lime stone

Dolomite

Manganese Ore

Quartzite

RMHP also handles BF sludge, Burnt Lime, Coke Breeze, Nut Coke for onward feeding to
Sinter Plant and Blast Furnace
The main objective of raw material handling plant is to

homogenize materials from different sources by means of blending

supply consistent quality raw materials un-interruptedly to different customers

maintain buffer stock

unloading of wagons/rakes within specified time norm

raw material preparation (like crushing.).

The main functions of RMP:

unloading& stacking of raw materials

crushing of coke/flux and base mix preparation

dispatch of processed inputs to customer units

Page 2 of 250

Different Raw Materials and Their Sources

Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Raw Materials
Iron Ore Lumps (IOL)
Iron Ore Fines (IOF)
BF grade Lime Stone
BF grade Dolomite
SMS grade LimeStone
SMS gradeDolomite
Manganese Ore
Mixed Breeze Coke

9.
10.
11.

Mill Scale
Flue dust
LD Slag

Sources
Daitari, Banspani, MESCO mines etc.
Daitari, Gua, Juruli, Deojhar, Rungta etc.
Birmitrapur, Katani etc.
Birmitrapur, Sonakhan etc.

Barjamunda, MOIL(Purchased)
Generated inside the plant (Blast Furnace &
Coke Ovens)
Generated inside the plant
Generated inside the plant
Generated inside the plant

Right quality raw material is basic requirement to achieve maximum output at lowest
operating cost. Quality of raw materials plays a very important and vital role in entire steel
plant operation. Quality of raw materials (incoming) and processed material (outgoing) is
monitored by checking the incremental samples collected from the whole consignment.
Samples are collected for analysis in our QC lab. The samples prepared after quarter and
coining method are sent for further analysis.

Quality Requirement of Raw Materials

Sl.
No.
1.

Material
IOL

Chemical
Fe

SiO2

Al2O3

64%

2.5%

2.5%

2.

IOF

Fe

SiO2

Al2O3

3.

Lime Stone(B/F) grade.

4.

Dolomite (B/F) grade.

5.

Lime Stone(SMS) grade

(Jsm), Imported(Dubai)

Ti
6%
Ti
6%
CaO
53%

CaO
45%
CaO
28%
MgO
2%

MgO
3%
MgO
20%
SiO2
1.5 %

6.

Dolomite(SMS) grade

7.
8.

Mn Ore
Coke Breeze

64%

2.5%

Physical

2.5%

MgO
SiO2
20%
2.5 %
Mn= 30% min
Fixed C>70%, SiO2-12-15%
Moisture- 10-15% max

SiO2
4%
SiO2
4%

-10mm= 5% Max
+40mm= 5% max
+10mm= 5% Max
- 1mm= 30 % max
-5mm= 5% max
+40mm= 5% max
-5mm= 5% max
+50mm= 5% max
-40mm= 7% max
+80mm= 3% max
(30-60mm)
-40mm= 5% max
+70mm= 5% max
10-40mm size
< 15mm
Page 3 of 250

Process Flow Diagram of RMHP

Iron Ore (Lump+Fines), Lime Stone, Dolomite (Lump), Mn Ore
From Mines

Wagon Tippler/Truck Tippler

Designated Beds

Sampling Unit

Crushing Unit

Blending & Reclaiming

Despatch Customer

Material Handling Equipments

Major equipments which are used in RMHP areSl. No.

Major Equipments

Main Function

1.

Wagon Tippler

For mechanized unloading of wagons

2.

Side Arm Charger

For pulling the rakes inside the wagon tippler

3.
4.

Truck Hopper
Stackers Cum Reclaimer

5.

Blender Reclaimer

For unloading of Trucks/Dumpers

For stacking material and bed formation/
Reclamation
For reclaiming I/O fines also called blenders

6.
7.

Transfer Car
Crushers: SHRI => 3nos.
Rod Mills => 3nos.
FRC => 3nos.
Belt Conveyors

8.

For shifting Blender from one bed to another

For crushing to desired size/quality of Flux and
Fuel.
For conveying different materials to the destination

Page 4 of 250

Logistics
For smooth operation, the planning of Raw Material requirement for the set target is of prime
importance. Raw material requirement plan is to be made ready and communicated to the
concerned agencies well in advance to avoid any setback for the process.
The different agencies which are involved in this process are :

RMHP
Traffic and Raw Material Department
Raw Materials Division (RMD)
Production Planning Control (PPC)
Finance
Commercial
Railways, etc.

Indian Railways act as a linkage between mines and NINL as major mode of Raw Material
transport.
Inside the plant, Traffic Department (of the Plant) plays the major role for foreign (Railways)
wagons/rakes movement and the processed. Depending on the types of wagons, raw materials
rakes supplied by the mines by means of railways are being placed either in wagon tippler or
track hopper for unloading. The types of wagons for unloading in wagon tippler and /or truck
hopper is as given below

For wagon tippler - BOXN, BOXC

For truck hopper Trucks and Dumpers,.

The material such as IOL, IOF, Lime Stone, Dolomite, etc, unloaded in wagon tippler or track
hopper is being conveyed through the series of belt conveyors to the designated bed and
stacked there with the help of stackers cum Reclaimer / Twin Boom Stacker. Bed formation
takes place by means of to and fro movement of TBS.
Number of optimum layers in a bed is controlled by stacker speed. Number of layers in a bed
determines the homogeneity of the bed and is reflected in standard deviation of final bed
quality. More is the number of layers, more is the bed homogeneity and lower the standard
deviation.
Blending is the mechanized process of stacking & reclaiming to get optimum result in physical
& chemical characteristics of raw material, this means that blending is a process of
homogenization of single/different raw materials over a full length of pile/bed.

Flux
Flux is a mixture of Lime Stone and Dolomite in certain proportion required in sinter making.
Fraction of (-3mm.) in crushed flux is 90% and more. The main function of flux is to take care
Page 5 of 250

of gangue in blast furnace and also to increases the rate of reaction to form the good quality
slag. Flux acts as a binder in sinter making to increase the sinter strength. Rod mill or
hammer crusher are used for crushing Limestone & Dolomite Lumps to required size i.e. (3mm.) > 90%.

Coke Breeze
Another important is crushed coke of size fraction (-3mm.) 85%. Coke Breeze is received from
coke ovens and blast furnace. Coke Breeze is crushed in Four Roll Crushers get desired size.(3mm.) 85%.

Customers of RMHP
Sl.
No.
1.

Customer
Blast Furnace

2.
3.

Sinter Plant
Calcining/ Refractory Plant

Product/ Material
Size Ore or Screen Iron Ore Lump, Nut Coke,
Quartzite, Limestone, Dolomite.
Iron ore fines, crushed Flux, Coke fines & Sand
SMS grade Limestone & Dolomite

Benefits of RMHP
Provides consistent quality raw materials to its customer and also controlling the cost by:

Consistency in chemical & physical analysis by means of LT stacking & blending.

Input quality over a time period is known
Metallurgical waste utilization

Safety
It is dust prone department due to handling of various types of fines hence use of dust mask,
safety goggles, safety helmet, safety shoes etc. is must. Housekeeping is a major challenge in
smooth operation in this department and requires special attention. Spillage of material,
water, oil, belt conveyor pieces is to be controlled by effective housekeeping. This also leads to
personal and equipment health and safety. It makes the surrounding area operation friendly.

Page 6 of 250

COKE OVEN
&
BY-PRODUCT
PLANT

Page 7 of 250

Introduction
Coke making is the process to convert coking coal, through a series of operations, into
metallurgical coke. The process starts from unloading of the coal at the wagon tipplers & ends
at sizing & transportation of coke to Blast furnace.
Formation of Coal:
The plant & vegetations buried under swamp bottom during earthquakes or due to other
environmental changes were subjected to heat & pressure. During the initial period plant &
vegetations decay to form PEAT. Over a long period of time water is forced out due to
tremendous pressure of the overburden & due to heat generation, converting the mass to
LIGNITE. Continuous compaction & ageing converts the Lignite to Bituminous coal. This
process takes million of years.
Types & Sources of Coking Coal:
All coals are not coking coals, i.e. all types of coal cant be used for coke making. Coking coals
are classified as:
Prime Coking Coal (PCC)
Medium Coking Coal (MCC)
These are generally known as Indigenous coal, i.e. available in India. In addition to the above
coking coal the following types of coal are also used for coke making in all NINL plants. At
present the above Coal not being used at NINL, CO Plant.
Imported Coking Coal (ICC) Hard
Soft Coking Coal (SCC)
Coal is extracted from coal mines & processed in the coal washeries to lower down the ash
content to make it fit for coke making.
The different sources of coal are named after the respective washeries and are as follows:
PCC - Bhojudih
- Sudamdih
- Munidih
- Patherdih
- Dugda
- Mahuda
MCC - Kathra
- Swang
- Rajrappa
- Kedla
- Nandan
Page 8 of 250

ICC (Hard) Australia, New Zealand, USA - Being used at NINL

SCC Australia Being used at NINL.

Properties of Coking Coal

Percentage of Ash: Lower the ash percentage better is the coal. Indian coal normally contains
a high percentage of ash. This is reduced to some extent by suitable beneficiation process at
the mines.
Volatile Matter (VM): This is the volatile matters present in the coal which goes out as gas
during carbonization.
Crucible Swelling No. (CSN): This shows the agglomerating nature of coal on rapid heating.
LTGK: This is another test for agglomerating behavior of coal. However this is done at a
slower rate of heating.
Inherent Moisture: This gives a very good idea about the rank of the coal with advancement of
rank the inherent moisture generally comes down.
Mean Max Reflectance (MMR): Rank of coal is determined by measuring the reflectance of
coal, which is determined by MMR value. MMR is directly proportional to the strength of
COKE.
Coal
PCC
MCC
Soft (Aus)
Aust Hard
NZ
USA

Ash

VM

FSI

LTGK

19.0
18.5
8-10
8-10
3-4
8-10

21-23
23-25
25-30
18-20
25-28
25-30

>3.5
>3.0
> 3.0
>5.0
>5.0
>5.0

>E
>E
G
>G
>G
>G

Inherent
moisture
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0

MMR
1.10
0.85
0.87 1.0
1.25
1.25
1.00

Coal Handling Plant

Coke is one of the most important raw materials used to extract iron from the iron ore. The
success of Blast Furnace operation depends upon the consistent quality of coke, which is used
in Blast Furnace. The quality of coke depends upon the Pre-carbonisation technique,
carbonization & Post-carbonisation techniques used in Coke ovens. Pre-carbonisation
technique is controlled by Coal handling Plant.
Unloading & lifting of coal:
Washed and crushed coals from Australia are received at the Coal Handling Plant by
Railways wagons. Generally 59 wagons, called a rake, are brought to the plant at one time.
Page 9 of 250

These wagons get unloaded in wagon tippler. Here the wagons are mechanically clamped &
turned through 165 0 to discharge the coal onto down below conveyors. Then through a series
of conveyors the coal is stacked in coal yard through a Stacker. The coal yard is divided into
separate segments where different types of coal can be stacked in respective earmarked areas.
It is very important to stack different types of coal separately so as to avoid mix up of two
types of coal. From the coal yard, coal is reclaimed through Reclaiming hopper and
transported to Blending Bunker as per prevailing system in NINL plant.
Crushing & Blending:
Blended Coal from Blending bunker is sent to Hammer Crusher. Fine crushing of coal is
essential to homogenize the different inherent constituents of coal otherwise the coke
produced will have different coking behavior depending on its original coal structure.
Crushing also adds to improve the bulk density of coal charge in the ovens. Bulk density is the
compactness or close packing of the coal charge in the oven. (Higher the bulk density better is
the coke strength. Bulk density can also be increased by addition of briquettes. This facility
does not exists in NINL). It is desirable to have 80 to 82 % of 0-3.2mm size coal after crushing.
This is known as crushing Index. However over crushing is not desirable as this reduces the
bulk density & increases micro fines which causes problem in battery operation and quality
liquor & clean CO gas.
Importance of Blending:
Blending plays a vital role in producing good metallurgical coke. Blending is a process of
mixing the different types of coal, i.e. Soft & Hard, in a predetermined ratio to reduce the Ash
percentage of the Blend Coal, keeping the other coking properties intact. As evidenced from
the table under properties of coal the Indigenous coals contain a relatively higher percentage
of ash & Imported coals contain a relatively lower percentage of ash. Hence a proper mixing,
i.e. blending of both types of coal is necessary. However blending is to be done, in a very
accurate manner, so that required coke property does not get adversely affected. Blending is
generally done by adjusting the discharge of different types of coal from bunkers or silos to a
common belt. The different type of coals gets thoroughly mixed during crushing where
blending is done before crushing. Proper mixing takes place at several transfer points, i.e.
during discharge from one conveyor to another conveyor through a chute, during
transportation to coal towers or service bunkers.
Quality Of Coal Blend Charge At Coal Tower:
ASH
8%
to
9%
VM
24% to
25%
MMR
1.12 to
1.16
SULPHUR < 0.6 %
CSN
>6
MOISTURE 8 % approx.

Page 10 of 250

Carbonization Process
The process of converting blend coal to metallurgical coke is known as carbonization. It is
defined as heating the coal in absence of air. It is also the destructive distillation of coal. The
carbonization process takes place in a series of tall, narrow, roofed chambers made of
refractory bricks (Silica Bricks) called ovens. A specific number of ovens constitute a Battery.
The ovens are mechanically supported by Structural & Anchorage.
A battery can be classified as per size & design. The most common classifications are:
a. Tall Battery
Small Battery

7.0 mt. height. - NINL

4.5 mt. height.

b. Recovery type (NINL) Battery Gas formed during carbonization is converted to fuel &
again reused. Byproducts are obtained during cleaning of the gas.
Non-Recovery type battery No by products are formed as the generated gas acts as
the fuel.
c. Top Charge (NINL) Battery Conventional battery with charging from the top.
d. Stamp Charge Battery A cake like mass is formed by ramming the coal. This type is
only installed at Tata Steel.
Blend coal from coal tower is charged from top to the ovens. Each oven is sandwiched between
two heating walls from which heat is transmitted through conduction to the coal charge inside
the oven. When coal is charged inside an oven, the coal nearest to both the walls get heated up
first, melts & re-solidifies to form coke. The heat passes to the next layer of coal & so on till
they meet at the center. During the process of carbonization the coal charge first undergo demoisturization (drying) upto a temperature of 250C. Then it starts to soften at around 300C.
It then reaches a plastic or swelling state during 350C to 550C. The entrapped gasses are
then driven out at 400C to 900C. The calorific value (CV) of Coke ovens gas is around 4300
kcal/m3.The gas is cooled to 800C by ammonia liquor/ flushing liquor. The mass inside the oven
then re-solidifies and shrink beyond 700C. Finally coke is produced as a hard & porous mass
at around 1000C.The total time taken for full carbonization is called coking time or coking
period. The oven temp is maintained at about 12000C to 13000C in tall ovens The hot coke is
then pushed out from the ovens. The hot coke is then cooled at CDCP (Coke Dry Cooling
Plant) by inert gas. This process is called Dry Quenching of coke. The cooled coke is then sent
to Coke Sorting Plant for proper cutting, sizing and then to Blast Furnace.

Page 11 of 250

Major Equipments:
Major equipments/machines used in the process of coke making are:

Charging car: It collect the blend coal from coal tower & charges to empty ovens.

Pusher Car or Ram Car: Its functions are to level the charge coal inside the oven during
charging & to push out the coke mass from inside the oven after carbonization.

Coke Guide Car: It guides the coke mass during pushing to the Bucket Car.

Bucket Car: It carries the hot coke to CDCP, hoisted and charging to cooling chamber.

Role of Coke in the Blast Furnace

Coke plays a vital role in Blast Furnace operation. For stable operation of the furnace
consistent quality of coke is most important. Variation in coke quality adversely affects the
Blast Furnace chemistry. The roles of coke in Blast Furnace are:

It acts as a fuel.

It acts as a reducing agent.

It supports the burden inside the furnace.

It provides permeability in the furnace.

Properties of Coke
Ash
Ash in coke is inert & becomes part of the slag produced in the Blast Furnace. Hence, ash in
coke not only takes away heat but also reduces the useful volume of the furnace. Hence it is
desirable to have lower ash content in the coke. The desired ash content is upto 12.5% (Max.)
at NINL.
Volatile Matter (VM)
The VM in coke is an indicator of completion of carbonization & hence the quality of coke
produced. It should be as low as possible i.e. < 1%.
Gross Moisture (GM)
It has got no role to play in the furnace. It only takes away heat for evaporation. Hence least
moisture content is desirable. A level around 1% (Max.) is desirable.

Page 12 of 250

MICUM Index
Micum index indicates the strength of coke. M10 value indicates the strength of coke against
abrasion. Lower the M10 value better is the abrasion strength. A M10 value of <7 indicates
good coke strength. M10 of NINL coke is less than 7%. M40 value indicates the load bearing
strength or strength against impact load. Coke having lower M40 value will crumble inside
the Furnace which will reduce the permeability of the burden and cause resistance to the
gasses formed in the furnace to move upwards. A good coke should have a M40 value more
than 80.
Coke Reactivity Index (CRI):
It is the capacity of the coke to remain intact by withstanding the reactive atmosphere inside
the furnace. Hence less the CRI value, better is the coke. Desirable value should be around 22.
Coke Strength after Reaction (CSR)
It denotes the strength of the coke after passing through the reactive environment inside the
furnace. CSR for a good coke is around 64. It is also known as hot strength of coke.
Coke Size
The size of coke is most important to maintain permeability of the burden in the furnace. The
required size for Blast Furnace is more than 20mm size & less than 80mm size. If the
undersize is more the permeability decreases as smaller coke pieces fill up the voids &
increase the resistance to the flow of outgoing gasses. If the oversize is more the surface area
of coke for the reactions reduces. Hence the size of the coke is to be maintained between
+20mm & -80mm

Coke Sorting Plant

The cooled coke, after Coke Dry Cooling Plant, is sent to Coke Sorting Plant, where sizing &
Cutting takes place. The Coke is taken to an 80mm screen. The +80mm coke fractions are sent
to coke cutter to bring down the size. The hard coke of size +20mm to -80 mm size are then
segregated to send to Blast Furnace. Coke fraction of +10mm to
-20mm, which is called
Nut coke, is also segregated & sent to RMHS. The -.10mm fractions, called fine Breeze or
Breeze Coke, are also sent to RMHS.(Breeze = +3 to 10mm and Dust 3mm)

Coal Chemicals
Products and by-products of coal carbonization, their properties and uses,
impurities in Coke oven gas and its cleaning
Quality parameters.
Process of heating coal in absence of air to produce coke is called coal carbonization or
destructive distillation. Purpose of coal carbonization is to produce coke whereas co-product is
Page 13 of 250

coke oven gas. From coke oven gas, various by products like tar, benzol, naphthalene,
ammonia, phenol, anthracene etc. are produced. Generally high temperature
coal carbonization is carried out in coke oven battery of integrated steel plants at temp of
1100 -13000C.
Coke produced in the coke oven battery is sized, crushed and screened to different fraction as
per requirement.
a) 20- 80 mm size- Metallurgical coke required for iron making in Blast Furnace.
b) 10-20 mm size- Nut/Pearl coke partly required for internal use and rest is sold out.
c) 0-10 mm size- Coke breeze, mostly used for making sinter.
d) Metallurgical coke quality is mainly determined by its ash content & strength.
e) Coke strength is measured by a test in coke sorting plant called MICUM test.
f) Hot strength properties of Coke are measured by CSR/CRI test.
Typical proximate analysis of coke as a carbonized product from a coal blend is as follows:Moisture: 0.5%. Ash: 12.5 % (Max.), VM: 0.6-1.0%, Fixed Carbon: 85% minimum.
In the by-product plant major byproducts like tar, ammonia and crude benzol are recovered
from the coke oven gas evolved during coal carbonization. The out put of the chemical products
and their composition & properties of the coal depend on the blend used for coking, the
heating regime & the operating condition of the battery. Tar separated out of coke oven gas as
a mixture of large quantities of various chemical compounds. Tar products are road tar, wash
oil, pitch creosote mixture, medium hard pitch & extra hard pitch etc.
Ammonia in the coke oven gas is recovered as Ammonium sulphate, which is used as a
fertilizer in agriculture sector. Out put of crude benzol depends on the VM content in the coal
blend and temperature of coking. The by products recovered in the process are very important
and useful .Tar is used for road making and as fuel in furnaces. Pitch is used for road making.
The benzol products like benzene, toluene, phenol, naphthalene and xylene etc. are important
inputs for chemical industries producing dyes, paint, pharmaceutical, insecticide, detergent,
plasticiser and leather products.
The coke oven gas from Coke ovens contain lot of impurities, which needs to be properly
cleaned before being used as a fuel gas for Coke Oven heating as well as elsewhere in Steel
Plant. The impurities in coke oven gas are mainly tar fog, ammonia, naphthalene, hydrogen
sulphide, benzol, residual hydrocarbon and traces of HCN. Cleaning of coke oven gas is done
by passing it through a series of coolers & condensers and then treating the gas in ammonia
columns, saturators, washers, tar precipitators, naphthalene washers, benzol scrubbers etc.
for removal of these impurities. After the cleaning operation, the final coke oven gas still
contains traces of impurities. Quality of coke oven gas depends on the contents of various
impurities and its heat value. Typical analysis of impurities in good quality coke oven gas is as
Page 14 of 250

follows:-Tar fog: 30 mg/Nm 10mg, Ammonia- 30 mg/Nm 10mg, Napthalene- 150mg/Nm

50mg, Calorific Value (heat value)- 4300 KCal/Nm 200.
Fuels & Uses.
Solid, liquid & gaseous fuels---their properties and calorific value
- uses and safe handling-combustion efficiency and fuel economy
- waste heat recovery.
Various types of fuels like solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are used in Steel plants for firing in
steam generating boilers, heating in metallurgical & heat treatment furnaces and other
combustion equipments. The selection of right type of fuel depends on various factors such as
availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel. The knowledge of fuel
properties helps in selecting the right fuel for right purpose and its efficient use.
Coal & coke are the major solid fuels used in steel industries. Common coals used are
bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. The gradation of coal is based on its calorific value. The
chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. Fixed carbon in coal
gives a rough estimate of its heating value. Volatile matter content is an index of presence of
gaseous fuel. Ash content in coal affects combustion efficiency. Uncertainty in availability and
transportation of coal necessitate storage and subsequent handling. Stocking of coal has its
own disadvantages by build up of inventory, space constraints, deterioration in quality and
potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated with the storage of coal include
oxidation, wind and carpet loss. Graduation temperature build up in coal heap on account of
oxidation may lead to spontaneous combustion of coal in storage. Coal middlings are generally
used as fuels in captive power plant boilers and coal dust is used in blast furnace.
Metallurgical coke produced is basically used in Blast furnace.
Liquid fuels like furnace oil, Light Diesel Oil (LDO) and Low Sulphur Heavy Stock(LSHS) are
predominantly used in steel plants. Liquid fuels are characterized by their properties like
density, specific gravity, viscosity, flash point, pour point, specific heat and calorific value and
presence of various constituents like sulphur, ash content, carbon residue and moisture
content. Liquid fuels can be more compactly stored than solid fuels. For equal heat output, it
occupies less space and has much less weight than solid fuels. Combustion of liquid fuel can be
easily regulated. Fuel oil is stored generally in cylindrical tanks above or below the ground.
Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are generally vertical mild steel storage tanks mounted
above ground. It is prudent for safety and environmental reasons to build bund walls around
tanks to contain accidental spillages. Pre-heating of fuel oil is required at times to circumvent
the problem of pumping the oil due to increase in viscosity at low temperature.
Gaseous fuel in common use in Steel plants are Blast furnace gas, Coke oven gas, LD and
Mixed gas. Calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in Kilo Calories per Cubic Meter (K Cal/
Nm ). Blast furnace gas is generated in Blast furnace in the process of iron making. BF Gas is
highly toxic because of high CO content. Though Calorific value of BF gas is very low (800-900
K Cal/Nm), still because of its large quantity produced in steel plants, it is used in most of the
furnaces in the steel plant. In a modern integrated steel plant, about 30-35% of total BF gas
produced is used in Blast furnace stoves itself for heating the blast and rest is available for
Page 15 of 250

other furnaces in the plant. It is also used as a major fuel in power plant boilers and coke oven
as under firing gas.
Coke oven gas is a product of Coke oven battery operation during high temperature
carbonization of coking coal. It is the most important gaseous fuel in an integrated steel plant.
The composition of coke oven gas varies with temperature of carbonization, time of
carbonization and type of coal. It is not that toxic as BF gas. It has a calorific value of 41004400 K Cal/Nm. Coke oven gas is mostly used as under firing gas in coke oven battery and
mixed with other fuel gases for combustion in various furnaces in steel plants. LD gas is
produced in LD Converter during the process of steel making. It has a very high concentration
of carbon monoxide (up to 80% in peak period). It is cooled, cleaned of dust & stored in
gasholder for use as a fuel gas. It has a calorific value of 1800-2000 K Cal/Nm. It is generally
mixed with BF gas and coke oven gas to moderate the heating value as per requirement and
used in different furnaces.
Mixed gas is a mixture of BF gas, Coke oven gas and LD gas in different ratios to have a
gaseous fuel of desired calorific value and combustion characteristics. It is a more ideal fuel for
specific application with specific properties. Burning of gaseous fuel is quite clean without
smoke. It requires less amount of excess air for complete combustion, hence giving thermal
efficiency. Gaseous fuels occupy large space, hence storage is difficult and expensive. Fuel
gases are poisonous, inflammable and explosive in nature. Hence careful handling in its
utilization is needed.
Combustion
All conventional fossil fuels (solid, liquid and gases) contain basically carbon and /or hydrogen
which when burnt react with oxygen from air forming carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide &
water vapour. This process is called combustion. In the combustion process, rapid chemical
combination of oxygen with the combustible portion of the fuel results in heat release. The
most common fuels contain carbon & hydrogen either as element or as parts of compound.
These combustible elements & compounds react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2) &
water vapour (H2O). Carbon monoxide can also be formed. Sulphur is also present in some
fuels & sulphurs combustion products can cause corrosion & environmental pollution. The
requirements for combustion are fuel, oxygen & 3 Ts i.e. Time, temperature & turbulence.
The solid fuels are burnt in beds in lump (or pellet form) or in pulverized form suspended in
air stream. The liquid fuels are burned either by vaporizing & mixing with air before ignition
(when they behave like gaseous fuels) or in the form of fine droplets, which get evaporated
while mixing with air stream during mixing.
The gaseous fuels are either burnt in burners where the fuel and air are pre-mixed or the fuel
& air flow separately into a furnace & simultaneously mix together as combustion proceeds.
All the fuels contain basic elements such as carbon, hydrogen, sulphur or its compounds.

Page 16 of 250

Fuel Economy
Major energy inputs to Steel Plants are coking coal for coke making, non-coking coal for steam
and power generation & purchased petroleum fuels like furnace Oil/ LSHS/ Diesel/
Petrol/Naphtha. Since cost of energy accounts for nearly one-third cost of cost of production of
saleable steel in Steel Plant, any saving in energy consumption will contribute to increase in
profitability of steel plants & improvement in competitiveness in world market. Fuel economy
in steel industry will contribute directly to the conservation of scarce energy resources of the
country. Fuel economy in steel plants can be achieved by optimizing the fuel combustion in
different areas by adopting energy efficient technology, use of energy efficient burners,
modification of burners, reduction of furnace losses & waste heat recovery and operating the
plant at optimum load. Reduction of fuel consumption in furnaces can be achieved also by
maintaining proper fuel/air ratio in furnaces, oxygen enrichment of combustion air, furnace
pressure control, furnace temperature control, waste heat recovery by regenerators,
recuperators and waste heat boxes, insulation of high temperature systems.
Utility Chemicals and Uses.
-Water treatment chemicals for boiler water and process cooling water treatment
-Uses of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Acetylene, LPG / Propane in steel plants.
Producing quality steam in boilers depends on properly managed water treatment to control
steam purity, deposits and corrosion in boiler assembly and accessories. Poor quality boiler
feed water results in efficiency losses and may result in tube failures and inability to produce
steam. Similarly, process cooling water treatment is mandatory for controlling suspended
solids, algae growth, corrosion and fouling of process heat exchangers, coolers and condensers.
Chemicals such as sodium carbonate, sodium aluminate, and sodium sulphite and trisodium
phosphate are generally used for preventing scale formation in boiler tubes. Caustic soda and
tri sodium phosphate are used to desired alkalinity level for preventing corrosion of
equipments and tubes. Hydrazine hydrate is added to de-aerator for removal of dissolved
oxygen from boiler feed water to prevent pitting on contact surfaces. In treatment of process
cooling water in cooling tower operation, soda ash is used for controlling desired alkalinity of
water for preventing corrosion. Zinc sulphate is added as anti algae compound to prevent
algae growth. Organo phosphate or sodium dichromate is used in cooling water as
anticorrosion compound. Sodium hexa meta phosphate is added to prevent scale formation and
fouling in heat exchange equipments.
However, many other types of environment friendly chemicals have been developed and are
being used in water treatment for boiler water production and cooling water conditioning in
modern steel plants. Various utility gases like nitrogen, oxygen, acetylene, argon, propane and
LPG are commonly used in the process of iron & steel making as well as to facilitate
miscellaneous repair, maintenance and auxiliary works. Nitrogen is generally used as purging
medium in a system for safe maintenance work as well as to provide inert atmosphere for
safety during hot work. Argon is basically used to create inert atmosphere required for specific
process as well as for special type of metal welding job. Oxygen produced in oxygen plant is
Page 17 of 250

basically useful for blowing in steel making process and used also for blast enrichment in
Blast furnace. Other application is use of oxygen along with acetylene and propane in gas
cutting of various type metals and slabs. Acetylene and propane are normally used for cutting
of steel slabs, plates, coils and structurals. Propane and LPG are also utilized as support fuels
to enrich the heating value of some of the gaseous fuels required for different furnaces in steel
plants.
Quality Control (Research And Control Laboratory

Standards,

Sampling /equipments used

Analysis of samples

Process control for quality improvement

Safety precautions

Progressive norms and Process parameter values are decided by individual NINL Plant/Unit
based on current requirement and on-going process. Norms and parameter values as decided
act as a base for Quality Management function to exercise control over incoming raw
materials, various production processes and the products finally obtained. It guides the men &
machines in the plant by testing, inspection, research and reports. There are some standard
institutions to refer for standard laboratory practices, procedures & equipments to be used for
correct methodology & authentic test results. The concerned Institute/ Organization as
mentioned below issues the updated versions of documents from time to time. These are
available in Technical Libraries maintained by NINL Plant/ Units.

American Society for Testing and Materials ( ASTM ).

British Standards Institutions ( BSI ).

Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ).

Standard Council of Canada ( SCC).

China State Bureau of Technical Supervision ( CSBTS).

Japanese Industrial Standards Committee ( JISC).

Sampling
Sampling is the mother of all activities in quality control. The process assumes great
significance as volumes of materials are handled in a Steel Plant. The time & labour spent on
analysis will be meaningless without the sample being truly representative. Sampling is the
process of obtaining a small portion from a large quantity of material and should be so carried
out as to truly represent the composition of the whole lot. Sampling is relatively easy in case of
homogeneous materials. Unfortunately, most of the materials handled in Steel Plants are
found to be heterogeneous in nature and so, sampling has to be done with great care. When it
is considered that the final sample for chemical analysis usually weighs only one gram and
that each must truly represent 50 to 500 tonnes of material in case of Ore, Coal & Coke, the
Page 18 of 250

enormous problem of sampling may be well appreciated. Sampling usually consists of three
distinct operations repeated as many times as necessary. These are crushing, mixing and
cutting. By repeating the three operations, a sample may be reduced to the desired weight.
Sampling Practice
Ores & similar materials, unless already fine enough, are broken or crushed to a proper size.
Jaw Crushers & Roll Crushers fulfill these requirements. Various methods are available for
sampling of Ore, Coal & similar materials. Coning & Quartering is a well known process of
sampling. This is a hand cutting method. The crushed materials are shoveled into a conical
pile, each shovelful being thrown upon the apex of the cone so that it will run down evenly all
around. A slight damping of the ore is said to allow better mixing by coning. When the cone is
completed, men who walk around, drawing their shovels from center to periphery, work it
down into the form of a flat truncated cone. Care should be taken not to disturb the radial
distribution of the coarse and fine particles. After flattening, the ore is divided into four
quarters by means of a sharp-edged board, or better by a steel bladed quarterer. Two opposite
quarters are removed and the remaining two are taken for sampling. The sample may again
be mixed by coning & quartering, or it may be crushed, if necessary, and then coned and
quartered. These operations are repeated until a sample is obtained which may conveniently
be reduced to the degree of fineness required for analysis.
Moisture Sample
Most of the time, chemical analysis result is reported moisture free basis. Moisture
determination involves weighing and drying sample at 105 deg. Centigrade and the loss in
weight gives the moisture content.
Ores containing Metallic
When an ore containing metallic is being sampled, the original sample must be carefully
weighed, the particles found on each sieve separately preserved and then weighed.
Sampling of Metals & Alloys
Metals & Alloys can not be sampled by crushing, mixing & cutting. Such products can best be
sampled either by taking a sample in the molten condition or by milling or sawing which
enables the material to be collected from the entire cross section of the cast bar or ingot. In
some cases, it may be impractical to take millings or sawings and for these drillings may be
suitable.
Sampling of Molten Metal:
For taking samples from the molten metal, three spoonfuls should be taken at the beginning,
middle and end of the tapping period, avoiding inclusion of dust & slag. These should be cast
separately in heavily chilled moulds in convenient sizes.

Page 19 of 250

Sampling of Solid Metal

When solid metals are to be sampled, the preferred procedure is to collect material from the
whole cross section of the metal. For this purpose, milling or sawing is recommended. In case
milling or sawing not practicable, drilling is carried out right through the central portion of
the representative cast bar or ingot.
Sampling of Metal Scrap
Metal scrap usually consists of old castings, foundry raisers, sheets, plates, tubes, wires, bars
etc. For sampling scraps, pieces representing each type of material in the same proportion as
present in the scrap should be selected. When non-ferrous metal scraps are mixed with ferrous
materials, the latter should be removed by using a strong magnet and accounted for
separately in the analysis.
Quality Maintenance & Quality Improvement in NINL
The responsibility of maintaining & improving quality in NINL plants is organized through
well-maintained Research & Control Laboratories (RCL) at plant level and Research &
Development Center for Iron & Steel (RDCIS), Ranchi at corporate level. The latter looks after
the need of future technology requirement and also guides the former by adopting projects as
per plant specific need and further it helps improving productivity, cost reduction &
development of new products. RDCIS, the corporate R&D is today one of the largest industrial
research and development organization in the world, with its facilities located and networked
in NINL plants across the country. If NINL is to progress, it must excel in quality front and to
ensure quality in all our products, RCLs at Unit level play the all important role of watch-dog
round the clock at Production Shop of the Steel Plant. RCL has Express Laboratories &
Process Control Labs attached to different production shops like Coke Ovens, Blast Furnace,
SMS, Rolling Mills, Foundry etc. RCL Chemical sections collect samples from incoming raw
materials as well as the intermediate products for analysis of chemical composition and size
fractions. Traditional method of physical analysis & chemical wet-analysis method of testing
are still continued alongwith state of art instrumental analysis. They help in controlling
quality of inputs from one stage to another in the long process of conversion from iron to steel.
Process Control Lab highlights problem regarding quality of the inputs and production
parameters such as yields, off-grade production, working practices, heat regimes, temperature
control, mechanical properties, chemical composition, requisite micro- structure etc. Some of
the sophisticated equipments/ instruments used for these controls are: CSR/CRI for Coke
Strength, Proximate Analyzer, Digital Pyrometer, Ultrasonic Flaw Detector, Thermo Vision
Camera, Nucleonic Gauge variation Detector& Adjuster, X-ray Spectrometer, Gas Analyzer,
Gas Liquid Chromatograph etc. Test pieces from each production unit are taken to the lab for
testing and ensuring that the products conform to the standards of different specifications
before despatch to the valued customers. It is finally the inspection section which sorts out the
good from the bad. Tested quality, off-grade, commercial grade, defectives, rejects etc. are
carefully classified with an eye on the cost of different categories so that the customer gets
what he wants and the company is not put to loss. Off-grade and diversions are minimized by
proper fitment into grades, to help earn more. The usual criteria are:
Page 20 of 250

Specified chemical composition.

Specified mechanical properties.

Dimensional tolerance.

Surface finish.

Internal soundness.

Finally packaging of the products is equally important so that the product reaches its
destination in a sound condition. This is also inspected before dispatch.
Safety Precautions in the use of Laboratory Chemicals

Apparatus & glassware should be kept clean & free from corrosive, dangerous matters
& also foreign matter of any description.

Bulk supplies of chemicals should be kept in a safe place. The store should be cool and
free from excessive temp fluctuations and preferably situated outside the lab.

Chemicals should be labeled. Bottles containing reagents should be kept in trays as

accidental breakage may cause problem.
Personnel should be protected, when necessary, by special clothing. Labs should be well
ventilated to minimize the effect of noxious or corrosive vapours and all work involving
evolution of such vapour should be carried out in fume cupboards.

Neutralizing agents, fire extinguishers of various types and first-aid appliances should
be readily available, and all personnel should be familiar with their correct use in cases
of emergency.

Remedies for Lab. Accidents

Chemical Burns: Wash off the affected part as quickly as possible with a large quantity
of water. If the burns are caused, due to acids, apply limewater, a mixture of baking
soda and water. In case the burns are due to alkalies, neutralize with weak vinegar or
lemon juice after thorough washing with water.

For burns caused by Bromine, sponge immediately with a strong solution of sodium
thiosulphate until all the bromine colour is gone. Then wash up the mildly poisonous
sodium thiosulphate with liberal quantity of water.

In case of burns caused by boiling water, any other liquid or a burner, exclude the burnt
portion from air by applying thin paste of starch, Vaseline or flour. Then dress after
applying a mixture of equal part of limewater and raw linseed oil.

Page 21 of 250

By-Products of Coke Ovens

The Gas generated in the Coke oven batteries during carbonization process is handled and
cleaned in the By Product Plant. During the process of cleaning the Gas some By Products are
separated out and clean Gas is used as fuel in the plant. Following process are involved in
cleaning the gas.
Gas Condensate Plant (GCP)
In gas condensate plant number of exhausters are installed which sucks the gas generated in
the batteries and sends to the desired destination for further processing. Another function of
the exhauster is to maintain steady suction as per requirement so as to maintain the
hydraulic main pressure. Liquid (tar and ammonia liquor) and gas are separated at the
separator and the liquid is processed at gas condensate pump house (GCPH). Most of the Tar
is separated here and sent to Tar storage tank. Ammonia liquor (Flushing liquor) is
recirculated to the batteries.
Ammonium Sulphate Plant (ASP)
Raw coke oven gas from GCP is passed through the saturators filled with Sulphuric Acid
(H2SO4), where ammonia present in the gas is precipitated in the form of ammonium sulphate.
Acidity of the saturator liquor is maintained at 3 % to 5 %. This ammonium sulphate is sold as
Fertilizer.
PETP / BOD Plant
In Phenolic Effluent Treatment Plant (PETP) or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Plant, the
contaminated water generated from whole of coke oven is treated to make it clean from the
effluents with the help of Bacteria. The treated water is then used for quenching hot coke in
the quenching towers. The norms for different effluent after treatment at BOD plant are:
Ammonia

50ppm

Phenol

1ppm

Cyanide

0.2ppm

Tar & Oil

10ppm

The most important byproduct of Coke oven is the raw Coke oven gas. The basic constituents
of clean coke oven gas are:
Hydrogen

50 to 60%

Methane

25 to 28%

Carbon Monoxide -

6 to 8%
Page 22 of 250

Carbon Dioxide

3 to 4%

Other Hydrocarbons -

2 to 2.5%

Nitrogen

2 to 5%

Oxygen

0.2 to 0.4%

Calorific value

4300 kcal / m3

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF COKE OVEN & CCD

Imported Coal (050 mm)

Wagons

Wagon Tippler

Unloading of coal

Coal Yard

Reclaiming
Crusher or Silos
Crushing & Blending
Coal Tower

+20 to -80
BF
Hard Coke
+10 to -20

Batteries
(Carbonization)

Coke Sorting
Plant

SP
Nut Coke
-10

Raw CO Gas

SP

Coke Breeze
By Product Plant

Tar

Clean CO Gas
Ammonium Sulphate
Napthalene

Page 23 of 250

Pollution Control Norms

To protect the environment, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has laid down strict
pollution control norms. The different norms for coke ovens with respect to PLD (Percentage
Leaking Doors), PLO (Percentage Leaking Off take), PLL (Percentage Leaking Lids) and
Stack Emission are as follows:
FACTORS
PLD
PLL
PLO
SO2
Stack Emission
Charging
Emision

NEW
BATTERY
5
1
4
800 mg/Nm3
50 mg/Nm3
16 sec/charge

EXISTING
BATTERY
10
1
4
800 mg/Nm3
50 mg/Nm3
50 sec/charge

ISO 14001: 2004 is an environment management system which deals with the ways and
means to make the environment pollution free. Its main thrust is to make Land, Air & Water
free of pollutants.

Safety
Safety is the single most important aspect in the steel industry. This aspect covers both
personal as well as equipment safety. The use of PPE s (Personal Protective Equipment) is a
must for the employees in the shop floor. The use of PPEs like safety helmet, safety shoes,
hand gloves, gas masks, heat resistant jackets, goggles and dust masks are to be used
religiously while working in different areas of coke ovens. Different laid down procedures like
EL 20 / permit to work ,as followed in different steel plants, are to be strictly followed before
taking any shut-down of equipment for maintenance.
The stipulated SOPs (Standard Operating Practices) and SMPs (Standard Maintenance
Practices) should be adhered to strictly. Persons should be cautious about the gas prone areas
and should know about the gas hazards. EMD clearance is a must before taking up any job in
gas lines or gas prone areas. A life lost due to any unsafe act is an irreparable loss to the
company as well as to the family which can not be compensated.

OHSAS - 18001 (Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series)

OHSAS provides a formalized structure for ensuring that hazards are identified, their impact
on staff assessed and appropriate controls put in place to minimize the effect. It further assists
a company in being legally compliant, ensuring appropriate communication and consultation
with staff, ensuring staff competency and having arrangements in place to deal with
foreseeable emergencies. It is not concerned with the safety of the product or its end user.
It is compatible with the established ISO 9001(Quality) and ISO 14001 (Environmental)
management system standards. This helps to facilitate the integration of the quality,
Page 24 of 250

environmental and occupational health and safety management systems within the
organization.
Impacts of fully implemented OHSAS are:

Risks and losses will be reduced and/or eliminated

Reduced accidents, incidents and costs
Reliable operations
Compliance to rules, legislation, company standards and practices
A systematic and efficient approach to health and safety at work
Positive company image and reputation

Page 25 of 250

POWER PLANT

Page 26 of 250

Introduction
The Captive Power Plant of NINL is a combined cycle co-generation power plant having
installed capacity of 62.5 MW which consists 2 nos. of Steam Turbo generator of 19.25 MW
each & one Gas Turbo Generator of 24 MW capacity. Gas Turbine works on the principle of
Joules cycle, whereas steam turbine works on the principle of Rankine cycle.
When both these cycle are working together in a single plant and Gas Turbine exhaust heat is
used to produce steam in HRSG and the generated steam of HRSG is used in steam turbine to
produce additional power, the entire system is called Combined Cycle Plant. With process
steam together it is called Co-generation combined cycle power plant.
MAJOR EQUIPMENTS OF POWER PLANT

3nos. of Gas fired Boilers each rated for 65TPH of steam generation at 62ata, 482c
and 1 no Heat recovery steam generator of 45 TPH.

2nos. of STG each rated for 19.25MW.

1no. of Gas Turbo- Generator rated for 23.59MW at 30c & 70% RH.

Common steam Header for H.P. steam with double Bus design each rated 70% of
total steam.

2nos of PRDS rated for 30TPH each to supply process steam, (saturated) steam for
own auxiliaries & for deaeration at 10ata, 240c.

1no. of steam Turbine driven Blower consuming 57TPH at 60ata, 480c steam for
supply of cold air blast to Blast Furnace.

1no. of Electric Motor (11.8MW, 10KV) drive Blower for supply of

In addition to the above, the H.P. steam header shall receive 42TPH of steam at
60ata, 480c from the 3nos of Heat recovery Boilers located at CDCP unit of cokeovens unit.

Fuels Used

B.F.Gas 117000 Nm/h; C.V. 754 Kcal / Nm. Press: 500-600mm WC.

Converter Gas 4800 Nm/h; C.V. 2000 Kcal / Nm. / Dust content: 5-10mg/Nm.

CO Gas 17300 Nm/ h; C.V. 4300 Kcal / NM.

LDO 776 Kg / h; C.V. 10000 Kcal / Kg for flame stabilization & support.
Page 27 of 250

Gas Compositions
% by Vol.

BF Gas

Converter. Gas

Co. Gas

CO2

22

17

CO

22

69

H2

59

CH4

28

52

19

2.5

N2
CnHn

GAS FIRED BOILER

1. Description: The Boiler is of Natural Circulation, Water Tube design, Bi-Drum, Bottom
supported, Balanced Draft, suitable for outdoor operation of Blast Furnace Gas, Converted
Gas, Coke Oven Gas, & Light Diesel Oil firing. It has a water cooled welded furnace walls
combined with convection boiler bank tubes. The burners (2 nos) are located on the front wall
at two different elevations. The hot gases flow from the front to rear of the boiler in the
radiant area and from rear to front in convection bank area.
The furnace front is fixed and free to expand in the rear along the length of drum. Along width
of boiler the drum is fixed.
All the furnace tubes are rolled into the upper & lower drum by expansion. The boiler bank
tubes houses soot blowers and access doors into the furnace. The D-wall, baffle wall and boiler
sidewall are welded together to make furnace gas tight. Provisions are made in furnace rear
tubes for observation doors. Also castable and seal plates are used to make furnace gas tight.
The furnace floor tubes are covered with firebricks tiles with sufficient provision for
expansion.
The boiler has one Steam Drum (Upper Drum) and one Water Drum (Lower Drum). Lower
drum is supported for the entire length on a concrete base. Both the drums have round
manholes one in each end. The manhole cover is hinged type and secured to the drum by steel
nuts and bolts. The Steam Drum is kept larger in size to provide adequate steam storage
capacity and minimize water level fluctuations during sudden change in steam load. It houses
drum internals for separation of steam and water. All steam entering drum is collected in the
compartment formed by baffles, makes a complete reversal of direction in the space above
Page 28 of 250

water, there by losing most of its entrained water, and enters the corrugated sheets which
directs the steam in a turbulence path and forces are remaining entrained water the
corrugated sheets. Since the velocity is relatively low this water cant be picked up again and
therefore runs down to the corrugated plates and returns to the lower part of the drum. The
direction of steam flow is again reversed before entering the series of holes in the dry box. Dry
steam leaves the drum through numbers of top outlet nozzles called saturated link. In
addition to this it contains feed distribution pipe which runs along the length of the drum in
connected to feed inlet piping, feed water is distributed uniformly through the small holes in
the distribution pipe below the water level. The blow down piping has uniformly pitched
smaller holes through a portion of water of solid concentration is tapped off. The Super
Heaters are of two stages, two elements vertically spaced, and self supported type. They are
located in boiler rear area in between boiler bank tubes and boiler rear wall tubes, arranged
side by side. A De-super heater is provided in between two SH stages to permit reduction of
steam temperature when necessary .The reduction is taken place by injecting spray water into
the steam path through a perforated tube at the entry. The water source is from boiler feed
water system. The de-super heater is located in a vertical position for the spray occurs due to
differential pressure between injecting water and steam.
The Phosphate dosing takes place in the upper drum .The single stage Economizer, which is
located in flue gas path in between boiler and the air pre-heater consists of three modules, one
inlet header and one outlet header. Feed water from boiler feed pump enters at the inlet
header via a feed control station, gets heated up in coils by the flue gas coming out from the
furnace and goes to the steam drum connected from the outlet header of the Economizer.
Water and Steam Circuit:
Feed water enters the upper drum through Economiser. Circulation between upper drum and
lower drum takes place through bank tubes-panel tubes, etc because of various temperature
differences exist in the furnace. Through the baffle wall, furnace D-tubes and bank tubes
located in the higher heat absorbing area (in the boiler rear) water rises up in the circuit.
From the burner radiant heat is absorbed by D tubes, baffle tubes and rear tubes. In the rear
pass convection heat is picked up by super heater coils and bank tubes. The boiler sidewall,
which acts as the down comers, is shielded by arrow of tubes in the rear of boiler. To achieve
this insulation material is placed in between boiler sidewall and boiler baffle wall tubes. This
also prevents a variation in water level from boiler rear to front, which may otherwise be
caused by the low heat absorbing bank tubes acting as down comers in the front half. The
steam water mixture generated in the circuit will be collected in the upper drum. The steam
and water are effectively separated by internals provided in the upper drum. The saturated
steam is then passed into the super heater coils through the two saturated steam outlets. A
row of supply tubes (16 nos) between water wall lower headers and lower drum, and a row of
Page 29 of 250

riser tubes (26 nos) between upper drum and water wall upper headers are connected for
effective circulation of water and steam in the system.
Air and flue gas system:
Combustion air: Air from atmosphere passes through the FD fan to the air preheater. The
air preheater outlet duct feeds air to the wind box.
Scanner Air Fan: Flame scanners, which are used to sense the presence of flames, are
required to be cooled during the entire operation of the boiler. A portion of combustion air is
diverted for flame scanner cooling through a filter and Scanner Air Fan.
Flue Gas: Flue gases travel horizontally in the furnace and then pass through super heaters,
boiler bank, economizer and air preheater. In the air heater the residual heat of flue gas is
used to preheat the combustion air. From the air heater the flue gases pass through the ID fan
to chimney.
Ducting: All ducts are of welded construction, properly stiffened and reinforced to withstand
the pressures and vibration, consisting of dampers, expansions joints and access doors.
Generally all ducting system is made of carbon steel plate. Duct exceeding 1.5 cm2 cross
section are sent as walls, which are assembled at site.
Expansion Bellows: These by way of their construction can absorb the thermal expansion of
duct system. The bellows are made of metallic and non metallic (fabric) materials. The
metallic bellows are made up of thin sheets of thickness 2.5 mm or 1.6 mm. The form of the
bellows and sizes of the sheet determine the quantum of expansion value that they can absorb
effectively. In order to increase the quantum of expansion multi bellow expansion joints are
used. Whenever the expansion bellows are in deformed state, they exert a reaction on the
ducting system depending on the degree of deformation .The bellows in ID system are made of
Carorton steel and in other areas are carbon steel. Support load should not be transmitted
through the expansion joints.
SV (Swirling Vane) BURNER: Essentially the burner consists of a wind box, air register, oil
gun assembly, BFG annulus assembly, COG spud and HEA igniter assembly with burner
throat. This is a round burner with adjustable primary and secondary vanes. The air resister
assembly is designed such that the combustion air (from the FD fan) entering the wind box is
divided into primary air stream and secondary stream .The primary air constitutes a small
percentage (approx 30%) of the total air. It flows through primary air sleeves, which houses
guns. The purpose of primary air is two fold namely;

Page 30 of 250

It introduces air for initial ignition at the burner tips.

It fills the vertex created by combustion in the secondary air zone (i.e. burner throat),
there by preventing the fire from drawing into burner nozzles.

The burner primary air vanes, which are arranged concentrically around the burner, are
operated by primary spinner vane assembly handle. The vanes impact a rotary motion to the
primary air-entering burner and control the velocity of air mixing with fuel.
The secondary air flows around the primary sleeve to the burner throat where it provides
necessary air to sustain flame. The vanes, which are arranged at the extreme to the annulus
between primary air sleeve and secondary air sleeve, impart a rotary motion to the secondary
air entering the burner. These vanes can be operated by a handle from outside to set the
desired angle.
The PA and SA flows are controlled separately by means of individual dampers. The PA
damper is operated manually with control lever and can be locked at desired position. The SA
damper is driven by the continuously modulating damper drive, which maintains a constant
pressure differential between the tap upstream of PA damper box and the furnace pressure
tap.
The burner front plate is equipped with observation ports, which permit viewing the fire
through the annulus between the PA and SA nozzles.
Fuel oil preparation: It consists of filtration and pumping to maintain oil free from dust,
dirt, sediments, sludge etc and header pressure constant at all firing rates by a pressure
control cum regulating valve that relieves the excess pressurized oil to the day tank.
Fuel oil atomization: Atomization is the process of spraying the fuel into fine mist, for
better mixing of the fuel with the combustion air for efficient combustion. While passing
through the spray nozzles of the oil gun, the pressure energy of the oil is converted into
velocity energy, which breaks up the oil into fine particles. Poorer atomization cause longer
burning time resulting carryover and makes the flame unstable due low rate of heat liberation
and incomplete combustion. Viscosity of oil is the major parameter, which decides the
atomization level. For satisfactory atomization its value should be 16 to 28 centistokes.
Air cooled atomizer oil gun assembly is protected from the hot furnace radiation by flowing
fuel oil and air which keeps it relatively cool. The cap nut that holds the atomizer to the oil
gun body is provided with specially sized cooling holes. The holes in the cap nut direct cooling
air effectively over the atomizer spray plate. The low pressure air tapped from FD fan cold air
interconnecting duct is pressurized in the scanner/gun cooling air fan and piped to the
Page 31 of 250

individual oil gun guide pipe with flexible hoses at the required places. Once the burner is
stopped it is required to remove oil gun from firing position in order to protect the atomizer
over heating.
Scavenging of fuel oil guns: Before stopping the burner the oil gun is scavenged with air
(coming from scanner air fan) to keep the small intricate passages of atomizer parts clean. It is
always scavenged with associated igniter in service to burn out the oil. In the auto
programmed burner stop sequence a planned shut down is followed by air scavenging the oil
side for quite some time to achieve this requirement. During emergency tripping of burners or
boiler the oil gun does not undergo auto scavenging. In such cases oil guns shall be restarted
and manually scavenged immediately on resuming boiler operation.
System vents: These are provided to drive out entrapped air or gas inside the system.
System drains: Each section of oil is provided with a drain valve, normally kept closed
during operation and when it is taken out of service then the drain valves are opened when it
is hot to avoid clogging.
Burner Management System (BMS): It is designed to ensure execution of safe, orderly
operating sequence in start up and shutdown of fuel firing equipment by providing permissive
interlocks, and to prevent errors in operating procedure. The system provides protection,
should there be a malfunction of fuel firing equipment and associated air system. Once the
equipment is in service operator must use the safe operating practices.
Basically the system is designed to perform the following operational functions;

Furnace purge supervision.

Light oil on-off control and supervision.

BFG and Converter gas on-off control and supervision.

CO gas on-off control and supervision.

Flame scanner intelligence and checking.

Overall boiler flame failure protection.

Boiler trip protection.

Furnace purge supervisionTo Prevent any fuel firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge sequence has first been
completed. To start purge cycles proceed as below:
Page 32 of 250

Establish AC power supply to BMS and related equipments.

Establish proper drum water level.

Place the ID and FD fans in service.

Establish a minimum of 30 % MCR airflow through the furnace.

Depress the purge push button.

This will start furnace purge if all the requirements are satisfied, as indicated by the
yellow purge ready light.

If the Purge Ready light does not come after the conditions above are competed, check
the following;

The light oil trip valve is closed.

All light oil nozzle valves are closed.

BFG/Converter gas trip valves closed and vent valve open.

COG trip valve closed and vent valve open.

All flame scanners show No flame.

No boiler trip command is present.

Airflow is >30 %.

Both burner dampers (secondary air control damper) not closed.

When purge start command is given by the operator a five minute purge cycle starts indicated
by purging light ON. At the end of five minutes the boiler trip circuit is reset (provided no
boiler trip command is present). The purging light goes out and yellow purge compete light
comes on.
Light oil on-off control and supervision Once boiler trip is reset it is permitted to open the
Light oil trip valve (LOTV). When open command is given will open LOTV if following
conditions are satisfied:

Purge compete and no MFT (Master Fuel Trip) condition present.

Any light oil nozzle valve not closed and light oil header pressure not very low.

Any light oil nozzle valve not closed and atomizing air pressure not very low.

When LOTV is moved from fully closed position to open position, green light goes out and red
light comes on.
Page 33 of 250

To place light oil burner in service proceed as follows:

Select light oil firing for designated burner.

Check burner LDO manual isolation valve open.

Check burner atomizing air manual isolation valve open.

Check gun in firing position.

Check burner scavenging valve closed.

Any burner can be started either from the console or from the LBCB, on selection from console
for remote / local operation. If above conditions are satisfied, by pressing start push button
will initiate burner start / igniter start command .It generates a 5 second pulse for closing
burner secondary air damper for light off sequence. After 5 seconds burner secondary air
damper is commanded to open. After that a 15 second pulse is initiated during which ignition
rod is advanced. The burner atomizing air valve is commanded to open. The sparking
transformer is energized and sparking takes place for a period of 15 seconds. During this 15
seconds, burner nozzle valve is commanded to open. Burner valve remains open if respective
flame scanners sense FLAME with in 10 seconds from valve lift off. If not burner valve and
burner atomizing valves are commanded to close.
On loss of any one of the following conditions the burner is tripped and burner nozzle valve &
atomizing air valves are commanded to close:

Purge complete and no MFT.

LDO trip valve open.

Local gun maintenance switch in remote.

LDO start permit available.

Burner scanner shows FLAME.

Burner not in scavenges.

Then the burner scavenge cycle is initiated only, if other burner is in service mode and
selected burner is for LDO firing. After scavenge valve reaches full open position, a 300
seconds scavenge time is initiated and scavenging takes place for 300 seconds. At the end of
300 seconds the burner atomizing valve and burner scavenge valve are commanded to close.
Scavenge cycle is also initiated from local LBCB by switching the local gun maintenance
switch to scavenge position.
Boiler Auto Control System: It consists of the following:
1. Feed water control (drum level control): The objective of this control is to maintain the
drum level to the normal water level at all loads. In this, the control is in two fold: a) at low
load (by single controller and 30 % control valve) and at high load (by three element controller
Page 34 of 250

and 100 % control valve). At lower load the full load control valve is kept closed. The drum
level measured signal is compared with the drum level set point. The error signal will have a
proportional, integral and differential action in the single element controller. This controller
output will be the position demand signal for the start up feed control valve and operation. At
higher load the start up and stand by full load control valve shall be closed. The pressure and
temperature compensated steam flow shall be measured in main steam lines. The error signal
produced between drum level measured signal and drum level set point shall have
proportional integral and differential action in the three-element drum level controller. This
will be added with steam flow signal, which is the feed water flow demand signal (set point for
feed water flow). This will be compared with the feed water flow in the feed water controller.
Deviation if any will have a proportional and integral action in the feed water controller. This
controller output will be the position demand signal for the full load control valve.
Auto/manual station is provided for auto/manual selection. Position indicators are provided for
the start up and full load feed control valves.
2. Furnace draft control: The main objective of the control is to maintain the furnace
pressure constant at the desired set value at all loads. This is achieved by changing the flow of
fuel gas by modulating the inlet damper of the ID fan. Furnace pressure is measured and
recommended control range for the pressure transmitter is 50-mmwc to+ 50 mmwc.
Excessive deviation is alarmed and the control is transferred to manual. Excessive furnace
pressure is monitored for directional block on ID and FD fans. Furnace pressure is compared
with set point and error will have proportional and integral action. Fuel demand signal is
added as a feed forward feature. MFT feed forward feature is provided to minimize negative
furnace pressure excursion. Separate auto/manual station and position indicator for ID fan
regulating device is provided.
3. Air Flow Control: The combustion air flow is measured in the duct by means of aerofoil
.This flow has pressure and temperature compensation. The flow is liberalized by means of
square root extractors. This signal is compared with the developed set point. The air flow
demand from combustion control and actual fuel flow whichever is high (lead-lag system) is
selected to ensure enrich combustion air. The oxygen in the flue gas at the inlet of Air heater
is measured as primary or redundant. Transfer switch can be selected for either average value
or individual value. This signal is compared with excess air set point and any error will have
proportional and integral action to have better combustion efficiency. High/low limiters are
used to limit the value in case the oxygen analyser is out of service. Under any circumstance
the air flow should not be less than 30 % MCR flow. This signal is the developed set point for
the air flow control. Any difference between the developed set point and the air flow signal will
have proportional and integral action in the air flow controller. This position demand signal
will be selected to the corresponding FD fan in service through auto/manual stations.
4. Fuel Flow Control:
Fuel- Unit has been designed for firing LDO, COG, BFG or either independently or in
combination. All the time LDO is used as start up fuel, LDO/COG can be used as a supporting
fuels for any combination firing for the following reasons:
Page 35 of 250

To provide necessary ignition energy to light off BFG.

To stabilize a BFG flame at low boiler/burner loads.

As a safe start up fuel and for controlled heat input during light off.

a. Light Diesel Oil (LDO):It is used for cold start up and warm up fuel. It is fired in both
the elevations.
b. Coke Oven Gas (COG):it is supplied to the boiler from coke oven batteries. It is used
warming up and for load carrying. This gas gives a stable flame with out any need of oil
flame support. There are two independent coke oven gas spuds arranged in two elevations
.When this gas is to be fired ,first oil guns have to be taken into operation and then COG
can be admitted and see that flame stabilization and oil guns can be withdrawn.
c. Blast Furnace Gas (BFG) or Blast Furnace Gas + Converter Gas(BFG+CG): Bf
gas or mixer of BFG+CG supplied to the boiler from their respective batteries shall be
available at the specified pressure .The calorific value of the gas is low and hence needs
ignition source support at low loads when burnt separately. For reliable flame scanning an
auxiliary firing of LDO/COG is restored whenever there is a need for BFG firing.
Note:

Oil and COG should not be fired in the same burner. Fire them at different elevations for
better control of air flow and flame.
When combination firing, the total heat input through all fuels should not exceed MCR
generation.
When firing BFG with oil support the oil firing should be only at minimum MCR.

Fuel flow demand from combustion control and air flow signal from air flow control connected
for fuel air ratio are compared and the lower is selected for the set point of the fuel flow
controller(lead-lag system).This is to ensure that under any circumstances the fuel flow should
be lesser than the air flow.
Fuel flow is measured by adding the light diesel oil flow corrected for calorific value and the
flow of fuel gasses, BFG+CG and COG corrected for the respective calorific values. This total
fuel flow signal is hooked up to the control after a delay to suit the process lag.
The actual fuel flow signal is compared with the developed set point signal above and any
deviation will have proportional and integral action. The controllers output signal is the
position demand signal for gas and LDO control valves. This demand is splitted in to
individual demands for each control valve. Bias unit is provided to modify the signal when
ever required. An auto / manual station is provided for each control valve.
5. Master pressure Control: The objective of this control is to maintain the common steam
header pressure or boiler outlet pressure constant at the desired value by adjusting the firing
rate (both fuel flow and air flow).The selected pressure signal is compared with the set point
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and any error will have proportional and integral action. A proportional value of total steam
flow and derivative of drum pressure signal are taken as feed forward feature for the control.
An auto/manual station is provided. The output of Auto/manual station is the air flow demand
and fuel flow demand signal.
6. SH steam temperature control: This control system is required to maintain the main
steam temperature at the final super heater outlet at a stipulated value. To achieve this it is
having a cascade controller with outer loop and inner loop. In the inner loop the steam
temperature at SH outlet is measured and compared with set point. The error is fed to the
proportional, integral and differential controller. The controllers output is going as a set point
to the outer loop. Again the error is fed to the outer controller. The desired controller signal is
multiplied by the steam flow derivative feed forward signal. The signal is fed to the feed
control valve through the auto/manual station.
7. LDO pressure control: This control is envisaged to control the loop pressure at the outlet
of the LDO pumps. The LDO outlet pressure is measured, compared with the set point and the
regulating error is fed to the proportional and integral controller. The output signal from the
controller positions the LDO pressure for the control valve. An auto/manual station is
provided for this control valve.
Soot Blower: Two types of soot blowers namely Long Retractable & Rotary blowers are
envisaged for cleaning of fire side deposits from super heaters, boiler bank and economizer
region during operation of the boiler. Steam is used as blowing medium.
Tubular Air Preheater
Tubular air preheater is installed to preheat the combustion air with leftover heat from flue
gases.
Forced Draft Fan
Forced Draft (FD fan) fan supplies air for combustion in side the furnace.
Induced Draft Fan
ID Fan takes away the flue gas from the furnace and releases to the atmosphere through
chimney. The ID fans of boiler 1 &2 have two speeds. ID fan of boiler-3 is having hydraulic
coupling for speed control.
STEAM TURBO GENERATOR
Introduction
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy of pressurized steam into
useful mechanical work. The original steam engine which largely powered the industrial
revolution in the UK was based on reciprocating pistons. This has now been almost totally
replaced by the steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher thermodynamic
efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio and the steam turbine is ideal for the very large
Page 37 of 250

power configurations used in power stations. The steam turbine derives much of its better
thermodynamic efficiency because of the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam.
This
results
in
a
closer
approach
to
the
ideal
reversible
process.
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW
turbines used to generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications
for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines, as developed for aerospace
applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by
steam turbines.
Steam Turbine Principle
The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. Th
expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of
fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central
turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine
casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure.
On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine
casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a
common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound
systems.

Two Turbine Cylinders Tandem Mounted

There are two principles used for design of turbine blades the impulse blading and the
reaction blading.

Impulse Blading
The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and the impact of the
steam on the blades drives them round. The day to day examples of this principle is pelton
Page 38 of 250

wheel. In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in the fixed
blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.

Velocity diagram impulse turbine stage

z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

Reaction Blading
The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam flow and gaining
kinetic energy by the reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of this
principle. For this turbine principle the steam pressure drop is divided between the fixed and
moving blades.

Velocity diagram reaction turbine stage

Page 39 of 250

z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material constraints of the blades.

Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant operating under the best theoretical
conditions for most efficient operation. This is an ideal imaginary cycle against which all
other real steam working cycles can be compared.
The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the figure below. There will no losses
of energy by radiation, leakage of steam, or frictional losses in the mechanical componets. The
condenser cooling will condense the steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water).
The feed pump will add no energy to the water. The chimney gases would be at the same
pressure as the atmosphere.
Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the energy entering the turbine as steam
(h1) minus the energy leaving the turbine as steam after perfect expansion (h2) this being
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) i.e. (h1- h2). The energy supplied by the steam by heat
transfer from the combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and steam in the
boiler will be the difference in the enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler and the water
entering the boiler = (h1 - h3).
Page 40 of 250

Basic Rankine Cycle

The ratio output work / Input by heat transfer is the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle
and is expressed as

Although the theoretical best efficiency for any cycle is the Carnot Cycle the Rankine cycle
provides a more practical ideal cycle for the comparison of steam power cycles ( and similar
cycles ). The efficiencies of working steam plant are determined by use of the Rankine cycle
by use of the relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as below:

The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system as indicated in the
diagram below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from the free
surface of the hot well. Every time the working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the
circuit it experiences a series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle.
The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid crosses inner
boundaries (control surfaces).. The inner boundary defines a flow process.
The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass flowing along the
steady-flow streams and crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be
developed for the individual units and the whole plant.
When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law of conservation of
energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working agent ** entering any system
boundary must be equal to the rate of energy leaving the system boundary.
**It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time whichever is most convenient
Page 41 of 250

Steady Flow Energy Equations

Boiler
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
F + A + h d = h 1 + G + hl b hence

F + A = G + h 1 - h d + hl b

Turbine
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
h 1 = T + h 2 + hl t hence 0 = T - h 1 + h 2 + hl t
Condenser Unit
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
W i + h 2 = W o + h w + hl c hence

W i = W o + h w - h 2 + hl c

Feed Water System

The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed Water System are as follows: h w + d e + d
f= h d + hl f hence d e + d f = - h w + h d + hl
The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the energy equation for the whole
turbine system enclosed by the outer boundary

Page 42 of 250

That is ..per unit mass the of working agent (water) the energy of the fuel (F) is equal to the
sum of

the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that used to drive the pumps (T (d e+ d f)
the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air temperature as the datum.

the energy gained by the water circulating through the condenser [W o - W i]

the energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the plant hl

The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented by the ratio of the
net mechanical energy available to the energy within the fuel supplied as indicated in the
expressions below...

Turbine Vapour Cycle on T-h Diagram

Steam cycle on Temp - Enthalpy Diagram

This cycle shows the stages of operation in a turbine plant. The enthalpy reduction in the
turbine is represented by A -> B . The reversible process for an ideal isentropic (reversible
adiabetic) is represented by A->B'. This enthalpy loss would be (h g1 - h 2 ) in the reversible
case this would be (h g1 - h 2s ).
Page 43 of 250

The heat loss by heat transfer in the condenser is shown as B->C and results in a loss of
enthalpy of (h 2- h f2) or in the idealised reversible process it is shown by B'-> C with a loss of
enthalpy of (h 2s- h f2).
The work done on the water in extracting it from the condenser and feeding it to the boiler
during adiabetic compression C-> D is (h d - h f2 ) = length M
The energy added to the working agent by heat transfer across the heat transfer surfaces in
the boiler is (h g1 - h d ) which is approx.( h g1 - h f2 )
The Rankine efficiency of the Rankine Cycle AB'CDEA is

The efficiency of the Real Cycle is

Technical Specifications (Steam Turbo Generator)

Steam Turbine:
Description

Specification

Make
Machine no
Inlet pressure (at
ESV)
Exhaust pressure
Trip speed
2nd critical speed

BHEL,HYDERABAD
T-0468 & T-0469
0.12 kg/cm2 (abs)
7700 rpm
4505 rpm

Velocity coefficient

0.95

60 kg/cm2(abs)

No
load
steam
4.5 t/hr
quantity
Output (MCR)
19.95 MW
Number
of
02
extractions

Specification
Description
Type
C56/65-21
Service
Generator drive
Inlet temperature (at
480 *C
ESV)
Speed
7000 rpm
st
1 critical speed
1214 rpm
Number of stages
1+20+3
31.8X7.0 =222.6
Area of nozzle
m2
Wheel chamber press.

45 kg/cm2 (abs)

Output (MER)

19.25 MW

GB output shaft speed

3000 rpm

Lube Oil System

Main oil tank-from which pumps draw oil and to which oil is returned after passing through
the governing system & the bearings.
Page 44 of 250

Main oil pump-driven by AC motor that supplies oil to the governing system & the bearing.
Auxiliary oil pump-driven by AC motor supplies oil to the governing system & the bearings
when ever main oil pump is not working.
Emergency oil pump-DC driven supplies oil to the bearings after turbine trip during
coasting down & cooling period of the turbine, when all sources of oil fail.
Oil coolers -in which the heat absorbed in turbine oil system is dissipated to cooling water.
(Design code: ASME SEC.VIII DIV-1,1995 ADD.96,TEMA C 1988. Make: BHEL,
HYDERABAD).
Oil vapour extraction fan-to remove oil vapors from oil tank.
Over head oil tank-to cater required oil quantity to the bearings during coasting down time
in case all the pumps fail to supply the oil.(a permission to turbine start up interlock is
provided through level switch mounted on the O/H lube oil tank.)
Jacking oil pump-AC driven supplies oil at high pressure into the bottom shell of the journal
bearings to prevent metal to metal contact between journal & bearing shell of the journal
bearing.
Surface Condenser
Steam entering in to the turbine is condensed to water inside condenser. Vacuum is
maintained inside condenser. After being condensed condensate is stored in condenser
hotwell.
Condensate Extraction Pump
CEP removes condensate from condenser hotwell to condensate storage tank for reuse.
Steam Jet Air Ejector:
Ejector is used to create vacuum inside condenser.
Gland Steam Condenser:
It is a condenser in which condensate absorbs heat of collected gland steam before going to
feed water tank. This is done to increase the overall efficiency of the plant.

Generator
The generator is 19.25 MW synchronous generator.. Generation voltage is 11 KV. Speed3000rpm.It has brushless excitation system.
Generator Protection: Generator has the following protections.
Page 45 of 250

Differential protection
Definite time over current protection
Voltage controlled over current protection
Over voltage protection
Generator under voltage protection
Loss of excitation protection under reactance function
Reverse power protection
Low forward power protection
Under frequency protection
Negative phase sequence protection - Definite time NPS
(alarm)
Negative phase sequence protection Inverse time NPS (trip)
Generator transformer over flux protection
Under Impedance protection: REG-backup impedance
protection)
Pole slip protection :REG
100 % stator earth fault relay (RAGEK)
Rotor earth protection (RXNB4)
Generator transformer restricted earth fault protection
Generator transformer stand by earth fault protection
Over all differential protection

Synchronisation :
After turbine reaches full speed, excitation is made on . Generation voltage is raised to 11 KV.
This voltage is stepped up to 33 KV through 31.5 MVA generator transformer.After matching
voltage, frequency and phase generator breaker is switched on. Switching on of generator
breaker connects the generator with grid. This is called synchronization of the generator.
Machine is loaded depending upon the availability of steam.

BOP (Balance of Plant)

Main Cooling Water System
This system consists of the following drives. The purpose of the system is to supply cooling
water to condensers of both the steam turbo generators. This cooling water absorbs heat of the
exhaust steam of steam turbine and is sent to cooling tower for dissipation of heat and the
cycle is repeated.
MCW pumps (1 x 2)
Capacity 7500 m3/hr, motor capacity 1250 kw, 5 kV
Page 46 of 250

Motorized discharge valve and manual suction valve

MCW tower fans (1 x 3), counter flow
Make Paharpur cooling tower
Capacity 3000 m3/hr, motor capacity 90 kw,415V
Auxillary Cooling Water System
This system consists of the following drives. The purpose of the system is to supply cooling
water to auxiliary coolers such as generator coolers, lube oil coolers, boiler feed pump coolers
etc. of both the steam turbo generators, steam turbo blowers, electric turbo blower and gas
turbine auxiliaries. This cooling water absorbs heat of the fluids to the auxilaries and is sent
to cooling tower for dissipation of heat and the cycle is repeated.
ACW pumps (1 x 5)
Capacity 500 m3/hr, motor capacity 90 kw,415 V
Suction and discharge isolation valves
ACW tower fans (1 x 2), counter flow
Make Paharpur cooling tower
Capacity 1500 m3/hr, motor capacity 30 kw,415 V
Turbo Blower Cooling Water System
This is specifically meant for the condenser of steam turbo blower and the function is same as
that for main cooling water system.
TBS CW pumps (1 x 2)
Capacity 2199 m3/hr, motor capacity 280 kw, 5 kV
ACW tower fans (1 x 2), counter flow
Make Paharpur cooling tower
Capacity 1500 m3/hr, motor capacity 45 kw, 415 V
Boiler Feed Pump
This is a multistage centrifugal pump that receives feed water from deaerator and supplies
feed water to boiler at high pressure above 90 kg/cm2
Make Voith
Hydraulic coupling
Boiler feed pump (1x3)
Capacity 182 m3/hr, motor capacity 600 kw. 6.6 kV
Motorised discharge valve and manual suction valves
Twin oil cooler, duplex oil filter, oil tank capacity- 300 litres

Page 47 of 250

Feed Transfer Pump

This pump receives feed water from deaerator and supplies the same to CDCP boilers (3 nos)
which are located at CDCP end.
FT pump (1x2)
Capacity 78 m3/hr, motor capacity 45 kw, 415 V
Cranes
60/10 Ton EOT crane in STG hall
25/5 Ton EOT crane in COG compressor house
5-ton teflor in Electrical repair shop.
10 Ton EOT crane in MCWPH
A/C Ventillation System
3x50T capacity for power plant control room
Ventilation system for LT & HT switchgear room, Motor capacity 100 kw.
DCS control system for Boilers, turbines and axillaries
Fire Detection & Alarm System
Make: Vijay Fire, Mumbai
Air Compressor System
There are three air compressors namely A, B and C. They supply instrument air through
dryers to pneumatic control systems to meet the process requirement of the plant and
secondly service air (without dryers) to meet the general requirement such as for cleaning,
cooling etc of the plant.
System Philosophy: In our system each compressor can be operated in two modes namely;
AUTO MODE & MANUAL MODE and the mode of operation can be selected by auto/manual
selector switch (ASW2/BSW2/CSW2) provided on the control panel.
Manual made: In this mode compressor can be operated in three ways i.e. from three
different locations namely; local/Indicating panel/Remote by the above selector switches. The
compressor can be started by start buttons APB1, provided on the local control panel,
Indicator panel & Remote control panel. Once the compressor is started in this mode it will
run in continuous run AUTO LOAD/UNLOAD REGULATION by pressure switches PS3A/B/C
& PS4A/B/C and solenoid valves SOL1A/B/C & SOL2A/B/C with 3-step capacity control. The
compressor can be stopped by any of the stop buttons APB2 provided on the control panels.

Page 48 of 250

Auto mode: In this mode compressor shall be started by AUTO START PRESSURE SWITCH
PS5A if air pressure in the receiver drops bellow the set pressure of this pressure switch. Once
the compressor is started it will run in continuous run auto load/unload regulation by pressure
switches PS6A/B/C solenoid valves SOL1A/B/C & SOL2A/B/C with 2-step capacity control.
The compressor can be stopped either by the push buttons provided on the control panels or
automatically by timer AT3/BT3/CT3 when it runs in unload condition for set time of this
timer.
Starting Sequence: Once the start command is given it will energies contactor A/B/CR10
and this will give open command to the motor of motorized gate valve in the water line to
compressor to open & once water flow is established in the water line it will be sensed by flow
switch in the water circuit. This will give start command to compressor motor starter & the
compressor is started. Once water line valve is fully opened valve motor will be stopped
automatically.
Continuous run auto load/unload regulation with 3-step capacity control: This
regulation will work only in manual mode. In this 3-step control system it will be running
always in either of three conditions; 0% loaded (i.e. unload), 50% loaded, or 100% loaded by
the pressure switches depending on the receiver pressure. In the reverse compressor will start
unloading to 50% first from fully load condition & then to 0% depending upon the receiver
pressure & the process continues.
Continuous run auto load/unload regulation with 2-step capacity control: This
regulation work only in auto mode .The compressor will always be running either of two
conditions 0% loaded (i.e. unload) or 100% loaded by the pressure switches depending upon air
receiver pressure. The provision is made in this control circuit to delay energization of solenoid
valves at the time of starting the compressor by timer A/B/C T1, so as to allow the starting of
compressor in unloaded condition.

STEAM TURBO BLOWER

Steam turbo blower is an air compressor called blower coupled with a prime mover i.e. steam
turbine. The steam turbo blower supplies cold blast air at high pressure to Blast furnace.
Steam turbine load depends upon the load requirement of the blower. Steam turbine speed
and load is controlled by an electronic governing system. Blower air load/demand is controlled
and governed by an inlet guide vane (IGV) under surge limitation. Suge is a phenomenon that
protects the blower from getting damaged.
Steam Turbine:

Make:
Type

Sulzer De Pretto Escher Wyss, Italy.

NA 5003
Page 49 of 250

Steam
inlet condition
Steam consumption
Specific steam consumption
Vacuum
Speed range
Power
Governor

61 kg/cm2, 485 degC

55.5 Ton/hr
0.214 kg/ Nm3
-0.88 kg/ cm2
4500-5100 rpm
13.2 MW
Electronic governor (Wood ward)

Air Blower

Axial Blower
Air inlet
Flow
Suction volume
Delivery pressure
Delivery temp
Speed
Output at coupling

Type AV - 63 15
70% RH, 40 degC
1,95,000 Nm3/ hr
2,35,692 m3/hr
3.95 ata
209 degc
5000 rpm
12,969 kw

Auxillaries
1. Lube oil system:

Main oil pump (Duplex)

Oil type- servo prime
Main oil tank capacity
Overhead oil tank capacity
AOP capacity
EOP capacity
Oil Vapour fan(2 nos) capacity
Turning gear motor capacity
Oil centrifuge pump capacity
Oil coolers(1 x 2), Duplex oil filter

MAAG/ Gear pump

46
6 kL
2 kL
138 m3/hr, motor capacity - 37 kw
50 m3/hr, motor capacity 4 kw
25 m3/hr , motor capacity 0.37 kw
10 kw
800 lit/min, motor capacity 0.75 kw

2. Condensate system:
Condenser type surface condenser, two pass
CEP (two nos) capacity 88.9 m3/hr, motor capacity 37 kw
Ejector type Steam jet air ejector
3. Gland steam system:
GSEF (two nos) capacity 150 m3/hr , motor capacity 2.2 kw
Gland steam condenser
Page 50 of 250

ELECTRIC TURBO BLOWER (ETB)

Electric turbo blower is an air compressor called blower coupled with a prime mover i.e. motor
e. The steam turbo blower supplies cold blast air at high pressure to Blast furnace. Motor load
depends upon the load requirement of the blower. Blower air load/demand is controlled and
governed by an inlet guide vane (IGV) under surge limitation.

Motor

Make:

SAVIGLIANO

Output (MCR):

11.8 MW

Speed:

1500 rpm

Rated current

820

Rated voltage

10 kV + 5%

Excitation voltage

100 V

Excitation current

450 A

Frequency

50 Hz

Weight

38,000 kg

Associated systems and equipments are

33 kV switchgear

16 MVA transformer

10 kV switchgear

AVR system

Protection relay panel

Air Blower

Make:

GHH BORSIG

Suction volume:

195000 m3/hr

Delivery pressure:

3.55 bara

Delivery temp:

1950c

Speed

4125 rpm

Page 51 of 250

Auxillaries
1. Lube oil system:

Oil type- servo prime 46T

Main oil tank capacity 4 kL

Overhead oil tank capacity 2 kL

AOP1 capacity 138 m3/hr, motor capacity 11 kw

AOP2 capacity 138 m3/hr, motor capacity - 11 kw

EOP capacity 50 m3/hr, motor capacity 15 kw

100 LP ELC, capacity 10 lit/min, motor capacity 0.25 kw

Oil coolers(1x3) and duplex oil filters

2.
3. Other equipments include

Motorised delivery valve

Motorised discharge valve

Hydraulic operated antisurge valve & its bypass

Start up Procedure of ETB

1.

Ensure that all the auxiliary supplies (A.C & D.C) for Excitation Panel, Control Desk,
Relay Panel, MCC Feeders for AOP-1 , AOP-2, Discharge Valve, Delivery Valve and
Blow off bypass valve are ON. Incoming supply for Excitation Transformer is ON from
415 V ACDB.

2.

Switch Off main motor Space Heater from 415 V ACDB.

3.

Check operation of Auxiliary Oil Pump-1, AOP-2 both from Local control Station and
Control Desk. Put the selector switch to REMOTE at local control station. Manually
start both the AOPs from Control Desk.

4.

Ensure that the three breakers ( Incoming Breaker, Bypass Breaker & short link
Breaker) in 10 KV switchgear

are in service condition and springs are charged.

5.

Ensure that the circulating water pressure is healthy.

6.

Ensure that the main oil tank level is > 35 cm and Emergency oil tank level is > 60 cm.
Page 52 of 250

7.

Ensure that the ETB Discharge and Delivery Valve are in fully closed condition. Blow
Off valve is in Open condition, Bypass valve of Anti surge is in closed condition and
Inlet suction Damper is at minimum. ( approx.10% open) .

8.

Ensure that the Motor Auto/Manual switch is at Manual and Release Emergency Stop
Push Button.

9.

Reset all the alarm and trip annunciation at control desk. All the annunciation should
get reset now.

10.

Check if Blower Motor Ready to start indication lamp is glowing in the Control Desk.
This checks for :-

11.

All 10 KV Breakers are ready to close

Excitation is Ready for Induction start (Contactor Q3 is closed in excitation panel)

Lube oil pressure healthy ( > 2.0 kg/ cm2)

Control Oil Pressure is healthy ( > 6.0 Kg/cm2)

Circulating Water pressure is healthy ( > 1.5 Kg/cm2)

Motor Winding Temp is normal.(< 60 oC)

Main Oil tank level is healthy ( > 35 cm in gauge glass).

Readiness from GHH Borsig Panel is present. This checks for:-

Guide Vane in minimum position

Lube Oil temp is normal ( > 30 oC)

Blow Off valve in Open position

Axial displacement not high

Motor stop is available.

Check that Motor voltage voltmeter on the desk is showing 10 KV, If it is less, then
change the tap by OLTC of 16 MVA Transformer to get 10 KV. Now the Motor is ready
to start. Put the Motor Auto/Manual Switch to Auto. Press Blower Motor Start Push
Button. The Motor will start rotating.

12.

After nearly 45 seconds Field Breaker will be closed in Excitation panel and Motor will
be synchronized.

13.

After the Motor is Synchronized Switch OFF AOP 1 & 2. Put selection switches of AOPs
to Auto mode.
Page 53 of 250

14.

After the Blower Motor Loadable indication comes in Control Desk, open inlet suction
damper to Maximum position.

15.

During this condition air will be vented through Blow Off line .

16.

After getting clearance from Blast Furnace l for their readiness to accept Cold Blast at
their end, open the Delivery valve.

17.

Flow can be changed by changing the % opening of Inlet Guide Vane & pressure can be changed by
opening or closing of blow off valves/ antis urge valve.

GAS TURBINE GENERATOR

The Captive Power Plant of NINL is a combined cycle co-generation Power Plant having
installed capacity of 62.5 MW which consists 2 nos. of Steam Turbo generator of19.25 MW
each & one Gas Turbo Generator of 24 MW capacity. Gas Turbine works onthe principle of
Joules cycle, whereas steam turbine works on the principle of Rankinecycle.
When both these cycle are working together in a single plant and Gas Turbine exhaust heat is
used to produce steam in HRSG and the generated steam of HRSG is used in steam turbine to
produce additional power, the entire system is called Combined Cycle Plant. The Gas
Turbine & HRSG combine of NINL is an example of Combined Cycle Plant.
Technical data of GT:
Designed & manufactured in India by BHEL under technical collaboration with M/S General
Electric, USA
Specification:
Frame: V, Gas turbine , Model: -MS 5000, Shaft rotation: -Counter clockwise

Turbine shaft speed: 5100 rpm, Generator shaft speed: 3000 rpm, Base Load
:23590 KW

Air: 300C, Altitude: 60m above MSL, Compressor stages: 17, Power turbine
stages: 2

Fuel: CO gas, LDO and mix, No of combustors: 10

Both axial flow Compressor and Gas turbine mounted on single shaft.

Heavy duty GT unit driving an synchronous generator

Inlet end of rotor shaft: - coupled to accessories like, hydraulic pump, and lube pump
through gear and pinion assembly.
Page 54 of 250

GT unit is enclosed in compartments, which are which are built all weather
condition, They are provided with thermal and acoustical insulation.

Brief Functional Description of Gas Turbine

When the turbine starting system is actuated and the clutch is engaged the compressor and
turbine is rotated by diesel engine, ambient air is drawn through the inlet plenum assembly,
filtered & compressed in the 17 stage axial flow compressor. For pulsation protection during
start up the 10th stage extraction valves of compressor remains open and variable inlet guide
vanes (IGV) remains in the low flow startup position (42 deg). The Gas Turbine will use clean
CO Gas as its main fuel. LDO will be used for supplementary fuel firing in the system during
start up/emergencies.
The diesel engine brings the turbine rotor to ignition speed (approx 18%) when the spark
plugs are energized and fuel is turned on. In the case of liquid fuel, equal amounts are
distributed to each combustor (10 in nos) by an external flow divider. In the case of gaseous
fuel, the gas metering holes in the fuel nozzles control the distribution. The resulting fuel/ air
mixture is ignited in the chambers (2 in nos) containing spark plugs and flame propagates
through the crossfire tubes to the rest of the combustors. When all chambers are lit, as
indicated by the flame detectors (4 in Nos), the acceleration continues. During acceleration
diesel engine continues to assists till 2750 rpm (approx) when it disengages. When the high
speed relay actuates at 95 percent speed, the 10th stage extraction bleed valve closes
automatically and the variable inlet guide vane actuator energizes to open the inlet guide
vanes to the normal turbine operating position (55 deg). Air from the compressor flows into the
annular spaces between the outer combustion casings and the combustion liners in a reverse
flow, and enters the combustion zone through the combustion liners.
The hot gases from the combustion chambers flow through the ten separate transition pieces.
The gases then enter the two-stage turbine section of the machine. Both stages consist of a
row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of rotating turbine buckets. In each nozzle row, the
kinetic energy of the jet is increased, with an associated pressure drop.
In the following row of moving buckets, a portion of the kinetic energy of the jet is absorbed as
useful work on the turbine rotor.
After passing through the 2nd stage buckets, the gases are directed into the exhaust hood and
diffuser which contain a series of turning vanes to turn the gases from an axial direction to a
radial direction, to minimize exhaust hood losses. The gases then pass into the exhaust
plenum and are introduced to HRSG through the gas duct or to the atmosphere through
exhaust stack depending upon plant conditions.
Resultant shaft rotation is used to turn a generator rotor for electrical power generation.

Page 55 of 250

A gas turbine cycle consists of

1. Compression of a gas (typically air),
2. Addition of heat energy into the compressed gas by either directly firing or combusting the
fuel in the compressed air or transferring the heat through a heat exchanger into the
compressed gas followed by (Combustor)
3. Expansion of the hot pressurized gases in a turbine to produce useful work. The work
required by the compression is supplied by the turbine with the remaining being available for
useful work. Typically, the work required by the compressor is as much as half of the power
developed by the turbine. Clean fuels such as natural gas, distillate derived from the refining
of petroleum and gas derived from gasification may be used for direct firing in the gas turbine.
DEVICE
Gas Turbine can be divided into following main sub systems

Air inlet
Compressor
Variable Inlet Guide Vane (IGV) System
Gas Turbine Hydraulic Oil System
Ratcheting System
Combustion system
Fuel Gas System
Liquid fuel system
Cooling water system
N2 purging system
Exhaust temperature control system

Air Inlet
The first part of the air inlet system is the Air Filter House, which consists of a no of
cylindrical filter elements. They are arranged in two levels-one set above another.
The filtered air after Filter House goes to the duct which has first a expansion joint, then
acoustical silencers, then a trash screen and then to the inlet of compressor. The inlet of
compressor is sometimes called Inlet Plenum.
GT Compressor
GT Compressor is an axial flow rotating device with 17 rows (stages) of stationary and moving
blades for compressing air.
Compressor serves five functions:
It supplies compressed air for combustion
It supplies air for atomization (through atomizing compressor)
It supplies air to various air actuated instruments
It supplies cooling air for turbine blades (wheelspace)
Page 56 of 250

It supplies cooling air for turbine shell

It supplies sealing air for bearing seals

For surge protection Bleed Extraction has been provided from compressor 10th stage. There
are 4 bleed points discharged through two bleed valves.
Same 10th stage extraction air has been used for turbine blades (wheelspace) cooling. Air is
introduced into the top & bottom of the turbine casing and is routed to 2nd stage nozzle hollow
partition, then to hollow diaphragm segments and then to downstream face of 1st stage wheel
and then it diverts through deflector and moves through Interstage seals to the 2nd stage
upstream wheelspace.
Turbine shell cooling has been given from 4th stage extraction. After shell cooling air is
discharged at the downstream face 2nd stage turbine wheel for cooling that face _ First stage
nozzles are cooled by compressor discharge air bled from combustion chamber transition
space.
Bearing Sealing Air is also given from 10th stage extraction.
For airflow control one variable Inlet Guide Vane has been provided at the compressor Inlet.
After a scheduled running of Compressor, it is washed with detergent and DM water to revive
its performance which gets reduced by dust accumulation on compressor blades. This washing
with detergent is done after taking shutdown of compressor and is called Off-line Washing.
There is also provision for Online Washing which is done with DM water only. It is imperative
that online is not as effective as Off-line washing
Air from discharge of compressor initially flows into the annular spaces between outer
combustion casing and combustion liners (this flow is reverse) and then enters the inside of
combustion liners and then mixes with fuel in the combustion zone.
Variable Inlet Guide Vane (IGV) System
It serves mainly two functions:
1. Controls compressor surge during startup/shutdown
2. Controls Exhaust temperature during normal running hours
For IGV a minimum angle is defined corresponding to FSNL which allows minimum safe flow.
During a normal startup IGV is held at full closed position. Then a proper speed (actually
temp corrected speed, discussed later) which is approximately 40%, IGV starts opening from
full closed position to minimum angle corresponding to FSNL. When compressor/turbine speed
reaches operating speed bleed valve closes. As GT load increases exhaust temperature
increases and when exhaust temperature reaches the set point IGV will begin to open further
to hold the exhaust temperature at set point. Please note that in the control schematics there
Page 57 of 250

will be IGV temp control ON/OFF button and it should be ON for IGV to control the exhaust
temp. During such control when IGV goes to full open, it is fuel control who takes over to hold
the exhaust temp set point. During trip or normal shutdown at 95% speed bleed valves will
open And as speed drops further IGV ramps down to the full closed position following the
reverse path IGV is hydraulically actuated and should be on AUTO during normal operation.
Manual control of IGV is also possible between FSNL minimum angle to full open position,
however, this manual control is used for calibration of IGV during shutdown condition. Even if
somebody puts IGV on manual during normal operation, IGV could not be lowered to a value
than that is demanded by AUTO control. IGV hydraulic actuating system is equipped with
fault detection system and in case of discrepancy between demand and actual position, GT will
trip. As told, IGV modulates between full closed to minimum angle corresponding to FSNL.
This variation is not based on only speed rather speed corrected by compressor inlet temp (as
air quantity depends on temp). This takes care to avoid negative pressure at 5th stage
extraction point (air used for bearing seals)
Gas Turbine Hydraulic Oil System
For lube oil there are two pumps-AOP (motor driven), MOP (Accessory Gear driven). EOP is
for supplying lube oil only in case of failure of above two pumps_ Oil taken from AOP & MOP
discharge header through 5 mic filter is used as Trip Oil. The hydraulic oil used for control
purpose is supplied by Hydraulic pump (pr around 80-85 bar). There are two hydraulic pumpsone Auxiliary & other Main driven by accessory gear. Oil is taken from lube oil header. The
oil for ratchet pump & starting clutch engagement is also taken from lube oil header, the
discharge pr of ratchet pump is approx 9.5 bar. Aux Hyd oil pump runs till 14 HS speed
(about 97%) is reached, thereafter main hydraulic pump takes over. In case of low hyd oil pr,
Aux hyd pump starts. After pr becomes normal it has to be stopped manually. Oil throttle in
the Oil vapor extraction fan to be operated to maintain 0 to -50 mmwc in turbine base oil
chamber
Trip Oil:
Primary protection interface between the turbine control & protection system. In our dual fuel
machine, trip oil is selectively drained to shut-off fuel system not required. Overspeed bolt
operates a device, which drains trip oil to close both fuel systems. Manual trip also operates
the same device to drain trip oil. Overspeed device once operated to be reset manually by
pulling the reset rod. The dump valve in the trip oil system is solenoid operated springreturned spool valve energize to build trip oil pr. An orifice located in the line from lube oil
header to trip oil system. Orifice is so sized it allows sufficient oil flow to the trip oil system,
yet prevents starvation of lube oil header during a machine trip. Note: trip solenoid drains trip
oil which operates the dump valve to drain the hydraulic oil from respective hydraulically
actuated devices
Ratcheting:
Purpose1: to turn turbine rotor during cooldown to prevent rotor bowing.
Page 58 of 250

Purpose2: to breakaway turbine from standstill during startup. During startup ratchet
operates continuously rotating turbine at approximately at 1 rpm. After turbines breaks away
ratchet pump is switched off. Ratchet Pump is a DC motor driven positive displacement pump.
Jog Motor (43HR), located in the gauge cabinet may be used to ratchet the turbine from local
for inspection purpose. Ratchet pump takes oil from lube oil system through a 40mic filter
Ratchet Sequence: energisation of Clutch Solenoid and engagement of oneway (springreturned) clutch->Forward stroke rotating the shaft by 45 deg- >Reverse stroke for next cycle>deenergisation of clutch solenoid
Combustor: 10 number of combustor concentrically oriented along the periphery of the gas
turbine gas inlet side. Heat is added here to the compressed gas by means burning fuel i.e.
LDO/ Compressed COG.
Fuel Gas System:
For our GT Fuel Gas(COG) path will be as follows:
Raw COG Gas Cleaning Plant COG Compressor COG Cooler Gas Filtration Skid
Flow Orifice with isolation valves & bypass Pneumatic Shut-Off Valve LP N2 Purge
Connection Vent Connection Solenoid Operated Isolation Valve Strainer Fuel Gas
Stop Valve (Hydraulically operated) Vent Connection for purging with Pneumatic Valve
Stop/Speed ratio valve Another Vent Connection for purging with Pneumatic Valve
Connection from HP N2 system for purge Fuel Gas Control Valve Fuel Gas Manifold
Fuel Gas Nozzle Combustion Chamber.
In addition to the above:

There are three DP transmitter across Fuel Gas Control

COG Outlet from compressor is connected to a COG Surge Vessel

Two pr transmitter at the Fuel Gas Module Inlet

Three Interstage Pr Transmitters between Stop/speed ratio valve & Control Valve

Other points to Note:

All valves before strainers are solenoid operated using IA. After strainer all pneumatic valves
are operated by compressor discharge air pressure. The pr switches before Stop/speed ratio
valve is to give alarm in case of low gas pressure and also for auto changeover of fuel (details
later). The signals of pr transmitters before control valve is used in the pr control loop of
Stop/speed ratio valve. Pressure gauges are not shown in the schematic to avoid complicacy of
Page 59 of 250

drawing. There are 3 pr gauges-one upstream of stop/ratio valve, one downstream of it and
third after gas control valve
Dual Fuel operation:
In normal operation desired fuel is selected at startup (our case: LDO). For mix operation
minimum load should be 40%. Changeover to COG fuel is done by selecting COG fuel selector
membrane switch and the EXECUTE membrane switch. Changeover to COG starts after
necessary auto purging of COG line through Mark V control. Gradually more COG will be
taken and LDO will be reduced keeping FSR constant. Mix operation can be done by selecting
MIXTURE membrane switch when desired proportion has been obtained. During
changeover from COG to LDO, first oil lines are purged with air, then filled with oil then
changeover begins. The mix fuel operation is prohibited with one fuel system operating at a
very low proportion. At any Mix operation minimum COG should be 30% and minimum LDO
should be 10%. When operating on Gas, in case of low COG pressure (actuated by a pressure
switch), an automatic transfer to LDO starts. In case COG pressure becomes normal
afterwards, changeover to COG has to be done manually by selecting DISTILLATE(LDO)
first and then GAS fuel selector switch. During COG operation some atomizing air is
diverted to purge LDO nozzles to avoid chocking. For transferring from one fuel to other there
is 30 sec delay before transfer begins. For COG to LDO transfer delay allows for purging of
liquid fuel lines. For LDO to COG transfer the delay allows stop/ratio valve to adjust COG
pressure.
Liquid Fuel Oil System
For our GT LDO will be the main liquid fuel. As can be seen in the picture, LDO path from
LDO tank is LDO Strainer LDO forwarding pump LDO heater Accumulator Pr
Control valve Primary (LP) Fuel Oil Filter (with reusable filter elements) Primary (LP)
Fuel Oil Filter(with disposable filter elements) Mass flow meter Strainer Fuel Oil
Stop Valve (Trip Valve) Fuel Injection Pump Fuel Pump Bypass Assembly Fuel Pump
Pr Relief Valve Secondary (HP) Fuel Oil Filter Flow Divider Selector Valve/Pr Gauge
Assembly Fuel line Check Valve Fuel Nozzle Combustion Chamber.
In addition to the above there is one False Start Drain Valve from the combustion chamber,
which can be treated as part of liquid fuel system.

Salient Points on the system

Fuel Injection Pump (located in the GT Fuel Skid) is a positive displacement gear pump. It
is driven by the accessory gear (mounted between diesel engine and turbine-compressor shaft)
through a hydraulically operated clutch.
Page 60 of 250

The fuel flow control in GT is through Bypass Valve Assembly-means when more fuel is
required bypass valve is closed and when fuel flow is to be reduced bypass valve is opened.
This bypass valve is hydraulically operated and will be directly under control of Starting
system during startup and Governor system during normal running. Bypass valve bypasses
the fuel back to Fuel injection
pump inlet.
Flow Divider is a single shaft driven gear pumps (10 pumps in series) to distribute LDO
equally to 10 combustion chambers as all gears run in samespeed. Its rotation is sustained by
LDO flow itself. Interesting to note that in GTLDO fuel flow will be measured indirectly by
measuring the speed of flow divider.
Selector Valve/Pr Gauge Assembly is provided to monitor locally the LDOpressures to
each fuel nozzle inlet
Fuel Line Check Valve does two things
a) when Fuel Injection Pump is running,Stop valve is open or passing and bypass valve is full
open it restricts fuel toenter combustion chamber. In other words only when bypass valve
starts closingand builds sufficient LDO pressure then only fuel can enter combustion chamber.
b) The second function of check valve is it restricts the back flow of hot gaseswhen LDO is not
being used and GT is running on COG.
FSR (Fuel stroke reference) is GE terminology for the electrical signal thatdetermines the
amount of fuel to be injected.
False Start Drain Valve is spring loaded valve is normally open. During an unsuccessful
start (failure to ignite) it drains fuel oil from combustion chamber. On successful start during
acceleration it is closed by increased compressor discharge pressure. Here one thing to be
noted that closing of valve is mechanically interlinked not through software logic. There are
many more such example in GT.
Gas Turbine Cooling Water System
There are five systems in GT which needs Cooling water

Lube Oil Cooler

Diesel Engine (Lube Oil, Jacket Cooling)
Generator Air Cooling
Atomizing Air
The First three are cooled by ACW water

Last one is cooled by CCW water. CCW water is closed cooling water system with DM water,
driven by pump (1w+1s). This water in turn is cooled by ACW water itself.
Page 61 of 250

The atomizing air temp and lube oil temp control valve operates sensing temperature directly
from lube oil header and atomizing cooler outlet air temp respectively. There is no
software/control loop for actuation of the control action of the valve. Basically when temp
starts increasing the vapor in the sensing tubes expands which at the control valve end exerts
pressure on diaphragm and valve is operated to allow more cooling water flow through coolers
Nitrogen Purging System
For GT the N2 requirement is solely for safety aspect during firing with COG.
Fire protection System when actuated will

Release CO2
Set an audible alarm
Trip Turbine
Close the Ventilation opening in all compartments
Actuate the damper in the turbine shell cooling discharge

The closing of ventilation dampers are through released CO2 pr only

Normal shutdown will automatically follow generator unloading, turbine speed reduction,
fuel shut-off at part speed and finally cooldown sequence (ratcheting) after turbine speed
becomes zero
Normal shutdown is fired shutdown-meaning on shutdown immediately fuel is not cut off,
fuel is reduced to fired shutdown value and then is cut-off at certainturbine speed. This is to
provide uniform cooling of turbine rotor
After shutdown minimum Cooldown period is 24 hours but preferably 48 hours
Cooldown may be accelerated by putting turbine on cranking by diesel generator
Cooldown should not be accelerated by opening turbine compartment doors as uneven cooling
of outer casing may result in excessive stress
On a stop command generator breaker opens on reverse power, FSR ramps down to minimum,
FSR then reduces with speed & when speed reduces to a set value, FSR ramps down faster &
when blowout occurs (as detected by flame sensing) fuel is shut-off.
During GT acceleration, Speed & Temp Control System also monitors temp, temp rate, low
speed stops or acceleration rate and accordingly can reduce FSR
FSR is never allowed by speed/local control loop to go below minimum FSRsetting (say, in case
of sudden load rejection) to avoid flame out. However temperature control circuit can drive
FSR to zero to limit temperature.
Load limit is based on material limit of generator.

Page 62 of 250

CO Gas Compressor
The Coke Oven Gas has to be fed to the GT at a higher pressure as per the design criteria of
GT so that proper distribution or atomization and mixing of fuel can be achieved. At the inlet
of the combustor due to pressure of COG and shape of the distributor a swirling motion
imparted to the COG, which helps in proper combustion.For this purpose a CO Gas
Compressor is also employed in our system.It is a five stage compressor driven by a 3.75 MW
induction motor.
Function of the unit
It is one of the major equipment in the coke oven gas path to GT. CO Gas coming out from the
Low Pressure Scrubber enters Ist stage compression through Dry Catch Pot.
The CO gas coming out of the 4th stage and again enters again inside the high Pressure
Scrubber where, max amount of Naphthalene is removed. Then it enters the 5 th stage of COG
Compressor.
The coke oven gas booster compressor consists of 3 machines, comprising of five compression
phases. The final discharge pressure of 19.3 ata is obtained by passing the gas through these
phases. The 1st and 2nd phases are accommodated in one casing(2BCL508 LP),THE 3rd and
4th phases are arranged in the second machine(2BCL508 IP),while the 5th phase is housed in
the third machine(BCL509 HP).Four gas coolers together with moist separator are employed
to cool the gas between these phases.1st & 2nd phase consists of 4 stage( impeller & diffuser
assembly) each. Like wise 3rd & 4th phase also consists of 4 stage each and 5th phase consists
of 9 stages. So it is a total 25-stage machine.
The train is driven by an induction motor through a speed increasing gear box and dry flexible
type couplings. The compressor runs at speed of 9400 rpm with a suction pressure of 1.033 ata
giving a final discharge pressure of 19.3 ata .
Lube Oil System

Oil reservoir is fitted with an electric heater

Reservoir capacity: 134 m3
Lube oil pumps are screw type pumps, there are two pumps (1w+1s)
In case of shutdown of both lube oil pumps, compressor trips and oil is supplied by
rundown tanks, placed at 7.0m over the compressor centerline. Normal level capacity:
3000 ltrs. Initially it is filled by opening filling line valve till overflow occurs when it is
closed. The level switch in the overhead tank gives permissive to the start of
compressor. In normal running condition, overflow is ensured by filling through orifice.
Lube oil filter changeover dp: 1.5 kg/cm2
Lube oil header pr 2-2.5 kg/cm2

Compressor sealing system

Each end of compressor section is fitted with gas seals. So there are 6 gas seals
Page 63 of 250

Each seal comprises 3 seal rings. Filtered N2 is injected between seal rings next to the
gas at 0.5 kg/cm2 higher than the gas upstream of seals. The vent from 2nd & 3rd seal
rings is routed to flare with an orifice to generate required back pr at the seal cavity.
The gas pr upstream of all gas seals are maintained at 1.05 ata for LP & IP and 1.2 ate
for HP compressor by connecting leakages from labyrinth seals to the 1st suction

There is CV in the main N2 supply line to maintain required N2 pr and there are six
individual valve to adjust required DP to each seals

The low seal DP pr set at 0.3 kg/cm2

GAS CLEANING PLANT

It is necessary to clean the Gas before it is sent to compressor & Gas turbine, otherwise it may
damage the turbine & compressor blades. For this purpose a Gas Cleaning Plant in included
in the system.
This system is designed, supplied, erected & will be commissioned by Thermax ltd in technical
assistance with IRH Engg. France.
The main purpose of the Gas Cleaning Plant is to reduce Naphthalene, Tar & Dust content of
CO Gas to the required limits before compression & admission to Gas Turbine.
The treatment is made in 3 steps:

Low Pressure Scrubber: The naphthalene from CO Gas is reduced by two stage solar oil
circulation.

Wet Electrostatic Precipitators: CO Gas coming out of LP scrubber passes through two
wet electrostatic precipitators. where tar & dust is reduced from the gas. After ESP, gas
streams goes to a tank called Dry catch put to separate any condensate present. From
dry catch pat gas goes to 1st stage suction of Compressor.

High Pressure scrubber: After 4th stage of compressor the gas is cooled and flows
through the High Pressure Scrubber where Naphthalene is reduced further due to high
pressure, and then the gas is sent to a Coalscer filter to remove residual solar oil, water
and tar droplets and then Gas goes for the last stage compression.

Gas Cleaning Principle

Coke oven gas coming from Coke Oven first taken into LP scrubber to decease Naphthalene
content. The scrubber system consists o two beds fed by two loops of solar oil cooled in
exchanges to keep coke oven gas 1 to 20C above final condenser temp. The solar oil feed
coming from HP scrubber is mixed with top circulating loop of solar oil at the top of the
scrubber. The overflow of solar oil at bottom of scrubber contains rich naphthalene sent to
spent solar oil tank. The gas then flows through two wet electrostatic precipitations where tar
Page 64 of 250

& dent removed. The gas enters the shell & flow downwards. At bottom gas enters vertical to
less where tar & dust is caught by electrostatic field. After two ESP, the two gas streams are
gathered towards the Dry catch put B1. From dry catch pat gas is piped to compressor 1st
stage suction. Tar & dust collected in tank T3 is filled up with condensates by pumps P5/B or
with solar oil by pump P3 is emptied by pump P4A/B to tank T2 A/B. periodically one of two
ESP is cleaned by recirculation with large flow of condensates or tank T3. During cleaning of
ESP. the cleaning ESP has to be isolated electrically & gas flow has to be stopped. Coke oven
gas coming from stage 4 cooler & separator is fed to the bottom of HP scrubber S2. There gas
flows through 6 bubbles caps tray. Fresh solar oil pumped by P1A/B to the top of the scrubber
washes gas in a counter current flow. Solar oil level of the scrubber is controlled control valve.
Gas coming out of HP scrubber passes through coalescent filter F2A/B or B small drops of
solar oil, water, tar, dust etc. collected by filter media & all there condensate transferred to S2
bottom by gravity. The treated gas then sent to last stage of compressor. Naphthalene content
in coke oven gas out let of HP scrubber is 09mg/nm3 solar oil collected at bottom of Hp
scrubber S2 sent to oil water separator tank (B3) under pressure where oil & water are
separated. The solar then sent to LP scrubber 2nd stage & water sent to through tank B2.
Inlet Gas Condition to LP Scrubber:

PR: 500 MMWC,

GAS VOLUME: 20700 m3/hr (Max)
NAPHTHALENE: 150 mg/Nm3 (Max)
TAR: 30 mg/Nm3 (Max)

Outlet Gas Condition of LP Scrubber:

NAPHTHALENE: 70 mg/Nm3 (Max)

TAR: 30 mg/Nm3 (Max)

Outlet Gas Condition of ESP:

NAPHTHALENE: 70 mg/Nm3 (Max)

TAR: 1.7 mg/Nm3 (Max)

Outlet Gas Condition of HP Scrubber outlet:

NAPHTHALENE: 9 mg/Nm3 (Max)

TAR: 1.7 mg/Nm3 (Max)
Page 65 of 250

HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR

HRSG is one of the major equipment in the combined cycle co-generation plants which plays
the role of recovering the sensible heat from GTE (Gas Turbine exhaust gas) & generates
steam. This steam is utilized either for power generation.
It is designed to generate steam at 4820C,62 ata at a flow rate of 45 TPH. This is
manufactured & erected by BHEL under technical collaboration with VOGTNEM, USA.The
HRSG consists of following main components:

Super heater & components.

Evaporator & components.

Economiser & components.

Condensate preheater & components.

Attemperator.

Expansion joints.

Steel chimney.

Rotary soot blowers(15 nos)

HRSG Vs Conventional Boilers:

HRSG use exhaust from GT as heat source, hence no need for firing.

HRSG do not use fans, as draft is from GT.

Heat transfer is predominantly by convection rather than radiation.

HRSG do not generally use membrane wall construction.

HRSG use finned tubes to maximize heat transfer.

HRSG is capable of faster startup

HRSG uses low auxiliary power

Page 66 of 250

SINTER PLANT

Page 67 of 250

Introduction
A large quantity of fines is generated in the mines which cannot be charged directly into the
Blast furnace. Moreover many metallurgical wastes are generated in the steel industry itself,
disposal of which is very difficult. In order to consume this otherwise waste fine material, they
are mixed with Iron ore fines and agglomerated into lumps by a process known as
SINTERING. Sintering is the process for agglomeration of fine mineral particles into a Porous
and lumpy mass by incipient fusion caused by heat produced by combustion of solid fuel
within the mass itself.
Raw materials used in Sinter Plant
1.

Iron ore fines

2.

Limestone fines

3.

Dolomite fines

4.

Coke breeze fines

5.

BF Sludge

6.

River Sand

7.

Flue Dust

8.

BF Return fines + In-plant Sinter Return fines

RAW MATERIAL PROPORTIONING

The scheme for preparation of charge first envisages blending of raw materials in raw
materials yard to obtain consistency in the chemical composition and size fraction of raw
materials. After this, raw materials are received in raw feed proportioning bins. Normally raw
materials proportioned are Iron ore fines, River Sand, Flue dust, Limestone fines, Dolomite
fines, Coke Breeze fines and Return sinter fines as Re-circulating load (BF return & in plant
sinter return). It can be seen that sinter plant can make adequate use of almost all the
valuable metallurgical wastes arising in an integrated steel plant, thus paving the way for
valuable conservation of minerals and techno-economic benefits.
Following approximate charge proportion has been done to make one ton of sinter
in 2010-11 (Wet basis) :1) Iron ore fines

820 kg

5) Coke fines

74 kg

2) Limestone fines

86 kg

6) BF Sludge

12 kg

3) Dolomite fines

83 kg

7) River Sand

06 kg

4) Sinter return fines

41 %

8) Flue Dust

04 kg

9) BF return +
In-plant sinter return)

Page 68 of 250

Sintering Process

Preparation of charge mix

Preparation of charge mix mainly consists of crushing of fluxes, solid fuels, proper sizing of
them and mixing with iron Ore fines in a certain ratio to prepare base mix. Experience of
operation of sinter plants has demonstrated that the fluxes namely lime stone & dolomite
fines should be crushed to obtain 90% minimum (-3mm fraction). Such finely crushed fluxes
result in the formation of strong sinter due to absence of free lime.
As in the case of fluxes, careful preparation of coke breeze to the extent of 90% minimum (3mm fraction) is an essential pre-requisite for producing high quality sinter. Normally for
crushing of coke breeze, Roll crushers are used which ensures better and consistent crushing
and also preferred due to easy maintenance.
Finally these finely crushed coke and fluxes are mixed with ore fines (called as a BASE MIX)
in required proportion in mixing & nodulising drum where atomized water is added. The
purpose of mixing & nodulising drum is homogenizing of base mix and formation of nodules.
This base mix is then loaded on moving sinter machine pallets through belt conveyors, drum
feeder and roller feeders. The purpose of drum feeder and roller feeders are to segregate the
base mix such that coarser particles falls in the bottom of sinter machine, medium particles in
middle portion and smaller particles at the top by rolling effect.
Before loading base mix on sinter machine, a layer of product sinter of size fraction 15 25
mm (namely hearth layer) is loaded on pallets forming the bottom most portion of the charge
just above the pallet grates. This hearth layers helps in preventing burning of grate bars apart
from getting optimum under grate suction.
Page 69 of 250

SINTER MAKING
Sintering of fines by the under grate suction method consists of the mixing of fines with finely
crushed coke as fuel and loading the mixture on the pallet grates. Ignition of the fuel proceeds
on the surface of charge by a special ignition arrangement, called ignition furnace (where
gaseous fuel is burnt to produce high temperature to ignite the fuel in sinter mix). The gases
used in ignition furnace are mainly coke oven gas and mixed gas. Mixed gas is combination of
coke oven gas and blast furnace gas. Further the combustion is continued due to suction of air
through the layers of the charge by means of Exhauster.
Due to this, the process of combustion of fuel gradually moves downwards up to the grates.
From the scheme obtained in a few minutes after ignition, it is observed that the sintering
process can be divided into six distinct zones:

Zone of Cold Sinter (60 to 100 degree Celsius)

Zone of hot Sinter (100 to 1000 degree Celsius)

Zone of intensive combustion of fuel (1000 to 1350 degree Celsius)

Heating zone (1000 to 700 degree Celsius)

Zone of Pre-heating of charge (700 to 60 degree Celsius)

Zone of Re-condensation of moisture (60 to 30 degree Celsius)

In all the zones except the zone of combustion, the reactions taking place are purely thermal
where as in the zone of combustion reactions are thermal and chemical. The maximum
temperature attained in the zone of combustion will be 1300-1350 degree Celsius. The vertical
speed of movement of the zones depends on the vertical speed of sintering.
Heat from the zone of ready sinter is intensively transmitted to the sucked air. In the zone of
combustion of fuel hot air and preheated charge comes into contact with each other which with
the burning fuel will result in the formation of high temperature. Maximum temperature will
be developed in this zone and all the physical-chemical process takes place resulting in the
formation of Sinter. In the zone of pre-heating the charge is intensively heated up due to
transfer of heat from the sucked product of combustion. In the zone of re-condensation of
moisture, the exhaust gases during cooling transfer excess moisture to the charge.
Temperature of this zone sharply decreases and will not increase till all the moisture is driven
off.
As the fuel in the zone of combustion is burnt away, Sinter, the height of which increases
towards the grates, is formed above this zone from the red hot semi-fluid mass, forcing out
subsequent zones. Disappearance of the zone of combustion means the end of sintering
process.

Page 70 of 250

The sinter cake is then broken, cooled, screened and dispatched to Blast furnace. The ideal
size of sinter required in blast furnace is in between 5mm to 50mm. The lower sizes are
screened & returned back to sinter return bunkers.
ZONE OF COLD
SINTER

10001350
DEG C

ZONE OF HOT
SINTER

7001000
DEG C

ZONE OF
CUMBUSTION

60-700
DEG C

ZONE OF
HEATING

30-60
DEG C

ZONE OF
PRE-HEATING

TEMP
RANGE

ZONE OF
RECONDENSATION
OF MOISTURE

Z
O
N
E
S

1001000
DEG C

60-100
DEG
C

Chemical reactions in sintering process:

Sinter is produced as a combined result of locally limited melting, grain boundary diffusion
and re-crystallisation of iron oxide during sintering.The basic metallurgical reaction takes
place in sintering zone.
1.
2.
3.
4.

C+O2
--CO2 + C
3Fe2O3+ CO ---Fe3O4 + CO ----

CO2 + 4220 calories

--2CO + 53140 calories
2Fe3O4 + CO2 + 8870 calories
3FeO + CO2 - 4990 calories

Factors affecting sintering process

1. Quality of Input raw materials
a. Quality of Iron ore fines :
: +10 mm should be nil
: -1mm should be 40% maximum
: Alumina(Al2O3) 2.5% maximum
: Silica (Si2O3) 2.5% maximum
Increase in +10mm fraction will result in weak sinter & low productivity
Increase in 1mm fraction will decrease bed permeability resulting in low productivity
Increase in % of Alumina increases RDI (Reduction Degradation Index) resulting in
generation of 5mm fraction & also resulting in chute jamming. (Due to high Alumina
in Base Mix.
b. Quality of Flux
: -3mm fraction should be 90% minimum (Crushing index)
: less crushing index results in free lime, causing weak sinter
Page 71 of 250

c. Quality of Coke
: -3mm fraction should be 90% minimum (Crushing index of coke)
: -0.5 mm fraction should be 30% Max
: +5mm fraction should be nil
: Increase in 5mm fraction decreases the productivity
2. Moisture:
Moisture in the form of water is added in the base mix in MND. Water acts as binder of base
mix. Addition of water in base mix plays an important role in sinter bed permeability. Ideally
6 to 7% of total base mix of water is used. Higher % of water results in low permeability & less
sintering speed. Less % of water results in less nodulising, hence less permeability, resulting
in low productivity.
3. Ignition furnace temperature:
Ignition of sinter mix is carried out through ignition hearth where a temperature of 1150 to
1350 degree Celsius is maintained by burning gaseous fuel by the help optimum air/gas
ratio.40% of CO gas & 60% of BF gas is used to maintain calorific value 2000kcal/m3. Higher
hearth temperature results in fusing of sinter at top layer. This reduces the bed permeability,
hence low productivity. Low heat temperature results in improper ignition, sintering process
will not be completed, hence 5mm fraction will increase and re-circulating load will increase.
4. Coke rate :
Coke acts as a solid fuel in base mix in the sintering process. It is normally 4% to 4.5% of total
charge. Higher coke rate will fuse the top layer, thereby decreases the bed permeability.
Sticker formation will increase. Low coke rate will result in incomplete sintering.
5. Machine speed:
Speed of sinter machine can be varied as per the condition of sintering process. BTP (Burn
Through Point) temperature decides the completion of sintering process. It should be observed
in second last wind box from discharge end side of sinter machine where the temperature
reaches 350 to 400 degree Celsius (approximately). Higher machine speed, lower BTP causes
more5mm generation, hence lower productivity. Lower m/c speed, higher BTP temperature
causes low productivity
Note: BTP: Exhaust gas temperature which indicates the completion of sintering process is
called BTP. It is approximately 350 to 400 degree centigrade.
Breaking, Cooling & Screening of sinter
The finished sinter cake is then broken to the size of 150 mm by using Hot Sinter Breaker.
Cooling of finished crushed sinter is then done on coolers by means of 3 nos. of air blowers, so
Page 72 of 250

that cooler discharge end temperature is less than 80 degree centigrade. For effective cooling,
bigger size of sinter should be on bottom portion & smaller size should be on top.
Finally various fractions of sinter are screened out.-5 mm fraction of sinter returns back to
bunkers. 15 to 25mm fraction is also screened out to be used as hearth layer. Rest sizes goes to
blast furnace, after screening +10mm fraction should be 65%minimum and 5mm fraction
should be 5% maximum as per requirement of blast furnace.

Quality Parameters of Sinter Plant (Subject to Requirement of BF)

S/N

Chemical composition

Physical Properties

1.

T Fe %

58 + 0.5

Sinter size

5mm to 50mm

2.

FeO %

9.0 to 10.0

Mean size

18mm to 21mm

3.

MgO %

2.0 to 2.5

TI

70% MIN

4.

SiO2 %

4.75 to 5.25

AI

5% MAX

5.

Al2O3 / SiO2

< 0.6

+50 mm

10 % max.

6.

Basicity

1.35 to 1.45

- 5 mm

5 % max.

Advantages of using Sinter

1. Agglomeration of fines into hard, strong and irregular porous lumps which gives better bed
permeability.
2. Utilizes the solid wastes of steel industry e.g. Flue Dust, BF Sludge etc.
3. To utilize the coke breeze generated in coke screening as fuel otherwise has no
metallurgical use
4. As the calcinations of flux takes place in sinter strand, super-fluxing saves much more coke
in the Blast Furnace.
5. Increase of sinter percentage in Blast Furnace burden, increases the permeability, hence
reduction and heating rate of burden increases, so the productivity also increases. Coke
rate is also reduced in Blast furnace.
6. Minimal fraction of total mass of impurities, Viz. sulphur, phosphorous, zinc, alkali is
reduced.
7. Improved quality of hot metal.
8. The softening temp. of sinter is higher and melting zone is narrow. This increases the
volume of granular zone and shrinks the width of cohesive zone consequently, the driving
rate of BF become better.

Page 73 of 250

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF SINTER PLANT

Raw Feed Proportioning Bin

MND

RMHS

Sintering

Exhauster

Breaking
3 nos. of Blowers

Cooling
Screening
Blast Furnace

Some critical terms/parameters used/monitored in sinter plant

Coke crushing
index
Flux crushing
index
Burn through
point(BTP)

Percentage presence of 3mm fraction of coke in any

sample is termed as coke crushing index. For better
sintering process coke crushing index should be more
than 90%
Percentage presence of 3mm fraction of flux in any
sample is termed as Flux crushing index. For better
sintering process Flux crushing index should be more
than 90%
Burn through point temperature indicates the completion
of sintering process. It is normally around 350 to 400
degree Celsius and is normally found in second last of
wind box from discharge end of sinter machine.
MAIN AREAS & EQUIPMENTS

Main Areas
Raw Feed Proportioning
Bldg.
MND
Sinter Machine Bldg
and Circular cooler

Equipments
Belt Weigh feeders
Conveyors
Bunkers
Drum
Sinter pallets
Ignition Furnace
Hot Sinter Breaker
Cooler

Functions
For adjusting feeding
Transport charge mix.
Store raw materials
To mix & Nodulise
Sintering takes place on
it
Ignites Base Mix
Breaks sinter cake
Cools sinter
Page 74 of 250

Screening Building
Exhauster & Gas
Cleaning Plant
Air Cleaning Plant

Screens
Conveyors
High capacity fan
ESP
ESP

Screens out diff. sizes

Convey Sinter
To suck air below grates
To clean Exhaust air
De-dusting System

Techno Economics
1.

Specific productivity

Sinter produced per square meter per hour

2.

Specific heat consumption

: Gas consumed per ton of sinter

3.

Specific power consumption : Power consumed per ton of sinter

4.

Specific coke consumption

: Coke consumed per ton of sinter

5.

Specific flux consumption

: Flux consumed per ton of sinter

In order to produce sinter at less cost, specific productivity of sinter should be as high as
possible & all other four parameters should be as low as possible keeping quality parameters
under consideration.

SAFETY HAZARDS AT SINTER PLANT

1. Dust pollution
As lots of finer particles are used in sintering, there is a Lot of dust pollution. Efficient
running of Air Cleaning Plant and Gas cleaning plant is a must. Use of dust mask is
essential. Chimney Stack Emission 150mg/nm3.Fugitive Emission (ambient) is 2mg/nm.
2. Gas safety
Gases (usually mixed gas & Coke oven gas) are used for igniting charge mix, it is very
important to follow all the protocols for gas safety. Use of gas mask while working on gas
line is must.
3. Noise pollution
Tremendous amount of air is sucked through exhauster fans. Slight leakages any where in
exhauster results in high level of noise. Use of Ear plug is essential.

Page 75 of 250

BLAST
FURNACE

Page 76 of 250

INTRODUCTION
BF is a counter current heat and mass exchanger, in which solid raw materials are charged
from the top of the furnace and hot blast, is sent through the bottom via tuyeres. The heat is
transferred from the gas to the burden and oxygen from the burden to the gas. Gas ascends up
the furnace while burden and coke descend down through the furnace. The counter current
nature of the reactions makes the overall process an extremely efficient one in reducing
atmosphere. The real growth of blast furnace technology came with the production of high
strength coke which enabled the construction of large size blast furnaces.
Raw materials and their quality
In India steel is being produced largely through the blast furnace/ B O F route. Iron ore, sinter
and coke are the major raw materials for blast furnace smelting.
RAW MATERIALS USED FOR BF
The following raw materials used for the production of pig iron: Iron ore: Iron bearing materials; provides iron to the hot metal. Iron ores is available in the
form of oxides, sulphides, and carbonate, the oxide form known as hematite (red in colour) is
mostly used in NINL plant. It is the principal mineral in blast furnace for extraction of pig
iron, generally rich in iron content varying from 62% to 66% associated often with naturally
occurring fines(-10MM) to the extent of 20%. Although relatively free from impurities like
phosphorous, sulphur and copper, they have high alumina content, high alumina/ silica ratio
of about 2 or more. The high alumina content makes the slag highly viscous and creates
problems for stable furnace operation.
Limestone: It acts as flux. Helps in reducing the melting point of gangue present in the iron
bearing material and combines effectively with acidic impurities to form slag in iron
making.
Quartzite: It acts as an additive .Quartzite is a mineral of SiO2 (silica) and under normal
circumstances contains about 96-97% of SiO2 rest being impurities. Quartzite plays its role in
counteracting the bad effects of high alumina in slag.
Manganese ore: It acts as additive for the supply of Mn in the hot metal. Mn ore is available
in the form of combined oxides of Mn and Fe and usual content of Mn is about 31-32% for steel
plant use.
Coke: It acts as a reductant and fuel, supports the burden and helps in maintaining
permeable bed. Coke (metallurgical) used in blast furnace both as fuel & reducing agent.
NINL purchase imported coal and converts into coke with ash 12.00% max and moisture 0.8 %
max in coke oven.
Page 77 of 250

Sinter: It is iron bearing material. Fines that are generated in the plant/mines are effectively
utilized by converting them to sinter. It provides the extra lime required for the iron ore and
coke ash that is charged in the blast furnace. Sintering is the process of agglomeration of fines
(steel plant waste and iron ore fines) by incipient fusion caused by heat available from the
coke contained in the charge. The lumpy porous mass thus obtained is known as sinter.
Coal dust Injection: It acts as an auxiliary fuel, reduces coke consumption in the BF.
Thecoal is injected through the tuyeres.
Coal tar Injection: It acts as an auxiliary fuel, reduces coke consumption in the BF. The tar
is injected through the tuyeres.
QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS
Material
Iron Ore
(Lumps)

Sinter

Coke

Limestone

Dolomite

Mn ore

CDI coal

Chemical
Fe

Analysis
64.0 % +/- 0.5

SiO2
P
Al2O3
SiO2
Fe
FeO
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Ash
VM
Moisture
S
C
CaO
SiO2
MgO
CaO
MgO
SiO2
Mn
SiO2
Al2O3
P

0.7 to 1.5 %
0.10 % max.
0.9 to 1.5 %
58% +/- 0.5
10%
5%
3% max
6.5-7.5 %
2-2.5%
11-12 %
0.3-0.4 %
1 % max
0.5-0.6 %
>86 %
42% min.
5 +/- 1 %
8.5 0.5 %
30 %
20 %
4%
30 % min.
30 % max.
5 % max.
0.30 % max.

Ash

9 11 %

Specification
10-40 mm

Size Other properties

Softening Melting range:

1175 -1540 c
5-40 mm

25 -80 mm

RDI: 23 -25
RI:66 Min
Softening Melting range:
1330 1600 oc
CRI: 19-23 max.
CSR: 64 min.
M40: > 82 %
M10: 6% max

10-40 mm

10-40 mm

10-40 mm

80%

90microns
Page 78 of 250

Quartzite

VM
Moisture
FSI
Sio2
Al2O3

25-32%
1.80%
2-3 Max
96 % min.
1.5 % max.

10 -40 mm

High lines and Stock House

High lines: The main responsibility of high lines section is to receive the raw materials
required for the production of hot metal from various sources, storing and transporting them
to the top of the furnace in time, for the smooth running of the furnace.
Stock house
The bunkers are provided with a vibrofeeder, which feeds the material on screen. After
screening sized material sinter,coke and iron ore are fed to a weighing hopper. The weighing
hopper discharges the material into the skip. There are conveyors to remove the return fines
from the system.
SKIP

Winch house:
For taking charged materials to the furnace top, two-way skip hoist with 2 skips are provided.
The winch house operates the skip that is driven by two motors. Flow of material to charging
skip is
Bunkers

vibro feeder

screens

weighing

hopper

skip car.

Raw materials including coke are transported and collected into stock house bunkers placed
near the furnaces and then properly screened and weighed. Weighing is done by load cell.
These batched proportions of the raw materials are conveyed to the top of the blast furnace via
skip car and are charged in the blast furnace. The distribution is maintained in such a fashion
that alternate layers of coke and iron containing burden (sinter and iron ore and fluxes) are
formed inside the blast furnace.
Page 79 of 250

BLAST FURNACE AND ACCESSORIES

Blast furnace is basically a counter current apparatus, composed of two truncated cones
placed base to base.
The sections from top down are:
Throat, where the top burden surface is.
The shaft or stack, where the ores are heated and reduction starts.
The bosh parallel or belly, where the softening melting takes place.
The bosh, where the reduction is completed and the ores are melted down.
The hearth, where the hot metal and slag is collected and is cast via the tap hole.

BF Complex in a Nutshell
BF Proper
The entire furnace is lined with suitable refractory and in addition to refractory lining, there
are water coolers, designed to enhance the life of the furnaces. The raw material at the top
will be charged either through 'bell less system'. In the hearth, there is a tap hole of suitable
dimension and length for the purpose of tapping the hot metal.
Since blast furnace is basically a counter current apparatus the descending stream of raw
materials extract heat from the ascending stream of gas generated from the burning of coke at
the tuyere level. The ascending stream of gas contains CO (carbon monoxide) nitrogen and
hydrogen and in the events of its coming in contact with the iron ore, reduction (this reduction
Page 80 of 250

is called indirect reduction) of iron ore takes place at the upper part of the stack (temp. greater
than 9000c). Coke in the form of C also takes part in the reduction. The number of tap holes,
notches, their positioning and dimension will depend upon the capacity of the furnace. Many
modern furnaces are having 2-4 tap holes without slag notches. 2 tap holes 105O apart
without slag notches is there in NINL BF.
The furnaces are equipped with tuyeres (water cooled copper construction for admission of hot
blast of air) through which preheated air blast at a temperature of about 8500c - 11000c is
introduced for burning of coke. Before preheating, the blast of cold air supplied by power and
blowing station is introduced into hot blast stoves at up to 2.5 kg/cm2 (gauge pressure)
wherein the air is pre-heated. The air blast then passes from the bustle pipe through
gooseneck and then tuyere stocks/blow-pipes into tuyeres. The pressure of the blast and its
flow rate is dependent upon the capacity of the furnaces and raw material quality.
As the stream of the material descends down through different temperature zones
and get two products:

Metal in the liquid condition.

Slag, having less density floats at the top of metal. and

bf gas from top of the furnace. it generally comprises of 22-24% co; 17-19% co2, 54% of
n2, h2 4.4%, o2 0.1%. temp. of top gases are in the range of 100-300 oc

After cleaning, BF gas is used in blast furnace stove heating, coke oven heating, and as a
mixture with co gas it is used in refractory materials plant, sintering plant, steel making shop
and reheating furnace of rolling mills as a fuel.
Liquid iron collected in the hearth is taken out by opening the tap hole with power driven drill
and oxygen lancing after regular interval into a train of ladles kept below the runner of the
cast house. Slag that comes along with the metal is skimmed off with the help of skimmer
plate towards slag runner. Metal ladles are either sent to SMS or Pig Casting Machine
depending upon the requirement.

Page 81 of 250

Schematic cross section of the Blast Furnace

Refractory:
Blast furnace is a vertical shaft furnace, enclosed in a welded shell, lined with fire-clay bricks
of high alumina content. The hearth bottom, hearth, bosh, belly and the shaft are cooled by
means of coolers of various designs. Steel refractory lined plates protect the walls of the
furnace top the bigger furnaces are lined with carbon blocks in the hearth and in the
periphery of the hearth bottom. High alumina or Si-Carbide refractory are used in bosh and
lower shaft.
Top charging equipment:
The burden material which reaches to the top of the furnace by skip car is to be distributed
into the furnace. For this paul-wurth bell less top (BLT) charging system is provided, in which
bells are replaced with upper material gate, upper sealing valve, lower material gate , lower
sealing valve and charging chute. This system also has a gearbox to operate a rotating chute.
It distributes the material inside the furnace peripherally in different rings or sector charging,
point charging etc. This facilitates better burden distribution inside the furnace. as per the
Charging Cyclogram or Pattern desired by the furnace operator for continuous efficient
operation of the furnace Double Bell BLT systems

Page 82 of 250

Charging sequence: To facilitate smooth working of furnaces, the coke and the non-coke
material is to be distributed in a particular fashion in the whole circumference of the blast
furnace. in accordance to the Charging Cyclogram/ Pattern as determined by the furnace
operator. For those different charging sequences is followed. A typical charging sequence is
given below:
Sequence 1: CO

Zones and chemical reactions

Reactions in the Blast Furnace:
Upper Stack Zone
Reduction of Oxides
3 Fe 2O3 + CO = 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
Decomposition of Hydrates Water
Gas Shift Reaction
CO + H2O = CO2 + H2
Carbon Deposition
Decomposition of Carbonates
Middle Stack Zone
Direct / Indirect Reduction
FeO + CO = Fe + CO 2
CO2 + C = 2CO
FeO + C = Fe + CO
Gas utilization
Lower Stack Zone Isothermal Zones in BF
Calcinations of Limestone
Reduction of Various elements
Reduction of unreduced Iron
Reduction of Silicon
Reduction of Mn, P, Zn etc
Formation / melting of slag, final reduction of FeO and melting of Fe.
Combustion Zone
Burning and combustion of Coke
C + O2 = CO2 + 94450 cal (direct reduction)
CO2 + C = 2CO - 41000 cal (solution loss reaction)

Complete reduction of Iron Oxide

Page 83 of 250

Raceway

Coke and Hydrocarbons are oxidized

Combustion of CDI/CTI

Large evolution of heat

Saturation of Carbon with Iron

Final Reduction of Mn, Si and Sulphur

Reaction impurities reach their final concentrations

Falling/drop of Metal and Slag bring heat down into the Hearth.

Hearth

The liquid products hot metal and slag settle in the hearth. These two products are removed
periodically from the blast furnace. The process is called tapping the blast furnace.
The golden rule of blast furnace operation is that the furnace conditions should not be
disturbed. If for one reason or the other, the quality of charging materials fluctuates, the
furnace will be affected. The moisture of coke should be continuously measured and corrective
action taken. Once the tapping is opened and liquid level begins to fall, the blast pressures
drops correspondingly. During the tapping itself, burden descent is fast and irregular. The rise
and fall of blast pressure will cause raceway distortions. Similarly, the bosh gas distribution is
affected when the burden descent rate increased or decreased. As stock line is not maintained
many a time unprepared burden enters the melting zone and increases the thermal
requirements. The effect of all these is the disruption of the configuration of the cohesive zone,
increase in coke rate and decrease in productivity. Continuous monitoring of the top gas
analysis will give an indication about the furnace efficiency.
Common difficulties in operation:
Furnace performance is linked with the smooth operation of the furnace which gets disturbed
very often due to various kinds of fluctuations taking place in operating parameters.
Irregularities:

Channelling

Scaffolding

Hanging

Slipping

Choking of Hearth

Chilling of Hearth

Burning of Tuyeres

Coke rush through tap-hole.

Page 84 of 250

Hot blast stoves

The function of Hot blast stove is to preheat the air before admission into the furnace through
tuyere. Air is preheated to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,250c in the hot blast stoves.
There are 3 or 4 stoves for NINL furnace. Each stove consists of a combustion chamber and
refractory checker brickwork. Combustion chamber lined with fire bricks and checkers are by
alumina brickwork.
For controlling cold and hot blast there are several valves given on the stove. They are: cold
blast valve (1), hot blast valve (1), chimney valves (2), pressurisation valve (3), pressure
release valve (1), gas burner (1), and air fan (1).
Hot Blast Stove and its Valve Arrangement

There are two cycles in the stove operation.

1. On gas: stove in the heating mode
2. On blast: stove in the blast mode
In the first cycle the stoves are getting heated by using bf gas and/or coke oven gas for 3 hrs.
The flue gases (350c ) will be carried out through the chimney. This stage is called on gas.
When the dome temperature reaches to the desired level(1250c ) the gas is stopped and cold
blast that is coming from the power and blowing station is sent thorough the cold blast valve,
this cycle is called on blast.The sensible heat that is stored the checker brickwork is carried
away by the cold blast and is getting heated. Thus hot blast is produced and this blast is sent
into the blast furnace via hot blast main, bustle pipe, compensator, tuyeres stock and to the
tuyeres. On blast will continue for 1-1.30 hour and will be followed by on gas cycle. Thus at
Page 85 of 250

any point of time one or two stoves are kept on blast and two stoves are on gasand the cycle
is repeated continuously. Heated stove kept isolated, as ready for on blast cycle.
The hot blast reacts with coke and injectants, forming a cavity, called raceway in front of
the tuyeres. A snort valve is located on the cold blast main, regulates the volume of blast.
The steam is injected for the humidification of the blast before pre-heating in the stove.
Oxygen enrichment is also done whenever necessary through the blast itself. A mixer valve
regulates the hot blast temperature.

The Cast House and Slag Granulation Plant:

Function
The cast house is the most labor intensive area in the entire blast furnace operation. Its
design must be fully integrated with the expected hot metal production, hearth volume, and
tapping practice whilst minimizing use of labor, maintenance, materials and improving
working environment. The function of cast house is to tap the liquid metal and slag via the tap
hole from hearth on scheduled time and separate the metal and slag in trough which is made
up of refractory mass by skimmer block, direct metal to metal ladles and slag to Cast House
Slag Granulation Plant (CHSGP).
Process and parts of cast house:
Cast house consist of tap hole, trough, iron and slag runners and their spouts and various
equipments. The hot metal is tapped out at an interval of 45minutes depending upon the
furnace condition. The tapping time will be around 75 - 90 minutes. Generally 11 -12 tapings
will be done in a day. The usual way of opening the tap hole is to drill the tap hole until the
skull is reached. Some times oxygen lancing is carried out to melt the skull. Generally the tap
hole is located in such a way that after tapping minimum amount of metal should remain in
the hearth. So it is almost at the bottom most part of the hearth. After opening the tapping
hot metal will comes out first. After some time the liquid level in the hearth decreases and the
slag that will be floating on the metal comes out of the tap hole. The skimmer plate
separates the slag from the metal and diverts the slag into the SGP through slag runners. The
hot metal continues to flow down the bend runner from which it is diverted into individual
metal ladles. The control of this operation is accomplished with the help of rocking (tilting)
runner supported by pusher car. At the end of the tapping the tap hole is closed with the mud
gun, which is hydraulically operated. The hot metal is collected in a refractory lined vessel
called hot metal ladle and for safety reasons it is filled up to 85-90%. Using these ladles hot
metal is transported from blast furnace to mixers in SMS and PCM.
Similarly slag is sent to slag granulation plants (SGPs) where slag is granulated, and this
granulated slag is sold to cement manufacturers.
The equipments available at the cast house are:

Drill machine : - Hydro-pneumatic drilling machines are used for opening the tapping
Page 86 of 250

Mud gun : - Hydraulic mudgun machines are used for closing the tapping with
anhydrous tap hole mass
cast house crane : - for material handling during cast house preparation
rocking runner : - to divert the metal into a different metal ladle
pusher car : - used for local placement of the metal ladle

Analysis of hot metal, slag and top gas

hot metal
Si
0.6-0.8 %
Mn 0.3% max

SiO2
Al2O3

slag
32-33 %
19-22 %

CaO

31-33 %

bf gas
CO 22-24 %
CO2 17 -19
%
N2
55-57 %

MgO

9-11 %

H2

MnO
basicity:
CaO/SiO2

<1%
0.98-1.05

P
C

0.05 %
max.
0.20%
max
4-5%

2-4 %

Furnace control room (FCR):

All the activities burden distribution; stoves, cast house, auxiliary fuel injection etc. are
controlled from FCR located in the furnace. level-1 automation facilities are there. All the
details regarding the furnace are monitored using PLC mimic panels kept in the FCR.

Auxiliary Sections:
The auxiliary section of blast furnace consists of following sections:
1. Ladle repair shop
2. Pig casting machine
3. Cold pig yard
4. Slag dump post
Ladle repair shop: Ladle repair shops provided for relining, repairing and cleaning of the
iron ladles. Shop contains an e.o.t. cranes for speeding up the job. Here, refractory mass
required for blast furnace complex is made and stored e.g. tap hole frame mass and runner
mass for PCM.
Pig casting machine: These are double strand pig casting machines. Each machine contains
no. of moulds in one belt with lime coating arrangement underneath the machine. Moulds are
filled with the hot metal from the ladle at the spout, cooled by water sprays on the bed while
on movement and the pigs are separated from mould chain by knockout arrangement.
Page 87 of 250

Equipments Of PCM

Winch to lift the loaded liquid metal ladle.

Two stands (frames) to hold the ladle firmly, with the paws attached in both the sides of
the ladle.

Runner to receive the liquid metal and to pour into the moulds through spouts.

Lime spray units to make a thick coating of lime on the moulds to avoid sticking of cold
metal with the moulds.

Individually operated steel belt conveyors to receive the liquid metal and to dispose
after pigs are made.

Chutes to receive the cold pigs and to drop the same into NPC wagons.

Cold pig yard: Cold pigs from PCM come here. These are stacked according to their quality,
and loaded in box wagons for dispatch to stack yards of customers.
Auxiliary Fuel Injection
In the present competitive environment, there is a lot of pressure on BF operators to lower the
operating costs and maximize productivity. One way to achieve this is by injecting auxiliary
fuel into the blast furnace. The fuels used for this purpose are coal dust, and coal tar.
Economic and operational benefits achieved by using coal dust injection (CDI) include:

Lower consumption of expensive coking coals. replacing coke with cheaper soft coking or
thermal coals reduces reluctant costs;

Extended coke oven life since less coke is required to be produced. this is important as
many coke ovens are reaching the end of their useful life and significant investment is
required to replace or maintain them;

higher BF productivity, that is, the amount of hot metal produced per day (in
conjunction with other operational changes);

Greater flexibility in bf operation. for instance, CDI allows the flame temperature to be
adjusted, and the thermal condition in the furnace can be changed much faster than
would be possible by adjusting the burden charge at the top of the furnace;

Improved consistency in the quality of the hot metal and its silicon content;

Reduced overall emissions, in particular, lower emissions from coke making due to
decreased coke requirements.

The challenge now is to achieve high CDI rates with cheaper, lower quality raw
materials, without losing hot metal quality, productivity or bf availability.

Page 88 of 250

Gas cleaning plant:

The other product bf gas contains lot of dust in it and it is cleaned in dust catcher, ventury
washer, and scrubber and finally in electro static precipitator. This activity is done under the
supervision of energy management department. The cleaned bf gas is sent to the gas network
and is used as a fuel all over the plant.
Flow of BF gas to GCP is
BF Gas uptakedown comerdust catcher wet scrubber ventury washer cleaned
BF Gas gas main
Bell less top - in place of conventional two bell charging system, two charging hoppers with
rotating chute are installed. The rotating chute distributes the material in the desired
manner. The system is easy to maintain. The system has been adopted in NINL.
Thermo vision camera - the device is fitted at the top of the furnace. It emits a beam of
infrared rays over the material surface of the stock and takes the photograph.
Furnace probes - probes are fitted above the stock level/ below the stock level in order to
monitor temperature distribution and collect samples of burden material and gas.
Cast house slag granulation - in this design the liquid slag from cast house runner is led to
the granulating unit located very near to the cast house. This would eliminate the need for
maintenance of large fleet of slag ladles, reduce the cost of production, avoid delays and
increase the yield of granulated slag. NINL is having cast house slag granulation. This facility
is installed in bf 4,bf-5 of BSL.
SGP marked by the following features:
It facilitates dry tapping of the furnace; not being limited by ladles availability.
Utilization of molten slag is very high (98%) compared to distant granulation (70%)
and better slag granules quality. Safe, efficient and pollution free working
environment by avoiding movement of ladles etc
The main advantages of cast house granulation are:
Very compact and requires less space.
Fully automatic, less manpower requirement.
Low electricity & compressed air consumption.
Coal dust injection - Non-coking coal is injected through tuyere using nitrogen as carrier.
This reduces the coke rate and thus saves the valuable coking coal, which is also not
abundantly available in India. Coal dust injection is normally associated with high blast
temperature and oxygen enrichment.

Page 89 of 250

TECHNO-ECONOMICS:
Productivity: the amount of hot metal produced per cubic meter of the furnace volume in a
day, tonnes/m3/day (either on working volume or useful volume basis)
Fuel rate: the amount of fuel required to produce one ton of hot metal, kg/thm. (Includes coke
rate + aux. fuel rate + nut coke rate (added in sinter). (Carbon rate is more appropriate
measure as carbon content of the fuel varies from time to time) 1% reduction in coke ash
reduces the coke rate by 12-15 kg/thm reduction of coke rate gives an overall saving of 0.5% of
the total energy consumption of steel plant. 1%reduction in gangue of iron ore results in coke
saving of 1.5% 100 c increase in HBT results in coke saving of 2-3 %
Energy consumption for an iron making:energy consumption
Coke making
Iron making & sinter making
Steel making

area wise energy

consumption
18-19%
49-50%
8-9%

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT:

The use of PPEs (Personal Protective Equipment) like safety helmet, safety shoes, hand
gloves, gas masks, heat resistant jackets/coats, goggles and dust masks are to be used
religiously while working in different areas of Blast furnace Different laid down procedures,
permit to work are to be strictly followed before taking any shut-down of equipment for
maintenance. The stipulated SOPs (Standard Operating Practices) and SMPs (Standard
Maintenance Practices) should be adhered to strictly. Persons should be cautious about the
gas prone areas and should know about the gas hazards. EMD clearance is a must before
taking up any job in gas lines or gas prone areas. Following Dos and dont are to be followed
for safe Operation of blast furnace.
DO's
Ring bell/hooter during crane Movement
Safe distance should be maintained while looking through Tuyeres (wear safety glass)
Before putting any stove to gas mode if any gas leakage observed then remove the
agency working in stove platform
Always carry CO-GAS monitor & gas safety man while going top of the Furnace for
checking any abnormalities & during stove area inspection
Always monitor proper gas burning in tapholes, tuyeres, tuyere Coolers during running
of Furnace
Donts
Dont allow any unauthorized person on stove platform.
Dont allow any one in Cast House area of blast furnace without safety appliances.
During any gas leakages don't allow any one in the Cast House area & stove platform.
Dont Operate lift without proper knowledge of Mech./Elect. Operation of Lift, always
ask for lift--operator.
MCC panels should not be operated without proper knowledge or in absence of
Elect.chargeman.

Page 90 of 250

STEEL MAKING

Page 91 of 250

INTRODUCTION
The Hot Metal which is produced by Blast Furnaces consists of various impurities. Main
impurity present is Carbon and other impurities like phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, non
metallic inclusions etc are also present. Steel making is the process of purification of this Hot
Metal. Steel such produced is the pure form of metal. Hot Metal contains around 4% of Carbon
which is reduced below 0.10% as per the requirement. Other impurities like sulphur,
phosphorus are removed and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and
vanadium are added to produce the exact steel required. The schematic view and various
processes involved in steel making are as follows.

HM
from
BF

M
I
X
E
R

OH
/

H
M
D
S

HMDS
BOF
ARS
LF
CCS/CCP

TH
B
O
F
-

S
T
E
E
L

Secondary
refining
(ARS, LF,
RH, VAD,
VOD)

CCS

INGOT
Casting

Blooms
Billets
Slabs
INGOTS

Hot Metal Desulphurisation

Basic Oxygen Furnace
Argon Rinsing Station
Ladle Furnace
Continuous Casting Shop/ Plant

The Hot Metal from Blast furnace comes in Hot metal ladles to Steel Melting Shop by rail. It
is poured into a vessel called Mixer. Mixer has a Charging hole from where Hot metal is being
charged into with the help of heavy cranes and a sprout to take out hot metal by tilting the
mixer. Main functions of mixer are storage and homogenization. Mixed gas is supplied
through side burners in order to maintain temperature in Mixers. Once it is taken out it can
go to Hot metal desulphurisation unit and then to either of the process of steel making i.e.
Open/Twin Hearth furnace or Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF).
Hot Metal Desulphurisation
Sulphur is mainly present in the iron ore and in the coal. Reducing the sulphur content to less
than 0.020% in the blast furnace is difficult from an economical standpoint. As the steel
quality often requires a sulphur content of 0.010%, the hot metal must be desulphurized in
another way. In desulphurization methods alone lime, or magnesium reagent ,and calcium
carbide may be used in proper proportion. They are injected into the metal with a special
designed lances under a gaseous stream. In this way, the sulphur content can be reduced to
levels below 0.005 %. Hot metal in a ladle bring to Desulphurization unit by EOT cranes or
rail. After proper positioning of the ladle, injection lance is lowered deep into the metal. Then
start injection of the said material through the lance and is continued for 5 to 10 minutes
Page 92 of 250

depending on sulphur content in hot metal. Ladle is then taken to slag racking machine to
remove the slag formed during the injection process. Hot metal is then sent to converter.
OPEN /TWIN HEARTH FURNACES
One of the oldest established process of steel making, most open hearth furnaces were closed
by early 1990s, because of their fuel inefficiency, low productivity and cumbersome operation.
Basic oxygen steel making (BOF) or LD process replaced open hearth furnaces. In NINL
modified form of Open hearth furnace is still in operation called Twin Hearth Furnace.
Twin hearth furnace consists of two hearths separated by a bridge wall with a common roof.
Twin hearth furnace works on synchronization between the two hearths, there by both the
hearths are engaged in different operations. While one is in solid period the other will be in
liquid period.
The fundamental principle of Twin Hearth Furnace is physical and chemical heat generated
during blowing in one hearth is utilized in the adjoining hearth for preheating the charge,
making the process faster. The tap to tap time of THF is cut by half since the furnace is
tapped from both the hearth alternatively at an interval of one half of the heat duration in one
hearth. Operational efficiency of the furnace is based on the equal duration of the both cold
and hot period i.e. in one hearth when melting starts the other hearth must be tapped.
Activities in the furnace can basically be divided into two parts. Activities during cold period
and activities during hot period, which run parallel at the same time for one of the two
hearths in such a way that if one hearth is in cold period other will be in hot period. Cold
period includes the time given to the furnace for tapping, fettling, charging and heating of the
cold charge up to the end of pouring of hot metal in the furnace. The activities taking place
during the hot period can be categorized into melting, refining and holding.

BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE (Bof- LD converter)

Basic Oxygen Furnace is commonly known as BOF process or LD process. It is named so

because this process was developed in LINZ and DONAWITZ, two cities in Austria. As
compared to open / twin hearth process is fast, energy efficient and simple. Tap to tap time in
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BOF is around 45-50 minutes. The name BOF is derived from the manner in which the
compositional adjustments are achieved. Oxygen is the reagent that is used to remove most of
the undesirable elements via a number of complex oxidation processes. Basic refers to the fact
that the reaction takes place in a Vessel called converter lined with basic refractory.

Inputs
The major input materials in BOF or LD converter are:
Metallic: Hot metal containing around 4% carbon is the main input in the BOF. Scrap is
also used as a coolant and is also used in the process.
Fluxes:

Fluxes such as lime, dolomite, iron ore etc are used in the process for slag
making.

Oxygen: One of the important inputs comes mainly from captive Oxygen plants in
addition to the Purchased liquid oxygen. Oxygen Purity should be more than
99.0%.
Nitrogen: It is not directly taking part in the process but used for purging and ceiling
purpose. It is also used for slag splashing.
Ferro-Alloys: while tapping the steel Ferro-alloy such as Fe-Si, Si-Mn, Fe-Mn etc are being
added to make the desired grade of steel.

Process
Mixer and Desulphurization: The process start with mixer in steel melting shop. Metal is
stored in Mixers and it is taken out as and when needed. Before charging it into BOF, external
desulphurization is done as per requirement to reduce Sulphur content in Hot metal. Calcium
carbide, lime powder, magnesium compound are injected into hot metal through a lance with
Nitrogen pressure. After compound injection is over slag racking is done to remove the slag
which is necessary to avoid reversal of sulphur.
Converter blowing: The process of blowing means reaction of Oxygen with hot metal and
fluxes in LD converter. The hot metal along with scrap is charged into converter with the help
of EOT cranes by tilting the converter. A typical composition of Hot metal is C- 4.0%, Si 0.60
%, Mn 0.10 %, P- 0.15%, S- 0.050% and temperature is around 1300C After charging
converter is kept vertical and lance is lowered in the converter through which oxygen is blown
at a pressure of around 14 kg/cm2. During the blowing process fluxes such lime, Calcined
dolomite, iron ore etc are added to make slag. The most important flux is lime. The slag is
basic in nature. Main impurities carbon reacts with oxygen and is removed in the gaseous
form. Impurities like Si, P, S and other non metallic impurities are removed in the form of
slag, which is lighter than metal so it floats on metal surface. The blowing process usually
takes 17 mins. When the blowing is complete converter is tilted to take out the slag in a slag
Page 94 of 250

pot. Sample and temperature is also taken manually. At the end of the blow the temperature
is generally in the range of
1650C - 1690C and a typical bath analysis is C 0.07 %, Mn 0.08 %, P 0.020 %, S- 0.030
%. When the desired composition and temperature is achieved the steel is tapped.
Tapping: tapping means discharging the liquid steel into ladle through the tap hole present
in the converter by tilting it. As per the grade of steel the Ferro-alloys are also added into
ladle during tapping. As soon as the steel finishes the converter is lifted and tapping is
complete.
Nitrogen Slashing: After tapping, the residual slag in the converter is splashed with the
help of nitrogen. Converter is kept vertical and lance is lowered. Through the same lance
nitrogen is blown which splashes the basic residual slag in the converter and gives a coating
on the refractory bricks. Main advantage of nitrogen splashing is to increase the lining life of
the converter.
Chemical Reactions: There are a lot of complex chemical reactions taking place in the BOF
during blowing. Main reactions in simplified form are given below
Fe + O = FeO
C + O = CO/CO2
Si + 2O = SiO2
Mn + O = MnO
2P + 5O =P2O5
These reactions are exothermic in nature. Lot of heat is evolved. Scrap as a coolant is used to
maintain the thermal balance. Due to addition of fluxes the chemical reaction with CaO from
Lime and Dolomite and Si, Mn etc from hot metal takes place to make complex compounds
which are basic in nature thus helping in making a basic slag which facilitates
dephosphorusition.
Slag Composition: The slag formed during the BOF process is basic in nature. It is a
complex oxide compound of Ca along with Si, P and other non metallic inclusions. A typical
slag analysis at the end of the blowing is as follows:
CaO= 45-50%,
MgO= 9-11%,
FeO= 15-20%
Basicity= CaO/SiO2 3.0
Refractories: Refractory plays a very important role in BOF shop. As liquid metal is handled
in BOF Shop so all vessels like mixer, converter, ladles etc are lined with refractory bricks. It
protects the shell of vessel and retains the metal temperature. Different types of refractory as
per their usage are given below:
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Converter Vessel: The bricks used here are basic in nature. Dolomite bricks or magnesia
carbon bricks are commonly used in converter. In recent times magnesia carbon bricks have
replaced dolomite bricks. Number of heats made in a converter from one new lining to next
lining is known as the lining life of the converter. Now a days all plants are trying to achieve
higher lining life. The tap hole in the converter is also made up of refractory, which wears
with number of heats tapped. It is changed from time to time.
Mixer: The bricks used here are normally high alumina and magnesite bricks are used.
Ladles: The small vessel which carry Hot Metal for charging the converter are called hot
metal ladle. They are lined with high alumina bricks. The steel is tapped in steel ladles. This
ladle carries steel to secondary refining and finally for casting. The bricks used are again high
alumina and magnesia carbon.
Equipments:
Major equipments in BOF shop are:
Converter: A converter is an open pear shaped vessel made of steel and lined from inside
with basic refractory bricks. It can be rotated through 3600. Charging and deslagging is done
through mouth where as tapping of steel is done through a hole called tap hole.
Lance: It is made of three concentric steel tubes to circulate water around the center tube and
pass oxygen through the innermost tube. Its tip is made of copper. Always a stand by lance is
provided in a converter.
Gas Cleaning Plant: A huge quantity of waste gases with high temperature and containing
dust particles, generated during the process is passed through the GCP. Primarily water is
sprayed over the gases to separate the solid particles and to cool them. Cleaned gases are
either collected in a gas holder or burnt in the atmosphere to control air pollution.
A large water cooled hood sits above converter. The vast quantity of waste gas produced
during steel making pass through hood and then collected and cleaned. An ID fan is present
which draws the gases up into hood. A movable skirt is attached to bottom of hood which
closes the gap and sits on the converter mouth thus controlling the level of air ingress during
the blow.

Safety Aspects
As we deal with liquid metal in the Shop personal as well as equipment safety is of large
concern. We should strictly follow the safety norms.
Before charging, it should be ensured that no liquid slag is left in the converter. It
should be dried by adding lime.
Do not allow any one to stand in front of Converter during charging.
There should not be any water in the slag pot in which the slag is dumped.
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Persons working in the steel melting shop should use personal protective equipment i.e.
gloves, blue glass, fire retarding jackets.
Blowing should not be done if there is any water leakage in the lance.
In case of excessive water logging below the converter blowing should be stopped
immediately till the water is cleared.
In case of charging and tapping of converter lot of care has to be taken to avoid any
metal splashes.

Quality Requirements
Now a day as the quality norms are quite stringent and customers specification are becoming
very strict so at all stages quality has to be seen. In BOF the slag decides the quality of steel.
A good slag leads to good steel. Slag carry over to the steel ladles while tapping should be
minimum. Slag arresters are used to minimize slag carry over.
Waste and environment management:
In BOF during the steel making process lot of wastes are generated. Some of them are as
follows:

During the blowing process lot of waste gases are generated along with dust. CO gas
evolved during blowing process is collected in a gas holder and it is further used as a
fuel in different units. The dust is also collected and then disposed as slurry.

Slag generated during the steel making operation is also recycled. It is dumped and
cooled then it is used by Blast Furnaces and sometimes Steel Melting Shop.

SECONDARY STEEL MAKING

Introduction
As converter steel making is a primary process, treatment of liquid steel after tapping from
converter is called secondary steel making. These processes are following:
Ferro alloy addition facility for trimming addition
These contain bunkers for storage of ferro alloys, weighing hoppers, conveyor belt, skip;
addition hoppers etc. Addition during vacuum is also possible.
Liquid steel enters in vacuum vessel from inlet snorkel and comes out from outlet snorkel.
Inside RH vessel, liquid steel is subjected to deep vacuum which helps in removal of desolved
gasses.

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Metallurgical Principles
( ) means in slag. [ ] means in steel.
Deoxidation
As steel making process is an oxidation refining process, tap steel from primary furnace
contains significant amount of oxygen(400-1000 ppm).The solubility of O2 in liquid steel is
0.16% but in solid steel it is only 0.003%.Excess oxygen causes defects like blow holes and nonmetallic inclusions. Oxygen is lowered by deoxidisers like Mn, Si, Al etc. Through vacuum
treatment oxygen is removed as CO.
Decarburisation
Reaction of c and o removal is given by
[C] + [O] = CO
[C] +1/2O2 = CO
[C] +(FeO) = CO +Fe
C removal is controlled by vacuum level, Argon flow rate, initial level of C, bath O, O
injected. Control is required during tapping, LF & VAD operation for avoiding recarburisation.
Some other sources of recarburisation are ferro-alloys, graphite electrodes during arcing.
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Desulphuristion
Removal of sulphur depends on

High sulphide capacity of slag - high basicity

High (S)/[S] - sulphur partition

Fluid slag - addition of spar or synthetic slag

High stirring intensity - increased slag-metal reaction.

Low O potential in slag and metal- low Feo+Mno < 5%

Removal of H2 & N2
Hydrogen removal reaction is 2[H] = H2
[H] = k*H2
i) H content varies with p H2
ii) To get very low H , vacuum level must be low and improved stirring.
So H removal is controlled by vacuum level, Ar flow rate, initial level of H
Nitrogen removal Reaction is 2[N] = N2
To get very low N vacuum level must be very low. Compared to H, nitrogen removal rate is low
due to low defusibility.
Quality

Increases in productivity of the steel plant,

Shortening of the tap to tap time of the melting unit,

Savings on primary energy and utilities,

Use of low cost charge material as well as Ferro alloys,

Consistent steel quality from heat to heat

Better recovery of ferro alloys.

Application
Hot rolled plates (e. g. DDQ, EDDQ) Automobile plates, micro-alloyed (e. g. IF) Silicon steel (e.
g. electrical sheets) Low carbon structural steel (e. g. case hardening, heavy plates) Medium
carbon structural steel (e. g. forging) High carbon structural steel (e. g. bearings) High alloyed
steel (e. g. hot work tools) Stainless steel (e. g. austenitic and ferritic)

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Safety
Secondary steel unit pose certain safety hazards to personels working:
1 During argon purging metal splases can cause burn injury.
2 In ladle furnace,there is danger of metal splaces and electrocution from very high current.
3 In VAD, VOD & RH vacuum present inside treatment area can pose serious danger of
suction. B Body parts may get sucked inside if isolating plate collapse. Also fumes
CASTING
In modern steel plants everywhere there is a demand for more and more quality finished
products. For rolling to very thinner products, continuous casting products are the best
compared to teeming of the steel to make ingots and then to roll the ingots to produce slabs or
billets or blooms. Continuous casting not only meets the higher production within same time
frame but the quality of such products is quite lucrative and hence demanding. Before going
into the details of CCM a brief description of the caster is given below:
<BOF> => Raw/Crude Steel from converter => <SRU> => Refining crude steel i.e.
killing, Homogeneous Temperature and Composition => <Caster> Turret, Ladle
S/Gate, Shroud => Tundish => Mould
Liquid steel comes from the ladle into the tundish. Tundish is a device where it collects,
accumulates liquid steel from the ladle and feeds to two or more moulds through SEN
depending on the m/c and process. The basic design of the caster is to solidify liquid steel to its
solid products uninterruptedly/continuously. For that the steel to be cast must be killed. Steel
from which oxygen (dissolved in steel during steel making in BOF) is removed at SRU using
highly deoxygenating elements like Al (Aluminum) Si (silicon) etc is called KILLED STEEL.
Oxygen in steel is measured using Celox Temp and expressed in ppm. Steel that is to be cast
should not have high ppm of O2 otherwise casting cannot be done because O2 of steel will form
unwanted oxides viz CaO, SiO2, MgO and will be deposited over the entry nozzle and thus will
restrict the flow of steel into the mould.
Before start of the casting:
1. Steel that is to be cast is treated well at SRU for smooth casting.
2. Tundish through which casting will be done is to be prepared.
Tundish is a device through which continuity of the casting is maintained. There are two types
of casting practices are in use namely cold tundish and hot tundish practices. Liquid steel
comes from the ladle into the tundish and in turn the tundish feeds the liquid steel into the
mould through different outlet at the bottom of the tundish. Tundish is made of steel and
inside of which is lined with refractory bricks or castable. After that tundish boards are fixed
over the refractory lined. Submerged entry nozzle (SEN) are fixed by clamping device in each
of the tundish outlet.
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3. Preparing of the mould:

Mould is the most important equipment in the caster m/c. primarily mould is prepared
according to the shape and size of the product. For solidification of the initial liquid steel that
enters into the mould one DUMMY BAR head is used, which is fed into the mould with a fixed
rod or flexible chain. This DUMMY BAR head is packed. Mould is made purely of copper as
copper has the most heat discharge capacity than any other metal economically available. All
sides of this mould is made up of Cu plate and heat from liquid steel immediately discharges
trough the copper plates by mould cooling system Copper plates are cooled by circulating soft
water through designed tubes in the form of coils. Here the difference of MOULD COOLING
WATER Outlet Temperature & Inlet Temperature is monitored continuously. It is very much
hazardous part in caster m/c during casting. An alarm is provided as soon as the difference of
temperature raises more. Immediate actions are to be taken and if necessary casting should be
stopped without waiting for any other decision to be asked from anyone.
Casting Process:
Liquid steel taken into ladle is refined at SRU is
placed over the turret arm and ladle SG is fixed. Then
one shroud is fixed at the bottom of the ladle collector
nozzle so that no stream of liquid steel comes in
contact with the atmosphere and no spillage occurs.
This liquid steel gradually fills the tundish and from
there liquid steel leaves tundish nozzle/TSG through
SEN into the mould. Initially steel rests on the
DUMMY BAR head on which some chillers are placed
to get the liquid steel freeze/solidifies quickly then the
m/c starts with MOM & casting powder is to be
sprayed continuously at a certain mould level. The
process continues after the DUMMY BAR head is
disconnected as it reaches at its particular position.
Length of the slab/billet is maintained by using cutting
torch/ shearing blades.
Abnormalities:
During casting and form some unwanted hard oxides which gets deposited over the steel into
the mould and interrupts the steel flow. Sometimes casting is to be aborted due to this flow
restriction. This phenomenon is called Chocking. In some cases temperature at which liquid
steel gets solidified may be reached during casting which caused solidification at SEN and
restricts the steel flow, and then also casting continuity gets disturbed and casting stops. This
is called Freezing. So during fixing of the SEN proper care should be taken. Another major
problem that hinders the casting process is Break Out.

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Some Casting Defects:

Types of defects:
Surface cracks
Internal cracks
Blow holes, Pin holes etc
Remedial measures:
Control of superheat of liquid steel (appropriate temperature)
Steel chemistry
Casting speed
Safety Measures:
Mould cooling temperature and its difference of temperature of Inlet water and Outlet
water is to be monitored continuously.
Tundish walls and slidegate m/cs fixed on it is to be observed carefully.

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GENERAL
MECHANICAL
MAINTENANCE

Page 103 of 250

INTRODUCTION
Maintenance can be defined as those activities which are required to keep a facility in asbuilt
condition, so that it continues to have its original Productive Capacity. The responsibility of
the Maintenance function is to ensure that production plant and equipment is available for
productive use at minimum cost for the scheduled hours, operating at agreed standard.
Among the process industries, Steel is recognized as a Core Sector. The operations in
Integrated Steel Plants like ours are characterized by their continuous nature of operations.
Various Production departments are interdependent and any disruption in one Unit is likely
to affect other production units too. Considering the magnitude of our organization, such
interruptions and stoppages are very costly and there should be methods to avoid them.
Equipments installed in Steel Plants are subjected to harsh working conditions characterized
by fluctuating loads, shock, dart, dust, fumes and poisonous gases. They are operated in
continuous duty cycle. The wear and tear is thus very intensive. This calls for an efficient
maintenance organization, flexible enough to match the production processes and also
contribute to the achievement of APP targets in terms of preset quality, quantity and
technical parameters. Therefore, the function of Maintenance Engineering of NINL are
entrusted with the maintenance of plants to care of a regular and thorough supervision of the
conditions and functions of all operational equipments in the right time so that effects of
deterioration can be spotted early enough, before major costly breakdowns and damages occur
to the equipments. Thus the justification for a Maintenance Organisation group lies in its use
to ensure availability of equipments and services for performance of their functions at
optimum return on investments whether this investment be in
Machinery, Material, Men and Money
Dependence of operating personnel on maintenance engineering is even increasing with the
complexity of equipments used in modern Steel Plants. The cost of maintenance has become a
greater part of the total cost of Production and the maintenance-engineering group, a major
unit of the organization. Regardless of this tremendous growth in importance, cost and
complexity of the maintenance function, it is important to remember that the function exists
because it is a necessary facet of the whole plant operation, not a self sufficient unit.
MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES
Maintenance is an integral part of an Organization in its entirety and therefore, Maintenance
Objectives should be established within the framework of the whole so that overall
organizational or corporate objectives and needs are adequately fulfilled.
The Maintenance Objectives are to:
a) Ensure maximum equipment availability for meeting APP targets;
b) Maintain plant equipments and facilities at an economic level of repairs at all times
to conserve these and increase their life span:
c) Provide desired services to operating departments at optimum levels:
d) Ensure reliability and safety of equipments for uninterrupted production;
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e) Ensure operational readiness of all stand-by equipments;

Assignments Of Maintenance
The assignments of Maintenance are likely to be categorized in two big groups, one not less
important and vital than the other. These are:
a) The actual maintenance at site.
b) The theoretical and organizational assignment of Maintenance.
Actual Shop Maintenance
An outsider usually sees the shop activities of the maintenance with their obvious results of
maintained and repaired equipments. These are:
i)
Attending continuous running equipments such as air compressors, central
lubrication or hydraulic stations.
ii) Cleaning of equipments.
iii) Short term checking and servicing of equipments.
iv) Lubrication of equipments.
v) Long term inspection and maintenance.
vi) Planned repair during Shutdowns.
vii) Capital and Major repairs.
viii) Physical elimination of weak points in Design and Materials.
ix) Unplanned repairs due to Breakdowns.
x) Emergency Manufacture of small spares on shop.
ASSIGNMENTS OF MAINTENANCE
Behind the perceptible and measurable activities of the actual shop floor maintenance, a huge
number of theoretical, organizational and administrative assignments are entrusted to the
maintenance of a plant, which are indispensable prerequisites of proper results of actual
maintenance of the shop floor.
These are:
i)

Management of Men:
This includes men power planning, selection, training, evaluation and placement.
Additionally it aims at creating sufficient and capable staff groups like Design
Department, Maintenance Planning Department, Consumption Cell, Hydraulic and
Pneumatic & Lubrication groups, Repair shops etc. to meet day to day maintenance to
guide, control and evaluate activities of maintenance and services.

ii)

Management of Machines:
Maintaining inventory of equipments, elaboration and application and development of
short and long term equipment checking and servicing, planning of major and Capital
Repair Plans, Breakdown and Delay Investigation and Analysis, Standardization of
equipments come under this category.
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iii) Management of Material:

Inventory, Spares and Consumable categorization, implementation of manufacture and
repair of Spares, indenting of spares, consumables and tools etc. come under this
category.
iv) Management of Money:
Management of Maintenance Budget, implementation of an accounting system for
evaluating cost of manufacture and repair as well as follow up of the cost of expenditure
on account of maintenance comes under this category.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
Any Organization which is involved in machinery, plant, equipments and facilities must have
a clear-cut maintenance policy. In NINL broadly the following methods are used for carrying
out maintenance activities.
a) Breakdown Maintenance
b) Preventive Maintenance
c) Planned Maintenance
d) Predictive Maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance:
This is event based and carried out when breakdown of equipment takes place bringing down
production. This is fire fighting and should be avoided at all cost. Cause of such breakdowns
must be analyzed and action must be taken for non recurrence of the same.
Preventive Maintenance:
Preventive maintenance system refers to those critical systems, which have to reduce the
likely hood of failures to the absolute minimum. This is an endeavor to forestall unplanned
down time of Machines. It consists of Planned & Coordinated inspection, adjustments, repair
and replacements in maintaining equipments. Preventive maintenance of a machine or a
running line can be carried out both during operation as well as shut down.
Purpose: To make necessary and timely repair and prevent unscheduled interruptions and
deterioration of the equipments.
Result: Minimum operation down time, better overall maintenance planning, emphasizes
weaknesses in equipments and accessories and reduces maintenance cost .
Planned Maintenance:
Planned maintenance is carried out with forethought, control and records to a predetermined
plan. In the planned maintenance system the emphasis is the machine needs and the expected
requirements from the machine. It has to be centered around the original recommendations
made and prescribed by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM).
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The maintenance manager has to use all his experience and expertise to super impose
refinements and improvements on manufacturers recommendations.
ESSENTIALS OF MAINTENANCE PROCESS
It basically consists of the following activities:
Inspection
Planning & Execution
Reporting & Documentation
Feed back & Actions for improvements
Investigation
Inspection:
Inspection is the most important ingredient. A sound inspection system forms a strong base
for a good maintenance system. It must be carried out by sincere and experienced hands so
that the right problem can be detected at the right time by the right people to take timely
corrective actions. One should also look for statutory violation and unsafe working conditions.
The frequencies of inspection can be finalized depending upon the severity of the working
condition and its importance in the production environment.
Planning and Execution:
Maintenance planning is essentially based on past experience, equipment condition and the
recommendations of the OEM. There can be both Long and Short term planning for executing
any repair. Men, Materials and supporting services have to be planned to carry out any
planned execution of equipments
Documentation:
Details of Maintenance activities and all related requirements with reference to men,
materials, services should be documented both before and after execution. This is required for
future references and building up of a sound maintenance history.
Feedback:
The behavior of machines / equipments should be recorded from time to time immediately
after the repair so as to note the improvements/ changes in performance if any which will go a
long way in improving and fine tuning of future Maintenance practices.
Investigation:
Sudden or gradual failure of equipments, repetitive failures must be thoroughly investigated
and the reasons identified. This will help in prevention of unscheduled equipment
breakdowns. Methods such as Root Cause Analysis (RCA) etc. are adopted to determine the
causes of failures and necessary actions are taken for non-recurrence of the
same in future.
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Predictive Maintenance:
This is a technique to determine the condition of in service equipments in order to predict
when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers cost saving over routine or timebased Preventive maintenance because tasks are performed only when warranted. Most
Predictive Maintenances are performed while the equipment is in service, there by minimizing
disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of Predictive Maintenance (PdM) in the
maintenance of equipments can result in substantial cost savings and higher system
reliability. Reliability Centered Maintenance or RCM emphasizes the use of predictive
maintenance (PdM) techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures
Technologies of Predictive Maintenance:
To evaluate equipment condition Predictive maintenance utilizes Non-destructive testing
technologies, such as infrared, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), Vibration
analysis, Sound level measurements, Oil- analysis and other specific online tests.
Vibration analysis:
Every equipment in motion causes vibration and can be characterized by the frequency
amplitude and the phase of the wave. When a machine is operating normally, the pattern of
vibration is recorded as vibration signature. The deviations are registered on a vibration
analyzer and this lead to corrective action.
Ultrasonic:
The technique is useful to survey wall thickness of metallic vessels, piping etc to detect cracks
and to determine extent of Corrosion /Erosion at vulnerable areas.
Infrared Detection:
Use of infrared picture or thermograph is used for heated spot detection. This is particularly
useful when temperature are high and conditions cannot be known of happenings inside the
Furnaces, Vessels, Ladle walls and pipe lines including heat building up in Electrical cables
etc. .
Eddy Current:
This is useful in the inspection of defects of non-magnetic pipe tubes of heat exchangers or
other units.
Oil Analysis:
By analyzing the oil samples of the running equipments, information regarding deterioration
of components can be established. It is a long term programme but can be more predictive
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than any other technologies. The concentration of metallic particles shows the extent of wear
in the equipments and this calls for timely action before any break down takes place.
LATEST TRENDS OF MAINTENANCE
Condition Based Maintenance System (CBMS)
Condition Based Maintenance has been described as a process which requires technologies
and peoples skills that integrates all available equipment conditions, indicators (Diagnostic
and performance data, Operator logged data, maintenance history and design knowledge) to
make timely decisions about maintenance requirements of equipments . The goal of Condition
Based Maintenance is to optimize reliability and availability by determining the need for
maintenance activities based on equipments condition. Using Predictive techniques,
technologies, condition monitoring and observations, it can be used to project forward the most
probable time of failure and enhance the ability of the Plant to plan and act for prevention of
the same. Preventive maintenance jobs that are taken up are not only limited to time based
frequencies but based on conditions also. While regular inspection, monitoring of parameters
like pressure, temperature, current etc. detects many job requirements, maintenance
organizations are adopting modern methods of Condition Monitoring as detailed under
Predictive Maintenance (PdM).

LUBRICATION
Introduction
A common feature of mechanically engineered system is relative motion of some component
with respect to another. Friction results in energy dissipation. The most standard approach is
to use lubrication in the hydrodynamic range. The friction may then be considerably reduced.
The friction may be minimized by understanding the interaction between surfaces in any
relative motion. This must be reduced to acceptable level in order to achieve the required
system efficiency. The load is distributed over the area of contact. In the case of real bodies,
contact cannot occur uniformly over whole area of apparent contact. The surfaces are
inherently rough and contact occurs at the tips of highlands in rough surface. The load is
distributed over these localized regions of contact. This leads to formation of junctions of finite
areas. In these areas stresses are high resulting in plastic deformation. The sum of the areas
of the junctions is known as the real area of contact. Origin of friction is very basic in nature
and extreme care is required to reduce it to a low level. It is considered as a system property
with a pair of materials being specified. A few important thumb rules apply:
1. The friction force always acts in a direction opposite to that of the relative velocity of
the surfaces.
2. The friction force is independent of the apparent geometric area of contact.
3. Rolling friction is always much less than the sliding friction
Wear is progressive loss of substances from the operating surface of a body as a result of
relative motion at the surface. For dry metals in sliding contact it is important to note that:
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 Wear rate is independent of the apparent area of contact.

Wear varies with load applied.
Basic Objectives Of Lubricants
The basic objectives of lubrication are to reduce friction and control wear in machine
elements which are in relative motion. In addition to these:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

To remove the heat generated at the inter face (contact) area.

Flush out contaminants by carrying them to filter.
Resist formation of deposits on surfaces.
Inhibit aeration (air bubbles) and foaming of lubricant.
Dampen noise.
Act as a sealant.
Protect surfaces against corrosion.

Type
The lubricant could be a solid, semi-solid, liquid or gas. The use of a particular type of
lubricant depends on the nature of application. Liquid lubricants find greater usage as
compared to other forms of lubricants.
Grease
A common example of a semi solid lubricant is grease which is widely used because of its
unique property to adhere to the contact surface.
Oil
Oil is defined as a liquid which is lighter than water and insoluble in it. (liquid at ordinary
temperature of a viscous consistence and characteristic unctuous feel, lighter than water and
insoluble in it.) Oils derived from vegetable sources are generally termed as fatty oils and oils
from animal sources as well. Today petroleum is the biggest economical source of lubricants
known as mineral oils. The normal working range for use of mineral oil is -200 C to 900C. For
every 100C rise over the maximum temperature limit maximum life is reduced by 50%.
Synthetic oils:
The requirement at high and low temperature operations and fighting fire hazards gave way
to development of synthetic lubricants.
Advantages:
1. Wide temperature range.
2. Prolonged life
3. Less oxidation
4. Minimum loss in consumption due to low volatility.
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Greases: Lubrication grease is defined as a solid to semi fluid product of a thickening agent in
a liquid lubricant. The liquid phase may be mineral or synthetic oil or a mixture of two. The
thickening agent sometime called a gelling agent may be a metallic soap, mixture of soaps.
Advantages of lubricating grease: 1. Less frequent application as it is easily retained in the system and leakage is
minimum due to less flow ability.
2. Better rust prevention characteristic compare to oil.
3. Lubrication of inaccessible parts.
4. Provides better sealing action by preventing lubricant loss and ingress of
contaminants.
5. Requires simplified housing design.
6. Simpler seals could also be very effective due to the physical property (flow ability)
of the grease.
Disadvantages:
1. Does not perform as a proper coolant.
2. Cannot flush away contaminants like liquids.
3. Requires high torque to its semi solid nature.
4. Heat generation is high due to high viscosity value
The majority of industrys needs are catered by petroleum oil greases. The most common
greases are made from metallic soaps. Among soap based greases calcium grease first
appeared, followed by sodium and sodium-calcium and then lithium based.
Temperature is an important factor in grease selection. Petroleum greases are inexpensive
and adequate for temperatures between 0C and 90C. Some costly greases may withstand a
temperature limit of 90C. beyond this non soap based greases in particular silicone grease is
recommended, for low temperature applications, synthetic grease have proved successful.

Applications
Gears:
These machine elements are subjected to combined sliding and rolling action. The lubrication
of gears is a complex phenomenon due to geometry. Normally oils are used for gear lubrication
although for slow-running large gears, grease may be used. For open gears high viscous oils
are recommended. For enclosed gears oils are used and method of supply is bath (splash)
lubrication up to a speed limit of 12mps. Beyond this spray lubrication is preferred. The
lubrication failure could result in scuffing and so higher viscosity grades are recommended.
However too viscous oils might create starting problem and generate high temperature. Worm
gears have very high tooth friction and they need special care with regard to lubrication.
Gears cannot be gas or air lubricated.
Bearings:
Rolling element bearings:
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Majority of these bearings are lubricated by grease. The grease could be used at much higher
speeds in rolling element bearings compared to that in plain bearings. The temperature
limitation for grease is usually upto120`C. at high loads or at high speeds applications, grease
is usually not recommended. As in the former situation, adequate film strength may not be
obtained and in latter condition temperature limit might exceed. Oils are preferred in
bearings at relatively high speeds. However problems such as foaming and high temperatures
are encountered in such situations. The methods of supply in such situations are circulating
or oil mist depending on the size of bearing.
Synthetic fluids are used in rolling element bearing institutions where temperature is
usually higher than mineral oil could withstand or at very low temperature. However their
use is limited to moderate loads and medium speeds.
Air or gas cannot be use for rolling element bearings but there are instances of using solid
lubrication at very high temperature applications such as in furnace. However load capacity
and speed range for such cases would have to be very low.
Plain bearings:
These are usually lubricated by oil or grease. The use of grease is restricted to a speed of 2mps
for reason of inadequate heat dissipation. It provides excellent protection against
environmental contamination. Mineral oils can be used for a wide range of load and speed
conditions as they carry away heat and offer lower friction. For low speed applications like in
machine tools hand oiling or drip lubrication is preferred. In this method oil os transferred to
journal by direct contact or through porous bearings.
Rollers:
Rollers have bearings and are driven by gear mechanisms. Thus, lubrication of rollers in roller
tables is accomplished by taking into consideration lubrication of bearings fitted in rollers and
gears attached to them for transfer of power in gear boxes.

Hydrodynamics Lubrication:
It signifies that such a lubrication mechanism is due to motion. The shape of two surfaces
being separated by the lubricant film and their relative motion is such that a pressure is
generated in the lubricant film which takes up the external load. Usually in hydrodynamic
lubrication thickness of lubricant film (film thickness) is significant and the pressure
generated is not adequate enough to deform the surfaces locally.
Hydrostatic Lubrication:
It signifies that the lubricant is supplied at such high pressures that it separates the surfaces
in relative motion, simultaneously taking up the external load and hydrodynamic action may
or may not be present.

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Oil Mist Librication:

It consists of a mixture of oil and atomized oil being supplied to the bearing housing under
suitable pressure. Oil mist is formed in an atomizer.

BEARINGS
Bearings are designed to overcome friction to provide ease of rotation. One way to reduce
friction is by adding lubricant and other way is to utilize rolling elements. Friction is reduced
as things roll easier than they slide. Bearings are designed to support shafts and allow free
rotation on applied loads. There are three basic type of loads:

Radial loads are applied perpendicular to the shaft

Axial loads are applied parallel to the axis of rotation.
Combination load is encountered when the bearing simultaneously experiences a
radial and axial load.

Plain bearings:
They are also referred to as journal or sleeve bearing. The plain bearing is cylindrical in shape
and designed to fit tightly in the housing and on the shaft. The advantages of plain
bearings include:
Smaller outside diameter (as opposed to rolling element bearings)
Quiet operation and absorption of shock loads.
Repetitive back and forth motion and low cost
Bronze, Babbitt, Teflon are various low coefficient materials used in plain bearing
construction.
Rolling element bearings: are far more complex than plain bearings. Its major components
are: outer ring, inner ring, and rolling elements. The cage is added to maintain even spacing
between each rolling element and to ensure equal distribution of load. Seals and shields keep
lubricants in and keep contaminants out. While increasing the size and quantity of rolling
elements increases the overall load carrying capacity. There are six basic types of rolling
elements: Ball, Spherical roller (symmetrical and asymmetrical), Cylindrical roller,
Needle roller, and Tapered roller. Representative of each rolling element type is its ability
to transmit loads through contact with inner and outer rings. Bearing seals are mostly found
on single and double row ball bearings. Bearing shields are made up of steel and are affixed to
the bearings outer ring, but unlike the seal, the shield does not make contact with the inner
ring.
Load capacities: while rings and rolling elements carry the bearing load, the type, size, and
number of the rolling elements directly influence the bearing` s overall load capacities.

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Speed: the permissible operating temperature limits the speed at which rolling bearings can
be operated. Bearing types with low friction and correspondingly low heat generation are most
suitable for high speed operation. The highest speeds can be achieved with deep
groove ball bearings when loads are purely radial.
Quiet operation: in certain applications such as small electric motors for household
appliances or office machinery, the noise produced in operation is an important factor and can
influence bearing choice. Deep groove ball bearings are especially produced for this
application.

Fitting:
Mounting and dismounting of Bearings: A ball or roller bearing has extremely accurate component parts which fit together with very
close clearances. The inner ring bore and the outer ring outside diameter are manufactured
within close limit. To fit there respective supporting members the shaft and the housing, it
follows that the shaft and the housing must also be machined to similar close limits. Three
basic mounting methods are used, the choice depending on factors such as the number of
mountings, bearing type and size, magnitude of interferences and the possible available tools.
1) Cold mounting: Mounting of a bearing without heating it first is the most basic and direct mounting method.
A pressure force of sufficient magnitude is applied against the face of the ring having the
interference fit. This method is most suitable for cylindrical bore bearings up to about 70 mm
bore and for tapered bore bearings up to about 240 mm bore.
2) Temperature mounting: Temperature mounting is the technique of obtaining an interference fit by first introducing a
temperature differential between the parts to be fitted. The necessary temperature differential
can be obtained in one of the three ways: a) heating one part (most common)
b) Cooling one part
c) simultaneously heating one part and cooling the other.
Heating the bearing: - Heat mounting is suitable for all medium and large size straight bore
bearings with cylindrical seating arrangements. Normally a bearing temperature of 65C
above shaft temperature (not to exceed 120C) provides sufficient expansion for mounting. As
the bearing cools, it contracts and tightly grips the shaft. It is important to heat the bearing
uniformly and to regulate heat accurately, since excess heat destroys a bearings metallurgical
properties (softens the bearings). Never heat a bearing using an open flame such as a blow
torch. Heat mounting reduces the risk of bearing or shaft damage during installation because
the bearing can be slid easily on to the shaft. Appropriate electric heat-bearing mounting
devices include induction heater, ovens, hot plates and heating cones. Of these, induction
heaters and ovens are the most convenient and induction heaters are the fastest devices to
use.
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Hot oil baths have traditionally been used to heat bearings, but are no longer recommended
except when unavoidable. In addition to health and safety considerations, the environmental
issues about oil disposal are also involved. If hot oil bath is used, both the oil and the
container must be absolutely clean. Oil previously used for some other purpose should be
thoroughly filtered.. An insufficient quantity heats and cools too rapidly. Thus introducing the
risk of inadequately or unevenly heating the bearing. It is also difficult in such a case to
determine when the bearing has reached the same temperature as the oil. Sufficient time
should be allowed for the entire bearing to reach the correct temperature. The bath should
cover the bearing.

Precautions
Storage and handling: Bearings can be used in their original packages for years provided
there are not great fluctuations in the temperature. With sealed or shielded bearings, the
lubrication properties of the grease with which they are filled may deteriorate with time.
Large rolling bearings should only be stored lying down, preferably with the support for the
whole extent of the side faces of the rings. if kept in a standing position, the weight of the
rings and the rolling elements can give rise to permanent deformation because the rings are
relatively thin walled. For the same reason, if large and heavy bearings are moved or held in a
position using lifting tackle, they should not be suspended at a single point, rather a sling or
other suitable aid should be used. A spring between the hook of the lifting tackle and the sling
facilitates positioning the bearing when it is pushed onto a shaft. For ease of lifting, large
bearings often have threaded hole in the ring faces into which the eye bolts can be screwed. As
the hole size is limited by the ring thickness, it is only permissible to lift the bearing itself or
the individual ring by the bolts. When mounting a large housing over a bearing that is already
in position on a shaft, it is advisable to provide three point suspensions for the housing and for
the length of one sling to be adjustable. This enables the housing bore to be exactly aligned
with the bearing.
POWER TRANSMISSION AND POWER DRIVES
POWER is transmitted from the prime mover to a machine, from one machine to another, or
from one member of the machine to another, by means of intermediate mechanisms
called drives. These intermediate mechanisms are necessary instead of directly coupling the
machine to the prime mover, due to the following reasons:
1. The optimal speeds of the prime mover or that of the standard motors may be different
from the velocities required to operate the machines. The prime mover s usually have
higher angular velocities, which make the designs more compact and light, while the
operating members frequently require a large torque with relatively low velocities.

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2. The velocity of the driven machine may have to be frequently changed or regulated,
whereas the speed of the prime mover should be kept constant for its use to the full
advantage.
3. In some cases, several machines may have to be operated from only one prime mover.
4. Sometimes the machines are not coupled directly to the prime mover shaft due to the
considerations of safety, convenience and maintenance.
Mechanical Drives:
Mode of power transmission:
a) Transmission by friction may be further classified as:
With direct contact, e.g. friction drive
With a flexible connection, e.g. belt drives
b) Transmission by mesh may further be classified as:
With direct contact, e.g. toothed and worm gears
With a flexible connection, e.g. chain drives
The velocity ratio in toothed wheel gearing is limited only by size of the drive and in belt drive,
by the minimum allowable arc of contact on the smaller pulley.
Comparatively:
Characteristics
Initial cost
Maintenance cost
lubrication
Shock absorption

Belt drives
Cheaper
Low
None
Better

Life

1-5 years

Loads

Very heavy loads cannot be

transmitted

Gear drive
Costly
Considerable
Must
Not so good, depends upon gear
material
Depends upon materials.
Longest service life if properly
lubricated
Quite heavy loads can be
transmitted as gear size is
practically unlimited

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KEYS AND COUPLINGS

Keys: The most common function of a key is to prevent relative rotation of a shaft and the
member to which it is connected, such as the hub of a gear, pulley, disc, or crank. An extensive
use of keys is largely due to their simple and dependable design, convenience of assembly and
disassembly, low cost etc.
The major disadvantages are:
Keyways not only make the effective cross-section of the part smaller but also involve
considerable stress concentration. Failures of shafts and axles are very often caused by high
local stresses arising in the area of keyway. One key cannot transmit large torques. The
greater accuracy required and complicated load conditions made the development
of SPLINES made integral with shaft.
Because: they can transmit greater loads at varying speeds and impact loads. But they have
uneven load distribution between the splines and they need special cutting and measuring
tools.

Couplings
They are necessary to connect one shaft to another or to couple a drive shaft to a driven shaft.
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes:

To provide for the connection of shafts, of units that are manufactured separately,
such as a motor and a generator, and to provide for disconnection for repairs or
alterations.

Sometimes, it is inconvenient to use a shaft of large length due to space limitations or

transport facilities, thus a long line shaft is composed of a number of small shaft pieces
put together end to end by couplings and are supported by bearings.

To provide for MISALIGNMENT OF THE SHAFTS or to introduce mechanical

To reduce transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.

To introduce protection against shock loads from one shaft to another

Flexibility
There are two basic types of couplings, namely:
1. Rigid couplings do not accommodate misalignment and consequently should not be used
indiscriminately.

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2. Flexible couplings allow slight angular deviations; also permit the axes of the shafts to
float or run slightly out of alignment, and in some cases to move end wise, whilst still
transmitting torque from one shaft to another shaft. Further, the use of a flexible coupling
enables to compensate slight inaccuracy of workmanship in aligning the two machine
elements. A typical example is a direct electric drive from an electric motor to a machine
tool, where we have, say: four bearings relatively close to each other.

TECHNOLOGY OF REPAIR OF STEEL PLANT EQUIPMENTS

All industrial equipments are subjected to wear and tear, stress, corrosion, ageing including
mishandling and mal-operation. Systematic care and attention is required not only to keep
equipments in good working order but various technological methods are also adopted to
increase the service life of equipments.
Engineering technologies such as Machining, Welding, Fabrication, Fitting & Assembly,
Forging, Casting, Heat treatment, Balancing etc. are adopted for both manufacturing and
repair of spares and equipments. In order to cater to these needs, Captive Engineering Shops
have been established with all these facilities in our integrated steel plants.
The various facilities available with the engineering shops are :
Machine Shop:
Machining is an important method of shaping metal parts and especially of finishing them to
close dimensions. Machine Shop consists of light and heavy Machining Sections equipped with
lathes, planers, Horizontal and Vertical Boring machines, Gear cutting machines, Slotting
machines and Grinders for manufacturing and repair of equipment spares like Shafts, Liners,
Gears, rolls etc. Balancing machine determines the unbalance of rotating parts. Balancing
mass is added/ removed to balance these parts, which is essential to maintain rotating
equipments against unbalance and breakdown.
Forging Shop:
Forging is the shaping of metal either by i) impact or ii) steady compression between a
hammer or ram and an anvil .Forging hammers are to make stock / blanks for various spares.
Welding / Fabrication Shop:
Welding is a materials joining process used in making welds. This is a highly versatile process
used for day to day and regular repair of plant equipments. The main Welding processes are:
a) Oxyfuel Gas welding Use the heat produced by a gas flame for melting the base
metal and if used, the filler metal. Pressure may or may not be applied.
b) Arc Welding A fusion welding process wherein union of work piece is produced by
melting the surfaces to be joined with the heat energy obtained from an A.C. or D.C
source.
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c) Resistance Welding A group welding process, which produces union of metals

with heat obtained from resistance offered by the work to the flow of electrical
current through the parts being joined.
Fabrication Shop
Welding, forming and fitting are the three basic processes used mainly for fabrication of metal
structures / equipments. This is very important for repair /manufacture of steel plant
equipments and structures. Fabrication Shop is generally equipped with Profile cutting
machines, Plate Bending machines, Shears, Welding machines of different types, Hydraulic
presses, facilities for heating & Material handling etc.
Fitting & Assembly Shop:
Fitting & Assembly is an important ingredient of a Repair shop activity. Small and big
equipments need overhauling and repair after rendering long service. Huge repair shops
under different units of NINL cater to such needs which are equipped with material handling
facilities, Hydraulic Press, Heating arrangement, Portable machines, besides necessary tools
and tackles and trained manpower. Besides the above facilities, Heat Treatment section,
Hydraulics and Pneumatics section, Gears and gearbox repair section, Tool room
facility, Instrument Section, Inspection, Chains and Sling Testing sections, etc. have
their importance in the Engineering shops of our steel plants.
Inspection & Measuring Instruments:
Inspection is an important wing of Engg. Shops where Measuring Instruments play vital role
in determining dimensional accuracy of spare parts repaired / manufactured not only in these
units but also in all maintenance units across the steel plant.
Some of the commonly used measuring instruments are:
- Measuring tapes of different lengths,
- Scales,
- Callipers (for inside & outside sizes),
- Slide/Vernier callipers for measuring length, inside & outside diameter, depth),
- Micrometers (for measuring outside & inside diameters),
- Dial gauges (for outside & inside diameters),
- Gear tooth verniers for measuring gear tooth vital dimensions, etc.
Foundry & Pattern Shop :
The Shop produces ingot moulds and bottom plates vitally required for Steel Melting Shops.
They also produce Iron castings, Steel castings and Non-ferrous castings to meet regular
requirements of spares for steel plant.

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In addition to Engineering Shops, departments like Crane Maintenance, Heavy

Maintenance Engineering, Design, Field Machinery Maintenance, Loco Repair Shop,
Electrical Repair Shop come within the ambit of Maintenance Organisation.
TECHNO-ECONOMICS
Maintenance costs:
Production unit of any magnitude cannot afford undesirable downtime. The concept of
maintenance costs deals with two aspects:
1 Costs actually related with maintenance activities.
2 Costs related with downtime of production units.
In maintenance activities, consumable products used in carrying out maintenance have direct
impact on costs. Labor costs involved in carrying out maintenance related works viz repair;
reclaimations, erection, testing, inspection etc. have a direct or indirect impact on
maintenance costs. The aim of maintenance crew is to:
Control maintenance cost by salvaging, generating in house spares, proper assembly
& in house repairs and reduction of downtime of equipments.
To ensure implementation of preventive maintenance, planned maintenance, shut
down maintenance, modification & design maintenance to achieve maximum
equipment availability.
Daily planning of maintenance jobs, prioritizing & execution.
Periodic maintenance of routine, preventive maintenance activities including
condition based maintenance.
Availability And Reliability Of Equipments
Availability is a key performance indicator, which indicates the effectiveness of maintenance
in a work. Availability can be defined as the ratio of NET OPERATING
TIME to NET AVAILABILITY TIME.
Net operating time= net available time- unplanned downtime
Net available time= total time- planned downtime
Few other important aspects to take care are:
Mean time between failures (MTBF)
Mean down time (MDT)
In this way we define availability as ratio of MTBF to MTBF+MDT
The down time in a plant comprises of:
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Reporting time, inspection time, tool and man power arrangement, troubleshooting time,
logistics time, actual repair time, spares procurement time, test run time, handing over time
etc. So, downtime solely does not depend upon skill of workers or severity of defects.
Reliability stands for trust. It is the probability, that a machine when operated under a given
condition, will produce the desired output for given period of time.
Maintainability is basically the degree of ease in maintenance.
TQM IN MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
Doing business in todays Global market calls for reduction in production cost with
improvement on quality. Quality means Fitness for use or Conformation to standards,
which is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service. With the ongoing
competition in the global scenario it has become imperative to produce quality. Quality of
Maintenance, like the quality of product must be designed and built into the system, process
or methods of maintenance. Total quality of maintenance depends upon well-designed plans,
systems and procedures, use of proper tools and test equipment, adoption of correct technical
practices and the creation of conducive environment for good maintenance.
Achievement of consistent quality output over a period of time should be the main objective of
the Maintenance function. Keeping this in mind, NINL adopted ISO-9001:2008, the Quality
Hallmark of International scenario into their maintenance organizations.
Safety
Whenever system trouble-shooting/maintenance is carried out; safety should be the foremost
consideration. So, it is better to have a systematic shutdown procedure like one given below1.

Lower or mechanically secure suspended load.

2.

Depressurize the pressure line.

3.

Where ever necessary stop valves should be closed.

4.

Isolate the electrical control system.

5.

Drain out accumulator unit.

6.

Discharge both ends of intensifier.

7.

Always check and record condition of rope ladder before use.

8.

Always use tested tools and tackles.

9.

Always balance load on either side of rope during rope changing in cranes.

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HYDRAULICS
Introduction
Transmission & control of forces & movements by means of fluids is called hydraulics. Fluids
under pressure can be used for Power Transmission. Fluids means gases (air) and liquids (oil
or water etc). The system which uses air as working medium is called pneumatics and which
uses oil/water is called Hydraulic system.
Pressure
Force is the effort required to do the work. Pressure means force exerted per unit area,
generally measured in psi, or kg/sq cm, or bars*.
Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level the whole column of atmospheric air exerts a weight or force of 14.7 pounds for
every square inch i.e. a pressure of 14.7psi or 1.03kg/sqcm. This is called atmospheric
pressure. 1 Atmospheric Pressure = 1.03 Bar =14.7 psi
Flow & Pressure are inter-related. Flow is responsible for causing the motion of piston in a
cylinder. It is the movement of hydraulic fluid caused by a difference in pressure at two points.
When we open the kitchen tap the pressure difference (between the water tank at height and
tap) pushes the water out, or causes the water to flow. In a hydraulic system flow is usually
produced by the action of the hydraulic pump. If the pressure is not sufficient to take the load
on the cylinder, it will not move.
General Points
1.

Oil is most commonly used hydraulic fluid, because it acts as lubricant for all
moving parts of hydraulic system.
2. Generally the weight of hyd. Oil is around 55-58 pounds/cubic feet. One foot of oil
causes a pressure of 0.4 psi. A 10 m column of water causes a pressure of 1 kg/sq
cm.
3. There must be a pressure drop across an orifice/restriction to cause flow. If there is
no flow, there is no pressure drop and vice versa.
4. Force exerted by a cylinder is dependent on pressure of oil supplied & piston area
5. Speed of the cylinder is dependent on piston area and the rate of fluid flow into it.
6. Fluid velocity through a pipe varies inversely to the square of inside diameter.
7. Friction in pipes results in pressure drop
8. Air is compressible, where as oil is incompressible practically.
9. Pump only transfers the fluid. It is the resistance which develops pressure.
10. It is the atmospheric pressure which is responsible for pushing of oil from tank to
the suction chamber of the pump.

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Pascals Law
Pressure applied on a confined fluid is
transmitted
undiminished
in
all
directions and acts with equal force on
equal areas and at right angles to them
(If a force F is applied on a piston of
area A, (over a confined fluid) then it
gives a pressure P = F/A. This pressure
will be uniform in the entire confined
fluid at rest.
Hydraulic Press (BRAMAH PRESS) Since
pressure in the confined fluid is uniform
throughout and by applying this pressure on large
areas large forces can be developed. This is the
starting point for development of Hydraulics (see
the fig below). If two cylindrical chambers which
are connected and fitted with pistons of area A1, A0
and if a Force F1 acts on piston of area A1, it
develops a pressure p in the confined fluid. This
pressure will be uniform in the entire fluid in double cylinder arrangement, and develops a
force F0= P x A0. Hence forces will be proportional to the area of the pistons. There is no
energy creation and work done will be same by both the pistons. The displacements (lengths of
travel of pistons d1, d0) will be inversely proportional to the areas of the pistons.
Bernoullis Principle
This is nothing but law of conservation of energy. If the flow rate is constant, the total energy
at any point of continuous path of flowing fluid is same as at any other point. (Sum of motion
energy, pressure energy, and potential energy is constant.).To know the pressure or flow
velocity at any point in the circuit, this principle is used widely.
Advantages Of Hydraulic Sytems
Due to limitations of other power transmission system such as electrical, electromechanical
and pneumatic etc. hydraulic power transmission is preferred. Large forces can be transmitted
to long distances with high pressure stability and quick response. There are multiple
application possibilities which is suitable for use where large forces with infinitely variable
speeds are to be applied in given directions. Hydraulic equipments give smooth operation for
longer period with very less maintenance cost. Normally oil contamination control and leakage
control may give long life to hydraulic components. Other advantages of hydraulic system are:
1.

Highly compact- Power to weight ratio is very high. A hydraulic motor weighs
about 1/7 th of an electric motor of same power
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Precise control- depending on different requirements we can get exact speed, force
and position of user,
Over load protection- in case there is over load in pipe line or user, there is
provision of relief valve set at a certain maximum pressure to take care of it,
Suspension of load for long period- by providing a pilot operated non-return
valve in pipeline, load may be suspended for a longer period,
Flexibility in design- As per needs of production, scheme of hydraulic circuit may
be changed easily only with addition of a few components,
Easy maintenance- its maintenance is easy. Only oil contamination control will
fulfill major portion of maintenance work. For this monitoring of set parameters and
inspections of pipe lines, religiously is necessary
Variable Speed Controls: - We can get infinitely variable speeds and positions as
per need of users.
Stalling of loads:- The loads can be stalled to zero speed without any damage to
the equipments

Components Of Hydraulic System And Their Functions

Reservoir: The tank which stores the working medium (oil) and supplies to pump and also
takes back the return and drain oil in a hydraulic system and protects the medium from
external contamination is called Reservoir. It also allows the oil to cool through its walls and
allows contaminants to settle and air to separate. Generally in many cases it houses cooler,
return filters, air breather( a device which allows air to move in and out of a container to
maintain atmospheric pressure), level indicator, level switches (float switches). It is also
provided with drain plugs to drain oil, manhole (for maintenance and cleaning purpose), baffle
plates which allow the return oil to settle and cool before entering the pump through suction
line.
Suction Line: The pipe line connecting tank to pump generally with a shut off valve in
between is called suction line. Without opening this valve, pump should not be started.
Generally a hose or rubber bellows is provided in this line to isolate the vibrations of the
pump.
Pump: The element which transfers oil/fluid from one point to another point or which gives
flow is called pump. Pump only gives flow, but the resistance to flow develops pressure. In
hydraulics only positive displacement pumps are used. In these pumps there is positive
sealing between suction and delivery. For every revolution of pump, a fixed amount of oil is
transferred from suction to delivery irrespective of load conditions. Practically there will be
minor internal leakages which are negligible. This fixed amount of oil transferred is called
Displacement of pump. The displacement when multiplied by speed of the electric motor
driving the pump, gives Discharge of the pump (flow of the pump) Centrifugal pumps (non
positive displacement type) are not used in hydraulic systems. In this if delivery is closed,
pressure will not build up beyond a particular limit. Safety valve is not required. Most
commonly used positive displacement pumps used in hydraulics are Gear, piston and vane
types are popular. A positive displacement pump should never be started without opening the
suction valve. There should be sufficient oil level in tank so that air does not enter the pump.
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If air enters the pump, it will run with high noise and it will be damaged very soon. This is
called aeration. Even though sufficient oil is there, aeration can occur due to any loose pipe
joints in suction line. Pump is always followed by a relief valve (safety valve), pressure gauge,
check valve and shut off valve ( These are required for pressure setting and isolating).
Check Valve/Non-Return Valve: It is a valve which allows flow in one direction only.
Generally provided after the pump in most of the cases to take care of reverse rotation of
pump. It is also used in many places of the circuit as a bypass etc. Check valve and non-return
valve are same.
Pressure Gauge: It is provided to know the pressure and for setting of various valves,
pressure switches.
Safety Valve/ Relief Valve: Both are same and it is the most important component of
Hydraulic system. It limits the maximum pressure in the system so that elements, hoses,
cylinders, pipes etc does not burst due to high pressure. I t also protects the equipment and
system from over loading. When the system pressure increases beyond the set point, the safety
valve opens and relieves the excess oil to tank.
Accumulator: It is a reservoir of pressurized hydraulic fluid i.e. storage of energy by means
of spring or compressed nitrogen, dead weight. It is basically a pressure vessel. No welding is
allowed on this. 1. Bladder type (most commonly used) 2.Piston type 3.Dead weight type 4.
Direct gas loaded type. Nitrogen is generally used in accumulators but never use oxygen as it
may result in explosion. You should never open a pressure line with accumulator in line.
Always isolate/ preferably drain the accumulator before starting the job. Accumulator is used
(a) for smooth functioning of HS without pressure and flow fluctuations (b) as an emergency
power source for essential operations in case of power failure. (c) for holding pressure for long
times in a circuit (d) a big pump can be replaced by a small pump ( cost & energy saving) and
many other purposes.
Direction Control Valves: Distributor/Master valve / DC valve are all same. If a pump
supplies oil directly to a cylinder, it is not possible or convenient to control the load or to
change the direction of motion. Hence a dc valve is provided in between pump and the load
cylinder to stop/start /reverse the motion of the load. DC valve can be activated by a lever,
cam, solenoid, pedal, pneumatic/hydraulic pressure depending on the design and requirement.
Most commonly used are solenoid operated and they are having two/ three positions. If you are
using a two position valve you cannot stop the cylinder in between .There are many varieties
of dc valves.
Flow Control Valves: To control the speed of the actuator /load, the amount of oil flowing
into the cylinder is controlled by means of these valves. Generally these are provided before
the cylinder or in branch circuits where flow is to be controlled. Simple needle/globe valve can
also be used as flow control valve in some cases.
Sequence Valve: In a simple punching machine, the job is held in position by a clamping
cylinder at low pressure and then a hole is punched by another cylinder at a high pressure.
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Now these two cylinders are always to be operated in definite sequence only. This sequence
can be achieved by electrical/mechanical or by hydraulic means through a valve called
sequence valve. Hydraulic sequencing is most common and versatile. A dc valve supplies oil to
cylinder-1 and through a sequence valve to cylinder -2. (After cylinder -1 is operated
completely, pressure will buildup and then sequence valve gets opened and oil goes to the
cylinder -2 at a higher pressure. The sequence valve is tuned and set to achieve the sequence).
It is almost similar to a safety valve but not same.
Pressure Reducing Valve: In some HS many cylinders are working at different pressures
,but a few cylinders does not require full pressure and can work at a low pressure .Then all
these selected cylinders are supplied oil through a valve known as pressure reducing valve. In
pressure reducing valve, the output pressure cannot go beyond a particular limit. This setting
will be lower than the safety valve setting.
Filters: All hydraulic elements work under close tolerances and they are precision items with
mirror surface finish .Contaminants and dust are the single largest enemy of the HS as they
cause malfunctioning and jamming of valves and fast wear out of elements. The contaminants
are internally generated in the system and some are external to the system. Working medium
is to be regularly cleaned from these contaminants. Hence oil filters are used in suction line,
pressure line and return line and before an important precision valve/pump as per the need.
This will improve the performance of the system.
The coarse filter used in suction line of pump sometimes is called STRAINER .Hydraulic
systems are most reliable, if the contamination is kept under control, and breakdowns can be
minimized. In a filter the hydraulic oil is allowed to pass through a porous medium (like clay,
paper, wire mesh, synthetic fiber etc) so that the dust particles and other contaminants are
retained and only clean oil goes ahead into the system. Offline filtration (mostly portable)
systems are also used for up keeping the system depending on the criticality. Electrostatic
Liquid cleaners are also used nowadays. These are very simple to operate and cheap.
Pressure Switch: The hydraulic oil under pressure pushes a small plunger which in turn
makes/breaks an electrical contact. These are provided in the system for safety and efficient
operation or for achieving a particular logic sequence. Contact Manometer is a pressure gauge
with electrical contacts, which does almost the same job, but they are less reliable and less
robust.
Level Switches: Generally the reservoir is provided with low level and high level float
switches, so that they give alarm of low oil level/ high level and can be used for interlocking
purpose. Float switch operates due to buoyancy in oil. Generally the low level switch is
interlocked with the drive of pump, so that when there is no oil due to any reason, the pump
will trip or will not allow the pump to start.
Actuators: Generally the hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors are called actuators.
These actuators do the actual job of lifting/lowering/pushing/rotating /holding etc. Hydraulic
motor replaces many applications of electric motors due to many advantages like speed
control, over load protection etc. Hydraulic motors are almost similar to pumps. When these
are supplied oil at pressure, they will give rotary output. Generally gear/vane /piston motors
Page 126 of 250

are in use. Generally two types of Hydraulic cylinders are commonly used viz, a) Double acting
cylinders, which can be used for pulling and pushing ,consists of piston , piston rod, body ,
covers, seals and fasteners, eye . Basically a sealed piston with rod reciprocates inside a
cylindrical body under the pressure of oil. B) Single acting cylinder. These types can only
push/lift a load. The single acting cylinder cannot retract due to hydraulic force. It retracts
due to weight/spring/ load. Hydraulic jacks are generally single acting type.
]
Seals: The component which prevents the motion of the fluid in the undesired direction is
called seal/packing. Can also be defined as that component that separates two fluids. The
functions of the seal are a) to seal the hydraulic fluid in a closed chamber , b) Maintains
pressure , c)stops dirt/water/contamination from entering the system d) separates two fluids,
e) performs any combination of the above functions. In simple terms a seal stops internal or
external leakages. Cost of the seal is a small fraction, but determines the efficiency of the
system.
Problems associated with seals: Wastage of fluid leaked, fire hazards, slippery floor, makes
equipment and products dirty, environment pollution, depleting natural resources.
Leather, cork, ropes are the oldest seals, which are widely used in the earlier days. Then
natural rubbers, synthetic rubber (ELASTOMERS), PTFE, Polyurethane, POM etc are used
nowadays. Seals should be handled delicately, and sharp tools should not be used. PIPES,
FITTINGS, CLAMPS: Generally pickled, flushed seamless pipes are used in hydraulic
systems. For maintenance convenience and ease of laying, pipe joints are provided at suitable
places. For small pipes union joints are used and in bigger pipes flange joints are used. There
is large variety of pipe joints of different standards and designs are available. Care should be
taken that different fittings do not get mixed up. Also while doing maintenance on fittings
thread type/seat design/size etc should be matched. Otherwise lot of problems will result.
Pipes should be properly clamped and supported; otherwise the joints get loosened during
working due to vibrations. Pipe clamps are made of wood/ Aluminium/ synthetic materials.
Wooden clamps are to be avoided due to environment protection. Aluminium clamps are used
where high temperatures are there. Synthetic clamps are commonly used nowadays. While
laying hose pipes, the layout should be smooth, and they should not crisscross/twist/entangle
and rub each other.
Working Medium
Hydraulic power system may be operated with fluids produced from different base fluids:
1) Mineral oil
2) Vegetable oil
3) Synthetic oil
4) Water
Mineral oil - Most hydraulic systems use hydraulic fluid based on mineral oil. Since base oils
do not have all the characteristics which a high performance hydraulic fluid should have,
different types of additives are dissolved in base oil to improven the properties
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Vegetable oil - These fluids are biodegradable and so are being used more frequently in
installations that are subjected to strict antipollution regulations.
Synthetic oil -These fluids are most commonly used in systems where there are special
demands on hydraulic fluid such as fire hazardous zones (furnace area)
Water - Pure water is seldom used as the fluid in hydraulic system. It can be used as
emulsion adding oil in it or adding water to oil.
Following are the important properties which hydraulic oil should possess:
a) Oxidation Stability b) Protection from Corrosion c) Anti Wear d) Viscosity &Viscosity Index,
(viscosity index should be high so that viscosity variation with temperature will be less) ( e)
Demulsibility (ability to resist formation of emulsion when mixed with water) f) Anti Foaming
Characteristics, g) Thermal and high pressure stability, h) Good Lubricant, i) Compatible with
Seals and Hoses, and Metals, j) High Flash Point (the minimum temperature at which oil just
takes fire and do not burn continuously) & Fire points (the minimum temperature at which oil
catches fire and burns continuously). Fire point should be always slightly more than the flash
point.
Oil Contamination Control
Oil contamination is number one enemy of hydraulic system. Therefore, oil contamination
control is the first requirement of any hydraulic system to get a trouble free smooth service. It
enhances the life of different components. To keep oil clean is part of hydraulic system
maintenance. It is just not possible to keep oil free from contamination in any industry due to
various reasons. What we can do is to monitor oil contamination level regularly by cleanliness
determination methods and take corrective steps including changing of filters. If situation
does not improve, tank oil should also be changed as hydraulic valves especially proportional
and servo valves are very dirt sensitive.
Sources of oil contamination

With the oil filled in the oil tank itself.

Due to wear and tear of internal parts of components such as pump, control valves,
cylinders.

Due to wear of oil seals, o-rings.

Due to wear of inside of pipelines.

Due to generated debris after welding of metallic pipes.

Through piston rods of hydraulic cylinders.

Through ambient atmosphere.

Due to poor upkeep of filters and reconditioning system.

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Due to use of cotton waste in revisioning or repairing of hydraulic components. Filters

should be provided in oil filling line, reconditioning line, pressure line after pump with
clogging indicator, pilot line and return line. Periodically pressure differences across
filters should be monitored otherwise in case of high pressure difference filters wall may
collapse and oil may pass without filtering or flow rate will reduce.

There are two methods of determination of oil cleanliness class:

1.

NAS 1638

2.

ISO 4406

To decide oil cleanliness class required for different applications, the table given under may be
used as guide lineSystem type/Range of application Needed Cleanliness Class
According to standards NAS 1638 ISO 4406 Heavy duty servo system, High pressure System
with
long service life 4-6 15/11
Proportional valve 7-8 16/13
Medium pressure system 7-9 18/14
Low pressure system 9-11 19/15
Oil Leakage Control
Oil is life blood of hydraulic system, hence leakages should be prevented. Major portion of
mineral oil to be used in our country is imported for which we have to pay heavy price.
Besides loss oil leakage may damage the soil and hence ground water and plant life.
Consequently it damages animal life and human life also. Leakage in fire hazardous zones
may result in fire which may damage property besides unnecessary production delay due to
burning and damage of especially electrical wires and equipments. It is therefore necessary to
control oil leakage to the extent possible. For this regular inspection followed by corrective
measures such as tightening of loose connections and pipe supports, changing of even partially
damaged oil-rings(o-rings), hoses and corroded steel pipes is necessary. Hydraulic hoses in fire
hazardous zones should be periodically changed even though these are not damaged.

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SIMPLE HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT (OPEN CIRCUIT) (See the Fig Below)

Here we have a hydraulic system in its most simple form. A pump
1 with fixed flow sucks fluid from a tank 2 and feeds it into the
system connected to it. In zero position of the manually operated
direction control valve the hydraulic fluid, circulates almost
without pressure from the pump to the tank 2. The dc valve is
spring centered. When the dc valve 4 is operated into its left
switching position, (parallel arrows) fluid reaches the piston
chamber of cylinder 5. The piston rod travels outwards. The speed
of the outward travel depends on the pump flow and the cylinder
size (piston area). The force available at the piston rod is
dependent on the piston area and the maximum system pressure.
The maximum system pressure and thus the loading of the
hydraulic system is set at the pressure relief valve 3. The actual
pressure available, determined by the resistance to be overcome
at the user, can be read at the pressure gauge 6.

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Block Diagram of Hydraulic System

User

Hydraulic Cylinders /
Hydraulic Motors
Pressure Control
Valves /

Distributors/
Controller

Direction Control
Valves
Pressure Relief Valve

Energy Source

Hydraulic Pump

Application Of Hydraulic Systems In Steel Plants

There are various applications of Hydraulics in Steel Plants. Some of the important
applications are:

Roll Balancing and Spindle Balancing, Hydraulic Manipulators, Slab Extractors,

Walking Beam Furnaces for Heating of Slabs and Blooms, Automatic Gauge Control for
controlling thickness of plates/sheets, Rail Welding Machine, Roll Assembly Machine
etc in Rolling Mills
Electrode Movement Control in Electric Arc Furnaces (VAD, Ladle Furnace)

Mobile Cranes and Earth Moving Equipment

Coke Oven Pusher Cars, Door Extractors and Charging Cars

Blast Furnace BLT Equipments, Mud gun, Drilling Machine

Stacker cum Reclaimers in Ore Handling Plants

L&T Mechanism, Segments closing/ opening, Pinching Actions in CCS

Hydraulic Presses and Various Machine Tools etc.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

Cavitation
In any liquid flows, a localized condition within a liquid stream which occurs when the
pressure is reduced to the vapour pressure of the liquid. Lots of vapour bubbles will form and
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these will be carried along with the flow and burst at some other point. This condition is
highly harmful to the pump and all hydraulic elements. Generally this is taken care of at
design stage that at any point of the hydraulics system the vapour pressure should not be so
low to cause cavitation. The pump gives very high sound when under cavitation and it should
be stopped immediately and eliminate the root cause. Reasons may be for example, many
bends were introduced/ lower size pipe was introduced in the suction line during the repairs.
Aeration
When air enters the suction line of the pump and passes through it, lot of sound will come,
which is similar to cavitation. This will also damage the pump and it should not be allowed to
run. If grease is applied on suction line joints, the sound of the running pump will be
suppressed immediately, confirming that particular joint is loose. That joint is to be tightened
and packing/seal to be changed if required. Excessive aeration will cause the fluid to appear
milky and the components will operate erratically. If the air bubbles generated in the tank or
air enters the pump due to low level of oil, the same problem will come.
Compressibility
The change in volume of unit volume of a fluid when it is subjected to a unit change in
pressure.
Decompression
The slow release of confined fluid under pressure to gradually reduce the pressure is called
decompression.
Hydraulic Hammering
In a hydraulic system, the sudden transition of Kinetic Energy into Potential Energy and vice
versa due to sudden opening/closing of valve, results in pressure surges and vibrations. This
may result in bursting of pipe lines etc.
Cracking Pressure
The lowest pressure at which pressure relief valve starts opening.
Pressure Override
The difference between the cracking pressure of a valve and the pressure reached when the
valve is passing the full flow.
Bypass

: A secondary passage for fluid flow.

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Maintenance Of Hydraulic Systems

Breakdown Maintenance (Catatrophic Failure)
Safely Shutting Down the Hydraulic System
Component Replacements by Identifying Model Code
Pipe Line Replacements & Clamping
Seal Changing

Maintenance
Practice
In
Hydraulics

Preventive Maintenance (Schedule Repair)

General Inspection
Oil Changing / Pouring
Pipe Clamping
Filter Replacement
Heat Exchanger Cleaning

Predictive Maintenance (Checking Physical Attributes)

Temperature Monitoring
Vibration checking in Pipelines
Oil Cleanliness Checking
Accumulator Gas Pressure Checking

Proactive Maintenance (Eliminating Root Cause)

Contamination Control

GENERAL MAINTENANCE TIPS

1.

Always follow the standard shut down procedure for starting any kind of repair work
in Hydraulic System.
2. Hydraulic System should be kept neat and clean so that no contamination enters the
system. The system should never be kept open unattended.
3. Some contamination is also generated within the system. Hence regular cleaning
/changing of filters or inspection of offline filtration systems to be done.
4. All flange joints/union joints, clamps foundation bolts etc should be regularly
tightened, so that pipes do not vibrate excessively.
5. Hoses should be replaced condition based or time based.
6. All cylinders, valves, pumps and hose connections should be sealed and/ or capped
until just prior to use.
7. Do not use Teflon tape or compound on pipe threads.
8. Never allow cooling water to enter the system and monitor the condition of heat
exchangers.
9. Timely replace all the seals/ packing so that oil leakages will be minimum. If not done
timely, fire accidents may take place or persons may fall down resulting in an
accident.
10. Pressure gauges should be in working condition.
11. Regular check the oil level in the tank and always maintain prescribed oil level in the
tanks.
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12. Ensure tank low level switch is interlocked with the pump motor and it is in working
condition.
13. Good maintenance procedures make it mandatory to keep the hydraulic fluid clean. A
daily/ weekly or monthly log should be kept on the hydraulic fluid condition.
14. Seals should be handled delicately while replacing/storing and kept in cool dry places.
15. Maintain the temperature of the system with in allowable limits
16. Always try to do unit replacement of valves, cylinders, pumps etc. Repair of these
items are to be done leisurely in workshop/ testing lab under good conditions.
17. Whenever valve/cylinder/pump is opened, try to change all the seals.
18. Always ensure that clogging indicators for filters are in place and in working
conditions for knowing the health of filters.
19. Oil topping should always be done by Porta - filters.
20. Accumulators gas pressure should be checked periodically and Pre charge pressure
must not be less than one quarter or preferably one third of the maximum working
pressure.
21. Most Important- Cleanliness. We can also use Electro Static Liquid Cleaners (ELC)
for critical applications.
DOs

Monitor oil contamination level regularly.

Oil tank temperature should be kept within specified limit to maintain desired viscosity
and prevent damage of oil seals.

Be careful while opening pumps or valves, cylinders containing compressed spring.

Keep fire extinguishers, sand, water nearby place of cutting-welding hydraulic pipes.

Before starting hydraulic pumps ensure opening of suction line valve.

Periodically clean water filters provided in inlet line of heat exchangers.

Keep away from repaired pipe line flanged joints at the time of testing.

Always Depressurize a pressure line in steam/water/hydraulic/gas system before

opening.

Use gas mask/ other safety appliances while working on coke oven gas pipe line/valves.

Always take electrical shutdown of electrically operated equipments before start of

maintenance job.

DONTs

Never take up maintenance work in running equipments.

Never open hydraulic pipe connections without depressurizing the pipeline or

component to be removed.

Never fill oxygen in place of Nitrogen in pressure vessels such as hydro gas
accumulators.
Page 134 of 250

Never touch pump coupling without proper electrical shut down.

Never use cotton waste in hydraulic component or pipe line repair job.

Never plug drain line of pump or valve.

Never allow welder to do welding job with wet hand or with wet hand gloves

Never apply sand paper to clean spool of hydraulic valves. Lapping paste can be used to
clean rusts in spools.

Never go alone in gas prone area/conveyor belt area./ tunnels .

Safety in Hydraulics
Whenever system trouble-shooting/maintenance is carried out, safety should be the foremost
consideration. So, it is better to have a systematic shutdown procedure like one given below:

Lower or mechanically secure suspended load.

Depressurize the pressure line.

Where ever necessary stop valves should be closed.

Isolate the electrical control system.

Drain out accumulator unit.

Discharge both ends of intensifier.

Page 135 of 250

GENERAL
ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE

Page 136 of 250

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, COMPONENTS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Electric Circuits
An electrical circuit is an inter-connection of electrical elements.
Current (Alternating and Direct)
In a conductor, a large number of electrons are mobile or free electrons, moving about
randomly due to thermal energy. When a conductor, e.g., a metal wire, is connected across the
two terminals of a voltage source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across
the conductor. The moment voltage is applied, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to
drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electron is
therefore the current carrier in a typical solid conductor.
The current I can be calculated with the following equation:
I = Q/t where, Q is the electric charge in coulombs (ampere seconds) and t is the time
in seconds. The unit of current is Ampere (A).
An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically but in case of direct current (DC) the direction of the current remains constant.
The AC system is widely used to supply electricicity in domestic and industrial application as
it is cheaper in comparison to DC system. DC system is used for crane, hoist etc. where high
starting torque is required and in control and protection system where reliability is of utmost
importance, either through AC-to-DC converters (like diodes, thyristors etc.) or as a back-up
source through batteries. High Voltage DC system is used for bulk transmission of power to
minimize transmission loss.
The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. For example, the voltage in an AC
circuit can be represented by the following equation:
V (t) = Vmax sin t
where, Vmax is the amplitude or
instantaneous value, and is the angular frequency.
The sinusoidal waveform repeats itself after T seconds,
where T is the time period of the sinusoid.
As can be seen from the above waveform,
T = 2 or T = 2 / .
The rate of repetition of the sinusoid function is called its frequency, f, where
f = 1 / T or, f = / 2 or, = 2 f
Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second. The AC power
supply frequency in India is 50 Hz. Therefore, the time period of the sinusoidal curve is
T=1/f or T= 1/50 or T= 20 miliseconds.

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Phase Angle
Both current and the voltage oscillate sinusoidally, with the same frequency, in an AC circuit,
but they are out of phase with each other.
The angle by which the sine curve of the voltage in a circuit leads or lags the sine curve of the
current in that circuit is called the phase angle . If is positive the voltage leads the
current.

Root mean square value(R.M.S):- The r.m.s value of an AC is given by that steady(D.C)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the Ac when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
E(R.M.S) = 0.707 E(max)
Voltage (or Potential Difference)
Voltage (or potential difference) is the difference of electrical potential between two points of
an electrical or electronic circuit. The unit of voltage is volt (V). Electrical potential difference
is the ability to move electrical charge through a resistance. Voltage is usually specified or
measured with respect to a stable and unchanging point in the circuit known as ground
(earth) or neutral.
Resistance
Resistance is defined as the property of a conductor to oppose or restrict the flow of
electricity (or electrons) through it. Metals, acid solutions and salt solutions are very good
conductors of electricity. Poor conductors of electricity like Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber,
paper, PVC and dry wood offer relatively greater resistance to the flow of electrons. Hence
they are used as insulators or insulating materials.

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Ohms Law states that the ratio of potential difference or voltage (V) between two points on a
conductor to the current (I) flowing through the points is a constant.
This constant is the resistance (R) of the conductor. Ohms law can be stated by the following
equation:
V / I = R or, V = I x R. The unit of resistance is ohm ().
The resistance of a conductor is defined by following equation :
R = ( l/A) where, is the specific resistance value, l is the length and A is the cross
section area of the conductor.
Limitations of Ohms Law:It does not apply under following conditions
Electrolyte where enormous gases are produced on either electrode.
Non-linear resistors like vacuum radio valves, semi-conductors, gas filled tubes etc.
Metals which get heated due to flow of current through.
Application like metal rectifiers, crystal detectors etc in which operation depends on the
direction of current.
Power and Energy in electric circuits
The power (P) consumed by a circuit element (say a resistor R) through which a current I is
flowing is
P = V x I The unit of electrical power is watt (W).
Electrical Energy consumed over a period of time t is expressed as,
E=V x I x t or E= P x t The unit of electrical energy is watt-hour (Wh). The common unit of
consumption of electricity (i.e. energy) is kWh. Energy is measured by energy meters which
take the supply voltage (V) and line current (I) as input. In high voltage systems, voltage or
potential transformer output and current transformer output are used in the energy meter to
get the energy consumed.
Real, Apparent and Reactive Power, and Power factor
The equations discussed so far for power are valid for DC circuits. In AC circuits, the effective
value of a periodic current or voltage is considered. The effective value of a periodic current is
the DC current that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic current. The
effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value, i.e.,
Irms = Imax / 2 and Vrms = Vmax / 2
Now let us consider, V (t) = Vmax cos (t + v) and I (t) = Imax cos (t + i), then the power in
terms of rms values can be expressed as
P = Vmax Imax cos (v i) or, P= Vrms Irms cos (v i) or, P= Vrms Irms cos where =(v
i) or the phase displacement between voltage and current.
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The power absorbed by a resistor R is

P = I2 rms R = V2 rms / R
The Power Triangle in the adjacent figure shows the
relationship between Real Power (P), Apparent Power (S)
And Reactive Power (Q). The equation P= Vrms Irms cos can
be also written as following
P= S cos , where P is the active power
S = Vrms Irms is the Apparent Power
Q = Vrms Irms sin is the Reactive power, represents the inductive / capacitive components in
the system.
The unit of active power is watt or W.
The unit of apparent power is VoltAmp or VA.
The unit of Reactive power is VoltAmp Reactive or VAR.
cos is the power factor (pf).
Power Factor (pf) = P / S = cos is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and
current.
For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, i.e., v i = 0, and hence
pf = 1. For a purely reactive load, v i = 90 and pf = 0. In between these two extremes,
power factor is leading or lagging. Leading power factor means that current is leading voltage,
which means a capacitive load. Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage,
indicating an inductive load. Most industrial and domestic loads are inductive and thus have
lagging power factors.
Capacitor and Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two conducting surfaces, separated by a layer of an insulating
medium (or dielectric). The conducting surface may in the form of either circular, rectangular,
spherical, or cylindrical shape. The capacitor stores electrical energy by electrostatic stress in
the dielectric. Please note that the term condenser is wrongly used for a capacitor, because it
does no condense energy.
After resistors, capacitors are the most widely used component in electrical circuit. They are
used in electronics and communication (e.g., tuning circuits of radio receivers), computers (as
dynamic memory), and power systems (for power factor correction).
A parallel plate capacitor is shown in the adjoining figure, connected to a
battery. The potential difference across the plates of the capacitor is
equal to the battery voltage, thereby charging the capacitor. However due
to the inherent nature of a capacitor, it opposes the deposition of charge
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on it. Gradually a positive charge + Q is deposited on the positive plate of the capacitor with a
negative charge Q on its negative plate. A capacitor in an electrical circuit opposes any
change in voltage magnitude in the circuit.
Capacitance
Capacitance (C) is the property of the capacitor to store electric charge. It is defined as the
amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference between the plates.
C=Q/V
i,e., capacitance is the charge required per unit potential difference.
The unit of capacitance is Farad (F). A farad is however too large for practical purposes.
Capacitance is usually expressed in smaller units like microfarad (F=10-6 F), nanofarad
(nF=10-9 F), or picofarad (pF=10-12 F). The capacitance, C, is an inherent characteristic of the
capacitor and does not depend on Q and V. It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor. For the parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is
C = A / d
where, is the permittivity of the dielectric; A is the cross-sectional area; and d is the distance
between the plates. Like resistance in an electric circuit capacitance offers capacitive
reactance (Xc) in ohm,
Xc = 1/ c or, Xc= 1/2 fc
Types of Capacitors
Capacitors can be classified
depending on the type of construction as fixed or variable; or
depending on the dielectric material as polyester, mica, polystyrene, or electrolytic.
Inductor and Inductance
While capacitors store energy in their electric field, inductors store energy in their magnetic
fields. Inductors are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radar, and electric
motors. Common applications for inductors are as coils or chokes. In power systems inductors
are used in relays, delay timers, sensing devices, etc. In telecommunications, they are used as
sensing heads, in telephone circuits, and loudspeakers. An inductor consists of a coil of
conducting wire. The voltage across an inductor is given by V = L di /dt where L is the
inductance.
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the current flowing
through it. Inductance is expressed in henrys (H).
The inductance depends on the physical dimension and
construction of the inductor. For a solenoid
L = N2A / l
where N = number of turns; l = length; A = crosssectional
area, and = permeability of the core.
Like resistance in an electric circuit inductance offers inductive reactance (XL) in ohm,
XL = L or, XL = 2 fL
Page 141 of 250

Types of Inductors : Inductors can be classified depending on the

type of construction as fixed or variable; or

core material as iron, steel, plastic, or air.

Kirchhoffs Law:1st Law:- The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
the junction.
2nd Law:- The sum of e.m.fs around any closed loop of a circuit equals the sum of the potential
drops in that loop.
Superposition theorem:- In any network containing more than one sources of e.m.f the
current in any branch is the algebraic sum of a number of individual fictitious currents, each
of which is due to the separate action of each source of e.m.f, taken in order, when the
remaining sources of e.m.f are replaced by conductors, the resistnces of which are equal to the
internal resistnces of the respective sources.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFORMER
Primary / Secondary Windings
A transformer converts alternating voltage and current in one winding into alternating
voltage and current (at different values) in another winding by electromagnetic induction
(Figure-1). Current will flow through load when the switch in the secondary circuit is closed.
The frequency remains unaltered during transformation.

(Figure - 1)

The essential components in a transformer are a magnetic core of laminated iron and two
windings, the primary and the secondary windings placed around it. The cores are laminated
to reduce Hysterisis loss and Eddy current loss. The winding that is connected to the source is
known as the primary winding and the one connected to the load is the secondary winding.
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The alternating flux produced by the primary winding links with the secondary winding and
induces the alternating voltage in the secondary winding depending on the ratio of number of
turns in the two windings.
Turns Ratio and Taps
The voltage, current and power in the secondary circuit are found by the following relationship
Input Voltage (V1) = Number of turns on Primary Winding (N1) = K Output Voltage (V2)
Number of turns on Secondary Winding (N2) where K = Turn Ratio , V1 and V2 are phase
voltages.
Or, V1 / V2 = N1 / N2 =K
Similarly,
Input Current (I1) X Number of turns on Primary Winding (N1)
= Output Current (I2) X Number of turns on Secondary Winding (N2)
Or, I1 x N1 = I2 x N2 or, I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = 1/K
Power Input = Power Output (ignoring the losses in the transformer)
Taps in Transformer Winding
Taps are brought out normally from high voltage windings to the tap changing switch. The tap
points are brought out from the middle of the windings to keep the magnetic balance and
usually correspond to 2.5% and 5.0%. Extra turns are inserted if the primary voltage is high
and few turns are shorted if the primary voltage is low. If the incoming voltage is abnormally
low for most of the time, it is advisable to go for -10% tapping. Tap changers are OFF-LOAD
type and ON-LOAD type. The former is operated after switching OFF the transformer and the
latter is changed without interruption of power supply.
Step-up, Step-down
Power Transformers are broadly classified as step up and step down transformers.
Accordingly they are used for raising or lowering the voltage. For example a generators
generating at 11 kV level supplies power to 33 kV load centre by the help of a step-up 11 / 33
kV transformer. On the other hand, a distribution transformer distributes power at 415V level
with the help of a step-down transformer of rating 11 kV / 415V.
There are other transformers used in steel plants namely three winding transformer (one
primary winding and two secondary windings having two different output voltages),
autotransformers where output is taken from tapping of the main winding, instrument
transformers (current transformer, voltage transformer), furnace transformers, etc.
Transformers are at the core of a power distribution network. They work at very high
efficiencies (95 to 99 per cent). A transformer is mostly used to step-up or step-down the
system voltage as required. They can be classified as follows:
a. Auto Transformers: In an autotransformer the secondary
voltage is derived from the tapped primary winding. It is used
for transfer of large amounts of power, where electrical
isolation is not required.
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b. Power Transformers: Used to step-down (EHV to HV) or step-up (HV to EHV) voltage for
bulk transfer of power at switchyards. They may have either one or two secondaries.
c. Distribution Transformers: Used to step-down HV to LV at sub-stations near loads.
d. Thyristor (Converter / Inverter) Transformers: Used for AC-to-DC (or vice versa)
conversion or in thyristorized control systems like VVVF drives.
e. Furnace Transformers: Used in arc furnaces where HV is stepped down to LV to
generate very high currents used for arcing, primarily for secondary steel-making. Voltage
variation is done by an On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC).
f. Instrument Transformers: CT or current transformer and PT or Potential transformer
fall in this category and are used for protection and metering.
g. Isolation Transformers: Their primary and secondary voltages are the same and they are
used to provide electrical isolation so that a downstream fault does not affect other
components of the system.
h. Impedance Matching Transformers: Used to match the load resistance to the source
resistance, for example to connect a loudspeaker to an audio power amplifier. The speakers
resistance is only a few ohms while the internal resistance of the amplifier is several thousand
ohms. For impedance matching, the required number of turns of the transformer is selected.
Insulating medium in transformers. Depending on
the insulating medium, transformers are also
classified as oil-filled, synthetic liquid-filled or dry
types. Power and furnace transformers are mineral
oil-filled, which acts as an insulating medium as well
as coolant. Oil-filled transformers require a lot of
maintenance there could be problems of oil leakage,
degradation of oil, or fire hazard. Degradation of oil in
these transformers requires oil-filtration or total oil
replacement, which may require a shutdown. There is
also the possibility of fire hazard. Hence these
transformers are located in large switchyards or inside
separate well-ventilated rooms. Distribution and
thyristor transformers have all three insulating
media. There are two types of dry type transformers
cast-resin and vacuum pressure impregnated. However absence of an external coolant /
insulating medium limits their capacity (up to 15 MVA). Synthetic liquid-filled transformers
have excellent insulating properties and do not degrade like mineral oil. However these
liquids (and their fumes) are harmful to human beings. Hence such liquids are banned
worldwide. However, we still have a large number of liquid-filled filled transformers installed
Page 144 of 250

during the late 1950s to mid- 1980s, which are gradually being phased out by dry-type
transformers.
Regulation of Transformer:Due to resistance of the windings and leakage reactances voltage drop takes place in a
transformer. Accordingly the voltage under load conditions is different from the output voltage
under no-load condition. Voltage regulation is defined as The change in secondary voltage
when rated load at a specified power is removed. It is specified as a percentage of the rated
secondary voltage.
% regulation(down) = V V X 100
V
% regulation(up) = V V X 100
V
V = Secondary terminal voltage at no load
V = Secondary terminal voltage on full load
The less this value, the better the transformer, because a good transformer should keep its
secondary terminal voltage as constant as possible under all conditions of load.
Transformer Losses:

Iron Losses ( or Core losses):- It includes hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.Since the
flux in a transformer core is alternating, power is required for continuous reversals of
the elementary magnets of which the iron is composed. This loss is known as hysteresis
loss.
The loss due to flow of eddy currents in the core. Thin laminations insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss to small proportion.

Copper losses :- These losses are due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer
windings.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR

Motor principle
An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its
action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-hand
Rule and whose magnitude is given by F=B I l Newton. Motors are classified into two groups
depending on the type of electrical energy used.
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1. DC Motor
2. AC Motor
DC Motor
The motors, practically used in industrial applications are multi pole D.C. Motor. When its
field magnets are excited and its armature conductors are supplied with current from the
supply mains, they experience a force tending to rotate the armature. Because all Dry Type
Transformer conductors experience a force which tends to rotate the armature, the forces
collectively produces a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. It has following parts:
Yoke:
The outer frame of the motor is called yoke that serves two purposes.
It provides mechanical support for the poles and act as a protecting cover for the whole
machine and
It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
Pole cores and Pole shoes (Field):
The field magnets consists pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes

They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
They support the exciting coils (or Field Coils).

The field coils or pole coils, which consists of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for correct
dimension. When current is passed through these coils, they magnetise the poles which
produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
Armature Core:
It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the
magnetic flux of field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a
path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a North Pole to a South
Pole.
It is cylindrical or drum-shaped and is built up usually circular sheet steel discs or
laminations. The laminated core is made up of high silicon steel to reduce Hysteresis loss and
laminated design reduces Eddy Current loss in the armature.
Commutator and Brushes:
The function of commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors.
The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon
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and are of the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush holders which
hold down brushes on to the commutator by a spring. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the
top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder. There are 3 basic types of
D.C. Motors. They are compared in the table given below:
D.C. MOTOR

SHUNT WOUND
1) Field and armature
windings are in parallel.
2)
Medium
starting
torque.
3)
Good
speed
regulation.
4) Can be used from low
to rated loads.

COMPOUND WOUND
1) One field winding is in
series and other in parallel
with armature.
2) Performance optimized
to suit applications.
3) Better than series wound.
4) Can be used from low to
rated loads.

SERIES WOUND
1) Field and armature
windings are in series.
2) Highest starting torque.
3) Poor speed regulation.
4) Over-speeding if used at
no load or light load

Normally in Industries where speed variation and control are desired, a separately excited
type of DC motor is used where instead of connecting armature and field in parallel ( as in
case of a shunt motor),they are separately excited, meaning field and armature winding are
provided with supply from separate sources.
Lets see the basic equations of D.C. motor. The figure below indicates typical configuration of
a separately excited DC motor.

VT is terminal voltage applied to the armature.

Ia the current flowing through the armature winding.
Ra is the resistance of armature winding.
Vf is voltage applied to the field winding.
If is current flowing through field winding.
If will produce magnetic flux=.
If hence Vf.
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When current Ia flows through armature winding, it will also produce its own magnetic field
that will interact with field flux. The resultant magnetic field will develop torque on the
armature.
Rotation of armature in the magnetic field will induce back E.M.F (Eb) in the armature due
to generator action.
Considering the dynamic condition we can write the following equations.
VT =Eb +IaRa
Eb N x
(Torque) T Ia where again If Vf
(Speed of motor) N (Eb / )
Ia (Mechanical load on the motor)
(Power) P = VT x Ia ..input power to armature
= Eb x Ia..useful power
= 2 NTmechanical power.
Summary of Applications:
Type of Motor
Shunt

Characteristics
Approximately constant
speed
Adjustable speed
Medium Starting Torque

Series

Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High Starting toque

Cumulative
compound

Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High Starting toque

Applications
For driving constant speed
line shafting.
Lathes
Centrifugal pumps
Blowers and Fans
Reciprocating Pumps
For traction work i.e.
electric Locomotives
Rapid Transit systems
Trolley cars, conveyors
For intermittent high
starting torque loads
Shear and Punches
Elevators, Conveyors

AC Motor:
AC Motor uses electrical energy in AC form to convert it into mechanical energy
As regards to the principle of operation AC Motors are classified into following groups.
Synchronous motors
Asynchronous motors ( Induction Motor )
Squirrel cage
Slip-ring
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Induction Motor:
In DC motor, the electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (i.e. rotating part)
through brushes and commutator. Hence in this case DC motor can be called as conduction
motor.
However in AC motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by
induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a transformer receives its power from
primary. That is why such motors are called as Induction motors. The poly phase induction
motor is extensively used for various industrial applications. It has following advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages:
It has very simple and extremely rugged construction (Especially squirrel cage Type).
Its cost is low and it is very reliable.
It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes are needed,
hence frictional loses are reduced. It has a reasonably good power factor.
It requires minimum maintenance.
It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be synchronized.
Its starting arrangement is simple especially for squirrel cage type motor.
Disadvantages:
Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
Just like a DC shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load.
Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a DC shunt motor.
Construction:
An induction motor consists of two main parts:
1. Stator
2. Rotor
Stator
The stator of an induction motor is, in principle same as that of a synchronous motor. It is
made up of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries a 3- phase
supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles being determined
by the requirements of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed and vice versa.
The stator winding, when supplied with three phase current, produces a magnetic flux which
is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed ( Ns = 120f / P ).
This revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f in the rotor by mutual induction.

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Rotor
Squirrel cage Rotor:
Motors using this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction motors. Almost 90 % of
induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest and most
rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of a cylindrical
laminated core with parallel slots for carrying conductors which are not wires but consists of
heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or
bolted to two heavy and stout short-circuiting end rings. Therefore it is not possible to add
external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting for starting purpose. The rotor
slots are not quite parallel to the shafts but are purposely given a slight skew. This helps in
two ways:
it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to
remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two.
Phase Wound or Wound rotor:
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double layer, distributed winding consisting of
coils. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is always wound
3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase. The three phases are starred internally.
The three winding terminals are brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings
mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further
externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This makes possible the
introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for
increasing the starting torque and for changing its torque / current characteristics. When
running under normal conditions, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited by means of
a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together. The brushes
are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce frictional losses and the wear and tear.
Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on
itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
Synchronous Motor
Synchronous Motors are three-phase AC motors which run at synchronous speed, without
slip. (In an induction motor the rotor must have some slip. The rotor speed must be less
than, or lag behind, that of the rotating stator flux in order for current to be induced into the
rotor. If an induction motor rotor were to achieve synchronous speed, no lines of force would
cut through the rotor, so no current would be induced in the rotor and no torque would be
developed.) Most synchronous motors are rated between 150kW and 15 MW and run at speeds
ranging from 150 to 1800 RPM. Some characteristic features of a synchronous motor are as
follows:

Page 150 of 250

It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all i.e. while running, it maintains a
constant speed. The only way to change its speed is to vary the supply frequency
(because Ns =120f/P).
It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run upto synchronous (or near
synchronous) speed by some means before it can be synchronized to supply.
Synchronous motors have the following characteristics:
o A three-phase stator similar to that of an induction motor. Medium voltage stators
are often used.
o A wound rotor (rotating field) which has the same number of poles as the stator, and
is supplied by an external source of direct current (DC). Both brush-type and brush
less exciters are used to supply the DC field current to the rotor. The rotor current
establishes a north/south magnetic pole relationship in the rotor poles enabling the
rotor to lock-instep with the rotating stator flux.
o Starts as an induction motor. The synchronous motor rotor also has a squirrel-cage
winding, known as an Amortisseur winding, which produces torque for motor
starting.
o Synchronous motors will run at synchronous speed in accordance with the formula:
120 x Frequency ( f )
or,
Synchronous RPM ( NS) = ----------------------------Number of Poles ( P )

NS = 120 f / P

Example: the speed of a 24 -Pole Synchronous Motor operating at 60 Hz would be: 120 x
60 / 24 = 7200 / 24 = 300 RPM
Synchronous Motor Operation
The squirrel-cage Amortisseur winding in the rotor produces Starting Torque and
Accelerating Torque to bring the synchronous motor up to speed.
When the motor speed reaches approximately 97% of nameplate RPM, the DC field
current is applied to the rotor producing Pull-in Torque and the rotor will pull-in -step
and 160 synchronize with the rotating flux field in the stator. The motor will run at
synchronous speed and produce Synchronous Torque.
After synchronization, the Pull-out Torque cannot be exceeded or the motor will pull
out-of-step. Occasionally, if the overload is momentary, the motor will slip-a-pole and
resynchronize. Pull-out protection must be provided otherwise the motor will run as an
induction motor drawing high current with the possibility of severe motor damage.
Advantages of Synchronous Motors
The initial cost of a synchronous motor is more than that of a conventional AC induction motor
due to the expense of the wound rotor and synchronizing circuitry. These initial costs are often
off-set by:
Precise speed regulation makes the synchronous motor an ideal choice for certain
industrial processes and as a prime mover for generators.
Synchronous motors have speed / torque characteristics which are ideally suited for
direct drive of large horsepower, low-rpm loads such as reciprocating compressors.
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Synchronous motors operate at an improved power factor, thereby improving overall

system power factor and eliminating or reducing utility power factor penalties. An
improved power factor also reduces the system voltage drop and the voltage drop at the
motor terminals.
POWER DISTRIBUTION

Captive Power Plants:

Availability of reliable power supply is paramount to all the critical processes of an integrated
steel plant. It is vital for the safety of plant equipment and personnel because power outage
can lead to unsafe situation like gas leakage in Coke Ovens, or damage to Blast Furnace
tuyers, or melting of oxygen lances used in the steel-making process. Furthermore, stoppage
in one production shop of an integrated steel plant can seriously affect the production of the
next shop in the chain. Hence all integrated steel plants have their own captive power
plants (CPPs), to cater to these critical loads, in addition to power supply from the state grid.
A cross-sectional view of a thermal power station is shown below.

Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

CPPs in NINL is gas-based thermal power plants. In thermal power stations, mechanical
power is produced by a steam turbine, which transforms thermal energy, from combustion of a
fuel (LDO or by-product gases), into rotational energy. Pulverized coal is fed to the boiler,
where its combustion takes place, thereby producing thermal energy that heats the water
inside the boiler tubes. High pressure, high temperature steam then passes through the
turbine. The dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam turns the blades of a turbine. A
generator that produces electricity is connected to this turbine. To utilize the exhaust steam
from the turbine, condensers are used to convert the exhaust steam into condensate (water),
which is pumped back to the boiler. The excess steam is used in steel plants for certain
processes, like running of steam exhausters in coke ovens. Blast Furnace and Coke Oven
gases are also used as fuel in NINLs CPPs. Power is normally generated at 11 kV. The
generator is connected through a transformer to the grid, stepping-up the voltage of the
generated power to grid voltage. It is then distributed to various production shops through
step-down transformers at 33KV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 5 kV and 440 V.
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Plant Load Factor

Plant Load Factor
(PLF) is an important
indicator
of
the
efficiency of a power
plant. PLF = Actual
Generation Installed
Capacity
If
the
average
power
generated by a 60 MW
generator is 57 MW
over
a
one-year
period,
then
its
annual PLF is 0.95 or
95%.
Synchronisation of
Generators
The generators in
the
CPPs
are
synchronized with
the
grid
supply
through
a
synchroscope
which
permits closing of tie
circuit breakers. The
pre-requisites
for
synchronizing these generators with the state grid supply are as follows:

The voltage difference should be in the range of 10 % of the rated voltage

The phase angle difference between the grid voltage and the generator voltage should
not be more than 20 degrees
The difference in frequency should be 0.11% for a system frequency of 50 Hz

Precautions during paralleling: A majority of the equipments in a steel plant have both state
grids as well CPP supply. It is important that any paralleling operation at sub-stations is done
only after ensuring that the CPP supply is synchronized with the grid supply. If paralleling is
done between two supply sources not in synchronism, there is a danger of flashover due to
circulating currents caused by the difference in voltages of the two power sources.
Islanding: During system disturbances, the islanding of CPPs from the grid on Over / Underfrequency takes place to isolate the generators from grid disturbances, so that the critical
loads in the steel plant get uninterrupted power supply. During islanding of CPP generators,
they are out of synchronism with the grid supply. Hence, utmost care has to be taken to
prevent any paralleling of the two supply sources at downstream sub-stations.
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POWER SYSTEM EQUIPMENTS

Circuit Breakers
Purpose: Circuit breakers are used for switching on and
isolation of power supply. But their more critical
application is protecting the power system during faults.
Protective relays initiate tripping command during a
fault to trip the circuit breaker, thereby isolating the
system. The failure of a circuit breaker to trip can lead to
catastrophe, resulting in irreparable damage to
equipments, and at times, the operating personnel. A
view of an EHV SF6 Circuit Breaker
Operation: Circuit Breakers typically have three poles. In each pole there is a fixed and a
moving part. The moving part joins the fixed part when a switching ON command is given.
During a fault, the moving part separates from the fixed part. However arcing takes place
between the fixed and moving contacts, which may re-strike if the separation of the contacts is
not at zero current in a sinusoidal waveform. The arc-quenching medium inside the poles
limits this re-striking current, thereby ensuring safe isolation.
Classification: Circuit Breakers are classified based on the arc-quenching medium, viz., Bulk
Oil CBs (BOCBs), Minimum Oil CBs (MOCBs), Air Blast CBs (ABCBs), Sulphur hexa-fluoride
CBs (SF6CBs), Vacuum CBs (VCBs), and Air CBs (ACBs). At EHV and HV system BOCB,
MOCB, ABCB and SF6CB are used. In BOCB & MOCB mineral oil is used as insulating as
well as arc-quenching medium. After repeated faults, this oil gets carbonized and hence has to
be replaced. The tips of the moving / fixed contacts also get eroded due to carbonization and
high fault currents. In ABCB an air blast at high pressure (approx. 30 atm) is used to quench
the arc during faults. ABCB requires auxiliaries like compressors for generating high pressure
air and air dryers for extracting moisture from the compressed air. MOCBs and ABCBs are
being replaced by SF6CBs at EHV switchyards due to their high maintenance costs and failure
rates. Failure of an MOCB to trip during high short-circuit currents has resulted in flashovers
due to fire in the oil. SF6 gas has excellent insulating properties. Breakdown products of the
gas SF4 and SF2 recombine immediately to form SF6. However when these breakers clear
fault at very high temperatures (800 C or more), poisonous by-products like copper fluoride
are released.
The techniques behind the arc quenching in CB.

High resistance interruption:- In this method, the resistance of the arc is increased by
lengthing and cooling it to such an extent that the system voltage is no longer able to
maintain the arc and arc gets extinguished. It is used in air CB and dc CB.
Zero point interruption:- In this process the arc gets extinguished at neutral current
zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented from restriking again by rapid
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build up of dielectric strength of the contact space. This is employed in almost all ac
CB.
Withdraw able HV VCB with panels
VCBs are the preferred choice at HV; absence of air and
moisture in the arc-quenching medium (vacuum) results in
zero contact erosion. They offer better service than SF6CBs,
which suffer from problems of SF6 gas leakage. The vacuum
bottles used in VCBs are factory-sealed and have an
operating life of up to 30,000 to 1,00,000 operations. Surge
Arrestors are used with VCBs to suppress switching
surges. Vacuum Contactors, a variant of VCBs are used for
motors that are frequently switched on and off. ACBs,
Moulded Case CBs (or MCCBs), Miniature CBs (MCBs), AC
/ DC contactors, DOL starters, etc. at LV are also part of the switchgear family. They are
installed individually at equipment locations, e.g., near a motor or in combination with other
switchgear components as shown in the figure below.
Current chopping & motor switching
It occurs during opening
small inductive currents by
VCB or air blast CB.
When
interrupting
low
inductive currents such as
magnetizing currents of
transformer, shunt reactor,
the rapid deionization of
contact space and blast
effect may cause the current
to be interrupted before its
natural
zero.
This
phenomenon
is
called
current chopping. The energy stored in inductance for value of current i, is diverted to the
capacitance at the moment of current interruption.
1/2Li = Cv2
v = Sqrt L/C
The transient voltage having high RRRV appears across the contacts, unless the arc restrikes.
If it restrikes a further, chop may occur or several chops may occur before the current is
finally interrupted CB may fail to clear the current.
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A CB in which the dielectric strength of contact space grows at a slower rate, the problem of
current chopping disturbance is less severe because the gap breaks down and absorbs the
magnetic energy in successive restrikes.(Ex- oil CB)
RC surge suppressor having R= 100 ohms and C = 100 micro farad are connected between
phase and ground to reduce the switching over voltage occurring due to current chopping. In
addition to this ZnO arrestors are connected between phase and ground/neutral of each phase.
Restrike phenomenon & capacitor switching
During opening operation, if the dielectric strength of the contact gap is less than the recovery
voltage, the arc reappears. If the arc reappears after 5msec the phenomenon is called restrike.
During capacitor switching, the current is small and arc is quenched at first current zero. But
the voltage across the contact gap is sum of voltage across capacitor and the supply
voltage.The voltage reaches maximum value after about 10msec after first current zero. By
this time the contact gap should have recovered and the dielectric strength should be above
the recovery voltage.If not then restrike occurs. The arc is re-established and the energy in the
capacitor is violently discharged through the break to the supply side causing over voltage.
VCB & SF6 CB generally gives restrike free performance and preferred for capacitor
switching.
LV distribution / control panel Earthing Concept and Importance
Earthing in an electrical system is not only an important safety measure for all electrical
equipment associated with it but also an important safety measure to save human life who are
on the job in an electrical premises. Earthing means connecting the electrical equipment to
the general mass of earth of low resistance. The objective is to provide under and around the
electrical premises a surface of uniform potential - at near zero or absolute earth potential.
All electrical installations, whether a switchyard or a sub-station have an earth grid / mat.
The earthing system consists of numbers of vertically driven earth electrodes ( about 40mm
dia. and 3 mtr long ) into the earth in layers of salt & charcoal and connecting them to earth
grid formed by GI/MS flat or MS rod laid horizontally at a depth of 500 mm beneath the top
earth surface. Any electrical equipment shall be connected to the earth grid at two points
positively. In EHV system the earth grid resistance shall be not more than 0.5 ohm and in
other HV or LV system the earth resistance shall be not more than 1.0 ohm. An effective
earthing system aims at providing protection to human life and equipment against dangerous
potentials under fault conditions. It should pass maximum earth fault current to earth
thereby operating the earth fault relays located in the control panels for isolation of faulty
feeders. The earth mat also minimizes electro-magnetic interference between power and
control / communication systems.
Methods of earthing neutral point of Generator

Solid earthing
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Resistance earthing.
Reactance earthing.
Peterson coil
Voltage transformer earthing.
CABLES AND RELAYS

Cables
Though overhead lines are used for transfer of power at EHV and HV, bulk of the power in
steel plants is transferred through cables, either laid through cable tunnels or buried
underground. The cost of underground cables is invariably higher than that of overhead lines
with equivalent capacity. However the obvious advantages of an underground system are
safety, aesthetic value of localities, and stability of supply. All cables have stranded
conductors (copper or aluminum) at the core, around which are wrapped layers of insulation.
Conductor screens (shields) are employed to prevent excessive electrical stress in voids
between the conductor and the insulation. A semiconducting screen (or semi-conducting tapes)
on the conductor provide effective adhereness and remain in intimate contact with the
conductor and the insulation thereby practically eliminating all voids.
The desirable characteristics in any insulating material are

High dielectric strength

High insulation resistance
Low thermal resistivity
Low relative permittivity and low tan
Immunity to chemical attacks over a fairly wide range of temperature
Preferably non - hygroscopic

Classification of Cables. Depending on the type of insulation used, the cables are classified
as follows:

Oil-impregnated Paper Insulated Lead Covered (PILC) used at HV / LV

Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) used at HV / LV
Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) used from LV to EHV due to superior thermal and
insulating properties
Rubber insulated cables

PILC cables are widely used for LV and MV

applications. Insulation between the conductors and
overall insulation over the cable is provided by liquidimpegranated electrical grade paper. A lead sheath over
the paper insulation provides mechanical protection for
the insulation, encapsulating the impegranated fluid,
and prevents environmental degradation. The lead
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sheath also provides a ground path under fault conditions. PILC cables can be easily laid
through tunnels, buried underground and laid aerially. PILC cables are used in circuits with
stringent service requirements, viz., highest reliability, longest uninterrupted service life, and
greatest surge, impulse and AC dielectric strength.
They have high operating temperatures (90 C) under normal conditions.
PVC is the most widely used polymer as cable insulation. It is used at LV (power and control),
MV (up to 6.6 kV) and some specialist applications like telecommunications.
PVC cables have a number of advantages, such as:

Good electrical and insulation properties over a wide temperature range up to 80C
Can withstand thermal and thermo-mechanical stresses at continuous normal and
short circuit temperature condition
Inherent fire safety provided by a tough and resilient sheath of galvanized iron, which
is used for earthing purposes also.
Provide complete protection against electrolytic and chemical corrosion hence very
useful in polluted steel plant environment
A non-hygroscopic insulation almost unaffected by moisture
Excellent durability and long-life expectancy
Easy processing characteristics to achieve desired specification for end-products easy
to handle / strip
Not affected by vibration
Cost-effective

XLPE cables consist of the following components:

Copper or Aluminium stranded compacted conductor
Longitudinal water sealing of conductor
Triple extruded and dry cured XLPE insulation system
Metallic screen
Non-metallic flame retardant outer sheath of polyethylene or PVC
which is flame retardant
Armour of galvanized iron
XLPE cables are widely used for HV and EHV applications. They can be laid through tunnels,
trenches, underground, and undersea. These cables can be loaded continuously to a conductor
temperature of 90 C. An XLPE cable may be overloaded above 90C and the conductor
temperature may reach up to 105C for a short duration. For XLPE insulated conductors the
maximum allowable short circuit temperature is 250 C.
Precautions with cables. PILC cables absorb moisture if left exposed or if their outer
sheath is damaged. PVC cables are not stable at temperatures above 80 C. XLPE cables
suffer from development of water trees over a period of time. Metallic sheaths or polythene
coated metal tape (Poly Al, Poly Cu) are used to protect water ingress (for HV / EHV
cables), protect the core from possible mechanical damage, and create an earth shield.
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Armouring is done in all types of cables through steel tape or galvanized wire / strip or
aluminium wire / strip to prevent mechanical damage / stress. While laying or handling
cables, the minimum bending radius prescribed should be strictly followed to reduce
mechanical stress.
Marking on cables: Colour codes / tapes are used for identification of the three cores.
Standard marking is through colours (like Red, Yellow and Blue or RYB; Yellow, Green and
Red or YGR), or numbers (1, 2, 3). The marking or coding is vital when connecting/ jointing
two cables together, or when a new cable is being connected to an existing system, so that the
phasing is matched.
At the ends of a panel or equipment (motor or transformer), the end-terminations are to be
made with special care. For long lengths of cables, the pieces have to be joined by means of
straight-through joints, as the cables are normally available in lengths of 250 m or 500 m in
cable drums. The diagrams below show a typical end-termination (when viewed from the backside of an MV panel and a straight-through joint in the tunnel.

Grading of Cables:The process of achieving uniformity in dielectric stress is known as grading of cables.
Two methods of grading are:
Capacitance grading: In this method, the uniformity in dielectric stress is achieved
by using various layers of different dielectrics in such a manner that the permittivity of
any layer is inversely proportional to its radius or distance from centre.
Intersheath grading: A homogenous dielectric is used which is divided into various
layers, by suitably placing the metallic intersheaths.

Relays
Over Current and Earth Fault Relay:
These relays operate when the magnitude of the current in its circuit, supplied directly or
from current transformers, exceeds a preset value. The relays have a number of current
settings to make them suitable for wide range of application. Mostly two over current
elements for phase faults and one earth fault element for earth fault are provided for solidlyearthed system. Three numbers of phase fault relays are desirable on system earthed through
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high impedance or unearthed. They are also necessary on delta side of delta-star transformers
as the current in one phase may be twice that in the other two phases for a phase-to phase
fault on star side. Earth fault protection may be provided by using core balance current
transformers. Core balance protection consists of a ring-core current transformer which is
designed to pass over 3 core cables. The output from this current transformer is utilized to
enerzise a current operated relay. The arrangement provides very sensitive earth fault
protection.
Fault currents change in magnitude and phase while being transformed in delta star
transformers. An earth fault on star side produces a circulating zero sequence current in the
delta winding but no zero sequence current in the lines of the delta side of the transformer. An
earth fault relay on delta side will not, therefore, respond to an earth fault on the star side of
the transformers. For the purpose of gradation earth fault relays of the delta and star sides
thus become independent.
Over current and earth fault relays may have any one of the time- current characteristics:

Time-Delay
Instantaneous
Combination of both.

Time Delay characteristics may be IDMT (Inverse definite minimum time) or definite time
type. In IDMT relays, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to the value
of current. However after a certain value of current, say 20 times, the curve remains constant
at a minimum time for operation of the relay. For definite time relays, the time remains
constant even if the current increases considerably above the set value of the current.
Instantaneous relay operates instantaneously when current increases above the set value.
Differential Relay
The principle of operation of differential relays is based on Merz-Price System. Fundamentally
the system of connection and operation is as follows. The current transformers are placed on
two ends of the protected zone(eg. winding of transformer / motor) and are connected in
opposition. So long as the current at two ends of the winding is equal, equal and opposite emfs
are induced in the two current transformers of that winding and there will be no current
through the relay. Whenever a fault develops in the winding, the current at the two ends of
that winding will not be equal and the relay will operate due to flow of differential current.
Motor Protection Relay
These relays protect the motor from five basic faults. The basic faults are:

Over-current (Short Circuit)

Earth Fault in any winding
Overload
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Unbalanced supply (Negative sequence)

Rotor fails to rotate on application of voltage (Stalling Protection)

Under-voltage / Over-voltage Relay

Under-voltage / Over-voltage relay operates at a pre-determined value of voltage. The relay is
normally connected from potential transformer secondary which feeds the replica of the
primary voltage in the power circuit. Typical values of over-voltage and under-voltage are
110% and 88% respectively.
Under-frequency / Over-frequency Relay
Under-frequency / Over-frequency relays operate at a pre-determined value of frequency. The
relay is normally connected from potential transformer secondary and also sometimes from
230V single phase AC mains. These relays are used to protect generators and motors.
df/dt Relay
This relay operates when the rate of fall (or rise) of frequency is higher than pre-determined
rate of fall (or rise) of frequency. For example, if a relay is set at 0.1 Hz/sec and the actual rate
of fall (or rise) of frequency is 0.2Hz/sec, then it operates. These relays isolate generators when
the grid is sinking. df/dt relays with rise of frequency feature are used to protect generators
from over-speeding.
Pilot Wire Relays
These are differential relays used for transmission line/cable protection. There are two sets of
relays, one at sending end and the other at the receiving end connected through current
transformers at either end. The relays at either end is connected through a pilot wire loop
through which relay operating current flows and operates relays at both the ends. During
healthy condition current flowing through both the current transformers at either end will be
same and the current in the pilot loop will be zero. In the event of a fault in the zone between
the two current transformers, the magnitude of current will be different in the two current
transformers, and differential current will flow through the pilot loop and operate relays at
both the ends.
Numerical Relays:
These are modern Microprocessor based Programmable Electronic Relays which provide a
comprehensive protection for the Motors, Feeders etc. They have a distinct advantage of
merging different types of protective relays in one single unit thereby reducing the size and
increasing the reliability. They also provide some advance features of recording of parameters
during fault which is very useful for analysis and troubleshooting. They are also
communicable type that is the data generated in the relay can be communicated to another
relay in the system, to a PC or to a SCADA system for further use and analysis. Nowadays
metering is also done from these numerical relays.
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SCADA
Full form of SCADA is Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. The main functions of
SCADA are:

Collecting the analogue data like current, voltage, frequency, pf, MW, MVA, MVAR, etc
and digital status like CB ON/OFF, Fault Trip relay operation etc. and transferring
these data from Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) to Master Control Station for entire
network (analogue values and digital status) for further monitoring, control and
analysis. These data are called AI and DI data.
Switching ON/OFF different circuit breakers at unmanned substations at a remote
location, if required by generating digital output i.e. DO commands.
Facilitating load balancing and ensuring system stability when the CPP is islanded
from the grid with its full generation. The same is accomplished through a definitive
program running in the servers at the master control station.

ELECTRICAL INSULATION
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials offer high resistance to flow of current and are used in all electrical
equipments. It is the insulation part in any cable or machine that is most liable to fail. Apart
from electrical and mechanical stresses, heat plays the most important role in determining the
life and performance of the insulating materials, and as such the operating temperature of any
operating cable or machine must not be allowed to exceed the permissible temperature rise
limit. Moisture and dust also degrade the insulating materials. The insulating materials have
been classified according to their ability to withstand heat. The recognized classes of
insulating materials along with their assigned temperature as per IS 1271-1958 as below:
Class of
Insulation
Class Y or O
Class A
Class E
Class B
Class F
Class H
Class C

Material
Cotton Paper, Pressboard, Wood, Fibre
PVC, Vulcanised rubber
Epoxy Resins, Paper laminates
Fibreglass, Asbestos
Varnished Fibre Glass and Asbestos
Silicon Elastomer
Mica, Porcelain

Temperature
90C
105C
120C
130C
155C
180C
Above 180C

Concept of Insulation Resistance (IR)

Insulation Resistance (I.R.) is the resistance of the insulation provided between live conductor
and body of the machine/cable armour/earth point. The value of insulation resistance is
measured by insulation testers and the unit of measurement is k/M/G and so on.
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IR Testers (Types, Applications)

For I.R. measurement a DC voltage is applied through an I.R. tester across an insulating
material. The line terminal of the I.R tester is connected to the conductor terminal and the
earth terminal is connected to the body/armour/earth and the test voltage is applied. When
this voltage is applied, a leakage current flows through the insulating material. This leakage
current is calibrated in terms of insulation resistance expressed in k or M or G. The I.R.
value is actually the corrected ratio of the applied voltage to the leakage current flowing
through the insulating material.
I.R. value is a good indication of the healthiness of the insulating material. For an ideal
insulating material, the leakage current is zero; hence the I.R. value is infinite. Any
deterioration in the insulating material due to heat, dust or moisture is indicated by the
reduced I.R. value.
I.R. testers are of various types such as hand-driven, motor-driven or solid state type. The
output test voltages vary from 100V to 5 kV depending on the type of application. Following
are the preferable test voltages depending on the type of application:
I.R Testers Test
voltage
100V
500V
1000V
2.5kV
5.0 kV

Application
Telephone Cables
LT Power Cables and Control Cables, LT Motor, Transformer LT
side(415V)
LT Power Cable, LT Motor, Transformer LT side(415V)
HT Power Cable, HT Motor, Transformer HT side(3.3 or 6.6 or 11 kV)
HT Power Cable, HT Motor, Transformer HT side (33KV,11KV), EHT
switchyard equipments (132 or 220 kV)

Cable Fault location Techniques:

Whenever there is a cable fault, the nature of the fault is ascertained by a suitable I.R. tester.
The basic cable faults are phase to armour short circuit (earth fault), phase to phase short
circuit (short circuit), and conductor sheared (open circuit fault). Pre-location of cable fault is
done by instruments like Murray Loop Testers, Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) to
determine the tentative distance of the fault from both ends of the cable.
Pin-pointing of the fault is done by using Impulse Generator. In an Impulse Generator, a
charged capacitor at selected voltage is allowed to discharge at every 6 seconds time interval
at the fault point and the amplified discharge sound is heard through ear phones through
special probes placed on the ground. The rating of the impulse generators is normally 0-8 kV
and 0-25 kV for LT and HT cables respectively.

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TESTING OF MOTORS
I.R. Measurement
Insulation resistance between winding and motor body is measured by a suitable I.R. tester.
Value of I.R. at 1 minute and value of I.R at 10 minutes are taken and the polarization index
is noted. A value more than 3.0 indicates a healthy motor.
Winding resistance
Winding resistance of a motor (per phase value) is taken in case of any problem in the motor.
These values should be equally balanced and tally with the manufacturers test report.
High Voltage Test
High Voltage test is done after rewinding the motor or if the motor is not in use for a long
time. I.R. test before and after the High Voltage test must be done to check any deterioration
in the value of insulation resistance after the HV test. A value of high voltage 1.5 times rated
voltage is preferred for a running motor.

ELECTRONICS
Electronic Devices
Introduction
Electronic devices are the backbone of the electronic industry.
Almost everything from children toys to life saving equipment depends upon these
components.
Billions of components are available in the market.
In a large process industry like ours, a wide variety of components are used in various
electronic systems.
Types

Passive components: Fixed and Variable Resistances, Fixed and Variable Capacitors,
Inductors etc.
Active Components:

1. Vacuum Tube Devices: Diodes, Triodes, Pentodes etc.

2. Solid State Devices:
Discrete Devices: Diodes, Transistors, Thyristors, Field Effect Transistors, UJTs, etc.
Integrated Circuits: Linear ICs, Digital ICs, etc.

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Resistances
1. Definition: Resistor is the electronic device that resists the flow of current.
2. Unit of Measurement: Ohms ()
3. Specifications: The resistors are specified in terms of:
Value: Specified in Ohms
Tolerance: Allowable deviation from the specified value expressed in percentage
(1%/5%/10%/20%).
Power: Resistors are designed to handle a particular amount of power. Same value
resistors are available in different power ratings like quarter watt, Half watt, 1 watt
etc.
Type: Depending on the material used for fabrication, the resistors may be Carbon,
Metal Film, Wire wound type etc.
4. Symbol: or

5. Value Identification:
Values and Tolerance identified by Colour Coded Bands or printed on the body e.g. R33M =
0.33 20% and 4k7F=4700 1% Tolerance.
6. Applications:
Current Limiting Resistor
Loading Resistor
Timing Element
Bleeder etc

Capacitors
1. Definition: Capacitor is the electronic device that stores electrical charge and resists any
change in voltage at its terminals.
2. Unit of Measurement: Farads (F) but generally available in microfarads (F)
3. Specification: The capacitors are specified in terms of:
Capacity or Value: Expressed in Farads.
Polarity: Polar (DC Capacitors) or Non-Polar (AC-AC Capacitors)
Voltage: Max voltage which the capacitor can sustain without being damaged.
Tolerance: Allowable deviation from the specified value expressed in percentage.
Packaging: Axial Lead package, radial Lead package, Solder Type Terminals,
Screwable terminals etc.
Type: Depending on the dielectric used to fabricate the capacitor, they can be
Electrolytic, Ceramic Disc, Paper, Mica, Metal Polyester etc
4. Symbol:

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5. Applications:
Capacitor is a very versatile component with widespread applications for example:
Spark suppression on thermostats, relays etc.;
Reservoir and Smoothing filters in power supplies;
Decoupling and Coupling in amplifiers;
Tuning elements for multi-vibrators, delay circuits etc;
Filters and waveform shaping and oscillators.

Inductors
1. Definition: An inductor is simply a coil of wire. An inductor can store energy in its
magnetic field, and tends to resist any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
2. Unit of Measurement: Henry (H).
3. Symbol:
4. Applications:

Analog circuits and Signal Processing.

Filters when used with capacitors and other components. (Chokes, RF Suppressors etc.).
Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a Transformer.
As the energy storage device in some switch-mode power supplies. Unipolar (AC/DC)
Polar (DC)
Electrical transmission systems, where they are used to intentionally depress system
voltages or limit fault current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as
reactors.

5. Materials: Almost invariably copper as coil material but core can be of different materials.
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Miscellaneous Components
In addition to the above, several other components are used in electronic circuits like Relays,
Switches, and Crystals etc.
Switches:
Definition: A switch is a device used to connect and disconnect a circuit at will. Switches cover
a wide range of types, from sub miniature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power
on high voltage distribution lines.
Symbol: or
Types: Switches are classified on several bases. On the basis of number
of contacts in the switch, they can be Single or Double Pole and so on. If
a Switch has two positions in which it can be operated (say ON and
OFF), it is called Single Throw Switch. If it has three positions it is
called Double Throw.
Relays:
Definition: A relay is an electrical switch that opens and
closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In
the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to
open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by
Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an
output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be
considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical
amplifier.
Principle: When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its
relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application,
this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
Crystals:
Definition: A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical
signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of
time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits,
and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters/receivers.
Principle: When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in
an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is
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known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field
as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz
crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and
resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
History of Development of Semiconductors

Point Contact Transistor developed in 1948.

BJT came into existence in1950.
Planer Process introduced in 1959.
First Integrated Circuit fabricated soon after in early 1960s; housing less than 100
components (SSI).
MOS Transistor developed in 1962.
100 to 10,000 components incorporated on a single chip in 1966 (MSI).
Large Scale Integration (LSI) technique in 1969.
More than 10,000 components on single chip by 1975 (VLSI).
VLSI chips had more than 100000 components even by 1984!

Testing
The thyristor can be tested at site using a Battery Tester. The positive terminal of the battery
tester should be connected to the Anode of the Thyristor and the negative terminal at the
Cathode of the thyristor. The battery lamp shall not glow until the Gate of the thyristor is also
connected to the positive of the Battery Tester. Once the lamp starts glowing, it should
continue to glow even if the Gate is made open circuited because the thyristor has latched. It
shall stop glowing only when the Anode or Cathode wire is also removed. It should be kept in
mind that sometimes thyristor does not latch because the battery is not able to supply the
latching current. In this case, at least three batteries should be used in series and the
batteries should be changed if they are old. In laboratory the same test can be conducted using
two power supplies (one for Anode Cathode circuit and other for Gate Cathode circuit) and
suitable load resistance.
TESTING, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND TOOLS.
Use and handling of: Digital multi-meters:
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multimeter
may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are
two categories of multimeters, analog multimeters and digital multimeters (often
abbreviated DMM.)
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or
a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices.
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Quantities measured:
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
Voltage in volts (Ranging from milli Volts upto 750V AC and DC).
Current in amperes (Ranging from milli Amps upto 20A AC and DC).
Resistance in ohms (Ranging from 1 Ohm upto 20M Ohm). Additionally, they also
include circuits for:
Continuity that beeps when a circuit conducts; useful for checking continuity ofwires.
Testing of Diodes Some Multimeters may also measure:
Capacitance in farads.
Frequency in hertz
Duty cycle as a percentage.
Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Conductance in siemens.
Inductance in henrys
Audio signal levels in decibels.
Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as:
Light level
Acidity/Alkalinity(pH)
Wind speed
Relative humidity
DMM are specified by their resolution often specified in no of digits displayed on the readout
of the multimeter (3 digit or 4 digits etc). The half digit can display either a zero or one
and is the leftmost digit of the display. Thus a 3 digit multimeter can display signal levels
from 0 to 1999.
Megger:- Megger is an instrument which measures the insulation resistance of electrical
circuits relative to earth and one another.
It consists of an emf source and a voltmeter. The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated in ohms.
In measurements the emf of the self contained source must be equal to that of the source used
in calibration. The readings are independent of the speed of the self contained generator. The
moving system incorporates two coils, current coil and pressure coil mounted on the same
shaft and placed in the field of a permanent magnet 90deg apart. The generator energizes the
two coils over separate wires. Connected in series with one coil is a fixed resistance. A
unknown resistance is connected in series with other coils. The currents in the coils interact
with the magnetic field and produce opposing torques. The deflection of the moving system
depends on the ratio of the currents in the coils and is independent of the applied voltage. The
unknown resistance is read directly from the scale of the instrument.

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CROs):

An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO, for
cathode-ray oscilloscope, or commonly just scope or
O-scope) is a type of electronic test equipment that
allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a twodimensional graph of one or more electrical signals
(on the vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or
of some other voltage (on the horizontal axis). A
typical CRO has a small screen on its front panel on
which the graphs are displayed when the inputs are
connected. The front panel of the CRO also has numerous buttons, switches and connectors for
setting and connection of inputs. The CRO uses a Cathode Ray Tube for display of graphs
which is similar to the picture tube of Television sets. The CROs can have two or more
channels for simultaneous display of more than one signal.
A CRO is a very useful tool in troubleshooting electrical and Electronic circuits as it gives a
graphical display of the signal which is not possible with a Voltmeter. Also, sometimes it is
important to know the precise shape of signals for analysis and design and in such
applications; CRO is a very versatile tool. Originally, CROs were analog equipment but now
digital CROs have become commonly available and are much more advanced than their analog
predecessors. They can store waveforms and can be connected to computer for download and
analysis of waveshapes.
Transducer:
A tranducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to another.
A transducer performs the following functions in an electronic instrumentation system:
Detects or senses the presence, magnitude and changes in physical quantity being
measured.
Provides a proportional electrical output signal.
DRIVES AND CONTROL
Speed Control of DC Motors
Introduction to DC Drives:
DC Drives are used to control dc motor. DC drives have two main components: a converter
and a regulator. A converter is an electrical circuit that converts AC power to DC power. DC
drive converters typically use a device called a Silicon Controlled rectifier (SCR) i.e.
thyristor for this conversion process. SCRs transform AC current into a controlled form of DC
current. A regulator is the control portion of the drive. The regulator is the "smarts" or
processing logic that determines what voltage and current is supplied to the motor. The
voltage/current output from the drive can manipulate the speed or the torque of the motor
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(thus, the tension of a process load can also be controlled). The changes to the power supplied
to the motor depend on the logic in the regulator and the type of feedback from the motor.
Feedback devices, such as tachos or encoders, are sensors on the motor. A tachometer (tacho)
is a device that monitors the actual speed of the motor. A tacho can send a signal back to the
drive telling it how fast the motor is actually running. The drive regulator can compare that
signal to drive reference, and determine if more or less voltage is needed at the motor to get
the actual speed of the motor equal to the programmed speed. Because DC drives manipulate
the voltage supplied to the motor, they are deemed variable voltage control. A drive using
feedback sensors is said to have closed loop control.
In general, DC drives can control motor speed in two ways.
a. by controlling the voltage supplied to the armature to obtain speeds
below the base speed of the motor, or
b. by reducing the current supplied to the field to obtain speeds above
the motor's base speed.
What is a Thyristor or SCR?
The name thyristor defines a family of four-layer semiconductor device, consisting of
alternating P type and N type materials (PNPN).The most popular member of the thyristor
family is the Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) which is a three terminal device capable of
unidirectional conduction. The term Thyristor is often used in literature as a synonym
of the SCR.
A thyristor usually has three electrodes: an anode, a cathode, and a gate (control electrode).
When the anode is positive w.r.t. cathode (forward biased) and a pulse is applied to the gate,
the SCR begins to conduct, and continues to conduct until the voltage between the cathode
and anode is reversed or reduced below a certain threshold value. Sing this type of thyristor,
large amounts of power can be switched or controlled using a small triggering current or
voltage.

Basic Principles of Thyristorised Control

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A typical adjustable speed drive using a silicon controller rectifier (SCR)

power conversion' section, is shown in Figure 2. The SCR, (also termed a
thyristor) converts the fixed voltage alternating current (AC) of the
power source to an adjustable voltage, controlled direct current (DC)
output which is applied to the armature of a DC motor. SCR's provide a
controllable power output by "phase angle control", so called because the
firing angle (a point in time where the SCR is triggered into conduction)
is synchronized with the phase rotation of the AC power source. If the
device is triggered early in half cycle, maximum power is delivered to
the motor; late triggering in the half cycle provides minimum power, as
illustrated by Figure 3.
DC Drive Types
Non-regenerative DC Drives Non-regenerative DC drives are the most conventional type
in common usage. In their most basic form they are able to control motor speed and torque in
one direction only as shown by Quadrant I in Figure 4. The addition of an electromechanical
(magnetic) armature reversing contactor or manual switch permits reversing the controller
output polarity and therefore the direction of rotation of the motor armature as illustrated in
Quadrant III. In both cases torque and rotational direction are the same.
Regenerative DC Drives - Regenerative adjustable
speed drives, also known as fourquadrant drives, are
capable of controlling not only the speed and
direction of motor rotation, but also the direction of
motor torque. This is illustrated by Figure 4. The
term regenerative describes the ability of the drive
under braking conditions to convert the mechanical
energy of the motor and connected load into electrical
energy which is returned (or regenerated) to the AC power source. When the drive is operating
in Quadrants I and III, both motor rotation and torque are in the same direction and it
functions as a conventional non-regenerative unit. The unique characteristics of a
regenerative drive are apparent only in Quadrants II and IV. In these quadrants, the motor
torque opposes the direction of motor rotation which provides a controlled braking or retarding
force. A high performance regenerative drive, is able to switch rapidly from motoring to
braking modes while simultaneously controlling the direction of motor rotation.
Speed / Torque Control
SPEED CONTROL OF A DC MOTOR : Speed of a Separately excited DC Motor canbe
controlled by
Controlling Armature Voltage
Controlling Field excitation

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Generally the speed of a dc motor can be controlled up to base speed by Armature Voltage
control and above base speed it can be controlled by the field i.e. the field current.
Torque Control of DC Motor
In applications like Coiler, Uncoiler, Tension Reel, it requires direct control over the motor
torque rather than the speed, this can be accomplished by controlling the Armature Current
(amperes), which is proportional to the torque.
Open /Closed Loop Control
In general open loop control means that you send electrical signals to an actuator to perform a
certain action, like connecting a motor to a battery for example. In this scheme of control,
there is no any mean for your controller to make sure the task was performed correctly and it
often need human intervention to obtain accurate results. A very simple example of open loop
control, is the remote controller of a toy car; you - the human have to constantly check the
position and the velocity of the car to adapt to the situation and move the car to the desired
place.
But what if you could let the electronics handle a part, if not all of the tasks performed by a
human in an open loop controller, while obtaining more accurate results with extremely short
response time? This is what is called closed loop control. In order to be able to build a closed
loop controller, you need some mean of gaining information about the rotation of the shaft like
the number of revolutions executed per second, or even the precise angle of the shaft. This
source of information about the shaft of the motor is called "feed-back" because it sends back
information from the controlled actuator to the controller.

Above figure shows clearly the difference between the two control schemes. Both types have a
controller that gives orders to a driver, which is a power circuit that drives the motor in the
required direction. It is clear that the closed loop system is more complicated because it needs
a shaft encoder or tacho which is a device that will translate the rotation of the shaft into
electrical signals that can be communicated to the controller. In other words, a closed loop
controller will regulate the power delivered to the motor to reach the required velocity. If the
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motor is to turn faster than the required velocity, the controller will deliver less power to the
motor.
Thus Open loop control system can be called Manual Control and Closed loop control system
can be called Automatic Control. In a closed loop system the actual and desired or reference
states are continually compared and if the actual state is different from the reference state, an
error signal is generated which the controller uses to force a change in the controllable
parameters to drive the system towards the desired operating point.
Single Line Diagram of Thyristor Converter
As we know motor speed can be controlled by controlling armature voltage and field excitation
(current).This diagram shows motor speed control by controlling armature voltage of the
motor. A converter is a circuit that changes the incoming AC power (fixed voltage, fixed
frequency) into DC power. The converter can be either single phase or three phase. A thyristor
converter is a controlled rectifier which is used to convert AC into DC.

In above Diagram, M stands for Armature of DC Motor, REF stands for Reference (say speed
reference) from Operator. In the single line diagram above (Fig.6), REF (Reference) from
operator or from other system enters RAMP Generator and the signal is processed through
Speed Regulator, Current Regulator etc. The output of current regulator controls the pulses
position in firing circuit so that armature voltage can be controlled.
Ana log / Digital Drives
Analog Drive: An analog drive is a drive where the components used in regulation circuit
like the velocity/speed and current loops are analog components (such as op-amps). The gains
of the amplifiers are set using passive components (such as resistors, potentiometers, and
capacitors).
Digital Drive: In a digital drive, all the functions of the drive is performed by
microprocessor/microcomputer. In digital drive, unlike analog drive, all analog external
signals like current feedback, speed feedback are converted into digital form by Analog-toDigital converter. All the controlling blocks of analog Drive like Ramp function generator,
Speed controller, Current controller and firing sequence generation are realized in the
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microprocessor of the digital drive through programs/ parameters .Preferably a digital tacho
(pulse tacho/encoder) is used instead of analog tacho for better accuracy. Digital drives can
also provide powerful diagnostic aids for maintenance and fault finding. It can store event
history, fault history. Digital drive provides auto tuning of speed and current control
functions.
Comparison of Analog and Digital Drives:
The analog drive offers the benefit of lower cost and, in the case of a drive using tacho
feedback, very high performance. The digital drive, while more costly, is comparatively easy to
set up and adjustments can be quickly repeated across several units. Automatic self-tuning
can be a distinct advantage where the load parameters are unknown or difficult to measure.
The various adjustments needed to tune an analog drive are usually made with
potentiometers. With a little experience, this can usually be performed quite quickly, but in
some difficult applications it may take longer.
Protection and Trouble-Shooting:
Protections used in Thyristor Converter to protect motor and converter:
1. Protection from Over Current: Followings are the some protections from overcurrent
Instantaneous Overload Relay
Thermal Over Load Relay: In this type of relay thermal element (bimetallic strip) is
used.
In thyristor converters of higher voltage, over-current protection has been provided
relying on the gate control of thyristors, i.e., the gate shift or gate block.
2. Protection from Over Voltage: Over Voltage Relays used to protect system from overvoltage.
3. Fuses: Thyristor Converter uses semiconductor fuses for over-current protection of the
Thyristors.The carrying capacity of the semiconductor elements (Thyristors) is chosen to be
greater than the fusing current, so that when an overcurrent or a short circuit occurs, the
corresponding fuse or fuses are fused, interrupting the current, protecting the
semiconductor elements (Thyristors).
4. Protection from Surges: Surges are a sudden and temporary increase in electrical current or
voltage. ACSS (A.C.Surge Suppressors) and DCSS (D.C.Surge Suppressors ) are used in
Thyristor Converters to protect from surges.
5. Overspeed Relay: In some drives Centrifugal Switch/Relay is mounted on the shaft of
motor which is set to trip drive in case of Overspeed of the drive.
6. Breakers on AC side and DC side: High speed Circuit Breakers on AC and DC side are used
to isolate the system when a fault occurs in the system.

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Trouble Shooting:
In general, there are two types of fault messages: Alarm and Fault. Alarm warns of some
malfunction. No protective function is tripped nor is the operation of the system interrupted.
Faults switch off the system and protect it against damage. To troubleshoot a drive, one
should have a clear idea of system. He should go through the drawings and manuals of the
system. In analog drives, some limited faults/alarms are displayed .Depending upon the type
of fault/alarm, one should proceed to rectify the problem. In modern digital system, if an alarm
or fault occurs, an error code is displayed. This error code is stored in the fault logger together
with the fault signal and event time. Previous alarm and fault occurrences can be read from
the fault logger and displayed even if the original fault indication has been reset. In
maintenance manual/troubleshooting manual, Alarm / Fault code and its meaning along with
possible error or corrective action is suggested.
Speed Control of AC Motors:
AC V/s DC Drive Comparison
AC and DC drives both continue to offer unique benefits and features that may make one
type or other better suited for certain applications.
AC Drives May Be Better Because. . .

They use conventional, low cost, 3-phase AC induction motors for most applications.

AC motors require virtually no maintenance and are preferred for applications where
the motor is mounted in an area not easily reached for servicing or replacement.

AC motors are smaller, lighter, more commonly available, and less expensive than DC
motors.

AC motors are better suited for high speed operation (over 2500 rpm) since there are no
brushes, and commutation is not a problem.

Whenever the operating environment is wet, corrosive or explosive and special motor
enclosures are required. Special AC motor enclosure types are more readily available at
lower prices.

Multiple motors
frequency/speed.

It is desirable to use an existing constant speed AC motor already mounted and wired
on a machine.

When the application load varies greatly and light loads may be encountered for
prolonged periods. DC motor commutators and brushes may wear rapidly under this
condition.

Low cost electronic motor reversing is required.

It is important to have a back up (constant speed) if the controller should fail.

in

system

must

operate

simultaneously

at

common

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DC Drives May Be Better Because

DC drives are less complex with a single power conversion from AC to DC.

DC drives are normally less expensive for most horsepower ratings.

DC motors have a long tradition of use as adjustable speed machines and a wide range
of options have evolved for this purpose:

Cooling blowers and inlet air flanges provide cooling air for a wide speed range at

constant torque.

Accessory mounting flanges and kits for mounting feedback tachometers and encoders.

DC regenerative drives are available for applications requiring continuous regeneration

for overhauling loads. AC drives with this capability would be more complex and
expensive.

Properly applied brush and commutator maintenance is minimal.

DC motors are capable of providing starting and accelerating torques in excess of 400%
of rated.

Some AC drives may produce audible motor noise, which is undesirable in some
applications.

AC Drives - Principles Of Operation

Adjustable frequency AC motor drive controllers frequently termed inverters are typically
more complex than DC controllers since they must perform two power section functions, that
of conversion of the AC line power source to DC and finally an inverter change from the DC to
a coordinated adjustable frequency and voltage output to the AC motor. The appeal of the
adjustable frequency drive is based upon the simplicity and reliability of the AC drive motor,
which has no brushes, commutator or other parts that require routine maintenance, which
more than compensates for the complexity of the AC controller. The robust construction and
low cost of the AC motor makes it very desirable for a wide range of uses. Also, the ability to
make an existing standard constant speed AC motor an adjustable speed device simply by the
addition of an adjustable frequency controller creates a very strong incentive for this type of
drive.
AC Motor Control Characteristics
The synchronous speed of an AC induction motor is directly proportional to the applied
frequency.
Speed = 120 x Frequency
No. of Motor Poles

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The synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating electrical field, not the actual motor rotor
speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the full-load motor speed is called
slip, which is normally expressed in percent. The percentage of slip is determined by the
design of the motor, primarily the rotor resistance. NEMA has assigned code letters (A, B, C,
D, etc.) to standardize motor characteristics including slip. The type most commonly used is
NEMA Design B with 3% slip at rated operating conditions. Figure 9 shows typical
speed/torque curves for NEMA Design Band D motors.
As the applied frequency is changed, the motor will run faster or slower as shown by Figure
10. The actual full-load motor slip (as a percent of the motor synchronous speed) varies in
inverse proportion to the frequency, where a 3% slip motor 60 Hz would have a 6% slip at 30
Hz or 1 1/2 % slip at 120 Hz. Motor speed is limited only by the maximum inverter output
frequency, load torque requirements, and the mechanical integrity of the motor.
AC CONTROLLER TYPES
A number of different types of AC motor controllers are currently in common use as general
purpose drives: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM), Current Source Input (CSI), and the Load
Commutated Inverter (LCI). Each type offers specific benefits and characteristics but the
PWM type is being popularly used.
1.12 TRACTION:- There are five alternatives of transport system
Direct Steam engine drive
Diesel-engine drive
Disel electric drive
With track electrification
Battery powered vehicles
In India, the following two supply has been used for railway
1500V DC for suburban railway un Mumbai
25KV 50Hz 1pg for main line service and suburban railway in Delhi and other places.
Demerits of electrical traction: High installation charges for power transmission and distribution system.
Maintenance of power stations, substations and trackside equipment.
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Various systems associated with electrical traction: Substation and feeding system.
Catenary and conducting trolley wire
Track system and return path via a track
Collector gear
Motor coach or locomotive on the rolling stock
Essential requirements of Traction motors: High starting torque.
Simple speed control
Series speed- torque characteristics
Rapid load fluctuation
Dynamic & regenerative braking
High temp withstand
Good commutator
Long life of commutators and brush gears
Types of motor preffered for traction duty: DC series motor
AC 1ph commutator motor
3ph slip ring induction motors. (1ph high voltage AC supply is converted to 3ph and
applied to induction motor)
1.13 Ventillation, Air-conditioning and Refrigeration:Function of thermostat- A thermostat is provided with the contactor starter. Thermostat has a
bimetal contacts which close at present temperature and open at present temperature. In turn
they close or open the control circuit in the contactor starter of the compressor motor.
Rating of Air-conditioner or refrigerator
It is the capacity of air-conditioner/ refrigerator equivalent to the latent heat requied for
melting 01Ton of ice in 24 hours.
Approximately 01Ton corresponds to 1.6KW
Typical ratings of Air-conditioning system:

Room air-conditioner 1.5Ton to 10Ton

Floor mounted unit conditioner 2Ton to 60Ton
Central air-conditioning system for a hall or a large building 15Ton to 10000Ton

Types of electric motors and starters used:1.Small air conditioning units:- 1ph 230V capacitor type single induction motor with direct
on line contactor starter.
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2.Medium installation upto 10KW:- High torque specially built 3ph 400V squired cage
induction motor with suitable direct on line or star-delta contactor starter.
3.Large installation upto 60KW:- 3ph slip ring induction motor with starting torque at 2.5
to 3 full load torque.
4.Very Large installation (150KW and above):- Induction start synchronous run motors.
Type of starter whether on-line or sar-delta depends upon permissible starting current and
strength of supply circuit.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

Basic Concepts of PLC
What is Process Control?
Actuate the Control
Element
Recognising the
Status

Process the
Information
Rules and
Guidelines

The process of recognizing the state of the process at all times, process the Information
according to the set rules and guidelines and accordingly actuate the control elements is
referred to as process control.
In the control of processes, all these actions can be taken manually with human involvement
or in a semiautomatic or fully automatic manner.
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What is Automation?
Automation is basically the delegation of human control functions to technical equipment
aimed towards achieving higher productivity, superior quality of end product, efficient usage
of energy and raw materials, improved safety in working conditions.
History of Process Control and Automation

Manual Control
Hard Wired Logic Control
Electronic Control Using Logic Gates
Programmable Logic Controller

Manual Control
In this all the actions related to process control and automation are taken by the operators.
One of the major drawbacks of this method is likely human errors and consequently its effect
on quality of final product. The manual control has its own limitations with regard to mass
production techniques and hence this method cannot provide the consumer with quality goods
at an affordable price.
Hard Wired Logic Control
This was considered to be the first step towards automation. Here the contactor and relays
together with timers and counters were used in achieving the desired level of automation. It
had certain limitations as listed below:

Bulky and complex wiring

Involves lot of rework to implement changes in control logic.

Electronic Control Using Logic Gates

With the advent of electronics, the digital logic gates started replacing the relays and auxiliary
contactors in the control circuits. With incorporation of these changes, we got the benefits of:

reduced space requirements

energy saving
less maintenance and hence greater reliability
Even with electronics, the implementation of changes in the control logic as well as
reducing the project lead time was not possible. However, this method of control and
automation was also popular for quite some time.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

With the coming of microprocessor and associated peripheral chips, the whole process of
control and automation underwent a radical change. Instead of achieving the desired control
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or automation through physical wiring of control devices, in PLC it is achieved through a

program or software. As the desired logic control is achieved through a program,these
controllers are referred to as Programmable Logic Controllers.
What are the important advantages of PLC?
Reduced Space, Energy Saving, Ease of Maintenance, Economical, Greater Life and
Reliability
Where Do We Use PLCs?
In industry, there are many production tasks that are of highly repetitive in nature.
Although repetitive and monotonous, each stage needs careful attention of operator to
ensure good quality of final product.
Many a times, close supervision of processes cause high fatigue on operator resulting in
loss of track of process control.
Some times it is hazardous also as in the case of potentially explosive chemical
processes.
Under all such conditions we can use PLCs effectively in totally eliminating the
possibilities of human error.
In short, wherever sequential logic control and automation is desired the PLCs are best suited
to meet the task. It includes simple interlocking functions to complicated analog signal
processing.
Hardware (CPU, Power Supply, Digital and Analog I/O)
What Constitutes A PLC?
The PLC is basically a programmed interface between the field input elements like limit
switches, sensors, transducers, push-buttons etc. and the final control elements like actuators,
solenoid valves, dampers, drives, light emitting diodes (LED), hooters etc. This interface called
as Programmable Logic Controller consists of the following:
Input Modules
CPU with processor and program memory
Output modules
Power supply

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Functions of Various Blocks That Make PLC

Input Module
The input module acts as an interface between the field control inputs and the CPU. The
voltage or current signals generated by the input devices such as sensors, transducers, limit
switches, push buttons etc. are applied to the terminals of the input module. The input module
helps in the following way: It converts the field signal into a standard control signal for
processing by PLC. The standard control signal delivered by input module could be 5V or 9V
whereas the field signal received by it could be 24V DC or 230V AC. If required, it isolates the
field signal from the CPU. Depending upon the nature of input signal coming from the field,
the input module could be

Analog Input Module

Digital Input Module

The typical analog current input modules are 4-20 mA, 0-20 mA and analog voltage
input modules are 0 -50mV, 0-500mV and 0-10 V. The typical digital input modules are
24V DC, 115V AC and 230V AC. (A digital input typically is like a switch and depending on
the switchs open/closed status, the sensing device detects a voltage or no voltage condition,
which in turn generates a logical 0 or 1, on or off, or similarly defined state.An analog input
is a measurable electrical signal with a defined range that is generated by a sensor. The
analog input changes continuously in a definable manner in relation to the measured
property.)
Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit or CPU consists of the following blocks:

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Program memory
Process image memory (i.e. internal memory of CPU)
Internal timers and counters
Flags
The heart of CPU is its microprocessor / micro-controller chip.
The working of CPU is fully controlled by the instructions/program stored in user
program memory.
The user program directs and controls the CPUs working.
This program is prepared by the user based on the control logic required for the control
and automation task.

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Output Module

The output module acts as a link between the CPU and the output devices located in
the field.
The field output devices could be relays, contactors, lamps, actuators, solenoid valves,
etc. These devices actually control the process.
The output module converts the output signal delivered by CPU into an appropriate
voltage level suitable for the output field device. The voltage signal provided by CPU
could be 5V or 9V, but the output module converts this voltage level into say 24V DC, or
115V AC or 230V AC etc.
Thus the output module on receiving signal from the processor switches voltage to the
respective output terminals. This makes the actuators (i.e. contactors, relays etc.) or
indicating lights etc. connected to the terminal to come ON or OFF.
Like input module, an output module could be an analog or digital. Typical analog
output modules have the ratings of 4 - 20mA or 0 -10V and the digital output
modules have 24V DC, 115V AC, 230V AC or relay output. (A digital output typically
consists of a switch (either mechanical as in a relay, or electronic as in a transistor or
triac) that either opens or closes the circuit between two terminals depending on the
binary state of the output.An analog output is a measurable electrical signal with a
defined range that is generated by a controller and sent to a controlled device, such as a
variable speed drive or actuator.)

Power Supply:
The power supply module generates the voltage required by CPU and the system. Additional
Modules: In addition to the above listed modules, the other frequently used modules for
special functions are Interface Module, Communication Processor and Intelligent Periphery or
function Modules.
How PLC works?
1.

Bringing input signal status to the internal memory of CPU

As the field signals are connected to input module, at the output of input module the
field status converted into the voltage level required by the CPU is always available. At
the beginning of each cycle, the CPU brings in all the field input signals from input
module and stores into its internal memory as process image of input signal. This
internal memory of CPU is called as PII, meaning Process Image Input. The
programmable controller operates cyclically meaning when complete program has been
scanned, it starts again at the beginning of the program.

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2.

Processing of Signals using Program:

Once the field input status is brought into the internal memory of CPU i.e. in PII, the
execution of user program, statement by statement begins. Based in the user program
the CPU performs logical and arithmetic operations on the data from PII.

3.

Storing the Results of Processing in the internal memory:

The results of the user program scan are then stored in the internal memory of CPU.
This internal memory is called Process output Image or PIQ.

4.

Sending Process Output Image to Output Modules

At the end of the program run i.e. at the end of scanning cycle, the CPU transfers the
signal states in the process image output to the output module that finally reaches to
field controls or actuators.

Programming of PLC
The PLC, like computer, is a software-driven equipment. How the PLC should work or control
the machine or process is decided by the user through User Program or Application
Program. Depending upon the process control requirement the user prepares the program, i.e.
writes the instructions. These instructions are then stored in theUser Memory or Program
Memory of CPU in the form of machine code. The CPU sequentially reads these instructions
and operates the control elements taking into consideration the input status and the program
instructions. In this manner the PLC controls the process.
We can write the user program in any one of the following forms:

Statement List (STL)

Function Block Diagram (FBD)
Ladder Diagram (LAD).

Basic concepts of PLC Networking

Like computers in network, PLCs can be put in a network. When many PLCs are put in a
network so that they can exchange data among themselves to control processes in a mill or
shop, they are said to be in PLC network. Each PLC in the network is termed as a node and is
given a unique node number.
The vast majority of PLC communications is done via RS232C and twisted pair cables. Most
PLCs have an RS232 port and are capable of handling communications with host computers,
printers, terminals, and other devices. Fiber-optic communications are gaining greater
acceptance and are being used in more and more installations. Fiber-optic cable is virtually
impervious to harsh environmental conditions and electrical noise. Also, these links can span
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extremely long distances and transmit data at very high speeds. For example, in some LAN
systems, these links can transmit at relatively high speeds and span long distances before
requiring a repeater. When repeaters are used, virtually unlimited distances can be achieved.
To understand the PLC's communications versatility, let's define the terms used in describing
the various systems.
CPU. This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer,PLC,
or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and
instructions are decoded and executed. I/O. This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are
modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external
device. Kbps. This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for
electronic data transfer.(Kilo bits per second) Mbps. This stands for "million bits per second."
(Mega bits per second) Node. This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a
network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the
network. Protocol. Network protocols define the way messages are arranged and coded for
transmission on the LAN(Local Area Network). The following are two common types.
Proprietary protocols are unique message arrangements and coding developed by a specific
vendor for use with that vendor's product only.
Open protocols are based on industry standards such as TCP/IP or ISO/OSI models and are
openly published. Many PLC vendors offer proprietary networking systems that are unique
and will not communicate with another make of PLC. This is because of the different
communications protocols, command sequences, error-checking schemes, and communications
media used by each manufacturer. RS232. This is an IEEE standard for serial
communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating
parameters for electronic data communication Serial. This is an electronic data transfer
scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time. Serial port. This the
communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.
Can PLCs be connected with other devices?
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs,
from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi
drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as
the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.
Messages / Data transmission in a PLC network : Data/Messages are exchanged between
PLCs over a network.A LAN's (Local Area Network) access method prevents the occurrence of
more than one message on the network at a time. There are two common access methods.

Collision detection is where the nodes "listen" to the network and transmit only if there
are no other messages on the network. If two nodes transmit simultaneously, the
collision is detected and both nodes retransmit until their messages get through
properly.
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Token passing allows each node to transmit only if it's in possession of a special
electronic message called a token. The token is passed from node to node, allowing each
an opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to
prevent a single node from tying up the token for a long period of time.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing
system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not
central in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each
component sub-system controlled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers
is connected by networks for communication and monitoring. DCS is a very broad term used in
a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment. DCS typically uses
custom designed processors as controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and
communications protocol for communication. Input and output modules form component parts
of the DCS. The processor receives information from input modules and sends information to
output modules. The input modules receive information from input instruments in the process
(a.k.a. field) and transmit instructions to the output instruments in the field. The field
equipments include Pressure Transmitters, Resistance Temperature Detectors(RTD), Valves,
Flow meters etc . Computer buses or electrical buses connect the processor and modules
through multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses also connect the distributed controllers with the
central controller and finally to the Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or control consoles. A
typical DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed digital controllers
capable of executing from 1 to 256 or more regulatory control loops in one control box. The
input/output devices (I/O) can be integral with the controller or located remotely via a field
network. Todays controllers have extensive computational capabilities and, in addition to
proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) control, can generally perform logic and sequential
control. DCSs may employ one or several workstations and can be configured at the
workstation or by an off-line personal computer. Local communication is handled by a control
network with transmission over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable. A server and/or
applications processor may be included in the system for extra computational, data collection,
and reporting capability.
DCS allow centralized configuration from the operator or engineering console in the control
room. You can change programming offline, and download without restarting the system for
the change to be effective. The typical DCS has integrated diagnostics and standard display
templates that automatically extend/update when your database changes. This database is
central to the system. DCS have user-friendly configuration tools, including structured
English, control block libraries, SFC (sequential function chart). A DCS allows for more
flexibility in growing a system and additional functionality can be added and the for the most
part, the existing working system can be left alone.
PLC is used where SPEED of OPERATION is an important factor whereas DCS is used to
control a single plant with certain speed but it can handle more complex loops and large
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inputs and outputs. DCS is also used where high level of redundancy / security / fault
diagnostic features are needed.
UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
Introduction
Most of the industrial and even domestic processes being electricity dependent for the
operations, electricity has assumed immense important in our life. Among the industrial
activities there are many which require not only the continuous power but also very good
quality electrical power. These are listed as following:

Telecommunication systems.
Data processing equipment and systems
Process controls
Drives in continuous production processes
Life support systems in hospitals
Air Traffic control systems
Safety systems in power stations and many others

Sources of Power
We normally get electrical power from the public grid set up by the government agencies like
State Electricity Boards. These grids are generally powered by HYDEL power plants, Thermal
power plants, Nuclear power plants etc. The quality of power has following considerations:
The shape of the voltage waveform should be pure sinusoidal.
It should not contain any harmonics.
It should be continuously available without any interruptions or undesired fluctuations in the
magnitude and frequency.
Unfortunately there are many problems associated with power and they include:
Spikes Spikes are high magnitude split second events. They are mostly caused by
lightening, which strike on or near power line or even miles away causing spikes in power
system. Other cause of spikes include switching large electrical current on or off., mains
switching and static discharge
Effects: the most disastrous effect spikes can be actual hardware damage. High voltage
impulses can actually blow holes in delicate microchips. Less catastrophic effects include
corrupted data, printer or terminal error and data processing error.
Surges - surges are over voltages that last longer than one cycle. Surges can be caused when
device on the line that was drawing large amount of power suddenly stops or is shut off.
Surges can also be caused when utilities switch large load off the line.
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Effects: Surges are most dangerous because of their duration rather than their magnitude.
Long and frequent surges can damage sensitive electronic equipments.
Sags- Sags are under voltages that last longer than cycle. Sags are, in fact opposite of surges.
Earth faults, undersized power systems and starts-ups of large electrical loads are causes of
voltage sags. Lightning is also a major cause of sags.
Effects: Sags can cause the computers to lock up. Sags can also slow the speed of disk drives,
causing read errors or disk crashes.
Noise- Noise is collective term for various kinds of frequency impulses that ride on the normal
sine-wave. Noise is caused when high frequency signals that travel on electrical wires. High
frequency noise is referred as Radio frequency (RF) noise, which can be generated by
lightning, radio transmission and power supply.
Effects: Noise can create erratic behavior in any electronic circuit. Noise can cause computer
processing errors, incorrect data transfer and printer or terminal errors.
Brownouts- Brownouts are long term under voltages , lasting minutes or even hours. They
are often instituted by utilities when peak demand exceeds generating capacity.
Effects: Brownouts can cause computer malfunctions and hardware damage the same way
that sags do.
Blackouts: Blackouts are extended zero volt conditions, lasting for minutes, hours or even
days. Blackout can be caused by faults generation, transmission and distribution network,
earth faults, accidents, lightning strikes or other acts of nature.
Effects: Blackouts can cause damage of system components and disk drives. They can also
cause the data loss.
Harmonic distortion: Harmonic are distortion of normal sine-wave. They appear in the
form of changed shape of sine-wave. Harmonics are transmitted-back in to the mains by
nonlinear loads.
Effects: Harmonics can cause communication error and hardware damage. Harmonics can
also cause overheating of transformers and conductors generating excessive heat leading to
fire hazards.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Key Principles
Electrical hazards, specifically shock, arc flash, and arc blast, can result in serious injury or
death to electrical personnel. There also is a general tendency to by-pass standard shutdown
procedures or safety interlocks to save time. This is more so during breakdowns, with the
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entire focus on restoration of power supply to the affected equipment. This can lead to
potentially hazardous situations. Hence all electrical hazards at the workplace must be
identified, so that action can be taken to prevent them. It is mandatory to display requisite
danger board near to live electrical equipment written in English, Hindi & local language.
Electrical hazards at the workplace
Some of the major hazards / unsafe situations and steps to prevent them are:
Movement of ladders, earthing rods, and discharge rods in the EHV switchyards Line
to ground clearance should be more than that prescribed by the I.E. Rules (2.75m for
11kV, 3.70m for 33kV, 4.60m for 132kV, 5.50m for 220 kV). Carry the items
horizontally not vertically.
Opening of wrong / charged HV panel back covers, transformer HV terminal boxes,
and isolator panel doors. Correct labeling of panel No. / Feeder Name etc. for power
supply feeder should be done on covers / boxes.
Back-feeding in LV outgoing feeders having an alternate source of power supply
Testing for absence of voltage by a twin-bulb test lamp to be done.
Working at heights in EHV switchyard and overhead lines Use of safety belts /
harness, and local earthing to prevent shock from line to ground capacitance to be done.
Work procedures, tools, and PPEs
An important electrical safety principle is to use safe work
procedures, tools, and personal protective equipments (PPEs). The
PPEs required while working on electrical equipment are
Insulated hand-gloves
High voltage indicator or twin-bulb test lamps to check for
absence of voltage before permitting work to be carried out
Insulated rubber mats
Insulated screw drivers and pliers
Planning for Safety
Electrical work must be planned before it is executed. All work procedures should be
reviewed, updated, and modified periodically as needed. The plan should include a standard
shutdown procedure which includes a general checklist. Safety instructions should be
given to personnel by the concerned executive / supervisor, explaining the potential hazards,
before starting work, even though it may sound too obvious or repetitive.
Designing for Safety
While designing electrical systems, safety is a key concern. Safety by design focuses on

Isolation of the circuit through off-load isolators or draw out type circuit breakers. For
working on MCCBs, that cannot be drawn out, and equipment connected to them, safety
instructions should be pasted on the panels and explained to personnel. If proper
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isolation is still required, then the upstream draw out-type circuit breaker feeding the
MCCB should be drawn out.
Introducing components or barriers that prevent accidental contact of live parts. during
routine maintenance and troubleshooting.
Ensuring standard phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground clearances as per the voltage
level of the equipment. In a steel plant, the level of pollution from chemical fumes, dust
or moisture, is high in certain locations. Hence additional clearances are specified as
per IPSS. For example, the phase-to-phase clearance in an 11 kV panel should be 127
mm, as against the standard clearance of 110 mm.
Using current-limiting over-current devices to decrease the incident energy and arc
flash hazards associated with arcing faults.

The healthiness of all protection systems should be continuously monitored through trip
circuit supervision relays and faults alarms. During shutdown of equipments, the protection
settings, along with the healthiness of instrument transformers and relays should be checked.
The key electrical safety principles focus on the protection of owners, employers, and
employees, as well as the equipments. To ensure a safer workplace, electrical professionals
must also change their existing cultures, beliefs and practices and follow electrical safety
standards and regulations.
The Inter-Plant Standards on Safety The Permit to Work System
The Permit to Work (PTW) system covers all types of shutdowns in an integrated steel plant.
The PTW system aims at the adoption of uniform shutdown permits for all types of jobs,
irrespective of the functional discipline. Furthermore, activities in steel plants and mines
invariably require a coordinated approach in which multiple agencies are involved. This
aspect assumes greater significance when the activity is either hazardous in nature or is
carried out in areas of hazardous ambience.
An Inter Plant Standard, namely IPSS:1-11-007-01 was prepared by the Standards
Committee on Appliances and Procedures with representatives of all member steel plants and
associated organizations. It has been adopted in June 2001, though not fully implemented by
all steel plants. It touches upon even those areas where presently no shutdown procedures
exist or where the ownership of equipments is not clear. The heads of department are required
to clarify on such grey areas and clearly fix responsibility.
In the PTW system there are two agencies releasing the shutdown the shutdown giving
authority and the shutdown issuing authority. The PTW system lays down comprehensive
guidelines for seeking, granting, and returning of the permit. It may be noted that the permit
is valid for the same date and for a limited period only. If the job exceeds the time frame
mentioned in the permit, a fresh permit has to be obtained.
Jobs where Permit to Work is required

Work on electrically operated equipments

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Work on pipelines / equipments handling chemicals, acid gases, steam, water, oil etc, at
normal / below / above atmospheric pressure and temperature
Work on or in the vicinity of moving machines / equipments / gas prone areas / high
tension lines/ bare conductors
Work in confined spaces
Demolition and excavation
Connection and interfacing between new and old units
Work at height
Any other equipment / location / area which may be associated with hazards Procedure
for obtaining Permit to Work

1.

Only authorised representative of the executing department has to ask for shutdown in
the given format

2.

PTW form is in duplicate, one for the executing agency (white coloured) and other for
the issuing authority (yellow coloured)

3.

Before issuing the PTW, Issuing Authority / Owner department shall ensure that:
The equipment has been stopped.
CAUTION tags and MEN AT WORK boards have been displayed.
Red flags, barricades, stoppers, earthing bars, etc. have been placed at appropriate
locations
For air, gas, steam, hydraulic fluids, acid, chemical, water, etc., valves should be
closed and locked or blanks provided
Electrical fuses should be removed
Sample analysis of gas / air should be done
All agencies / concerned persons should be informed
viii.All persons working in vicinity should be informed
Hazards of location should be explained to person seeking the permit

Check Points before granting permission:

(Write Yes / No / Not required as applicable)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Whether the job protocol exists?

Have caution boards/ tags been displayed?
Have fuses been removed?
Has earthing been done?
Have Hydraulic/ Air/ Gas/ Steam/ Acid valves been closed?
Has emergency key of the valves been put in safe custody?
Has Gas/ Air sample analysis been done?
a. Whether the department / section(s)/ individual(s) likely to be affected have been
communicated about the job/ shut down ?
b. If yes, which department / section / individual have been informed?
a. Have associated hazards and precautionary measures been explained to executing
agencies?
b. Have all personnel / agencies in nearby vicinity been informed?
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10.

c. Any other precautions taken? If yes, their details

Has concerned plant / equipment been put out of operation / switched off? Return /
Withdrawal of Permit To Work
On job completion and removal of materials, the executing authority returns the
permit to the issuing authority.
After verifying all safety aspects, the issuing authority gives clearance. White
coloured copy is returned to the executing agency after signing by the issuing
authority. Thus the executing authority has record of completion / return of permit.
On loss of permit cancellation / return by one level higher person is to be done.
INDIAN ELECTRICITY (IE) RULES, 1956 Key Provisions

The I.E. Rules, 1956 is a highly exhaustive document. Some of the key provisions from it
are being dealt with here.
Voltage Classification
The I.E. Rules defines the following voltage classification in Chapter I, Section 2 [1(av)]
Low Voltage
Medium Voltage
High Voltage
Extra High Voltage

up to 250 V + 6% variation
up to 650 V + 6% variation
up to 33 kV + 6% variation
beyond 33 kV and above

Authorisation Rules
The rules for authorization of electrical personnel to work on equipment have been specified in
Chapter I, Section 3. Personnel authorised under rules 36(2), 51(1) and 64(1) of I.E. Rules. The
authorisation form specifies the equipment / apparatus / voltage level for which a person is
authorized. The authorising person should satisfy himself that person being authorised is
competent.
Competent Persons for Issuing / Receiving Shutdowns
Competent issuer of shutdowns should be at least Chargeman / Supersvior for LV /
MV, and Executive for HV / EHV
Competent receiver of shutdowns should be at least Chargeman / Supervisor / Switch
Board Attendant for LV / MV / HV, and Executive for EHV
Persons of lower rank can be declared competent if the authority is satisfied the
person is capable
As per I.E. Rules, the minimum qualification for Supervisory staff is Degree / Diploma in
Electrical. Persons with ITI in Electrical can assist the Supervisors. The I.E. Rules also specify
a minimum of 6 months training in a Central Electricity Authority (CEA)- approved institute
plus visits and in-plant training. Relaxation in minimum qualification or training duration /
nature of training can be done by the appropriate authority (state or
central government) on the owners request.
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A record of authorized persons has to be maintained by all establishments, which shall include
their name, designation, qualification, applicable rules, etc. in a register. Both the authorizing
and authorized persons should sign in the register, once a year. The records have to made
available for inspection to an appropriate inspecting authority within the establishment or by
the Electrical Inspector of the State / central government.
Reporting of Electrical Accidents
All electrical accidents should be reported as per Rule 44A. The report of accident should to be
sent to State / Central Electrical Inspector. Report of fatal accident has to be faxed within 24
hours. A detailed written report should be submitted within 48 hours to the Electrical
Inspector. All accidents should be reported in the prescribed forms specified in Annexure-XIII
of the I.E. Rules, 1956. Rule 108 (1) (b) (iii) specifies that any abnormal or dangerous
occurrence should also be reported to the Electrical Inspector.
Inspection of Electrical Premises
Chapter II of the I.E. Rules deals with Inspectors, while Chapter IV Rule 46 deals with
periodic inspection of all electrical premises. All new equipments / installations have to be
compulsorily inspected and tested by CEAs Electrical Inspector. The cost of inspection and
testing is also specified in the I.E. Rules and has to be paid to the CEA.
Safety Precautions for Maintenance / Testing
Power System Equipments
Operation, maintenance, and testing of power system equipments require elaborate
equipment-specific shutdown procedures for their safe isolation. No maintenance should be
carried out in live condition, except in certain cases (refer Working on Live Equipment below).
The equipment should be properly earthed to protect personnel and equipment from hazards
due to any accidental charging of supply. PPEs should be used while issuing shutdowns. A
cable or busbar should be tested for absence for voltage by a HV indicator, with the person
wearing hand gloves and standing on an insulated rubber mat. After absence of voltage is
established, it should be discharged and then finally earthed. Certain shutdowns may not
require earthing, depending on the type or location of work.
All MV and some LV circuit breakers have electrical spring charging provision of closing
mechanism. While inserting such breakers into SERVICE position, the control supply (AC/DC)
should be kept off, and the spring discharged to prevent any accidental closing of the circuit
breaker while in motion, which could result in a flashover if the breaker poles are very near
the charged bus.
Though testing is normally done at low voltages, earthing of all testing instruments should be
ensured, and they should be placed on rubber mats. Testing probes should be insulated.
During HV testing, the area where the equipment is being tested should be barricaded. After
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HV testing, the testing instrument as well as the tested equipment should be thoroughly
discharged.
Most electrical panels have low voltage 240 V AC or 110 V / 220 V DC for control and
protection circuits, which have to be kept on due to interlocks between different panels /
equipments and sub-stations. The working personnel should be aware of the control terminals
that are live. Since control and relay chamber is generally at a height, the personnel should
stand on wooden stools or benches while working. While measuring voltage across a device,
the voltmeter should be isolated from ground, and the maximum voltage capability of the
voltmeter should not be exceeded. Voltages above 230 V should be preferably measured by an
Avometer and not by a multi-meter, as their size is small and the components are placed quite
close to each other.
Working on Live Equipment
Not permitted for EHV / HV
Authorised persons, can work on MV / LV, after taking necessary precautions
Two authorised persons should work together - always
Rubber gloves mandatory for working on 230 V and 400 V
Personnel should be standing on rubber mats / dry wooden platforms
Bare hand working with insulated tools without body touching earth / metallic parts;
when necessary to work on a "live" circuit, one should work with one hand to prevent a
deadly hand-to-hand (through the chest) shock current path
Proper labeling of equipment likely to require inspection, or maintenance when live.
The labeling, should warn of the potential arc flash hazards and the requirement for
PPEs. The labeling should be in both English and the local language.
Electronic Card Handling:
I. Generally, a card containing ICs particularly CMOS ICs should not be touched without
using an earthing wrist band as this may damage these ICs due to static charges. Such cards
should be handled by touching only the edges of the PCB.
II. Also, generally, the cards should not be plugged in or out of the connectors while the power
is on. Although now a days, some manufactures allow this (Hot Swap Modules) but it is a safe
practice to switch off all the power to the cards before putting it in or out whenever possible.
III. While soldering or de-soldering a component, all the inputs including the power supply
should be switched off. Care should be taken to replace the faulty components only with exact
spares. Any deviations due to any reasons like nonavailability of the exact spares should be
well thought over by a competent person.
For example, if a particular resistance is burning out very often in a card, we should not
blindly put a resistor of higher wattage as this may result in failing of another (and probably
more critical) component.

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IV. Spare cards should always be store in their original (mostly anti-static) packing. In case
this is not available, care should be taken to store them in moisture free and dustproof
environment. Rats excreta are very dangerous for the cards and it fatally damages them.
Using a Digital Multimeter:
Before Connecting the Multi-meter in the circuit under test:

Features of the multi-meters differ depending on Make/Model. Make yourself fully

conversant with the features, Sockets arrangement and functions of the particular
meter that is being used before starting any measurement. Read the O & M manual of
the meter thoroughly and strictly follow the safety instructions given in the manual.

Always ensure that the correct mode (Voltage: AC/DC, Current AC/DC or OHMs) is
selected on the meter as per the requirement. Note that the same socket is generally
provided on the meter for Voltage as well as Resistance Measurements. Ensure that
multi-meter resistance mode is not selected when it is being connected in Live circuits.

Remember that two different sockets are generally provided for Low and High Current
measurements. The low current socket has internal fuse protection but the high current
socket has no protection. Ensure that the maximum current being measured is not more
than the meter rating.

Never measure voltage when probes are in Current sockets.

Select the correct range depending on the expected level of Voltage/Current being
measured. If unsure about the levels, start from highest range.

Ensure that the probes are in good condition and there are no joints/damage to
insulation.

Always use original/standard color coded probes. Black probe should always be in the
Common Terminal socket of the meter. Never use two probes of same color.

Never use probes without proper Banana Pins that fit in the multi-meter socket. The
pins of the probes should sit firmly in the sockets and there should be no loose
connections. Also the probes should have proper measuring prods in the front for
connecting to the circuit under test.

The probes should be free and not twisted, entangled or wrapped around the
multimeter.

During Measurements:

Always hold the two probes of the multi-meter in different hands. Either ask another
person to hold the meter or use the stand of the meter to firmly place it on a safe place.

Do not bend or turn your face away from the live circuit while measuring voltages to see
the reading. Keep your attention on the probes otherwise the prods may slip and cause
accidents. In case multimeter is to be used by one person, use proper alligator clips for
hooking to the circuit under measurements so that hands are free.
Page 196 of 250

Stand on rubber mats while making the measurements. Avoid use of digital
multimeters to measure voltages in a highly inductive circuit like Brake Magnets or
Motor Fields etc. as high voltage develops across the inductors when the current is
broken and this may damage the internal circuitry of the meter and cause injuries to
the personnel. In case such measurements are to be done, ensure that the probes are
removed from the circuit before current is cut-off.

Use of CROs

Always keep CRO on an insulated surface before starting any measurement.

Preferably use Isolated (unearthed) supply for CRO. In any case, do not use the Earth
Terminal of 230V supply cord of CRO when taking measurements on Phase Voltages.
During such measurements, stand on an insulated surface and do not touch the body of
the CRO and handle the knobs for adjusting range carefully.

Use High Voltage/attenuation Probes for measurement on circuits of more than

100Volts.

Some CRO probes have an exposed common terminal very close to the main terminal.
Use proper tape to insulate this before conducting measurements on 100volts or above
circuits.

Do not look at the CRO for observing waveforms while holding the probes. Keep your
attention on the probes and let another person do the settings.

MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Maintenance of all equipments is a must to reduce the faults in installations under normal
and abnormal conditions. The role of maintenance is becoming more pronounced because
industries are expanding in size, and volumes of production are going up. The complexity /
inter-dependability of sub-units and functions is increasing, particularly in an integrated steel
plant, where the output of one production shop is the input of the next. The steel market, like
other industries is booming. Hence the production targets are higher than before. There is a
thrust on maximum utilization of existing assets, which in turn means less reserve capacity to
fall back upon. The consumers too are demanding uninterrupted power supply, which is
critical for a number of operations in the steel industry.
Types of Maintenance
Maintenance can be classified as
1) Preventive or Scheduled Maintenance,
2) Predictive or Condition-based, and
3) Breakdown Maintenance.
Preventive or Scheduled Maintenance is carried out as per a predetermined maintenance plan
or schedule. The frequency of maintenance of various equipments is based on
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Recommendations of manufacturers / suppliers of equipments

Past experience of maintenance personnel which takes into account the problems faced and
the work environment. Frequency of operation of an equipment. For example, electrical
equipments in polluted areas like Coke Ovens and Sinter Plants require more frequent
cleaning of insulators than in areas like Rolling Mills. Circuit Breakers feeding arc furnace
transformers which have more switching operations (50 to 60 per day) require more
frequent maintenance than circuit breakers feeding distribution transformers which have
lesser switching operations (2 or 3 per year). Adherence to scheduled maintenance is a
must, which serves as off-line inspection also. Preventive measures are taken while the
equipment is under shutdown, particularly for electrical equipments for safety purposes. A
record of preventive maintenance activities is maintained and analysed to assess the
health of the equipment on a long-term basis. It is important that maximum work is done
in planned maintenance than during forced outage or breakdowns.

Preventive / Scheduled Maintenance of Electrical Equipments

Transformers
For oil-filled power transformers, the operation of fans, pumps and tap changer should be
checked. In arc furnace transformers, the oil in the diverter switch should be replaced once in
three months as it gets carbonized due to large tap changing operations at high currents.
Proper oil-level should be maintained in the conservator. The colour of silica gel in the oil
breather should be blue and when it absorbs moisture it becomes pink and at that time it shall
be re-activated by heating. For dry-type transformers, a blower or vacuum cleaner should be
used for thorough cleaning of the transformer and its enclosure. Inspection should be carried
out for any physical damage to windings, leads, connections, etc. In synthetic liquid-filled
transformers, proper care should be taken while handling the liquids as they are poisonous.
The tightness of external bolted electrical connections should also be checked for all types of
transformers. The bushings should be inspected for cracked porcelain and deterioration. If
required, cleaning of bushings should be done. Before charging the transformer, the IR value
of its winding, between phase to earth and between phases, should be checked by an
insulation tester. If oil is used for cooling oil filtration should be done until it achieves its
specified Breakdown Voltage (BDV) value. Clearance from Regional Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) is to be obtained for charging of newly installed HT substations and HT
transformers.
All transformer rooms should also have adequate number of exhaust fans to prevent ingress of
dust and also to prevent overheating. Fire Detection and Alarm (FDA) and Fire Hydrant
Systems are to be installed in Transformer Rooms as additional Fire Fighting Systems.
Panels and Busbars
Panels and busbars in sub-stations contain the circuit breakers, support insulators, CTs, Bus
PTs, and auxiliary transformers, in addition to protection and control gear. They have to be
thoroughly cleaned by blowers or vacuum cleaners. All bolted electrical and mechanical
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connections should be tightened. All insulators should be inspected for cracks or tracking. In
the case of epoxy insulators, space heaters are provided with auxiliary AC supply to prevent
ingress of moisture. Space heater circuits should be checked for their healthiness. All entry
points for rats and lizards should be sealed with cotton waste / sheeting / foam / taphole mass
mud in MV and LV panels. To prevent ingress of dust into the panels, substation premises
should be pressurized through a good ventilation system.
Cables
Cables form the backbone of power distribution. They should be laid properly inside panels, in
cable racks and trenches. Handling of cables and their joints should be done with care so as to
prevent any physical damage to their insulation. Cable terminations in panels and at
equipments (motors or isolators or transformers) should ensure adequate clearance. Bending
radius of cables should be as per standards for the type and voltage rating of the cable.
Cable tunnels have a large number of cables laid side by side in racks. Tunnels should be
adequately ventilated through exhaust fans located at suitable intervals in ventilation shafts.
Dewatering pumps installed in the tunnels to remove any seepage water should be properly
maintained.
Constraints in Preventive Maintenance
Due to increased utilization of equipments, availability of shutdowns is lesser, resulting in
reduced equipment availability. At times, quality of repair also is compromised. Another
problem plaguing the maintenance function is the fast rate of technical obsolescence.
Maintenance personnel may not have the skills or training for proper maintenance of new
equipments. Technological obsolescence also creates the problem of non-availability of spares.
Furthermore, conventional fault diagnosis methods are time-consuming and inaccurate. Most
electrical faults are not visible to the naked eye. The cost of breakdowns is excessive, because
the fault is detected after considerable equipment damage or stoppage of production.
There is unnecessary dismantling of equipment in scheduled maintenance. The shutdown
hours may be unnecessary irrespective of equipment health. Outage of equipment also means
production loss. There is also a danger of over-maintenance.
Cost Ineffectiveness
Predictive (Condition-based) Maintenance
Merely attending defects / replacing damaged components during preventive maintenance
does not eliminate the problem. There have been instances of failure of equipments even after
maintenance. To overcome the problems mentioned above, the emphasis is shifting from timebased preventive maintenance to conditioned-based predictive maintenance. Through
condition-based maintenance, equipment availability as well as reliability can be enhanced.
Hence tools and techniques that predict internal faults in electrical equipments are gaining
popularity because the shutdown hours are logically reduced due to better advanced planning.
Thus over / under-maintenance is also avoided and cost of maintenance is optimized. One of
the simplest practice of condition-based maintenance is carrying out routine inspection of the
critical parameters of an equipment. For example for a transformer regular checking and
inspection of Load current, tap position, input & output voltages, oil temperature, winding
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temperature, Buccholtz relay gas accumulation, oil level, condition of breather, observation of
oil leakage etc. can be done.
Nowadays condition monitoring equipment / tools like temperature sensor, vibration sensor,
detection of partial discharge, dissolved gas analysis, residual life analysis etc. are in use with
proper diagnostics which has reduced surprise failures and helped in planning
maintenance / repair / replacement of equipment.
Breakdown Maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance is the most undesirable type of maintenance. As mentioned earlier,
conventional fault diagnosis method are time-consuming and inaccurate. Most electrical faults
are not visible to the naked eye. There is also a tendency of neglecting faults during operation
or by-passing controls / interlocks. Neglecting faults can lead to complete stoppage / total
breakdown of the equipment. Bypassing controls / interlocks give temporary solution but
create permanent deficiency in the system as minor defects become major ones. Unexpected
stoppage results in expensive capital investment and massive production loss, which in turn
leads to interruption in the integrated production chain. The opportunity loss particularly in
todays booming economic scenario is also substantial. Breakdowns also create unsafe
situation for equipment / personnel due to - flashovers, fires, physical damage, etc. Refer to the
section on Electrical Safety for more information on the nature of damage due to breakdowns.
Root Cause Failure Analysis or RCFA is the latest trend in maintenance management to
arrive at the main reason for the failure of equipment, so that they can be prevented in future.
Standard Operating Practices (SOPs) / Standard Maintenance Practices (SMPs)
SOPs and SMPs should be strictly followed for all electrical equipment. These are available in
the operation and maintenance manuals provided by manufacturers / suppliers of equipment.
SOPs / SMPs can be modified based on past experience and plant-specific conditions. Refer to
the section on Electrical Safety for more information on safe work practices. All maintenance
activities should be carried out using the correct materials and tools prescribed by the
manufacturer.

Page 200 of 250

TECHNICAL
SERVICES

Page 201 of 250

TRACK & LOCO MAINTENANCE

Responsibilities of a Loco Operator

1.

To follow the instructions of the shift in charge & other concerned staffs.

2.

Take overall responsibilities of the locomotives.

To look after overall safety and security of locomotive and tracks.

To optimise fuel consumption by avoiding idle running.

To follow standard signaling practices and train the helpers accordingly.

To train and develop the helpers for operating & maintaining loco.

To carryout daily routine checking and minor maintenance job.

To maintain logbook.

3.

Conduct routine checks before starting the engine and before moving the locomotive.

4.

Observe general behavior and sound of locomotive in operation, report abnormalities and
act accordingly.

5.

Go through the previous shift logbook and also maintain his own logbook.

Responsibilities of an Shunting Roster/ Points Man

1.

To follow instructions of the operator and other concerned staffs.

2.

To clean the locomotive at beginning of the shift. Also clean periodically if necessary.

3.

Do all the pre-starting checks and fill water, oil, sand etc. as per requirement.

4.

Show the signal to the operator while moving.

5.

Change the points whenever required.

6.

Watch the operator closely and be prepared to operate loco as & when required.

7.

Coupling/decoupling of ladles/wagons.

Pre Starting Checks

1.

Inspect the loco visually for worn brake shoes, defective couplings buffers, cables and any
other damages.

2.

Inspect for waste, tools etc. left in any of the compartment.

3.

Check for base and dragging parts.

4.

Check tightness of all bolts.

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5.

Check for leakages and rectify.

6.

Check fuel level and report to foreman if less than tank.

7.

Check coolant level and top up if required.

8.

Check lub oil level and top up if required. It should be close as possible as to the High
level and to be checked 15 minutes after engine is shut down.

9.

Check compressor oil level and top up if required.

10. Check for other abnormality and unsafe conditions.

Starting
1.

Shift reverse handle to neural position.

2.

Shift throttle handle to idle position.

3.

Close battery knife switch.

4.

Close CB2.

5.

Push brake handle to full apply position.

6.

Put engine shut down switch in run position.

7.

Press engine start button.

8.

Hold till engine fires regularly.

9.

Confirm oil pressure is above 2kg/cm2.

10. Confirm that battery is charging.

11. Do not throttle the engine immediately. Allow engine to idle for at least 10 minutes.

After
1.

With engine running confirm that there are no oil or air leakages, unusual noises.

2.

Check if there are any twisted or thrown bolts.

3.

After air pressure is 3.5 Kg /cm2 apply horn and check for satisfactory working.

4.

Remove scotch blocks if applied. Close loco run switch.

5.

Move loco in one direction, brake and reverse the loco and again brake for satisfactory
braking.

6.

Now the loco is ready for operation.

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Lead Ammeter
The Lead Ammeter is a color band device to be used as a guide in correct locomotive operation.
Green Range: The green zone indicates the normal operation and operation time is
unrestricted.
Yellow range: -The yellow range indicates heavy load on traction motor and loco can be
operated for a short period.
Red Range : -The red range indicates very heavy load on traction motors and the loco should
be unloaded immediately.
In the meter there are graduations to show the time in minutes that the various loads may be
carried out.
Charging
Always ensure the proper charging of the batteries. The battery ammeter shows the amount of
current the battery is drawing. If it shows 0, then the battery is not being charged.
Safety Devices
1.

Ground relay: - During ground fault, loco will become idle with audio video alarm.

2.

Overload relay: - when traction motor current exceeds permissible limit loco will
become idle.

3.

Wheel slip relay: - when wheel slip takes place audio video alarm.

4.

Engine over speed switch: - When engine exceeds the permissible rpm it stops.

5.

Lub Oil Pressure Switch: - When lub oil pressure drops below 1 kg/cm2 engine stops.

6.

Engine Temp Switch: - When the coolant temperature reaches 90C engine stops.

7.

Low Water level Switch: - When the coolant level becomes low the engine stops.
TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR LOCO ENGINES
TROUBLE

Engine won't start

POSSIBLE CAUSE
Inadequate fuel supply.
Fuel line broken or leaky.
Air in fuel lines.
Emergency fuel shutoff cock closed.
Dirty fuel or stopped-up nozzles.
Fuel filter choked.
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Dirty injector inlet connection screens.

Engine runs but not
above idle

Disconnected throttle linkage.

Engine stops in operation

inadequate fuel supply.

Fuel line broken.
Leaks in fuel lines.
Mechanical failure of engine.

Engine skips or misses

Valve or fuel line or fuel connection inlet may be leaking

Injector defective.
Fouled strainers in fuel line.
Air in fuel line.
Water in fuel.

Excessive smoke

Engine overloaded.
Dirty injector cup spray holes.
Valves leaking.
Valve clearances too wide.
Injector adjustment set improperly.
Air cleaner choked.
Sticking or worn rings on piston.
Water in fuel.
Defective injector or fuel pumps.

Engine knocks

Overload.
Air in fuel line.
Loose bearings, piston pins, or flywheel, piston slap, broken
piston ring.
Improper injector adjustment causing bent push rod.
Loose mounting bolts.
Poor grade of fuel.
Defective injectors.

Lubricating-oil pressure
drops below normal

Low oil level in crankcase.

Clogged oil filters.
Leak in oil system.
Clogged screen in sump.
Lubricating oil pump in-operative.
Oil too thin (from dilution or high oil temp.).
Pressure gauge line choked.
Pressure gauge defective.
Loose or bad bearings.

Page 205 of 250

Diluted lubricating oil in

crank case

Stuck piston rings

Fuel pump or Injectors defective.
Clogged injector overflow line or fuel pump overflow line.
Fuel inlet or drain connection leak.

Excessive use of lub oil

Leaks.
Wrong grade of lub oil.
Stuck piston rings.
Broken piston rings.
Scored cylinder liners.
Overload.

Engine overheating

Radiator choked internally or externally.

Insufficient water.
Engine overloaded.
Leaks in cooling system (poor water circulation, collapsed
hoses, defective water pump).
Loose water pump and fan belts.

Air pressure does not

build up

Drain valve on main reservoir open.

Defective compressor.
Compressor belts slip or broken.

Air pressure builds up.

slowly

Belt slipping.
Compressor head valve leaking slightly.
Loose fittings and leakages.

Low braking power

Too much brake-cylinder piston travel.

Piston not holding pressure, due to leaks.
Low brake-cylinder pressure.
Broken brake-cylinder pipe.
Worn brake shoes.
Brakes clamp on wheels and loco skids on rail.

Trouble Shooting Extra For Bhel Loco

1.

Engine does not rotate while starting

Circuit breakers not closed.
Loco control switch not in idle position.
Battery knife switch not closed.
MC not idle.
GR not reset.
Electrical problem.
Discharged battery.
Page 206 of 250

2.

Engine rotates but doesnt fire

Engine over speed or high temperature tripped.
Lack of fuel.
Low lub oil pressure.
Discharged battery.
Fuel line choked.
Loose connection / dry solder in electronic speed switches or
junction boxes.

3.

Locomotive does not respond

LCS in 'idle' position.
Brakes are not released.
Ground relay not reset.
Overload tripping (OLR).
Air pressure inadequate.
Electrical problem.

4.

Engine stops during operation.

Inadequate fuel supply.
Low lub oil pressure.
Engine over speed.
High engine temp.
Fuel line choked.

5.

Loco stops during movement.

GR tripped.
Electrical Problem.
Overload relay tripped.
Engine stopped.

Trouble Shootting Extra For 6 Loco

1.

Engine does not start

Over speed mechanism tripped.
Fuel pressure zero.

2.

Engine hunting
Governor not functioning properly.
Low governor oil level.
Air or dirt in governor oil.
Air or water in fuel.
Fuel pump controls sticking.

3.

Engine doesnt maintain RPM under load.

Fuel filters clogged.
Fuel pressure inadequate.
Page 207 of 250

4.

Governor not functioning properly.

Defective turbocharger.
Inadequate supply of air to engine.
After cooler choked.
Defective fuel pumps or injectors

Engine over speeds

Governor not functioning properly.
Over speed trip not adjusted properly.
Defective fuel pumps.

Caution

Observe all safety rules.

Do not crank engine continuously for more than 12 seconds. Give a 3-minute break
before re-cranking.
After attempting to start engine thrice, check for problem otherwise battery will get
discharged.
Shut off engine immediately if engine oil pressure is less than 7 psi (0.5 kg/cm2) or there
is unusual noise.
Do not exceed 3 MPH (5 KMPH) if there is water over rails.
Do not run through water that is more than 4 (10 cms) above top of the rail.
Do not re-rail loco on self power.
Get loco inspected after derailment.
Always bring loco to a dead stop before reversing.
Allow engine to idle about 4 minutes before shutting down.
On twin power pack locos variation between the two load meters should not exceed 10%.

WDS 6 Locos

Fuel pressure should indicate 35-45 psi (2.5-3 kg/cm2) at all engine speeds.
Shut off engine immediately if engine oil pressure is less than 15 psi (1 kg/cm2) at idle
speed or less than 58 psi (4 kg/cm2) at top engine speed.
In case of failure of crankcase exhauster, stop engine immediately.

Using Fire Extinguishers

There are 4 parts to fire extinguisher equipped on the loco. They are

The handle to hold the fire extinguisher while it is being used.

The nozzle attached to a short piece of hose to direct the spray to the fire area.
The lock on top of the fire extinguisher while requires to be pulled out before operating
it.
The knob on top of the fire extinguisher, which has to be pressed sharply after removal
of lock below it, to enable it to start functioning.

Page 208 of 250

Method Of Use

Take out the fire extinguisher from its bracket or stand.

Pull out the lock from top of the fire extinguisher (under the knob).
Press the knob on top of the fire extinguisher with sharp jerk with the palm or heel of
the hand.
Hold handle of the fire extinguisher with left hand.
Direct nozzle of the fire extinguisher to the fire area with right hand.
The gas will come out from the nozzle with pressure after few seconds.

Lubrication
RR-407 / RR-408
20W-40
MESH-680
LUB RX-220
Crater Compound
Prime 68

All engines of WDS-6 locos only

All engines except WDS.6
All gearboxes except BHEL
All compressors
Gear cover of BHEL Motors
Governor of WDS-6 locos
Axle suspension bearings of BHEL Motor
expressor of WDS-6 loco

PERMANENT WAY
The railway track of permanent nature, which handles the normal commercial traffic
regularly, is called a Permanent Way. This term is used to distinguish the finished tracks
(permanent track) from a temporary track, which is laid for temporary works, i.e.,
transporting construction materials, earth etc, on the major construction sites. Literally
speaking, it is the backbone of the railway system.
A railway track consists of a pair of steel rails laid parallel to each other at a fixed distance
apart. The rails are connected end to and by means of fishplates and fish bolts or by welding.
The rail thus laid, rest on transverse members known as sleepers, which are bedded and
packed in granular material known as ballast. The ballast spread on the formation or sub
grade which may be constructed in embankment, cutting or at ground level according to the
topography of the area.
Requirement Of Good Track

The gauge should be correct and uniform.

The rail should have perfect cross-levels. In curves, the outer rail should have proper
cant to take into account the centrifugal force.

The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In case of curves, proper transition
should be provided at tangent points.
Page 209 of 250

The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient
should be followed by a proper vertical curve to give a smooth ride.

The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb shocks and vibrations of
running track.

The track should have good drainage so that the stability is not affected due to water
logging.

The rack should have good lateral strength so that it can maintain its stability due to
variation of temperature and other such factors.

There should be provision for easy replacement and renewal of various track
components.

The track should have such a structure that not only its initial cost is low but also its
maintenance cost is minimum.

All tracks in our plant are of Broad Gauge, which means the clear distance between running
or gauge faces of the two rails of the track is 1676 mm.
GAUGE
Broad Gauge (B.G.)
Meter Gauge (M.G.)
Narrow Gauge (N.G.)

CLEAR DISTANCE
1676 mm
1000 mm
762 mm or 610 mm

Component Part of a Track

Rails
Sleepers
Fixtures and fastenings
Ballast
Formation or sub grade

RAILS
The rolled steel sections laid end to end in two parallel lines over sleepers to form a railway
track are known as rails. They can be considered as steel girders carrying axle loads. They are
usually designed by their weight per metre length, i.e. Kg per metre in metric units.
Requirements of Rail
Page 210 of 250

They should be of proper composition of steel as given below and should be

manufactured by open-hearth process or duplex process.
The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit the load to several sleepers
underneath. The height of rail should therefore be adequate.
Rails should be capable of with standing lateral forces. Large width of head and foot
endows the rails with high lateral stiffness.
The head must be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it and should provide
adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane.
Web should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it and should provide
adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane.
Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against overturning.
Bottom of the head and top of the rails foot should be so shaped as to enable the
fishplates to transmit efficiently the vertical load from the head to the foot at rail joints.
Relative distribution of material in head, web and foot of rail must be balanced.
The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid-height so that
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
The fillet radil must be large to reduce the concentration of stresses.
The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be less than 72 Kg/mm2.
The rail specimen should withstand the blow of falling weight in test without fracture.

Flat-footed rail or Vignole rail has been standardised because of its economical design, giving
greater strength and lateral stability for its cross sectional area compared to Bull headed and
Double headed rails. The rail sections, standardised for B.G. on Indian Railway, viz, 52Kg/m
and 60Kg/m are being used in our tracks.
Every rail rolled has a brand on its web, which is repeated at intervals of 1.5 to 3.0 m such as
IRS-52Kg-710-TISCO-V 1995
OB (as per IRS/ T-18-88)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

IRS-52Kg - Number of IRS rail section.

710
- Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880
TISCO - Manufacturers name
V 1995 - Month and year of manufacture
- An arrow showing direction of top of ingot
OB
- Process of steel making

Design parameters of a rail section

52 Kg Rail Section

60 Kg Rail Section
Page 211 of 250

Area of
Section

WT/ metre
(Kg)

Rail Section

52 Kg 51.89 6615
60 Kg 60.34 7686

156
172

Dimensions in mm
B
C
D
E

136
150

67 15.5
74.3 16.5

51
51

29
31.5

Chemical Composition Of Rail Seel

Elements

Carbon (C)
Manganese
(Mn)
Silicon (Si)
Sulpher (S)
Phosphorus (P)

Ordinary rails
(High carbon
steel)

Rails on points &

crossings

0.55 0.68 %
0.65 0.90%

(Medium carbon
steel)
0.50 0.60%
0.95 1.25%

0.05 0.30%
0.05% or below
0.05% or below

0.05 0.20%
0.06% or below
0.06% or below

First Quality Rail

Used in High Speed tracks.

Second Quality Rail

Used in loops and sidings

(upto a speed of 50 km/h)

Third Quality Rail

Used in Industrial sidings

(speeds restricted to 30 km/h)

Rail Wear
Due to the passage of moving loads and the friction between the rail and the wheel, the rail
head gets worn out in course of service. The impact due to moving loads, the forces caused due
to acceleration, deceleration, braking of wheels, the abrasion due to rail wheel interaction, the
effects due to weather conditions like temperature, sand, snow and rains, the standard of
maintenance of track and such allied factors cause considerable wear and tear on vertical and
lateral planes on the rail head. The lateral wear becomes more on curves, because of lateral
thrust exerted on the outer rail due to centrifugal force. Lot of metal as such gets worn out of
the rail head and there is loss of weight of the rail. This loss should not be such that
Page 212 of 250

permissible stresses become excessive and when this stage is reached, the rail renewal is
called for.
Another criteria for limiting wear would be that the wear on the railhead should not be to
such an extent that a worn flange of the wheel may hit the fishplate.
In India, the prescribed limit for wear is 5% of rail weight because all the wear takes place in
the head, which contains 35 to 40% of the metal in rail. Allowable wear of 25% of the section of
head is also adopted.
Tilting of Rails
As the pressure of the wheel is near the inner edge of the rail, there is heavy wear and tear of
the rail. Lateral bending stress as are also created due to eccentric loading of rails. Sleepers
are also likely to be damaged due to uneven loading on the sleepers. To reduce wear and tear
as well as the lateral stresses, the rails are tilted inward at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the
slope of the wheel cone.
Rail Lubricators
Rail wear can be considerably reduced as much as 50% by providing rail lubricators, which
lubricate or oil the running face of the outer rail so that friction is reduced. As an alternative,
we adopt the practice of applying the mixture of grease and waste oil to our curves and
turnouts.

SLEEPERS
Sleepers are transverse ties on which the rails are supported and fixed to transfer the loads
from rails to the ballast and sub grade below.
Requirement of Sleepers
1. The sleepers to be used should be economical.
2. The fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operation.
3. The weight of the sleeper should be moderate.
4. The design of sleepers should be such that the gauge, alignment of track and levels of
the rails can be easily adjusted and maintained.
5. The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat and over the ballast should be enough
to resist the crushing of the rail seat and crushing of ballast underneath the sleepers.
6. The sleeper design and spacing should be such as to facilitate easy removal and
replacement of ballast.
7. The sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations.

Page 213 of 250

8. The design of sleepers should be such that they are not damaged during packing
process.
9. Through sleepers, the insulation from rails should be possible for track circuiting if
required.
10. The design of sleepers should be such that they are not pushed out easily due to moving
trains.
Classification Of Sleepers

Wooden
Metal
- Cast Iron
- Steel

Concrete
- Reinforced concrete
- Pre-stressed concrete

Wooden Sleepers
Wooden sleepers are being used in sharp curves (where gauge widening and / or check railing
is required), level crossings and on track circuited areas. Wooden sleepers should be made of
torrow and sound and sea sawed wood, as far as possible from sapwood and should be free
from knots, stakes, cracks and other defects. Any wood that shows the signs of splitting or
warping should be rejected. They must be straight, sawn parallel to on the top and bottom
faces with ends cut square. They should be properly treated and preserved. Timber has
millions of minute cells, which contain juices. Removal of the juices and filling up the cells
with a preserving solution is known as Treatment of Sleepers. This helps in increasing the life
period of sleepers from 30% to 50%.
Types of Timber
1. Hard wood such as saal and teak
2. Soft wood such as chir and deodar
Important points for good performance
1. The best sleepers should be used on each side of rail joints.
2. The sleepers should be laid centrally, i.e., center of the sleeper should be on the
centerline of the track.
3. The sleepers should be at 900 to the rails except in turnouts, where an oblique layout is
permitted.
4. Boring in sleepers for spikes should be right through the sleepers to avoid splitting of
bottom of sleepers.
5. Correct size of augers should be used for boring holes.
Page 214 of 250

6. When respiking is done, spares holes are to be plugged with wooden spikes to avoid
entry of water.
7. Sleepers should not be packed at the central 900 mm to avoid center bound defects.
8. In stacking sleepers for storage, they should be kept such that enough ventilation and
air is available.

Steel Sleepers
Due to the growing scarcity of wooden sleepers, their high cost and short life, metal sleepers
are being widely adopted. Steel sleepers are advisable to be adopted because of their
advantages of longer life, gauge protection, good scrap value, free from decay and fire hazards
and lesser creep. However, certain limitations are there such that liability to corrosion,
unsuitability for track circuiting areas, suitability for particular rails only for which they are
manufactured.
The steel sleepers (trough) essentially consists of a rolled steel plate of about 12 mm thickness
and pressed to suitable trough shape and the rail seat canted to 1 to 20. The ends are
flattened out in the shape of a spade to retain the ballast.
The steel trough sleepers used in our plant railway tracks are of punched hole design unlike
pressed lug/jaw design.

Important points for good performance

1. Regular inspection has to be carried out by the key man to ensure the fixity of keys
because they tend to become loose under dynamic loads.
2. Liners are advisable to be used always with the loose jaw for holding in case of oblong
holes caused by elongation during service.
3. Centre of the sleepers should in no case be packed to avoid rocking of sleepers.
4. Over driving of keys should be avoided.
Page 215 of 250

5. In the double line section, keys should be driven in the direction of traffic.
Pre-stressed Concrete Sleepers
Concrete has been proved as an ideal material for the sleepers as it can be molded easily to
size and shape required by scientific investigation to withstand the stresses introduced by fast
and heavy traffic and it is made of a strong homogeneous material, impervious to effects of
moisture and is unaffected by the chemical attacks of atmospheric gases or sub soil salts.
They have wide application because of their advantages
i)

Suitability to track circuiting,

ii)

Longer life,

iii)

Lesser maintenance problem,

iv)

Higher elastic modulus,

v)

Higher lateral stability,

vi)

Creep prevention.

The sleepers which have been adopted in our plant, are of mono block pre-stressed concrete
sleepers (Pre- tensioned) PCS-12 sleeper for 52 Kg and PCS 14 sleepers for 60 Kg has been
standardised for B.G. tracks.

Mono block pre-stressed concrete sleeper

Weight 267 Kg.

Reinforcement 18 number 3 x 3 mm dia strands
Sec @ rail seat

Sleeper Dencity
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as M + X, where M is
the length of rail in meters and X is the number varying according to the following factors: i)

Lateral thrust of locomotives,

Page 216 of 250

ii)

Axle load of the train,

iii)

Speed of train,

iv)

Type and section of rails,

v)

Method of providing rail joins,

vi)

Type and strength of sleepers,

vii)

Type of ballast and ballast cushion,

viii)

Nature of formation.

If sleeper density is M+4 on a track and the length of rail is 13 meters, it means that 13 + 4 =
17 sleepers will be used per rail.
Depending upon the sleeper density, the spacing of sleeper is fixed. The spacing is kept
uniform through out the rail length but is made closer near the joints to avoid loosening of
ballast due to impact. The minimum space between sleepers is 305 to 335 mm (except at joins)
in India to facilitate packing of ballast. If the joints on the curves are staggered, one additional
sleeper is provided at each joint for making suspended joints.

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4

SPACING
Between join sleepers (a)
Between joint sleepers and the
first shoulder sleeper (b)
Between first shoulder sleeper
and second shoulder sleepers (c)
Between intermediate sleepers
(d)

M+4
Woo Steel
den
300
380
610
610

M + 12
Woo Ste
den
el
300
300
350
350

700

720

500

500

840

830

550

550

The spacing for joint sleeper (a) and the 1s shoulder sleeper (b) should always remain the
same as given above for all length of rails and all sleeper densities. The spacing (d) should be
whole number of cm and spacing (c) should be between (b) and (d). The spacing given for
wooden sleepers is being followed for concrete sleepers.

F
Page 217 of 250

IXTURES AND FASTTENINGS

The fittings, which are used for linking the rails end to end and also for fixing the rails to
sleepers in a track, are known as fixtures and fastenings or track fittings.
1. Rail-To-Rail Fastenings
Joint: - A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. There is a break in the continuity of the
rail in horizontal as well as in vertical plane at this location because of the expansion gap (6
mm) and imperfection on the levels of rail heads at joint. About 30% extra maintenance is
required by joints.
Some types of joints applicable to our tracks are: a) Supported joint In this joint, the ends of a rail are supported directly on a sleeper as
shown in the figure. The running on supported joint as such as is normally hard.

b) Suspended joint This is the most common type of joint being adopted on the railway
system in which the ends of the rails are suspended between the two sleepers and some
portion of the rail is cantilever as shown in figure.

c) Square or even joint In this the position of rail joint is the basis of its
nomenclature, the joints of one rail of track are directly opposite to the joints of other
rail. This is generally used on straight length of track.

Page 218 of 250

d) Staggered or broken joints- In this also, the position of joints is the basis of
nomenclature, the joints of one rail are not directly opposite to the joint of the other rail.
These joints are generally provided on curves.

e) Insulated joints When an insulating medium is inserted in a rail joint to stop he

flow of current beyond the track-circuited part, it is called insulation joint.
Fish Plates: The function of a fish plate is to hold the two rails together both in the
horizontal and vertical planes. These are designed to have roughly the same strength as the
rail section and are manufactured from a special type of steel having composition (IRS-T-1/57)
as given below
Ingredient
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
Sulphur & Phosphorus

%
0.30 to 0.42 %
Not more than 0.8%
Not more than 0.15%
Not more than 0.06%

The fishplates are so designed that the fishing angles at the top and bottom surfaces coincide
with those of the rail section so as to have a perfect contact with the rail.

Fish Plate

Combination Fish Plates: - Combination or Junction fishplates are used for connecting the
rail length of two different rail sections (e.g. 52 Kg & 60 Kg sections in NINL). These are
designed so as to suit the two-rail sections at either end with an adequate thickening up of
section in the center where the rail section gets changed. Another design feature is the
elimination of expansion gap in order to give more strength to it. A common top table of the
two-rail sections is available with the help of these plates. These are designed as left in., left
out, right in and right out for the set of four plates of each join. For deciding the position of the
plates, the direction given in the figure has to be followed.

Page 219 of 250

Combination Fish Plate

Fitings for Wooden Sleepers

Spikes
1. Dog spikes: - Dog spikes are used for fixing rail to he wooden sleepers. The name dog spike
is driven as the head of the spike looks like as of the dog. It has 16mm square section and
length is of 156 mm and 120 for B.G.A
LOCAION

NUMBER OF DOG SPIKES

i) On straight track

2 (one in either side and duly staggered)

ii) On curved track

3 (two out side and one inside)

2. Round spikes: - These are used for fixing the rails with wooden sleepers using anti creep
bearing plates ad for fixing assemblies of switches on wooden sleepers. It has a round section
of 18 mm diameter and the length depends upon is actual use.
3. Screw spikes: - These have been recently developed to obtain a better life from the wooden
sleepers. These have more than double the holding power of dog spikes and can also resist
lateral thrust in a better way as compared to dog spikes. The 18 mm dia screw spikes are
called PLATE SCREW and are to be used in the switch portion. The 22 mm dia screw spikes
are called RAIL SCREW and are to be used for direct fastening of rail with or without
bearing plates. They are also used on bridges and platform lines. These should be preferred to
round spikes and dog spikes to conserve the life of wooden sleepers.

Bottom Plan Dog Spike

Top Plan
Round Spike side elevation

Rail Screw

Plate Screw

SIZE OF DIFFERENT BOLTS

Area of usage

(52 Kg)
Size of bolts in mm

(60 Kg)
Size of bolt in
mm

25 x 130

25 x 140

25 x 180

25 x 180

ii

25 x 220

25 x 230

Fish Plate
Check Block

Page 220 of 250

Heel Block

25 x 260

25 x 250

ii

25 x 280

25 x 300

T/O distance Block

Right

Left
25 x 260 25 x 270
25 x 290 25 x 300

25 x 250

ii

25 x 280

iii

25 x 10

iv

25 x 330

25 x 330 25 x 350
25 x 370 25 x 390

25 x 370

25 x 420 25 x 510

Bracket & Tongue Rail

18 x 90
18 x 70

18 x 90
18 x 70

Stretch bar & Lug

18 x 75

18 x 75

Stop

18 x 65

18 x 65

25 x 80
25 x 310
25 x 330
25 x 240 (2 nos.)
25 x 300
25 x 310
25 x 390
25 x 510
25 x 520
25 x 350
25 x 360

25 x 80
25 x 310
25 x 320
25 x 240 (2 nos.)
25 x 310
25 x 320
25 x 420
25 x 520
25 x 540
25 x 370
25 x 380

Stretch bar & Bracket

Slide Chairs
Crossing Blocks

Throat

ii

Nose

iii
iv
v
vi

Bearing Plares
a) Mild steel canted beating plates: - There are used on wooden sleepers to give better
bearing area to the rails. These have got a cant of 1 in 20 and a groove in the center to
prevent rocking.

M.S.Bearing Plates

b)
c) M.S. Flat bearing plates: - These are used for the points and crossings in the lead
portion of the turnout. No cant is provided in these bearing plates.
Page 221 of 250

d) Cast Iron anti creep bearing plated: - These are provided with wooden sleepers at
locations where creep is likely to be developed. These bearing plates have got 1 in 20
cant and can be fixed with normal round spikes. Double key types of anti creep bearing
plates are being used in some of the areas of our plant, i.e., on approach tracks of weigh
bridges.

Flat M.S.bearing plate

Anti creep (CI) bearing plate

In the flat bearing plates, double bearing plates are also available, which are used in
level crossings and curves, where check rails are provided.

Double bearing plates

3. FITTING OF STEEL THROUGH SLEEPERS.

1. Loose Jaws: - Loose jaws are used for holding the rail to steel through sleepers
(Punched hole designed) with the help of keys. The approximate weigh of each jaw is
0.288 Kg. They are made of spring steel, which have been standardised by Indian
Railway.

2. Two Way: - These keys are used universally with trough sleepers, pot-sleepers and
CST-9 sleepers. These are also used with anti creep bearing plates. A two way taper is
provided on both sides of the keys and as such the keys can be driven in cither direction.
These are manufactured from a special rolled section. A gauge variation of 3 mm can
be adjusted by altering the length of drive of these keys. The length of these keys is
about 190 mm for B.G. with a taper of 1 in 32.
Elastic Fastenings
1.

Pandrol clip (elastic rail clip): - Pandrol clip is a standard type of elastic fastening
which is a fit and forget type of fastening and very little attention is required to
maintain the same. This is made from silicon manganese spring steel bar of 20.6 mm
Page 222 of 250

diameter and heat-treated. It exerts a toe load, which is quite adequate to ensure that no
relative movement between rail and sleeper is possible. In order to ensure that the
correct toe load is exerted, the clip should be driven to such an extent that the outer leg of
the clip flushes with the outer face of the cast iron inserted. This can be fixed on wooden,
steel, cast iron or concrete sleepers.

2.

Rubber pads: - A rubber pad is an integral part of

Qprovided between foot of the rails and bearing surface
pads of 6mm thickness made of special quality rubber
uniform distribution of the load on the sleepers and help
the rubber under dynamic loads.

Pandrol clip

3.

an elastic fastening, which is

of the sleeper. Grooved rubber
are used. The grooves provide
in limiting lateral expansion of

Rubber pad

Composite liners: - Nylon insulating liners, which are mostly used are getting crushed
under the toe load exerted by pandrol clips. To eliminate such premodured failure glass
filled nylon liners (GFN 66) of 4mm thickness has been developed by RDSO for track
circuited areas and sections subjected to severe corrosion. In saline atmosphere of costal
belts and areas subjected to industrial fumes etc. Where corrosion is prominent, only
GFN-66 liners should be used. To avoid breakage of this liners, it is necessary that while
initial laying, proper precautions should be taken to ensure that rail surfaces are cleared
off rust etc. and the liners are made to sit evenly on the 1 in 6 slopping surface of the rail
flange.
A new design of GFN-66 liners having 6 mm thickness has recently been developed which
will possibly be more sturdy and give better service life.

GFN-66 Liner
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Ballast
Ballast is a layer of broken stone, gravel. Moorum or any other gritty material placed and
packed below and around sleepers for distributing the load from the sleepers to the formation
and for providing drainage as well as giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the tracks.
Requirements of Good Ballest
1. It should be able to withstand hard packing without disintegrating.
2. It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to power under dynamic wheel loads
but should be capable of being cleaned to provide good drainage.
3. It should allow for easy drainage with minimum soakage and the voids should be big
enough to prevent capillarity.
4. It should have resistance to abrasion and weathering.
5. It should retain its position laterally and longitudinally under all conditions of traffic
particularly on curves, where it should prevent transverse displacement of sleepers.
6. It should not have any chemical action on rail and metal sleepers.
7. The material should be easily workable by means of the implements in use.
8. The ballast should fulfill the requirements of quality, amount of traffic, life and
maintenance cost.
Different materials, which can be used as ballast, are: 1) Sand
2) Moorum
3) Coal Ash or cinder
4) Blast Furnace Slag
5) Gravel or River Pebbles or Shingle
6) Kankar
7) Brick Ballast
8) Selected Earth
9) Broken stone ballast
Broken Stone Ballast: This type of ballast is mostly used on Indian Railways and also in
our tracks. It is generally procured from hard stones like granite, quartzite and hard trap etc.
The quality of stone should be such that it is neither porous nor flakes off under vagaries of
weather. The stone ballast shall be hard, durable, resistant to impact and free from adherent
coatings. Materials likely to disintegrate, decompose or chemically reactive shall not to be
accepted. It shall not be inferior to the approved sample and shall not contain more than 10%
dust (ballast which passes through 10 mm sieve is dust). 50 mm size of ballast is to be adopted
universally for all types of sleepers. The best size of ballast is that which contains stones
varying in size from 19 mm to 51 mm with reasonable proportion of intermediate sizes. As far
as points and crossings are considered, these are subject to heavy blows of moving loads and
are to be maintained to a higher degree of precision. Smaller size ballast (25 mm), is therefore
preferable because of its fineness for smaller adjustments, better compaction and more
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frictional area of the ballast. For getting good quality of ballast, the following laboratory tests
should be carried out: 1) Impact Test
2) Absorption Test
3) Crushing Test
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion
Although the lines of equal pressure in ballast through wheel loads (strictly speaking) are in
the shape of a bulb, yet for simplicity purpose, the load dispersion can be assumed at 450 the
vertical. For uniform distribution of load on the formation, the depth of ballast should be such
that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other.
From simple geometry, sleeper spacing (S)= Width of sleeper (W) + [2 x
Depth of Ballast (Db)]
S= W + Db
or

Db = S W = Minimum depth of Ballast

2

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

The formation of a Environment Management Cell (EMC) was conceived, keeping in view the
enactment of environmental laws by the Government of India and up-gradation/
modernisation of NINL plant to the world standards through various technological
developments. The EMC has following objectives:

Maintaining a pollution free atmosphere around the steel works and mines
Providing education and massive awareness through publicity
Liaisoning with State & Central Regulatory agencies in environmental matters
concerning NINL
Adopting significant developments in other steel industries around the world for their
implementation and assimilation in NINL
Ensure co-operation and co-ordination with all Environmental Control Departments of
Plants.
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Responsibilities
Develop Data bank and expertise:

On existing legislation and information on environmental protection. Status on

pollution control in the plants for coordinating with statutory authorities.
On latest trends and developments in pollution control and waste management
technology and techniques.
To assist steel plants in implementation and transfer of latest technology and details of
special equipment in the relevant areas.

Monitoring and Control

To continuously monitor the environmental impact of the NINL plant operation and
bring it within the acceptable limits.
Identify action plans for different units towards pollution abatement measures and
monitoring facilities both for short term and long term measures.

Environmental Clearance

For proposals requiring approval by NINL - scrutinising and clearing the same from
environmental angle.
For proposals requiring Government approval, scrutinising/checking the same from
environmental angle and submitting to the Government for clearance.
Follow up with the Central Environment authorities for obtaining environment
clearance from Government.
Co-ordinating and submitting various clarifications required by Central authorities in
(c) above for environment clearance.

Studies

To get studies conducted on environmental management and pollution control

measures.

Liaison & Interaction

Liaison between NINL and MoEF, State / Central Pollution Control Boards.
(Regulatory agencies)
Organising regular meetings of pollution control departments of plant.
Keeping in view the above responsibilities, the following activities are performed;

Pollution Control

Assessment of air, water and noise pollution and necessary follow-up.

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Identify areas where strengthening of pollution control measures are required

Facilitate in preparing action plans for reactivating existing non-functioning or
malfunctioning pollution control units
Monitor the progress of action plans for implementation of the various conditions
stipulated by regulatory bodies while issuing environmental clearance of investment
proposals.
Organise environmental training programmes
Assess investment proposals from environment angle

Waste Management

Keeping account of the type and amount of waste generation.

Keeping account of the type of waste recycled inside the plant or township
Identification / development of market, either for the waste as it is or after processing
the same, wherever required and taking suitable measures for filling up the gap
between generation and utilisation / recycling of the waste.

Build up environmental awareness through

Training/seminars/workshops
Celebration of World Environment Day.
Special environmental reporting initiatives.

Environment management and technology initiatives taken up by NINL:

Clean Technology Development for plants

Phasing out of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Greenery development

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COMPUTER

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Digital computer is an electronic device that works on the binary number system (base2 number system) that represents values using two digits, 0 and 1 (known as Binary
Digit or Bit). Owing to its straightforward implementation as two state devices in
electronic circuitry, the binary system is used internally by all digital computers.

Bit or Binary Digit is the smallest storage element for computer

One Byte consists of 8 bits. One byte is typically used to represent one character

Computer data storage capacity is expressed as KiloBytes ( 1024 Bytes), MegaBytes (

1024 x 1024 Bytes ), GigaBytes ( 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes )

Many components of computer are timed devices and use a clock. A clock is pulse train
of values 1 and 0 occurring at a specified frequency known as clock speed and measured
in cycles/ second or Hertz. Operations are carried out on each clock pulse. Typical clock
speed of a Personal Computer today is 3 Giga Hertz or more

Computers are able to support multimedia data consisting of text, picture and sound.
Laptop is a powerful portable Personal Computer

Definition of Computer
Computer is an electronic device that

Operates under control of instructions stored in its own memory unit.

Accepts data.

Processes data arithmetically and logically.

Produces output of processing and stores results.

Types and Classification

Desktop or Laptop ( notebook ) Personal Computer

Palmtop or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA )

Workstation - A powerful desktop computer with enhanced capabilities for performing

3D Graphics, game development etc

Server - A computer that has been optimized to provide special services to other
computers over a network. E.g., Database -Server, Application-Server, Proxy- Server,
http-Server, Mail-Server, File-Server etc

Mainframe belonging to early days of computing processing millions of transactions

every day.

Supercomputer comprise of multiple high performance computers working in parallel

as a single system. The best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.
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Computer Characteristics and Advantages

The main characteristics of a computer are its speed, accuracy, doing variety of tasks,
doing repetitive jobs and automatic program execution

In today's world everything we do has a computer element embedded. If we have the

basic computer knowledge and training in computer, we can be up to date in the
existing environment

Using the computer, one can do in-depth analysis of data and take decision about the
future course of action, in matter of seconds. We can plug the shortcomings in advance
with appropriate measures.

Electronic mail and web-browsing have spread rapidly to cover the whole globe. Now, a
few keys on the computer would bring instant connectivity with our business partners.

Computers provide highly accurate answers and calculations. Hence, computerized

financial estimate and balance sheet are dependable irrespective of the persons who
presented it.

Computers help in Elimination of repetitive tasks and result in higher productivity and
benefit to our Organization.

Computer Generations I to IV and examples

Thousands of dedicated valves (vacuum tubes) were used to create First generation
computers. One example of First Generation Computer is ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer) built in USA around 1945. ENIAC publicly
validated the use of electronics for large-scale computing, which was crucial for the
development of modern computing

At the end of the fifties the vacuum tubes were replaced by the Transistors, giving rise
to the Second Generation computers. By using the transistors and improving the
machines and the programs, the computers got quicker and more economical. The
explosion in the use of computers began with 'Third Generation' computers. This was
the result of invention of the integrated circuit (or microchip). Computers built with
integrated circuits came to be known as with 'Third Generation' computers.

The invention of the microprocessor, by Intel company engineers led to the development
of 'Fourth Generation' computers, which are built on microprocessors. These small, lowcost computers are owned by individuals and businesses and are now dominant in most
market segments.

Hierarchical System of Computers in Steel Industry Level-I & II

A typical manufacturing digital control system has the following levels and achieves the
defined functions
Level I consisting of Programmable Logic Controller ( PLC ) and Instrumentation Data
Acquisition / control system achieves Direct Control
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Level II consisting of supervisory monitoring and control, achieves process control and
optimisation
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE CONCEPTS

Understanding Hardware and Software

Computer equipments including input devices, CPU, memory, output devices, auxiliary
storage is known as Computer Hardware. Hardware is what we can see and touch. It is
a set of physical components

Computer Software is a set of programs containing a detailed set of instructions that

tells computer exactly what to do

Parts of Computer and Functions

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The computer CPU executes instructions given in a program

The instructions fall into major types of input/ output instruction, arithmetic
instruction, logic instruction, branch instruction and character manipulation
instruction

Main Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM) is storage where data is permanently written during fabrication,
whose contents can be read but cannot be altered. Hence ROM is a nonvolatile memory, which
means that the memory contents are retained even when the computer is switched off. The
same contents are available when switched on.
Types of ROM

Mask-Programmed ROM (MPROM) Programmed at the factory.

Programmable ROM (PROM) Can be custom-programmed by the user (once) using
special circuitry.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) Can also be programmed and erased by the
user using ultraviolet light and special circuitry external to the computer.
Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) Can be erased and reprogrammed by special
circuitry with in the computer.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a storage where data can be repeatedly written and
read. Hence RAM is a volatile memory which means that the memory contents are erased
when computer is switched off

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Types of RAM

Static RAM (SRAM) stores binary bits in such a manner that the bits remain in RAM
as long as power to the chip is not interrupted
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) requires the stored data to be refreshed, or rewritten,
periodically to keep it from fading away. As a matter of fact, each bit in the DRAM must
be refreshed at least once every 2 milliseconds or the data dissipates
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) runs in synchronization with the memory bus. Most
Pentium or Celeron systems purchased in 1999 have SDRAM.
Double Data Rate RAM (DDR RAM) is a type of SDRAM, difference between SDRAM
and DDR RAM is that instead of doubling the clock rate it transfers data twice per clock
cycle which effectively doubles the data rate.

Main memory is required to store programs and the data processed by the programs. RAM is
used as main memory in computers
Secondary Storage

Computers load the program instructions from hard disk to main memory (RAM) and
then execute these instructions. Since RAM is volatile, the results of processing and
data needs to be stored in permanent secondary storage media like hard disk.

Hard disks are smooth metal plates coated on both sides with thin film of magnetic
material. A set of such plates is fixed to a spindle one below the other to form a disk
pack, which gets rotated. Magnetic heads do read / write operation on circular tracks.

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) is a disc of special plastic with thin layer
aluminium applied to the surface. Information is created in the CD by creating pits on
the surface by laser. Any data file (for example sound, video, or text) can be stored in a
Compact disc. Many of the original Operating system and other system software are
now being distributed in CD-ROM. Normally CDs support about 700 Mega Bytes of
storage. CD-R is a write-once/ read-many media, CD-RW is a media where data can be
erased and rewritten.

Digital Video Disk (DVD) is a medium where a number of disks are bound together to
offer several layers of data. Information is created in the CD by creating pits on the
surface by laser. Each disk layer is accessed by the device for read or write by changing
the intensity of the laser to different levels. Here also we have read and read-write
versions available. The capacity of a DVD is roughly four times that of a CD-ROM. CD
drives that can handle CD read, write and DVD read is known as Combo Drive.

Magnetic tape drive consists of a spool where a magnetic tape is wound. Between 2
spools, a number of read/ write heads are mounted, for reading or storing information
on independent tracks.

Digital Data Storage (DDS) media like Digital Audio Tape (DAT) has been adopted for
general data storage, storing large volume of computer data. In appearance it is similar
to a compact audio cassette, using 4 mm magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell,
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but is roughly half the size. For example DDS2 is around 40 GB, DDS-4 is around 72
GB etc

Pen Drives are flash memory data storage devices integrated with a USB (universal
serial bus) connector. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable.
Flash memory is non-volatile computer memory that can be electrically erased and
rewritten in large blocks. To read or write data, the pen drive must be connected to a
USB port and draw all necessary power from the supply provided by that connection.

Input Devices
Input devices are used to feed data into computer. Examples of input devices are Keyboard,
mouse, bar code reader, microphone for sound recording etc. Devices like hard disk, floppy
disk, CD-ROM, pen-drive, touch-screen monitor are used for input when they contain data.
With advanced wireless networking, it is possible to have a wireless handheld terminal with
limited functionality for use in locations like slab yard
Output Devices

Output devices are used to give data output from computer. Examples of output devices
are monitor, printer, speaker etc. Monitor for computer can be a CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube) or TFT (Thin Film Transistor technology). TFT monitor has tiny transistor for
each picture element on screen and has very fast re-drawing of display. Devices like
hard disk, floppy disk, CD-RW, pen-drive, touch-screen monitor are used for output
when data is to be stored in them or displayed on them. Other output devices are
various types of printers like Dot matrix, laser jet, Ink jet and line printers.

Any device that we connect to our PC needs to communicate and for this software
known as driver software is necessary to be installed in the PC. Driver software is
responsible for our PC handshaking with the device. For example, we may have a
special colour laser printer in our department network. If we have the driver for the
printer in our PC, we can print documents on network printer

Digital Computer Data Representation

Integer data like whole numbers are stored in blocks of 4 bytes or 8 bytes. The larger
storage is required for large numbers

Real or floating point is generally stored in 4 byte or 8 byte blocks which is split up into
mantissa and exponent portions

Character data is stored in ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) based on a universal conversion table. Unicode standard is required for
using characters in other languages like Hindi etc

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN STEEL INDUSTRY

Some of the functions computerized are given in the following sample list Finance & Accounts
Bills & Claims processing
Stores & Sales accounting
Stock and Asset management
Payroll processing
Materials Management
Item Master & Vendor Master management
Indenting & Procurement
Receipt, Storage, Issue, Inventory
Human Resource
Employee Master & Reporting Relationship
Nomination Management
Recruitment, Promotion
Separation & Transfers
Production Planning & Control : Process Control Applications

Optimization of coke oven operation for minimum energy use, maximum coke
production & coke quality

Minimum fuel for Sinter Plant operations

Optimisation of stove operation, heat and mass balance of Blast Furnace

OPERATING SYSTEMS

Single User, Multi-User, Multitasking Operating System

An Operating System (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of
a computer and provides an interface to access those resources. An operating system
works on system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks
and internal system resources. An operating system performs basic tasks such as
controlling and allocating memory, controlling input and output devices, scheduling the
processing of jobs, facilitating Computer networking and managing files.

Most of the Operating systems work in timesharing mode, where all the jobs to be done
are put in queue and CPU time gets shared among these jobs.

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Online, Offline and Real-Time Processing

The applications that we execute using computer in steel industry are a mix of the
above types of jobs

Examples of Operating System

Examples of Common Operating System are MS-DOS, Windows.

Boot Procedure and Working of Computer

Bootstrapping is the process of starting up a computer from a halted or powered-down
condition. When the computer is switched on, it activates the memory-resident code which
resides on the CPU board. This procedure is referred to as bootstrapping, booting or cold boot.
Bootstrapping typically consists of the following steps:

Self-test
Identify boot-device ( normally hard disk ), System start, device configuration
Do first time jobs like setting computer-name, file consistency check and connecting
network interface
Bring up the system for user operation

Shutdown of Computer

A computer should be switched off only after doing a proper shutdown. Commands for
shutdown are available in every operating system. The shutdown procedure stops the
running jobs and closes the open files in a systematic manner such that there is no bad
data in computer. A sudden power off of any computer will lead to inconsistent disk
data and corruption of Operating System files.
COMPUTER LANGUAGE AND PROGRAMMING

Programming Concepts

To solve a problem, we need to evolve an algorithm, which is a sequence of finite

instructions.

Algorithm can also be expressed graphically as a flow-chart.

High level Programming language is a precise notation used to express algorithms

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NETWORK AND CONNECTIVITY

Local Area Network (LAN)
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic area, like an
office building. The major characteristics of LANs are the higher data transfer rates, smaller
geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.
Cables and Network Equipments like Router, Modem, Switch etc

Depending on the type of connection, telephone cable, co-axial cable, twisted pair cable (
e.g. UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair ) cable, fibre cable having glass as the
communication medium are used.

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique address that is given to each

network node like PC and network equipment in order to identify and communicate
with each other on a computer network. Some IP addresses are intended to be unique
within the scope of the global Internet, while others need to be unique only within the
scope of local network. Ipconfig command helps in finding out the IP address of any PC
in the network

A router is a computer device whose function is routing and forwarding of messages.

Router connects two or more logical sub-networks which have different addresses.

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments,

generally within a sub-network. For example upto 16 number of PCs in an office or a
shop-floor can be connected by means of a 16 port network switch. Each PC will have to
be wired upto the network switch using network cable

Modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that is used to transmit computer data over

a long distance generally using communication cables. The data rate is generally
specified in bps (bits per second). One example Internet connection at home using
telephone line and modem. The typical data rate for this modem is about 128 kilo bps /
256 kilo bps.

Ports for Network Connectivity like Serial, Parallel, Ethernet , USB ports
On a Personal Computer we can find the following communication ports

Serial Port: this is normally a 9-pin or 25-pin port which helps in communicating with
serial devices like weigh-bridge controllers, modems etc. The data in serial
communication flows in a serial fashion, one bit following the other.

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Parallel Port: this is normally a 25-pin port on the PC for parallel devices like Dot
Matrix Printer using special cable. The other end of the cable is having special
connector and clip for printer. Here the communication flows parallel.

Ethernet Port: Most of the current PCs have a network interface card that has an
Ethernet-port having RJ-45 standard cable connection. Generally this cable is
connected to network switch

USB Port : A number of USB ( Universal Serial Bus ) ports are provided on the
Personal Computer for connection of devices like Printer, keyboard, mouse, camera,
pen-drive etc
INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS

Start Windows, Moving through Windows

When PC is powered on, Windows operating system comes up after proper username,
password as a GUI (Graphical user Interface). We need mouse as well as keyboard to
operate. Windows desktop has icons displayed for disk access, program running etc

Several jobs like opening Word document, EXCEL document, web-access can be run
simultaneously. However we use only one screen at a time. Each of these programs is
visible at the bottom of the screen in the Task Bar. Switching over from one program to
another can be done by clicking on required task bar item

Maximize, Minimize, Exit Windows

Each program will have minimize, maximize and close buttons on right side top of screen.
Normally menu items like File, Edit, Insert Format, Help etc will be available
File Management

Folders are places in the file system that contains more folders and files. Files are the
storage place for data. Files can be created as new, deleted, copied, moved or renamed.
Data in two or more files can be cut / copied and pasted. File has specific format with
specific extension like .doc, .xls, .ppt depending on the type of data that is stored

It is the responsibility of each user to backup their data in CD or pen-drive

Using Floppy, CD, Pen-Drive, Printer

Floppy disk can used to store data up to 1.44 Mega Byte by using copy command.
However this is very low capacity and is no longer useful

We can write data once in CD-R and several times in CD-RW media. For this we need to
have CD write drive in our PC. Generally for writing into CD ( known as burning ) we
use the product software provided like Nero Express for CD burning
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Generally pen-drives are automatically recognized by the operating system when they
are inserted into the USB drive and the file system is displayed. At this point, copy,
delete operations can be done. It is necessary to safely close the device by software
before physically taking out from USB port

Printers have their driver-software supplied in driver-CD and this software needs to be
installed in our PC. When we want to print from WORD, EXCEL etc the Operating
System uses the driver software to communicate with the printer

Office Automation software

MS Word

A file created by WORD program is known as a document and contains .doc file
extension. Word program is typically used to write note-sheet, Inter-Office-Memo etc

Command File New opens a new document, whereas File Open opens an existing
document. Document needs to be saved to retain the modifications

It is possible to give margins, insert table, align text, give text font, text colour, fill with
colours, draw shapes, insert picture, draw lines, give paragraph spacing, bullet /
numbering, do spelling check

Command File Print helps us to print the document in a printer

Command File Exit makes us close and exit from Word program

MS Excel

A file created by EXCEL program is known as a Workbook and contains .xls file
extension. One Workbook can have a number of Worksheets. EXCEL program is
typically used to make analysis of data, do calculations using formula, create graph etc

Command File New opens a new Workbook, whereas File Open opens an existing
Workbook. Workbook needs to be saved to retain the modifications

Data in each Worksheet is filled in cells which have row (1, 2, 3 etc) and column (A, B,
C, D etc) addressing (A23, V56 etc). Each cell can take data like numerical, character,
function or formula. The results of formula get calculated automatically on change of
data

It is possible to draw graphs like X-Y, bar-graph, line-graph, pie-chart etc, sort data, do
matrix operation, do query on data

Command File Print helps us to print the data / graph in a printer

Command File Exit makes us close and exit from EXCEL program

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MS Power Point

A file created by POWERPOINT program is known as a presentation and contains .ppt

file extension. PowerPoint program is typically used to prepare slide presentation

Command File New opens a new presentation, whereas File Open opens an existing
presentation. Presentation needs to be saved to retain the modifications

It is possible to choose layout, background for slide, insert or duplicate slide, insert
picture from file, setup slide-show with animation and auto or manual slide transition

PowerPoint has features to include notes as part of presentation to help the presenter

Command File Exit makes us close and exit from PowerPoint program
INTRANET AND INTERNET

The World Wide Web (www) is defined as the universe of network-accessible information,
accumulation of human knowledge, consisting of all the resources on the Internet
Web Based Search Engines and Web Surfing

E-mail: Electronic mail or e-mail is a store and forward method of composing, sending,
storing, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems like intranet or
internet. E-mail sometimes leads to unwanted messages ("spam"). E-mail contains
address of the sender and the address of the receiver. We can use internet e-mail
systems like yahoomail.com, rediff.com, gmail.com etc without extra expense. Our
SAIL/ plant-based e-mail systems also allow us to send to / receive mails from anyone in
the world

A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with
text, images, videos, music and other information located on a Web page at a website on
the World Wide Web or a local area network. One example of web browser is Internet
Explorer

A web based search engine is an information retrieval software system designed to help
find information stored in a computer system on World Wide Web. Example is
www.google.co.in, www.yahoo.com etc

A website is a location on the World Wide Web, which contains a home page, which is
the first document users see when they enter the site and multiple links. The site is
invoked by giving the location address on the browser software. Each site is owned and
managed by an individual or an organization

]
Examples of a few important websites

NINL: www.ninl.in

SAIL : www.sail.co.in
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Indian Railway information: www.indianrail.gov.in

Internet railway booking: www.irctc.co.in

The Hindu newspaper www.thehindu.com

Searching for specific information www.google.co.in

Advantages of Web

Globally establish our companys presence round-the-clock, provide technical support

Advertising and Multimedia content

Provide quick business information and better Customer service

Product catalog, tendering, sales

Electronic payment
COMPUTER VIRUS AND ITS EFFECT

Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer
to another and to interfere with computer operation
A virus might corrupt or delete data on our computer. Viruses are easily spread by
attachments in e-mail messages that is why it is essential that we never open e-mail
attachments unless we know who it's from and we are expecting it.
Anti Virus program
To help avoid viruses, it's essential that we keep load in our computer the latest antivirus
tools. We also have to follow a few basic rules when we surf the Internet, download files, and
open attachments. Some of the popular anti-virus programs available are Symantec, AVG,
NOTRON etc
Computer Hardware Maintenance
It is essential that we know about the parts of our computer system and also follow the
Standard Operating practices. However, the computer maintenance is normally carried out by
a maintenance contract operated globally in the plant. Hence as a user we have to register
compliant with the maintenance agency and get their assistance to rectify the problem.

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DOs and DOnts

Computer Standard Operating Procedures
Dos

Input power supply with proper earthing is very essential. It is recommended to check
and correct the voltage especially neutral wire to ground voltage (should be less than 5
volt) periodically

UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) takes raw AC input power and gives output of
steady 230 V AC power supply. There is a battery in UPS which sustains power to PC
for about 20 minutes after power fail. This time is sufficient for us to save our work and
do normal shutdown. It is also possible to connect UPS port to a PC port and
automatically shutdown computer in case of power failure using a special program
When switching ON computer, first start the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply),
then monitor and then the Computer. While switching OFF switch OFF CPU, monitor
and then UPS.

Use the Start Button on the Windows Taskbar to shutdown your computer. It is also
necessary to first save any files you were working with and close all applications
running in the taskbar. This is called a clean shutdown.

Connect and power on all peripherals (Printer, Monitor, Scanner and Modem) before
powering on the computer.

Keep keyboard, screen printer and other peripherals clean. Use plastic covers to protect
computers and peripherals when not in use. Keep media like floppy, CD in dust-free
cover.

Logoff the computer when you have finished or are leaving for an extended period of
time.

Always report any abnormality to concerned agency and keep log.

Use an Antivirus program and update it frequently.

Backup your data like email, office documents in a pen-drive or CD regularly.

Use hard-to-guess password and do not keep password information in local hard disk.

Donts

Don't Switch external devices on and off several times hoping that this may be a cure.

Don't Eat or drink near the keyboard and mouse.

Dont download or install any software without prior approval.

Dont open emails or email attachments from senders you do not recognize.

Dont move PC peripherals in power-on condition

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MINING

Page 242 of 250

INTRODUCTION
To develop a mines we have to understand the geology of the area. The formation of ore body
is important in this respect. An ore is considered to be an aggregation of minerals from which
a metal or metallic compound can be recovered economically on a commercial scale. When the
percentage of metal or valuable in the ore is too low for profitable recovery, the rock ceases to
be an ore.
A mineral may be regarded as a naturally occurring chemical compound having a definite
chemical composition and crystal structure. The physical properties of minerals play the most
important role in the economic processing of various ores.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
The physical properties of minerals can be determined without the use of chemical tests. They
depend upon the kinds and arrangement of atoms in their crystal structures. The various
physical properties of minerals include transparency, luster, colour, specific gravity, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, magnetic properties, electrical properties, radioactive and optical
properties.
Transparency
This term used to describe the case with which we can see through a mineral. Three terms for
transparency are in common use i.e. opaque, transparent & translucent. The opaque minerals
are those through which no light can be seen. Transparent minerals are those which can be
seen through clearly. Translucent minerals are those through which a little light can be seen.
Lustre
This may be defined as the amount and quality of the reflection of light from mineral surface.
The lustre of mineral refers to its surface appearance.
Colour
In most cases the colour of mineral is due to absorption of certain wavelength of light energy
by the atoms making up the crystal. The remaining wavelengths of the light that are not
absorbed give the sensation of colour to the eye.
Luminescence
This refers to the emission of light by a mineral which is not the direct result of incandescence.
Luminescence in most minerals is faint and can be seen only in the dark. Minerals which
luminance during exposure to ultraviolet light and x-rays, are called fluorescent.

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Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a particular mineral is practically constant, it may vary a little with the
presence of some impurities. The difference in specific gravity affords one of the surest means
of separating minerals from each other and has been put to practical use. Simple washing in
water affects an efficient separation of gold grains from quartz sand, whereas use of heavy
liquids affects the separation of lighter coal from heavier shale. Difference in specific gravities
forms the basis of a class of ore-dressing process known as gravity concentration method.
Hardness
This may be defined as the ability of a mineral to resist scratching. This is different from the
ease with which it can be broken. Diamond is one of the hardest material known, but it can be
shattered easily. Like other physical properties, the hardness is dependent on the kinds and
arrangements of atoms in mineral structures. The basis of the test is a set of minerals selected
by the Austrian mineralogist, F. Mohs in 1974 numbered 1to 10 in order of increasing order of
hardness.
Mohs scale of Hardness
1. Talc

2. Gypsum

3. Calcite

4 .Flourite

5. Apatite

6 .Oligoclage

7 .Quartz

8 .Topaz

9. Quarandum

10 .Diamond

Logging
The purpose of logging is to determine the thickness of ore body/coal seam and also to
ascertain the quality of the ore/coal. For this purpose a bore hole is driven down the hole
through core drilling and core is recovered which is placed in a core box with utmost care. The
geologist/mining engineer measure the core length of the earth crust carefully and a picture is
drawn on paper of the length and location of the ore body/coal seam. Simultaneously ore/coal
seam sent to laboratory for quality analysis. This provides the basic information for the
Geological and Assay database for any mining software like surpac, datamine to be used for
the Reserve estimation, establishing average quality , Ore modeling ,preparation of the mine
plan and finally the mine scheduling to produce targeted quantity of Ore with stipulated
quality..

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Bench wise excavation plan

To meet the targeted production with desired quality a systematic and scientific bench wise
excavation plan is prepared synchronizing the overburden removal to expose sufficient ore
benches for the desired production and excavation from different ore benches of different ore
quality which can be blended at the crusher level for the desired final product for dispatches to
the steel plant
Reading of excavation plan
The size and shape of topography where mining is to be carried out is depicted in a mine
surface plan which is drawn on a suitable scale together with every surface features in a
schedule manner called mine surface plan. The various surface features are shown according
to a specified schedule under the statute. Excavation plan can be prepared on the mine surface
plan or separately on mine working plan showing all the mine working benches/faces clearly
demarcating the area with the length and breadth of the planned excavation in particular
stipulated period. Normally excavation plan is prepared every month with respect to the
annual excavation plan under five year Mining Scheme approved by Indian Bureau of Mines.
Excavation plan can vary with deviations in the requirements, but annual planned quantity
shall not be increased more than the quantity stipulated in the mining scheme without the
permissions of IBM.
Short & Long term excavation plan
1. Long term plans
All the long term excavation plans has to be made in line with the mine plans, mining scheme
and the mine closure/progressive mine closure plans approved by IBM. Progressive Mine
Closure Plan is the essence of mine planning in which the planning starts from the final pit
limit at the end of mine life with systematic reclamation and rehabilitation so that at the end
it is restored to the original landform as far as possible. Mine Plan is the plan of systematic
excavation plan for the applied lease period normally for 20 years with due considerations of
the Environmental protection and the mineral Conservation. There are always possibilities of
the deviations from the mine plan if there are shortages from the target or any changes in
demands.
Mining Schemes;- To accommodate the deviations from the original mine plan a Mining
Scheme is prepared after every 5 years of the Mine Plan period.. Five year mining scheme
shows the modified mine excavation plan with clear details of each year excavation. All the
plans are prepared for mining of ore body/coal keeping in view the objective and mission of our
Company. In long term plan Govt. of India five years plan in the development of society & our
Country are also taken care of. For example vision 2025 have been drawn where steel
production is augmented to 100 million tones in India.

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2. Short term plans

In order to reach the goal and to fulfill the objective of the Organization based on the long
term excavation plan like the mine plan and the mining schemes, short term plan is prepared
for annual/monthly excavations where every detail is worked out.
Waste dump/making of waste dump plan/slope stability/illumination
Waste dump is defined as stacking of broken waste material which do not conform to economic
value but the volume is so high that a careful assessment and planning of waste dump is
required which plays a vital role in running an open cast mine. It should be stacked on non
mineralized area on a firm ground or old mine working within the lease. It should be so
planned that re-handling of waste dump is minimum or not at all required i.e. away from ore
body/coal. With the present environment concerns dumping in the hill slopes is not being
permitted by the forest as well as the pollution control departments. It is therefore desired
that mine excavation should be planned in such a way that excavated mine working is
available for back filling of the old mined out area from where entire mineral has been
exploited.
The waste dump can be made in different segment in 30m height so that slope failure is
minimum or not at all possible. For this purpose a horizontal length all along the periphery is
left. The draw angle i.e. the angle of repose of waste material is normally kept at 33.5 degree
from vertical to avoid slope failure. Waste dump are being manned by mining sirder /mining
mate & dump man and frequented by shift I/c. With the help of dozer/pay loader a berm
should be prepared all along the dump yard in the direction of extension of dump. Regular
water sprinkling to suppress the dust should be done. While designing a dump utmost care
should be taken that the waste is not carried away by the rain water into the natural water
course or the river stream during monsoon.
While breaking a new area if any top soil is available it should not be dumped with the waste
materials at the waste dump but it should be stacked separately for the future use for
plantation in the process of mine rehabilitation. If the mine operation continue in the dark
hours the dump shall be adequately lighted to facilitate the free flowing movement of
dumpers. Minimum illumination level as per Mines Regulation, illumination to the level of 3.5
lux is required to be maintained.
Equipment planning/Selection of equipment
The selection of equipment for opencast mine is dependent on the size and shape of ore body,
ore reserves, volume of production desired and the time frame to close the mine. For example
if a deposit is highly erratic and selective mining is required, it has to be worked manually. In
a small deposits higher capacity of equipments are not desired whereas in big deposits where
large excavation is required, higher capacity equipments are effective and economical in
operation. So selection of equipment is an important phenomenon for open cast mine. The
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following combinations are suitable and normally used as per the rocks/minerals to be
excavated.

Excavator dumper combination

In pit crusher belt conveyor combination
Bucket wheel excavator
Drag line

Bucket wheel excavator is a large capacity continuous excavator which is used in soft
formations for directly excavating material from the mine faces and transporting to the
desired locations through the conveyors. It is also being used in some mines and the ore
handling plants at the steel plants for reclamation of the lumps/fines of the Iron ore. Dragline
is a giant excavator which can be used for directly side casting the overburden to large
distances .It can be effectively used also for temporary shifting of the overburden for mining
and backfilling the mined out area after extraction of the entire deposit where the thickness of
the deposit are not very thick..
Equipment
Equipments required for opencast mining:

Excavators: Electric/Rope shovel, Hydraulic shovel, Front end loader, Back hoe
Dumper: 35t capacity, 50t capacity, 85t capacity, 120t capacity etc.
Drill: Electric driven, Diesel driven
Dozer: D-155,D-355,D-510
Grader
Water sprinkler

Combination of equipment
Combination of equipment is dependent on the volume of production required with a targeted
quality. In all the Sail mines except the manual mines, excavator-dumper combination is used
for excavation and the transport of ore to the crushing and the screening plant Large dia drills
from 100mm to200mm are used for drilling. Dozers and the road graders are used for leveling
at the mines and the mines roads respectively. Big water sprinklers are used to suppress the
dust in the mines which are very essential because no other operation in the mine is possible
unless the dust is suppressed.
MINES OPERATION
Drilling/Placement of drill/Sub grade drilling
Ahead of the mine production faces in different benches, a drilling block should be maintained
of sufficient length and width in all the faces to manage quantity of material at least for one
week. This enables easy weekly blasting and prevents from frequent shifting of the machines.
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For good blasting efficiency effective drilling parameters should be followed. Drilling
parameters are dependent on the rock characteristics. Distance from the free face to the first
line of the holes is known as Burden, hole to hole distance in a row is called spacing and the
extra drilling more than the height of the bench is called the subgrade drilling. Drilling block
is properly leveled with the use of a dozer and prior to start of the drilling operations,
positions of the drill holes are physically marked on the ground as per the desired drilling
parameters. Drilling parameters can be fixed on the trial and error basis following the general
prescribed thumb rules. Harder rock requires smaller burden and spacing while the larger
spacing and burden can be given in the soft rocks where less energy is required for breaking of
the rocks.
The following thumb rule is in practice for determining the drilling parameters in the mine

The burden of drill holes can be 20 to 40 times the dia of the holes.
Spacing can be 1.5 times of burden.
Stemming is normally 1/3 of hole depth but not less than the burden
Sub-grade drilling should be approx 10%to11% of the bench height.

Marking of holes on the surface can be on a square pattern or the staggered pattern. When the
spacing of the holes in the second row are in line with the first row making a square, it is
called the square pattern and when the holes of the second row are placed between the two
holes of the first row forming a triangle are called staggered pattern. Sub grade drilling are
required to compensate the drilling loss after the drill is removed. For good blasting, length of
the hole should be at least equal to the height of the bench or otherwise toes will be formed at
the foot of the bench which restricts the digging efficiency of the excavator
Blasting
Blasting is done to provide fragmented rock mass for shoveling. Its the lifeline of a mines
operation because the efficiency of all other operations like excavation, loading of dumpers,
transportation and crushing and the screening are dependent on the blasting efficiency i.e the
fragmentation of the basted mass. Different types of explosives are used
for rock fragmentation.

High prime charge

Prime charge
Base charge
Column charge

The blasting circuits used in an open cast mines:

By use of the Safety fusePlain detonator-Detonating fuse-High prime charge-Prime
charge Column charge-base charge. Detonating Relays are used between the rows of the
blast holes to manage row to row delay of 17milli-seconds in each row in blasting for better
fragmentation than the solid blasting without delays.
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By use of electric detonators

Electric plain detonator/electric delay detonators-detonating fuse-high prime charge-prime
charge-column charge-base charge. Delay sequencing is managed between the rows by use of
the electric delay detonators which are connected in series and fired by an exploder.
By use of the non-electric detonators
Above systems are old conventional system of blasting. But now a days nonel system of
blasting is being practiced in practically all the large open cast mines. Instead of detonating
fuse, nonel tubes are used in this system (shock tube technology). Providing a free face is the
essence of the blasting technology. In the above systems delay is provided between the rows to
provide free face between the rows. In nonel system, hole to hole delay is created and hence
the hole to hole free face is provided for efficient blasting. Advantage of using nonel
technology:

Nonel tubes do not destroy the bubbles energy of explosives whereas in detonating fuse
the flames traveling is in contact with explosives destroying its bubble energy. In this
way by saving the explosive energy it leads to cost saving and better fragmentation.
More energy is utilized in breaking the rock instead it is wasted in the atmosphere
causing air blast and the blast vibrations.
Each hole gets blast at different timing thereby extra free face is created leading to
better fragmentation
Less throw and better muck pile
Less vibration
Safer in handling and blasting.
Large no. of holes can be blasted effectively in single shot providing large volume of the
blasted mass.
There are less chances of misfire as all the surface connections are charged before down
the hole non electric delays are initiated.

Operation schedule/deployment/monitoring
Operation schedule is a daily/weekly operation plan taking into consideration of quality
parameters &targeted production. It is synchronization between available bench wise blasted
material quality, quantity and available shovel combination. To get a desired result the bench
wise shovel operation must be monitored through out the shift.
Trans port /arrangement of transport
For transporting men and material arrangement of transport is vital in a mines operation.
Quality/monitoring
Its a desirable practice that winning of ore shall commence after blasting of ore body. Before
blasting all extraneous materials shall be removed. Bench wise quality excavation is
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monitored by scheduling deployment of shovels in a shift. The shift operation should follow the
plan for getting the desired quality.
Crushing plant
Transported ore from the quarry is fed to primary crusher. Primary crusher is normally a
gyratory crusher and sometimes Jaw crushers, which crush the ore upto a size of 300mm.The
crushed ore is then feed to a secondary cone crusher through conveyor belt to get a desired size
of 40mm and below. The mixture of sized lump &fines is stocked into a stock pile for feeding to
screening plant through conveyors.
Screening plant
The job of screening plant is to separate lump (-40mm to +10mm) & fines (-10mm) through
double deck screen and transport the material to Ore Handling Plant stockpiles through
conveyors. In wet screening the lump &fines are washed with waters in the double deck screen
for removing impurities during monsoon.
Ore Handling Plant
The job of ore handling plant is to feed the wagon loader from stock pile by a bucket wheel
excavator. From the bucket wheel excavator the lumps &fines are transported to wagon loader
for loading into wagons by conveyors.
Loading and dispatch
Managing loading and dispatch within the free time without incurring demurrages and
loading correct weight to avoid heavy penal freight is the prime requirement and the big
challenge. There are different systems of loading in different mines. Loading are done by
wagon loader, shovels or the pay loaders. No. of the loading equipments depend on its
capacity and the free time provided by the railways.
SAFETY /PPE/SAFETY OF MEN/MACHINE
The safety of persons employed in mines and also the equipment are the responsibility of the
supervisors/ Astt. Manager & other engineers working in the mine. There are hazards
associated with blasting, transportation of coal/ore, use of electrical energy. As a general rule
all persons working in mines must wear personal protective equipments, follow general
principal laid down in permission letters by the Directorate General of Mines Safety Official
as per MMR 1961/CMR1957.General condition of mines atmosphere shall be congenial,
airborne dust shall be suppressed at the place of formation by water sprinkling.
Heavy electrical &other drills and also shovels shall be kept at a safe distance during blasting
to avoid damage from flying fragments. Shovels shall be so placed and operated that shall not
be any undercuts and over hangs. Quarry lighting/mine lighting shall take care of glare also.
Mines shall be well lighted so that movement of men and machine are not disturbed. Separate
walkway for men shall be established. Traffic of dumpers/truck shall be controlled and a
separate haul road shall be established for light vehicles.
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