PART 6: INTELLIGENCE1

THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is the ability to process information that enables the person to solve
genuine problems and difficulties. (Howard Gardner, information processing
paradigm)
INTELLIGENCE TESTING2
Aptitude tests predict an individuals ability to learn a skill or what an individual
can accomplish with training.
Achievement tests measures what a person has learned or the skills the person
has mastered.
Criteria of a Good Test: Reliability, Validity and Standardization
Reliability, if a test or method of assessment has good reliability, it will yield
reproducible and consistent results. It is the extent to which a test yields a
consistent, reproducible measure of performance. Alternate form reliability is shown
when two forms of a test correlate highly with each other. A test has good internal
consistency when various items on the test are correlated highly with each other.
When more subjective assessments are used, judges rate the answers of
respondents, and the researcher hopes to see interjudge reliability or interrater
reliability.
Validity. This refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to
measure. Criterion or empirical validity is shown when the test is highly correlated
with another test of the same construct. Construct validity is shown when the
scores on the test predict outcomes that the researchers theory suggests it should
predict.
Standardization involves uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test,
as well as creating norms or performance standards for the test. Uniform testing
procedure requires that the testing environment must be as similar as possible for
all individuals. Moreover, the test direction and the amount of time allowed to
complete the test must should be the same.

Condensed by Roland L. Aparece, MA, Social Science Department, University of Bohol, from
Edward E. Smith et. al. Atkinson & Hilgards Introduction to Psychology, 14th ed. (Singapore:
Wadsworth, a division of Thompson Learning, Inc., 2003) pp 427-449. John W. Santrock. Psychology 7th
ed. (Singapore: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003) pp. 338-420. See also Kassin, Saul. Psychology
4th ed. (New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2004) pp.390-431. Morris, Charles & Maisto, Albert.
Psychology: an Introduction 12th ed., (New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2005) pp.292-327.
2

Take an IQ test at http//www.mugu.com/cgl-bin/Upstream/Issues/psychology/IQ/index.html This site

contains interesting links about intelligence. InfoTrac Online Library at http://www.infotrac-college.com/wadswoth
(search for intelligence and intelligence tests).

Culture-fair tests are intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally

unbiased. Two types of culture-fair tests have been developed. The first includes
questions that are familiar to people from all socioeconomic and ethnic
backgrounds. The second type of culture-fair tests contains no verbal questions.
The first intelligence tests were developed by the French psychologist Alfred Binet,
who proposed the concept of mental age. A bright childs mental age is above his or
her chronological age; a slow childs mental age is below his or her chronological
age. The concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), the ratio of mental age to
chronological age (multiplied by 100), was introduced when the Binet scales were
revised to create the Stanford-Binet. Many intelligence test scores are still
expressed as IQ scores, but they are no longer actually calculated according to this
formula.
NEUROSCIENCE AND INTELLIGENCE
In general, researchers have found that a larger head size and a larger brain size,
especially a larger brain size, are associated with higher intelligence. However
because this founding are correlational, it is not certain whether a large head or
brain size causes greater intelligence or vice verse.
There is a correlation between information processing speed, often measured as
reaction time, and IQ scores. Higher scores are linked with faster, or shorter
reaction times. However, the relation of processing speed to intelligence is complex,
and processing speed by itself does not determine intelligence.
Individuals with higher intelligence test scores demonstrate increase brain activity
(increased use of glucose) when they are engaged in a cognitive activity of their
own choosing. However, individuals with higher intelligence successfully complete
an assigned task using less energy. This finding may mean that individuals with
high intelligence have more active brains than those with less intelligence and use
them more efficiently.
THEORIES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
The concept mental age and IQ is based on the idea that intelligence is a general
ability. However, a number of contemporary psychologists continue to search for
specific components that make up intelligence.
The following are several
alternative conceptions of intelligence, beginning with that of Charles Spearman.
Factor Analysis, Two Factor Theory and Multiple Factor theory.
Charles Spearman (1927) proposed that intelligence has two factors. His two factor
theory states that individuals have both general intelligence g, and a number pf
specific abilities or s. Spearman believed that these two factors accounted for a
persons performance on an intelligence test. He develop his theory by applying
factor analysis is a statistical procedure that compares various items or measures
and identifies factors that are correlated to each other such a verbal or
mathematical reasoning.

L.L. Thurstone (1983) also used factor analysis in analyzing a number of

intelligence test, but he concluded that the test measures only specific factors, not
general intelligence. Thurstone multiple factor theory states that intelligence
consists of seven (7) primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, number
ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning and
perceptual speed.
Gardners theory of Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence is the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of
consequence in a particular cultural setting or community. Intelligence is not a
thing, some sort of commodity inside the head, but a potential, the presence of
which allows an individual access to forms of thinking appropriate to specific kind of
content.
1. Linguistic Intelligence- The capacity for speech, along with mechanism dedicated
to phonology (speech sounds) syntax (grammar) semantics (meaning) and
pragmatics (implications and uses of language in various settings).
Occupations: authors, journalist, speakers.
2. Musical Intelligence- The ability to create, communicate and
understand
meanings made of sound, along with mechanisms dedicated to pitch, rhythm, and
timber sound quality. The ability to compose, arrange musical pieces and play
musical instruments. Occupations: Composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners
3. Logico-Mathematical Intelligence- The ability to use and appreciate relationships
in the absence of action or objects- that is to engage in abstract thought.
Occupations: philosophers, scientists, engineers, accountants
4. Spatial Intelligence- The ability to perceive visual or spatial information, to
modify it, and recreate visual images without reference to the original stimulus.
Includes the capacity to construct images in three dimensions and to move and
rotate those images. Occupations: Architects, artists,
5. Bodily kinesthetic Intelligence- The ability to use all or part of the body to solve
problems or fashion products; includes control over fine and gross motor actions
and the ability to manipulate external objects. Occupations: Surgeons, craftspeople,
dancers, athletes
6. Intrapersonal intelligence- The ability to have insights into ones own thoughts
and feelings, to understand the causes and consequences of ones own actions and,
as a result, to make effective decisions. Self-insight is a highly adaptive form of
intelligence. Occupations: theologians, psychologists.
7. Interpersonal Intelligence- The ability to recognize and make distinctions among
other peoples feelings, beliefs, and intentions. This also involves the ability to
establish good personal relationship with others. Occupations: Politicians, sales
persons, teachers, mental health professionals.

8. Natural skills- The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand human
made system. Occupations: Farmers, botanist, ecologist, landscapers.
Andersons theory of intelligence holds that individual differences in intelligence
and developmental changes in intellectual competence are explained by different
mechanism. Differences in intelligence result from differences in the basic
processing mechanism, that implements thinking, which in turn yield knowledge.
Individuals vary in the speed at which basic processing occurs. A high/low speed
processing mechanism produces high/low general intelligence.
This theory suggests two basic routes of knowledge. The first involves the basic
processing mechanism, which operates through the specific processors, to acquire
knowledge (thinking). The second involves the use of modules to acquire
knowledge. Module base knowledge, such as perception of three dimensional space,
comes automatically if the module ahs mature sufficiently, and this accounts for the
development of intelligence.
Sternbergs Triarchic Theory
In contrast to Andersons theory, Robert Sternbergs Triarchic theory addresses
experience and context as well as basic information processing. His theory has
three parts or sub theories:
1. Componential intelligence or Analytical Intelligence deals with thought processes;
it considers the components of thought. Sternberg identified three types of
components (Atkinson):
1.1 Metacomponents are use to plan, control, monitor, and evaluate processing
during problem solving. Analytic ability
1.2 Performance component carries out problem-solving strategies. This involves
creative abilities in solving problems.
1.3 Knowledge-acquisition components encode, combine and compare information
during the course of problem solving.
In Sternbergs view of analytical intelligence, the basic unit of intelligence is a
component simply defined as a basic unit of information processing. Sternberg
believes that such components include the ability to acquire or store information, to
retain to retrieve information; to transfer information; to plan, make decisions, and
solve problems; and to translate our thought into performance (Santrock).
2. Experiential intelligence which deals with the effects of experience on
intelligence; According to Sternberg, differences in experience affect the ability to
solve a given problem. In effect, an individuals experience with a task or problem
thus falls somewhere along a continuum that extends from totally novel to
completely automatic (that is totally familiar as a result from long experience).
Here it deals with the ability to use insights, strategy and creativity.

3. Contextual intelligence which considers the effects of the individuals

environment and culture. It focuses on three mental processes: adaptation,
selection and shaping the real-world environment. It involves the ability to think
practically, that is, being able to identify ones needs and the needs of others, to
figure out the unspoken rules of the game and address them accordingly or what
is necessary to adapt to lifes demands. Moreover, highly practical persons are very
good at making the most of their talents by seeking out situations that best match
their skills, shaping those situations so they can make optimal use of their skills and
knowing when to change situations to better fit their talents.
Emotional Intelligence- The ability to monitor ones own and others emotions
and feelings to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones
thinking and actions (Salovy and Mayer, 1990). The concept of emotional
intelligence has been popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995). Goleman believes that
when it comes to predicting a persons competence, IQ as measured by traditional
intelligence tests matters less than emotional intelligence. In Golemans view,
emotional intelligence involves four areas:
1. Developing emotional awareness-the ability to monitor and recognize our own
feelings and separate feelings from actions)
2. Managing emotions-the ability to control impulses; to cope effectively with
sadness, depression and minor setbacks, as well as to control how long emotions
last.
3. Reading emotions or recognizing the emotions of other people. The ability to
read subtle, nonverbal cues that reveal what other people really want and need.
This involves taking the perspective of others.
4. Handling relationships- The ability accurately to acknowledge and display ones
own emotions as well as being sensitive to the emotions of others. This also
includes the ability to solve relationship problems.
Stephen Cecis Bioecological theory proposes that there are multiple cognitive
potentials, rather than a single underlying general intelligence or g. These multiple
abilities or intelligences are biologically based and place on limits on mental
processes. Their emergence however, is shape by the challenges and opportunities
in the individuals environment, or context. Accordingly, everyday or real world
intellectual performance cannot be explained by IQ alone or by some biological
notion of general intelligence. Instead it depends on the interaction between
multiple cognitive potentials with a rich well-organized knowledge base.

THE EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCES AND CREATIVITY

Mental retardation is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual
has a low IQ, usually bellow 70; has difficulty adapting to everyday life; and has an
on set of these characteristics during the so called developmental period. Most
affected individuals have IQs in the 55-70 range (mild retardation). Mental
retardation can have an organic cause (called organic retardation) or can be social
or cultural in origin (called cultural-familial retardat
People who are gifted have high intelligence (IQs of 120 or higher) and/or superior
talent for a particular domain. Three characteristics of a gifted children are
precocity, marching to ones own drummer, and a passion to master. Giftedness is
likely a consequence of both heredity and environment.
Creativity is to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up
with unconventional solutions to problems. The difference between intelligence and
creativity is the ability to produce something original or unique. Creative people
tend to be divergent thinkers who can see more than one possible answer to a
question. Traditional intelligence test questions have only correct answer and thus
measure convergent thinking. Creativity has often been described as occurring in a
five-step process: preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation and elaboration.
Characteristics of creative thinkers include flexibility and playful thinking, inner
motivation, willingness to risk and objective evaluation of work. Csikszentmihalyi
believes that cultivating curiosity and interest in the first toward a more creative
life.
Steps in the Creative Process:
1. Preparation. You become immersed in a problem or an issue that interest you
and arouses your curiosity.
2. Incubation. You stir the ideas around in your head. This is the point around which
you are likely to make some unusual connections in your thinking.
3. Insight. At this point you experience the Aha! moment when all the pieces of the
puzzles seem to fit together.
4. Evaluation. Now you must decide whether this idea is valuable and worth
pursuing. Is the idea navel or is it obvious?
5. Elaboration. This final step often covers the longest span of time and the hardest
work. Creativity is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.

Characteristics of Creative Thinkers

1. Flexibility and playful thinking. Creative thinkers are flexible and play with
problems which give rise to paradox. Although creativity takes hard work, the work
goes more smoothly if it is taken lightly. In a sense humor greases the wheel of
creativity. When you are joking around, you are more likely to consider any
possibility. Having fun helps disarm the inner censor that can condemn your ideas
as off base. Brain storming is a technique in which members of a group are
encourage to come up with as many ideas as possible, play off each others ideas,
and say practically whatever comes to mind. Individuals usually avoid criticizing
others ideas until the end of the session.
2. Inner motivation. Creative people are often motivated by the joy of creating and
tend to be less inspired by grades, money, or favorable feedback from others.
3. Willingness to risk. Creative people make more mistakes than their less
imaginative counter parts. It is not that they are less proficient but that they come
up with more ideas, more possibilities. They win some, they lose some. (E.g. 2oth
century Spanish artist Pablo Picasso created more than 20,000 paintings. Not all of
them were masterpieces. Creative people learn to cope with unsuccessful projects
and see failure as a opportunity to learn.
4. Objective evaluation of work. Most creative thinkers strive to evaluate their work
objectively. They may use an established set of criteria to make judgments or rely
on the judgment of respected trusted others.
Living a more creative life: Csikszentmihalyi (1996) interviewed 90 leading figures
in art, business, government, education and science to learn how creativity works.
He discovered that creative people regularly engage ion challenges that absorb
them. Basing on his interviews, he concluded that the fist step to cultivate a more
creative life is to cultivate your curiosity and interest. Here are his
recommendations for doing this:
1. Try to be surprise by something each day.
2. Try to surprise at least one person each day.
3. Write down each day what surprise you and how your surprised others.
4. When something sparks your interest, follow it.
5. Wake up each morning with a specific goal o look forward to.
6. Take charge of your schedule.
7. Spend time in settings that stimulate your creativity.