Emona Datex Vol2 Labmanual Ver1 1 Student

Emona DATEx
Lab Manual
Volume 2
Further Experiments in Modern
Analog & Digital Telecommunications
For NI ELVIS I and II
Barry Duncan
Emona DATEx
Lab Manual
Volume 2
Further Experiments in Modern
Analog & Digital Telecommunications
For NI ELVIS I and II
Barry Duncan
Emona DATEx Lab Manual for NI ELVIS I and II

Volume 2 Further Experiments in Modern Analog and Digital Telecommunications.
Author: Barry Duncan
Technical editor: Carlo Manfredini
Issue Number: Vol2 issue 1.1
Published by:
Emona Instruments Pty Ltd,
78 Parramatta Road
Camperdown NSW 2050
AUSTRALIA.
web: www.emona-tims.com
telephone: +61-2-9519-3933
fax: +61-2-9550-1378
Copyright 2008 - 2011 Emona Instruments Pty Ltd and its related entities. All
rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
adapted, modified, edited or distributed in any form or by any means, including
any network or Web distribution or broadcast for distance learning, or stored in
any database or in any network retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of Emona Instruments Pty Ltd.
For licensing information, please contact Emona Instruments Pty Ltd.
DATEx is a trademark of Emona TIMS Pty Ltd.
LabVIEW, National Instruments, NI, NI ELVIS, and NI-DAQ are
trademarks of National Instruments Corporation. Product and company names
mentioned herein are trademarks or trade names of their respective companies.
Printed in Australia
Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................ i - iv
1 - AM (method 2) and product detection of AM signals............................. Expt 1 - 1
2 - Noise in AM communications........................................................................... Expt 2 - 1
3 - PCM and time division multiplexing (TDM) ................................................. Expt 3 - 1
4 - An introduction to Armstrongs modulator ................................................ Expt 4 - 1
5 - Phase division modulation and demodulation .............................................. Expt 5 - 1
6 - Pulse-width modulation and demodulation .................................................. Expt 6 - 1
7 - Message translation and inversion ................................................................ Expt 7 - 1
8 - Carrier acquisition using the phase-locked loop ....................................... Expt 8 - 1
9 - Signal-to-noise ratio and eye diagrams....................................................... Expt 9 - 1
10 - Pulse code modulation and signal-to-noise distortion ratio (SNDR) Expt 10 - 1
11 - ASK demodulation using product detection.............................................. Expt 11 - 1
12 - FSK generation (switching method) and demodulation......................... Expt 12 - 1
13 - Principles of Gaussian FSK (GFSK) ............................................................. Expt 13 - 1
14 - PN sequence spectra and noise generation............................................... Expt 14 - 1
15 - Line coding and bit-clock regeneration ..................................................... Expt 15 1
16 - Delta modulation and demodulation ............................................................ Expt 16 - 1
17 Delta-sigma modulation and demodulation................................................ Expt 17 1
18 FM Generation using the harmonic multiplier method.......................... Expt 18 - 1
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Class:
Name:
15 - Line coding and bit-clock regeneration
Experiment 15 Line coding and bit-clock regeneration

Preliminary discussion
Line coding
As you know, logic-0 and logic-1 in digital systems are represented by assigned voltages. For
example, the TTL logic-0 is represented by 0V and the TTL logic-1 is represented by 5V (or by
acceptable voltages relatively close to 0V and 5V). As you also know, the logic levels for other
logic families like CMOS, ECL, etc are not necessarily 0V and 5V. This tells us that logic levels
can be represented by any pair of voltages we like. That said, the choice of which voltages to
use is not as arbitrary as that may seem. Its usually an engineering decision made to confer an
advantage.
Importantly, this is also true for the choice of voltages used when sending digital signals over
transmission lines like telephone lines. Standard TTL and CMOS voltages are less than ideal
for this purpose. Moreover, even the basic premise of holding the voltage at a particular value
for the entire duration of the logic states value can be disadvantageous. For these reasons,
digital signals within systems are often conditioned for transmission line communications and
this is called line coding.
There are quite a few line codes. Four of them are:
Non-return to zero level (bipolar) (NRZ-L)

As you can see from Figure 1 on the next page, this code is a simple scale and level shift of
the original digital signal.
Bi-phase level (Bi-L also known as Manchester code)

Figure 1 shows that this code changes state from +V to V in the middle of the bit period
for all logic-1s and changes from V to +V in the middle of the bit period for all logic-0s.
For consecutive bits with the same logic level, the voltage must invert after half a bit
length in order to satisfy this rule for the next bit.
Return to zero alternate mark inversion (RZ-AMI)

Figure 1 shows that this code uses 0V to represent logic-0 and a half-bit pulse to represent
logic-1. Importantly, the polarity of the pulses alternates for every successive logic-1 (even
if theyre not consecutive bits).
Non-return to zero mark (bipolar) (NRZ-M)

Figure 1 shows that this code changes state for each new logic-1 and doesnt change state
for any logic-0s.
15-2
Emona Instruments
Experiment 15 Line coding & bit clock regeneration
0
5V
TTL
0V
NRZ-L
0V
Bio-L
0V
RZ-AMI
0V
NRZ-M
0V
Figure 1
Table 1 below compares the minimum bandwidth requirements for propagating these signals
along transmission lines. It also shows the line codes usefulness for bit-clock regeneration.
Table 1
Line code
Minimum
bandwidth
Bit-clock
regeneration
NRZ-L
fb
Poor
Bi-L
fb
Very good
RZ-AMI
fb
Good
NRZ-M
fb
2
2
Poor
Emona Instruments
15-3
As you can see, RZ-AMI offers the best compromise of the four between bandwidth and bitclock regeneration (as well as other line code characteristics not mentioned here) and so it is
widely used.
Bit-clock regeneration
In digital communications, once the transmitted signal has been demodulated by the receiver
and the digital data signal cleaned up, the data bits are read. Whatever the circuit or device
that does the reading, it must have a bit-clock that is synchronised to the bit-clock of the
original digital data. If not, some bits are read more than once and/or other bits are not read
at all. Both result in data errors.
When implementing other DATEx digital experiments, bit-clock synchronisation is achieved by
simply stealing the bit-clock using a patch lead. This is obviously not possible in practice for
wireless communications and is impractical for transmission line communications because an
additional line is needed. As such, a method of remotely synchronising the two bit-clocks is
necessary. This is the aim of bit-clock regeneration (BCR).
There are many ways of implementing bit-clock regeneration. To understand open-loop methods
of BCR, you have to understand that the spectral composition of the digital data signal
consists of a fundamental and harmonics that are sub-multiples and multiples of the original
datas bit-clock (this issue is examined in Experiment 14). Usefully, the spectral composition of
line codes such as Bi-phase level (Bi-L or Manchester code) consist of a significant harmonic
at the original bit-clock. In which case, this harmonic can be recovered using an appropriately
selective band-pass filter.
Others line codes (like the other three mentioned on page 15-2) dont have a significant
harmonic at the bit-clock frequency. However, their spectral composition is such that, if the
digital data signal is mathematically squared, a significant sinewave at the original digital data
signals bit-clock is generated. Again, this signal can be recovered using an appropriately
selective band-pass filter.
Once the sinewave at the bit-clock frequency has been filtered, it is sent to a comparator to
convert it into a digital signal and is then ready to be used as the local bit-clock
(notwithstanding other bit-clock regeneration issues such as jitter).
The experiment
For this experiment youll examine the four DATEx line code equivalents of a standard TTL
data signal in the time domain and compare them to their theoretically predicted waveshape.
Next youll examine the signals in the frequency domain to establish that one of them is
different to the other three in terms of its spectral composition. Finally, youll square the line
codes to observe the effect on the component in them at the bit-clock frequency.
It should take you about 50 minutes to complete this experiment.
15-4
Emona Instruments
Pre-requisites:
Experiments 1, 2 & 3 (Vol. 1): Intros to the NI ELVIS II, the Emona DATEx and SFP control
Experiment 14 (Vol. 2): PN sequence spectrum and noise generation (desirable)
Equipment
Personal computer with appropriate software installed
NI ELVIS II plus USB cable and power pack
Emona DATEx experimental add-in module
Three BNC to 2mm banana-plug leads
Assorted 2mm banana-plug patch leads
Procedure
Part A Observations of line codes in the time domain
The next part of this experiment gets you observe the four Emona DATEx line code outputs in
the time domain.
1.
Ensure that the NI ELVIS II power switch at the back of the unit is off.
2.
Carefully plug the Emona DATEx experimental add-in module into the NI ELVIS II.
3.
Set the Control Mode switch on the DATEx module (top right corner) to PC Control.
4.
Connect the NI ELVIS II to the PC using the USB cable.

Note: This may already have been done for you.
5.
Turn on the NI ELVIS II power switch at the rear of the unit then turn on its
Prototyping Board Power switch at the top right corner near the power indicator.
6.
Turn on the PC and let it boot-up.
7.
Launch the NI ELVISmx software.
8.
Launch the DATEx soft front-panel (SFP) and check that you have soft control over the
DATEx board.
9.
Locate the Sequence Generator module on the DATEx SFP and set its soft DIP-switches
to 00.
Note: This selects NRZ-L as the line code for the Sequence Generator modules LINE
CODE output.
Emona Instruments
15-5
10.
Connect the set-up shown in Figure 2 below.

Note: Insert the black plugs of the oscilloscope leads into a ground (GND) socket.
MASTER
SIGNALS
SEQUENCE
GENERATOR
FGEN
LINE
CODE
TRIG
5V TTL
1
OO NRZ-L
SYNC
O1 Bi-O
1 O RZ-AM I
1 1 NRZ-M
1 00 kHz
SINE
1 00 kHz
COS
SCOPE
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
CLK
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
CH 1
SPEECH
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
GND
2kHz
SINE
GND
Figure 2
This set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 3 below. The Master Signals
modules 2kHz DIGITAL output is used to provide the Sequence Generator modules bit-clock.
The Sequence Generator modules X output is a continuous 31-bit sequential binary number.
The Sequence Generator modules LINE CODE output is a copy of its X output using the line
code scheme set by the DIP-switches. The modules SYNC output is a pulse that corresponds
with the sequences first output bit on every repetition and is used to trigger the scope.
X sequence
To CH 0
X
LINE CODE
CLK
Master
Signals
2kHz
Clock
Line code
To CH 1
SYNC
Sequence
Generator
SYNC
To TRIG
Figure 3
15-6
Emona Instruments
11.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Oscilloscope VI.
12.
Adjust the scope to view the Sequence Generator modules X output as a stable display.
Essential scope settings include:

Timebase to 1ms/div
Trigger Type to Digital
Note: Youll now be viewing a portion of the X outputs 31-bit sequence.

13.
Activate the scopes Channel 1 input (by checking the Channel 1 Enabled box) to view
both the Sequence Generator modules X and LINE CODE outputs.
Note: The signals will be overlayed.
14.
Set the scopes Channel 1 Vertical Position control to -3V to separate the signals and
make them easier to compare.
Note 1: Once done, the Channel 1 0V reference no-longer corresponds with the middle
horizontal line on the graticule. However, the references new position is shown using a
thin blue dashed line.
Note 2: Notice that the Channel 1 0V reference runs through the middle of the line
code signal. This means that one of signals voltages is positive and the other negative.
15.
Draw the two waveforms to scale and time-coincident with each other in the space
provided on the next page.
Note: Leave room for three more signals.
16.
Select the Bi-L line code by setting the Sequence Generator modules soft DIPswitches to 01.
17.
Draw the line code signal time-coincident with the other two.
18.
Select the RZ-AMI line code by setting the Sequence Generator modules soft DIPswitches to 10 and draw the signal time-coincident with the others.
19.
Select the NRZ-M line code by setting the Sequence Generator modules soft DIPswitches to 11 and draw the signal time-coincident with the others.
Ask the instructor to check

your work before continuing.
Emona Instruments
15-7
15-8
Emona Instruments

20.
Compare each of the line code signals with the rules underpinning them summarised in
the preliminary discussion.
Note: If any the signals appear to change when they shouldnt or dont change when they
should, check your drawing. If your drawing is correct, call the instructor for assistance.
Question 1
Which of the four line codes is bi-polar?
Question 2
Which of the four line codes represents the logic-0 in the data using 0V?
Question 3
Use the rule for RZ-AMI to determine the number of logic-1s in the portion of the X
outputs data sequence being displayed.

Emona Instruments
15-9
Part B Observations of line codes in the frequency domain

The next part of this experiment gets you observe the four Emona DATEx line code outputs in
the frequency domain.
21.
Select the NRZ-L line code by returning the Sequence Generator modules soft DIPswitches to 00.
22.
Close the scopes VI.
23.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Dynamic Signal Analyzer VI.

Note: If the Dynamic Signal Analyzer VI has launched successfully, the instruments
window will be visible (see Figure 4).
Figure 4
15-10
Emona Instruments
24.
Adjust the signal analyzers controls as follows:

Input Settings
Source Channel to SCOPE CH 1
FFT Settings

Frequency Span to 40,000

Resolution to 400
Window to 7 Term B-Harris
Voltage Range to 10V
Averaging

Mode to RMS
Weighting to Exponential
# of Averages to 3
Cursors On box unchecked (for now)
Trigger Settings
Type to Digital
Frequency Display

Units to dB
Mode to RMS
Scale to Auto
Once adjusted correctly, the signal analyzers display should look like Figure 5 below.
Figure 5
Emona Instruments
15-11
If youve not used the signal analyzer before, its display may need a little explaining here.
There are actually two displays, a large one on top and a much smaller one underneath. The
smaller one is a time domain representation of the input (in other words, the display is a
scope).
The larger of the two displays is the frequency domain representation of the 31-bit sequence
on the Sequence Generator modules LINE CODE output. The pattern of humps (or lobes) and
nulls is typical of digital data signals (for reasons explained in Experiment 14).
25.
Compare the spectral composition of the four line codes.

Note: You should observe that, while all four codes exhibit the pattern mentioned
above, their spectral composition is different. Recall that this is one of the reasons for
choosing to use one code over another.
One of the disadvantages of Bi-L (Manchester code) is that it requires twice the bandwidth
of the other three codes to propagate the signal along a transmission line. While this limitation
cannot be demonstrated using the DATEx directly, we can examine the spectrum of the four
signals more closely to see that Bi-L is different to the other three in important ways.
26.
Adjust the Sequence Generator module to output the NRZ-L line code.
27.
Count the number of lobes in the signals spectrum (for a span of 40kHz). Record this
number in Table 2 below.
28.
Repeat Steps 26 and 27 for the other three codes.

Table 2
Line code
Lobes
(in 40kHz span)
NRZ-L
Bi-L
RZ-AMI
NRZ-M

15-12
Emona Instruments
To compare Bi-L to the other codes in another way, well use the signal analyzers cursors to
examine the null frequencies.
29.
Activate the signal analyzers cursors by checking (that is, ticking) Cursors On box.
Note 1: When you do, green horizontal and vertical lines should appear on the signal
analyzers frequency domain display.
Note 2: If you have used the signal analyzers cursors before, jump to Step 34 on the
next page.
The NI ELVIS II Dynamic Signal Analyzer has two cursors C1 and C2 that default to the left
most side of the display when the signal analyzers VI is launched. Theyre repositioned by
grabbing their vertical lines with the mouse and moving the mouse left or right.
30.
Use the mouse to grab and move the vertical line of cursor C1.
Note: As you do, notice that cursor C1 moves along the signal analyzers trace and that
the vertical and horizontal lines move so that they always intersect at C1.
31.
Repeat Step 30 for cursor C2.

Note: Fine control over the cursors position is obtained by using the cursors Position
control in the Cursor Settings area (below the display).
The NI ELVIS II Dynamic Signal Analyzer includes a tool that measures the difference in
magnitude and frequency between the two cursors. This information is displayed in green
between the upper and lower parts of the display.
32.
Move the cursors while watching the measurement readout to observe the effect.
33.
Position the cursors so that theyre on top of each other and note the measurement.
Note: When you do, the measurement of difference in magnitude and frequency should
both be zero.
Usefully, when one of the cursors is moved to the extreme left of the display, its position on
the X-axis is zero. This means that the cursor is sitting on 0Hz. It also means that the
measurement readout gives an absolute value of frequency for the other cursor. This makes
sense when you think about it because the readout gives the difference in frequency between
the two cursors but one of them is zero.
Emona Instruments
15-13
34.
35.
Move C1 to the extreme left of the display.
36.
Align C2 with the first null (that is, the deep trough between the first and second lobes
in the signals spectrum).
37.
Measure the nulls frequency and record this in Table 3 below.
38.
Measure and record the frequency of the first null in the spectrum of the other three
line codes.
Table 3
Line code
Frequency of
first null
NRZ-L
Bi-L
RZ-AMI
NRZ-M
Question 4
Based on your results in Tables 2 and 3, which of the four codes is the odd one out?

15-14
Emona Instruments
Part C Bit-clock regeneration without squaring

Recall from the preliminary discussion that, for line codes containing a significant spectral
component at the bit-clock frequency, BCR simply involves using a band-pass filter with an
appropriate selectivity to pick-out the bit-clock component. Naturally, this is a sinewave but it
can be readily turned into a squarewave using a comparator and used as a local bit-clock.
Line codes vary in terms of the significance of their bit-clock component. The next part of the
experiment demonstrates this.
39.
40.
Set the signal analyzers Frequency Span to 4,000Hz instead of 40,000Hz.
41.
Use the C2 cursor to locate the sinewave in the line code signals spectrum that is at the
bit-clock frequency.
Note: The Master Signals modules 2kHz DIGITAL output is actually 2.083kHz. So, the
bit-clock component is the sinewave at or very near this frequency.
42.
Determine the components relative size and record the value in Table 4 below.
Note 1: The relative size of the component is determined by following the horizontal
dashed line from the cursors to the Y-axis and reading off its dB figure.
Note 2: This is the components size in decibels relative to the largest component in the
line code signal.
43.
Convert the dB figure to a ratio using the equation:
AV = Log 1 (
44.
dB
20
Determine the relative size of the component at the bit-clock frequency in the other
three line codes (in both dB and as a ratio).
Table 4
Line code
Bit-clock
component (in dB)
Bit-clock comp.
(as a ratio)
NRZ-L
Bi-L
RZ-AMI
NRZ-M
Emona Instruments
15-15
Question 5
Which of the DATEx line codes has the biggest component at the original bit-clock
frequency?

15-16
Emona Instruments
Part D Bit-clock regeneration with squaring

For line codes without a significant spectral component at the bit-clock frequency, BCR
necessarily involves squaring the signal first. This generates a more significant spectral
component at the bit-clock frequency that may be significant enough to be readily filtered and
cleaned-up with a comparator for use as a local bit-clock. The next part of the experiment
demonstrates this.
45.
46.
Locate the Tuneable Low-pass Filter module on the DATEx SFP and set its soft Gain
control to about the middle of its travel.
47.
Turn the Tuneable Low-pass Filter modules soft Cut-off Frequency Adjust control fully
clockwise.
48.
Modify the set-up as shown in Figure 6 below.

Note: Remember that the dotted lines show leads already in place.
MASTER
SIGNALS
SEQUENCE
GENERATOR
TUNEABLE
LPF
MULTIPLIER
LINE
CODE
TRIG
5V TTL
f C x10 0
OO NRZ-L
SYNC
O1 Bi-O
1O RZ-AMI
11 NRZ-M
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
FGEN
X DC
SCOPE
10VDC
7Vrms max
Y DC
kXY
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
fC
CLK
CH 0
S/ P
CH 1
SPEECH
8 kHz
DIGITAL
2 kHz
DIGITAL
2 kHz
SINE
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
GAIN
GND
GND
IN
OUT
Figure 6
Emona Instruments
15-17
The set-up in Figure 6 can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 7 below. The
Tuneable Low-pass Filter module is used to model signal-shaping to reduce signals bandwidth.
The Multiplier module is used to multiply the shaped line code signal with itself effectively
squaring it. This multiplies every sinewave in the signal with each other producing a multitude
of sum and difference frequencies. Some of these sinewaves are the same frequency as the
component in the signal at the original data signals bit-clock frequency and so add to and
enlarge it.
X sequence
To CH 0
Tuneable
Low-pass filter
X
CLK
2kHz
Clock
LC
Multiplier
module
Y
SYNC
Squared
line code
To CH 1
SYNC
To TRIG
Figure 7
49.
Use the C2 cursor to locate the sinewave in the squared line code signals spectrum that
is at the bit-clock frequency.
50.
Determine the components relative size and record the value in Table 4 below.
51.
Determine the relative size of the component at the bit-clock frequency in the other
three line codes.
Table 5
Line code
Bit-clock
component (in dB)
NRZ-L
Bi-L
RZ-AMI
NRZ-M
15-18
Emona Instruments
Question 6
Compare the Figures in Table 5 with those in Table 4. What effect does squaring the
line codes signal have on the sinewave in its spectrum at the bit-clock frequency?
Question 7
Which of the squared line codes has the biggest component at the original bit-clock
frequency?
Question 8
What is needed to pick this sinewave out of the signals spectrum and turn it into a
squarewave?

your work before finishing.
Emona Instruments
15-19
15-20
Emona Instruments
Class:
Name:
16 - Delta modulation and demodulation
Experiment 16 Delta modulation and demodulation

Despite its cryptic name, delta modulation (or modulation) is a pulse modulation scheme.
Other examples of pulse modulation schemes that you may have learnt more about using the
Emona DATEx include: pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse code modulation (PCM) and
pulse-width modulation (PWM).
Delta modulation is like PWM in that it samples the analog input signal and converts it directly
into a serial stream of 1s and 0s without the need for a discrete analog-to-digital conversion
process. As such, delta modulation is also like PWM in that the digital signal on the delta
modulators digital output is a complex waveform that includes a component at the message
frequency.
Despite the similarity between delta modulation and PWM, its actually more useful to describe
its operation by comparing it to that of PCM. PCM samples the analog input signal at fixed
intervals and the samples are converted to fixed length sequential binary numbers.
Importantly, these binary numbers are directly (or, in some cases, mathematically)
proportional to the samples size.
Delta modulation effectively samples the analog input signal at regular fixed intervals also.
However, it then compares the present sample to the previous one and outputs a 1-bit data
word to indicate whether the new sample is smaller or larger than the previous one.
The block diagram of a basic delta modulation system is shown in Figure 1 below.
Input
Limiter
Sampler
Delta mod.
signal out
Clock
Integrator
Figure 1
16-2
Emona Instruments
As the delta modulation system in Figure 1 is a feedback loop, a mathematical analysis of its
operation is complicated and not attempted here. For the purpose of this exercise, think of its
operation in the following way.
The Samplers output (which is also the modulators output) is a bi-polar pulse train. That is,
instead of using 0V and 5V for the two logic states, positive and negative voltages are used (eg
2.5V). This is done so that the Integrator produces a ramp voltage that changes direction in
response to changes in logic state on the Samplers output.
The Integrators output is subtracted from the message using a Summing circuit to produce an
error signal. The polarity of the error signal is a function of the relative absolute voltages of
the analog input (the message) and Integrators output. So, if the Integrators output is
greater than the message, the error signal is one polarity. If the Integrators output is smaller
than the message the error signal is the opposite polarity. This allows the modulator to know
which of the two signals is bigger (though this information is captured only at the moment of
sampling see below) and this is essential for achieving an Integrator output that
approximates the message. Specifically, the Integrators output hunts the analog input
voltage and so its positive or negative going ramp voltages produce a sawtooth waveform that
tracks the message signals shape (and this can be seen in Figure 2 on the next page).
The Limiter continuously converts the status of the relative sizes of the sawtooth and
message waveforms to a logic state. That is, one logic state indicates when the sawtooth
waveform is bigger than the message but reverses the moment that it is smaller. The Sampler
samples this information to convert it to clocked data and level translates it to the
corresponding positive or negative voltage (mentioned above). Importantly, by definition,
sampling is a periodic process and so the Samplers output only reflects the relative sizes of
the sawtooth and message waveforms at the sampling moment.
Now lets put this together. At switch-on, the Samplers output starts at either a positive or
negative voltage which commences a ramp on the Integrators output. Now, suppose that the
Integrators output is smaller than the message (a likely proposition) but travelling in the same
direction. This produces an error signal on the Summers output with a particular polarity that
is immediately converted to a particular logic state by the Limiter. This logic state is captured
on sampling and a decision is made by the Sampler to maintain its output voltage. In other
words, nothing changes.
These conditions are maintained for every sample until such time as the absolute ramp voltage
exceeds absolute message voltage (either because the ramp catches up with the message or
the message reverses direction). Once this happens, the polarity of the error signal reverses
which immediately causes the logic state on the Limiters output to reverse. This new logic
state is sampled and captured by the Sampler forcing to reverse its output voltage, in turn
causing the Integrators ramp to reverse direction. These new conditions are now maintained
for every sample until such time as the ramp returns to an absolute voltage that is smaller
than the absolute message voltage.
Emona Instruments
16-3
Figure 2 below shows an example of the sawtooth waveform that would be generated on the
Integrators output and the digital signal on the Samplers output for a sinusoidal message to a
delta modulator. (Note: The clock frequency of the Sampler in this example is three times the
message frequency.)
Figure 2
There is an interesting point to observe about these signals. At first glance, it appears as
though the sampling rate is irregular. However, this is not the case. In instances where there
are wider than normal gaps between the changes in the ramps direction, sampling has taken
place. But, as the relative relationship between the sawtooth waveform and the message is the
same as the previous sample, there is no change of direction in the sawtooth waveform and
therefore no change in logic state on the Samplers output.
Finally, Figure 1 shows a discrete amplifier section between the Sampler and the Integrator to
control the loop gain. In practice the amplification can be incorporated into the Integrator or
Summer circuits.
16-4
Emona Instruments
The experiment
For this experiment youll use the Emona DATEx to implement the delta modulation scheme.
Youll then experiment with adjusting the integrators step size to observe the effect on the
delta modulators slope overload and granularity characteristics. Finally, youll demodulate the
delta signal using low-pass filtering and investigate the quality of the recovered message
qualitatively and quantitatively using SNDR.
Pre-requisites:
Experiment 13 (Vol. 1): Sampling and reconstruction
Experiment 10 (Vol. 2): Pulse code modulation and signal-to-noise distortion ratio
Experiment 14 (Vol. 1): PCM encoding (desirable)
Experiment 15 (Vol. 1): PCM decoding (desirable)
Experiment 6 (Vol. 2): Pulse-width modulation and demodulation (desirable)
Equipment
Two BNC to 2mm banana-plug leads
Emona Instruments
16-5
Procedure
Part A Setting up the delta modulator
Part A of this experiment gets you to implement the delta modulator using the Emona DATEx.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
Locate the Adder module and set its soft G and g controls to the middle of their travel
(which should have the arrowheads pointing to the 12 oclock position).
9.

MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
REF
X DC
IN
1 00 kHz
SINE
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
G
1 00 kHz
COS
Y DC
GND
kXY
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
Figure 3
This set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 4 on the next page. The Master
Signals modules 2kHz SINE output models the message. The remaining blocks implement the
delta modulator.
16-6
Emona Instruments
Master
Signals
Adder
module
2kHz
Comparator
Serial-to-Parallel
Converter module
A
IN
S/ P
X1
Delta mod
output
CLK
100kHz
Master
Signals
RC LPF
Figure 4
Relating this functional block diagram to the generic block diagram of a delta modulator in the
preliminary discussion (Figure 1), the Utilities modules RC LPF models the Integrator, the
Adder module implements the Summer, the Utilities modules Comparator implements the
Limiter, and the Serial-to-Parallel Converter module models the Sampler. Loop gain is provided
and controlled by the Adder module.
A few important points should be made here before you continue with the experiment. First, as
the DATEx doesnt have a Sampler, the Serial-to-Parallel Converter module is used in its place.
Although this module is designed primarily for another purpose, it has a bipolar output and
provides a clocked version of the data on its input which are the two key functions required of
the Sampler in a delta modulator. Second, the modulators sampling and data rate correspond
with a 50kHz clock and not the 100kHz clock connected to the Serial-to-Parallel Converter
module. This is because the module sends the data to alternate outputs on every clock pulse so
the data rate of each output corresponds with a 50kHz clock. Third, the accumulated phase
shifts around the loop return a signal to the Adder modules B input that is inverted relative to
the message. This facilitates the delta modulators requirement for a subtraction of the
Integrators output from the message using the Adder module (in the same way that adding a
negative number to a positive number results in a subtraction of the two).
Emona Instruments
16-7
10.
Connect the scopes Channel 0 input to the set-up as shown in Figure 5 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
10 0kHz
SINE
G
10 0kHz
COS
10 0kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8 kHz
DIGITAL
2 kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2 kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
Figure 5
11.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Oscilloscope.
12.
Adjust the scope to view the message. Essential scope settings include:

13.
16-8
Timebase to 200s/div
Trigger Type to Edge
Trigger Source to CH 0
Determine the message signals peak-to-peak amplitude and make a note of the value.
Emona Instruments
14.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00 kHz
SINE
G
1 00 kHz
COS
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0 dB
-6 dB
-20 dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 6
15.
Use the Amplifier modules soft GAIN control to set its output to the same amplitude
that you measured at Step 13.

Emona Instruments
16-9
16.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0dB
-6dB
-20dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 7
The scopes connections to the set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 8 on
the next page. Notice that the Amplifier module isnt shown. This is because its not
contributing to the implementation of delta modulation. Instead, its being used to invert the
message so that its in phase with the Integrators output and the two signals can be
conveniently compared.
16-10
Emona Instruments
Message
To CH 0
A
2kHz
Integrator's
output
To CH 1
IN
S/ P
X1
Delta mod
output
CLK
100kHz
Figure 8
17.
Check that the scopes two Scale controls are on the same setting (the 1V/div position is
probably best).
18.
Enable the scopes Channel 1 input to observe the signal on the RC LPFs output as well as
the message.
Note: Remember that the RC LPF is being used to model the Integrator.
19.
Check that the RC LPFs output tracks the message in much the same way as
theoretically predicted in Figure 2 (in the preliminary discussion).
Note 1: The RC LPFs output will not be as good an approximation of the message as the
Integrators output in Figure 2 but it should exhibit similar features. Reasons for the
differences between them will be investigated in Part B.
Note 2: If the RC LPFs output isnt similar to the Integrators output in Figure 2, youll
need to double-check your wiring.

Emona Instruments
16-11
20.
Modify the scopes Channel 1 connection to the set-up as shown in Figure 9 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0dB
-6dB
-20dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 9
The new scope connection to the set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 10
on the next page.
16-12
Emona Instruments
Message
To CH 0
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
CLK
X1
Delta mod
output
To CH 1
100kHz
Figure 10
21.
Separate the signals by setting the scopes Channel 0 Vertical Position control to +2V
and its Channel 1 Vertical Position control to -2V.
Question 1
The digital signal on the delta modulators output is a serial stream of 1-bit numbers.
What do these numbers represent?
Question 2
The digital signal on the delta modulators output is a complex waveform (that is, its
made up of many sinewaves). State the frequency of one of these sinewaves. Tip: No
calculations are needed to answer this question.
Emona Instruments
16-13
Question 3
Whats the significance of this sinewave?

16-14
Emona Instruments
Part B Slope overload and granularity

You will have noticed at Step 19 that the RC LPFs sawtooth output is not as good an
approximation of the message as the Integrators output in Figure 2. This is an important issue
with delta modulation because, the more closely the Integrators output approximates the
message, the easier it is to recover the message from the digital data without distortion and
noise.
There are several factors that the affect closeness of the Integrators output to the message
and these include: the integration rate, the loop gain and the sampling frequency. Part B gets
you to investigate one of these and introduces you to two delta modulation performance
specifications called slope overload and granularity.
22.
Return the scopes Channel 1 input to the RC LPFs output as shown in Figure 11 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
G
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0dB
-6dB
-20dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 11
Emona Instruments
16-15
23.
Realign the traces by setting both of the scopes Vertical Position controls 0V.
24.
Look closely at the two signals and note when the sawtooth waveform changes back and
forth across the message and when it doesnt.
Youll notice that the sawtooth waveform changes back and forth across the message when the
messages rate of change is relatively slow (at the peaks in the case of a sinewave). But, youll
also notice that the sawtooth waveform doesnt cross the message when the messages rate of
change is relatively fast (at the sinewaves zero crossover points). This inability of the
Integrators output to keep up with quick changes in the message is called slope overload and is
also shown in Figure 12 below.
Slope overload
Figure 12
Slope overload produces spectral components in the digital data signal at frequencies near the
copy of the message and so can distort it at the demodulators output. To minimise slope
overload, the Integrators step size must be increased. That is, the amount that the ramp
can change in a given sampling period must be increased. This can be achieved in one of two
ways. Either increase the integration rate (which we cannot do here because this is a fixed
property of the RC LPF) or increase the loop gain. This second option is available to us.
25.
Slowly increase the voltage gain of the Adder modules B input by turning its soft g
control clockwise and observe the effect on the RC LPFs output.
Note: This increases the loop gain, in turn increasing the Integrators step size.
26.
16-16
Stop increasing the voltage gain of the Adder modules B input when its soft g control is
at the 3 oclock position.
Emona Instruments
To maintain the comparison between the Integrators output and the message, the Amplifier
modules gain must be reduced.
27.
Set both of the scopes Scale controls to the 500mV/div position.
28.
Reduce the Amplifier modules gain but stop the moment the Integrators sawtooth
waveform crosses the message every time it changes direction.
Note: When the Amplifiers gain is the correct level, the two signals should look similar
to Figure 13 below.
Figure 13
Notice that the Integrators output now has several more teeth during the time that the
message signal changes quickly (at the sinewaves zero crossing points) than it did when the
Integrators step size was smaller. With the bigger step size the Integrators output can
better track the message and so the slope overload is reduced.
However, a price has been paid. Notice now that the teeth in the Integrators output at the
time that the message signal changes slowly (at the sinewaves peaks) deviate further from the
message on one side than they did previously. This is a quantisation error problem which
contributes to quantisation noise or granularity on the demodulators output. Thus, obtaining an
appropriate step size for the Integrator is a compromise between overload distortion and
granularity.
Emona Instruments
16-17
Question 4
Which is worst when the Integrators step size is relatively small?
Slope overload distortion
Granularity
Question 5
Which is worst when the Integrators step size is relatively large?
Slope overload distortion
Granularity

16-18
Emona Instruments
Part C Oversampling
An alternative to managing the compromise between slope overload distortion and granularity
involves increasing the sampling rate. This allows the step size to be greater while preventing
the steps from overshooting the message by so much when the message changes slowly. From a
spectrum perspective, increasing the sampling rate forces the other sinewaves that make up
the delta signal higher up the spectrum and so easier to remove at demodulation. As such,
oversampling is widely used with delta modulation and Part C of the experiment lets you see
the improvement for yourself.
29.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Function Generator VI.
30.
Adjust the function generator for a 100kHz output.

Note: Its not necessary to adjust any other controls as the function generators SYNC
output will be used and this is a digital signal.
31.

Note: Once the connection is made the scope should display the signals that you had
before.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
0dB
-6dB
-20dB
ANALOG I/ O
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
ACH1
DAC1
ACH0
DAC0
VARIABLE DC
+
IN
OUT
Figure 14
Emona Instruments
16-19
32.
Increase the clock in 25kHz steps to 200kHz and observe the effect this has on
Integrators output signal.
Question 6
Oversampling improves
the slope overload distortion only.
the granularity only.
both the slope overload and the
granularity.
neither the slope overload nor the granularity.

16-20
Emona Instruments
Part D Delta demodulation

Recall that delta modulation produces a pulse train with a spectral composition that includes a
copy of the message signal. Its possible to recover the message using low-pass filtering and
Part D gets you to do this.
33.
Locate the Tuneable Low-pass Filter module and set its soft Gain control to the middle
of its travel.
34.
clockwise.
35.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
UTILITIES
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
CH 0
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
X2
IN
OUT
Figure 15
This entire set-up including the modification can be represented by the block diagram in
Figure 16 on the next page. The Tuneable Low-pass Filter module is used to demodulate the
delta signal and recover the 2kHz message.
Emona Instruments
16-21
Message
To CH 0
Tuneable
Low-pass Filter
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
Recovered
message
To CH 1
X1
CLK
100kHz
Message
Modulation
Demodulation
Figure 16
36.
Slowly reduce the Tuneable Low-pass Filter modules cut-off frequency until the
message has been recovered (ignoring phase shift).

16-22
Emona Instruments
Now lets see what your hearing tells you

37.
clockwise again.
38.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrm s m ax
X DC
IN
100 kHz
SINE
100 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 0
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
100 kHz
COS
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
X2
IN
OUT
NOISE
GENERATOR
0dB
-6dB
-20dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 17
39.
Turn the Amplifier modules soft Gain control fully anti-clockwise.
40.
Without wearing the headphones, plug them into the Amplifier modules headphone
socket.
41.
Put the headphones on.
Emona Instruments
16-23
42.
Increase the Amplifier modules gain until you can comfortably hear the Tuneable Lowpass Filter modules output.
Note: You should be able to hear the copy of the message (ie the 2kHz tone) plus the
other frequency components that make up the delta signals spectral composition (up to
about 15kHz which is the Tuneable Low-pass Filter modules maximum cut-off
frequency).
43.
message has been recovered and it sounds like these other frequency components are
minimised or completely removed.
It should be noted here that the Tuneable Low-pass Filter module on the DATEx is a
sophisticated circuit - Its a 9th order active elliptical filter. As delta modulation is often used
as a low cost analog-to-digital converter, simpler filters costing less are likely to be used for
the demodulator. Such filters have a gentler slope and so dont attenuate signals in the roll-off
region as sharply.
Question 7
What change to the delta modulator can be made to allow simpler filters to be used by
the demodulator without introducing more noise and distortion?

16-24
Emona Instruments
Part E Delta modulation and signal-to-noise distortion ratio (SNDR)

You have just used visual and aural means to tune the delta demodulator to recover the
message with minimal noise and distortion. Part E gets you to determine the quality of the
delta demodulators output signal quantitatively using SNDR.
44.
Determine the RMS voltage of the filters output and record this value in Table 1 on
page 16-30.
45.
Locate the Phase Shifter module and set its soft Phase Change control to the 0
position.
46.
Set the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control about the middle of its travel.
47.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
X DC
IN
10 0kHz
SINE
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 0
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
10 0kHz
COS
10 0kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
NOISE
GENERATOR
X2
IN
PHASE
SHIFTER
OUT
CHANNEL
MODULE
0dB
LO
-6 dB
CHANNEL
BPF
-20 dB
BASEBAND
LPF
PHASE
AMPLIFIER
180
ADDER
O
GAIN
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
NOISE
SIGNAL CHANNEL
OUT
Figure 18
Emona Instruments
16-25
The additions to the set-up in Figure 18 can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 19
below. The 2kHz message is stolen from the Master Signals module and phase shifted using
the Phase Shifter module. The signal is then added to the signal on the Tuneable Low-pass
Filter modules output using the noise Adder module. Importantly, the noise Adder module
wouldnt normally be used for this purpose as it has fixed-gain input. However, the regular
Adder module is used to implement the delta modulator. The means that the Amplifier module
must be used for one of the noise Adder modules input signals (in this case, for the stolen
message) so that the two signals can be made the same size. This is essential for the nulling
process in SNDR measurements.
Adder
N
Demedulated
delta signal
Sum/difference signal
To CH 1
S
"Stolen" 2kHz
message
O
Buffer
"Stolen" 2kHz message

(gain & phase adjusted)
To CH 0
Phase
Shifter
Figure 19
The entire set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 20 on the next page.
16-26
Emona Instruments
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
X1
To CH 1
CLK
100kHz
O
Message
Modulation
"Stolen" 2kHz message

(gain & phase adjusted)
To CH 0
Demodulation
"Stolen" 2kHz
message
Figure 20
48.
Use the Amplifier modules soft Gain control to set the stolen message to about the
same amplitude as the recovered message.
Note: Ensure that the scopes two Scale controls are set to the same position (the
0.5V/div position is probably best).
49.
Use the Phase Shift Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control to align the waveforms.
50.
Use the Amplifier modules soft Gain control to set the stolen message to as close to the
recovered messages amplitude as you can obtain.
Note: Making the two signals exactly the same amplitude will allow the message
component on the demodulators output to be completely nulled at the output of the
Adder module in the next few steps.
Emona Instruments
16-27
51.
Modify the scopes connections to the set-up as shown in Figure 21 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrm s m ax
X DC
IN
100 kHz
SINE
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 0
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
100 kHz
COS
100 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
NOISE
GENERATOR
X2
IN
PHASE
SHIFTER
OUT
CHANNEL
MODULE
0 dB
LO
-6 dB
CHANNEL
BPF
-2 0dB
BASEBAND
LPF
PHASE
AMPLIFIER
18 0
GAIN
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
ADDER
O
NOISE
SIGNAL CHANNEL
OUT
Figure 21
16-28
Emona Instruments
The scopes new connections to the set-up in Figure 21 can be represented by the block
diagram in Figure 22 below.
Message
To CH 0
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
X1
To CH 1
CLK
100kHz
O
Message
Modulation
Demodulation
"Stolen" 2kHz
message
Figure 22
52.
Vary the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control left and right.
Note: As you do this, youll vary the phase relationship between the signal on the
demodulators output and the stolen message. Importantly, when the phase relationship
between these two signals is 180, they completely cancel each other out (as long as
their amplitudes are the same).
53.
Adjust the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control until you obtain the
smallest RMS output voltage from the Adder module.
Note: If this is a little tricky because the smallest output occurs when this control is at
or near the end of its travel, try switching the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Change
control to the 180 position
54.
Tweak the Amplifier modules soft Gain control a little to see if you can make the Adder
modules output even smaller.
Note: This fine-tunes the stolen messages amplitude to ensure that its as close to the
recovered messages amplitude as possible.
Emona Instruments
16-29
Once you have nulled the message component on the demodulators as much as possible, the
signal on Adder modules output is now the combination of all the sinewaves on the output of
the Tuneable Low-pass Filter (the delta demodulator) minus the copy of the message. In other
words, these are the elements on the filters output that distort and add noise to the
recovered message. This noise and distortion signal can be used to determine the delta
modulator-demodulator systems SNDR.
55.
Record the RMS noise and distortion signal voltage in Table 1 below.
56.
Calculate and record the SNDR figure using the equation:
SNDR =
57.
S +N
N
Convert the SNDR figure to decibels and record this also.
Table 1
Signal on the
demodulators o/p
Noise & Distortion
SNDR
SNDR
(in decibels)
Question 8
What would you expect to happen to the SNDR figure if a cheaper filter (that is, one
with a less steep slope) is used to recover the message? Explain your answer.

16-30
Emona Instruments
Class:
Name:
17 - Delta-sigma modulation and demodulation
Experiment 17 Delta-sigma modulation and demodulation

Delta-sigma modulation (or modulation) is another pulse modulation scheme that is an

apparently simple variation of delta modulation.
Recall that the block diagram of a basic delta modulation looks like Figure 1 below.
Input
Limiter
Sampler
Delta mod.
signal out
Clock
Integrator
Figure 1
Delta-sigma modulation effectively swaps the Integrator and Sampler blocks as shown in
Figure 2 below to achieve a pulse modulation with some advantages over delta modulation.
Input
Limiter
Sampler
Delta-sigma
mod. signal out
Clock
Figure 2
17-2
Emona Instruments
Importantly, where delta modulation quantises the difference between the message and the
integral of the delta signal, delta-sigma modulation quantises the integral of the difference
between the message and the delta-sigma signal. So, although the two modulation schemes look
similar theyre quite different mathematically. The result is a spectral composition that better
suites low-pass filtering for demodulation because the quantisation noise occurs at higher
frequencies.
The experiment
For this experiment youll use the Emona DATEx to implement the delta-sigma modulation
scheme. Youll then demodulate the delta-sigma signal using low-pass filtering.
Pre-requisites:
Experiment 13 (Vol. 1): Sampling and reconstruction
Experiment 10 (Vol. 2): Pulse code modulation and signal-to-noise distortion ratio
Experiment 16 (Vol. 2): Delta-sigma modulation and demodulation
Equipment
Emona Instruments
17-3
Procedure
Part A Setting up the delta modulator
Part A of this experiment gets you to implement the delta-sigma modulator using the Emona
DATEx.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
Locate the Adder module and set its soft G and g controls to the middle of their travel
(which should have the arrowheads pointing to the 12 oclock position).
9.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
REF
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
COS
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
G
Y DC
GND
kXY
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
Figure 3
17-4
Emona Instruments
The set-up in Figure 3 can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 4 below. The Master
Signals modules 2kHz SINE output models the message. The remaining blocks implement the
delta-sigma modulator.
Master
Signals
Adder
module
2kHz
RC LPF
Comparator
Serial-to-Parallel
Converter module
A
IN
S/ P
X1
Delta-sigma
mod output
CLK
100kHz
Master
Signals
Figure 4
Relating this functional block diagram to the generic block diagram of a delta-sigma modulator
in the preliminary discussion (Figure 2), the Utilities modules RC LPF models the Integrator,
the Adder module implements the Summer, the Utilities modules Comparator implements the
Limiter, and the Serial-to-Parallel Converter module models the Sampler with a 50kHz
(effectively). Loop gain is provided and controlled by the Adder module.
Emona Instruments
17-5
10.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00 kHz
SINE
G
1 00 kHz
COS
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
Figure 5
11.
12.
Adjust the scope to view the message. Essential scope settings include:

13.
17-6
Trigger Type to Edge
Trigger Source to CH 0
Determine the message signals peak-to-peak amplitude and make a note of the value.
Emona Instruments
14.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
100 kHz
SINE
G
100 kHz
COS
100 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8 kHz
DIGITAL
2 kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2 kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0 dB
-6 dB
-2 0dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 6
15.
Use the Amplifier modules soft GAIN control to set its output to the same amplitude
that you measured at Step 7.

Emona Instruments
17-7
16.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00 kHz
SINE
G
1 00 kHz
COS
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0 dB
-6 dB
-20 dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 7
The scopes connections to the set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 8 on
the next page. Notice that the Amplifier module isnt shown. This is because its not
contributing to the implementation of delta-sigma modulation. Instead, its being used to invert
the message so that its in phase with the Integrators output and the two signals can be
conveniently compared.
17-8
Emona Instruments
Message
To CH 0
Integrator's output
to CH 1
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
X1
Delta-sigma
mod output
CLK
100kHz
Figure 8
17.
Check that the scopes Channel 0 Scale control is set to the 1V/div position.
18.
Set the scopes Channel 1 Scale control to the 0.5V/div position.
19.
Enable the scopes Channel 1 input to observe the signal on the RC LPFs output as well as
the message.
Note: Remember that the RC LPF is being used to model the Integrator.
At first glance, the Integrators output should seem similar to the same signal in a delta
modulator. However, look closely at the Integrators output when the message changes
direction. Can you see a difference?
Emona Instruments
17-9

20.
Modify the scopes Channel 1 connection to the set-up as shown in Figure 9 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
CH 0
X DC
IN
1 00 kHz
SINE
G
1 00 kHz
COS
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
RECTIFIER
Y DC
GND
kXY
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
X1
CLK
X2
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
GA+gB
NOISE
GENERATOR
0 dB
-6 dB
-20 dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 9
The new scope connection to the set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 10
on the next page.
17-10
Emona Instruments
Message
To CH 0
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
X1
Delta-sigma
mod output
To CH 1
CLK
100kHz
Figure 10
21.
Set the scopes Channel 1 Scale control to the 1V/div position.
22.
Separate the signals by setting the scopes Channel 0 Vertical Position control to +2V
and its Channel 1 Vertical Position control to -2V.
Question 1
How does the pulse train on the delta-sigma modulators output compare to that of the
delta modulator?
Question 2
Whats different about the delta-sigma and delta signals in terms of their spectral
composition?
Question 3
Whats the same about the delta-sigma and delta signals in terms of their spectral
composition?
Emona Instruments
17-11
Question 4
How can the message be recovered?

17-12
Emona Instruments
Part B Delta-sigma demodulation

Recall that delta-sigma modulation produces a pulse train with a spectral composition that
includes a copy of the message signal. Its possible to recover the message using low-pass
filtering and Part B gets you to do this.
23.
Locate the Tuneable Low-pass Filter module and set its soft Gain control to the middle
of its travel.
24.
clockwise.
25.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
UTILITIES
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
X DC
IN
100 kHz
SINE
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 0
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
100 kHz
COS
100 kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
X2
IN
OUT
Figure 11
Emona Instruments
17-13
The entire set-up including the modification in Figure 11 can be represented by the block
diagram in Figure 12 below. The Tuneable Low-pass Filter module is used to demodulate the
delta-sigma signal and recover the 2kHz message.
Message
To CH 0
Tuneable
Low-pass Filter
A
2kHz
IN
S/ P
Recovered
message
To CH 1
X1
CLK
100kHz
Message
Modulation
Demodulation
Figure 12
26.
message has been recovered (ignoring phase shift).

17-14
Emona Instruments
Now lets see what your hearing tells you

27.
clockwise again.
28.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
UTILITIES
MULTIPLIER
TUNEABLE
LPF
COMPARATOR
SCOPE
REF
10VDC
7Vrms max
X DC
IN
1 00kHz
SINE
1 00kHz
DIGITAL
OUT
Y DC
RECTIFIER
GND
kXY
CH 0
CH 1
SERIAL TO
PARALLEL
1 00kHz
COS
f C x10 0
fC
S/ P
DIODE & RC LPF
8kHz
DIGITAL
SERIAL
2kHz
DIGITAL
X1
GAIN
RC LPF
g
2kHz
SINE
B
GA+gB
CLK
X2
IN
OUT
NOISE
GENERATOR
0dB
-6 dB
-20 dB
AMPLIFIER
GAIN
IN
OUT
Figure 13
29.
Turn the Amplifier modules soft Gain control fully anti-clockwise.
30.
Without wearing the headphones, plug them into the Amplifier modules headphone
socket.
31.
Put the headphones on.
Emona Instruments
17-15
32.
Increase the Amplifier modules gain until you can comfortably hear the Tuneable Lowpass Filter modules output.
Note: You should be able to hear the copy of the message (ie the 2kHz tone) plus the
other frequency components that make up the delta-sigma signals spectral composition
(up to about 15kHz which is the Tuneable Low-pass Filter modules maximum cut-off
frequency).
33.
message has been recovered and it sounds like these other frequency components are
minimised or completely removed.
Question 5
Why does delta-sigma modulation perform better than delta modulation when simple
low-pass filtering is used to recover the message?

17-16
Emona Instruments
18 - FM generation using the harmonic multiplier method
Class:
Name:
Experiment 18 FM generation using the harmonic multiplier

method
Youll know from your studies that angle modulation includes phase and frequency modulation
(PM and FM). As their names imply, frequency and phase modulation vary the carriers
frequency or phase in response to the messages amplitude.
Importantly though, youll also know that varying the phase of any signal necessarily involves
varying its frequency and vice versa. So, phase modulating a carrier simultaneously frequency
modulates it (and vice versa). This method of generating an FM signal is called indirect FM and
is preferred to some direct FM methods (like the VCO) because a crystal oscillator can be
used to generate the carrier. This improves the carrier frequencys accuracy and stability
without the need for AFC circuitry.
Experiment 4 demonstrates the mathematical implementation of a classic PM generation
technique called the Armstrong modulator (named after its inventor). The discussion above
makes it clear that the Armstrong modulator can be used to for indirect FM generation.
However, the practical implementation of the Armstrong modulator is problematic because the
carrier frequency deviation (fc) is not as good as for direct FM methods and this has noise
performance implications.
To explain, FM has better noise performance than AM for two fundamental reasons. First, by
necessity, FM receivers are designed to respond to frequency variations. But recall that
electrical noise is manifest as amplitude variations and so these can be, and are, removed at
the receiver using a limiter. Second, although noise-induced amplitude variations in the carrier
cause its phase to vary as well (which of course simultaneously translates to frequency
variations that the receiver can demodulate), FM has an inherent noise-reduction ability (not
explained here). Importantly, this noise-reduction ability is a function of the FM signals
modulation index (m). The greater the modulation index, the better the inherent noisereduction. Conversely, the lower the modulation index, the poorer the noise-reduction and so
this is the weakness of the Armstrong modulator.
A quick look at the equation for calculating modulation index (m = fcfm) gives us an obvious
solution to this problem Decrease the maximum allowable message frequency (fm). While this
would increase the modulation index and hence improve the systems noise performance, it
would do so at the expense of fidelity (where the message consists of frequencies greater
than that allowed).
The better solution involves leaving the maximum allowable message frequency unchanged and
using the Armstrong modulator (with its poor deviation performance) to generate an FM signal
on a carrier that is a sub-multiple of the desired carrier frequency (eg 30MHz instead of
90MHz). The resulting FM signal is then multiplied by the appropriate amount to obtain the
required carrier frequency (eg by 3 based on the figures above). Importantly, this widens the
FM signals spectrum in the same way that increasing its carrier deviation does (and so its also
known as deviation multiplication). In turn, this increases its modulation index and hence the
FM signals noise performance.
18-2
Emona Instruments
Experiment 18 FM generation using the harmonic multiplier method
The experiment
For this experiment youll use the Emona DATEx to implement a contemporary method of
frequency modulation using Armstrongs modulator and harmonic multiplication. Once done,
youll use the FM signals spectrum to determine its modulation index.
Pre-requisites:
Experiment 6 (Vol. 1): DSBSC modulation (optional)
Experiment 1 (Vol. 2): AM (method 2) and product detection of AM signals (desirable)
Equipment
Table of Bessel Functions (of the first kind)
Emona Instruments
18-3
Procedure
Part A Generating an FM signal using Armstrongs modulator and harmonic multiplication
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Function Generator VI.
9.
Adjust the function generators soft controls for an output with the following
specifications:

Waveshape: Sine
Frequency: 33.333kHz
Amplitude: 4Vpp
DC Offset: 0V
10.
Launch the DATEx soft front-panel (SFP) and check that you have soft control over the
DATEx board.
11.
Locate the Adder module on the DATEx SFP and set its soft G and g controls to about
the middle of their travel (the exact position isnt critical at this stage).
12.
Locate the Phase Shifter module on the DATEx SFP and set its soft Phase Change
control to the 0 position.
13.
Set the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control to about the middle of its
travel.
18-4
Emona Instruments
14.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
DC
X
AC
DC
Y
100kHz
SINE
AC
kXY
100kHz
COS
MULTIPLIER
A
100kHz
DIGITAL
8kHz
DIGITAL
X DC
2kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
SINE
Y DC
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
kXY
GA+gB
PHASE
SHIFTER
LO
ANALOG I/ O
PHASE
ACH1
DAC1
0
ACH0
180
DAC0
VARIABLE DC
+
IN
OUT
Figure 1
This set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 2 on the next page. It multiplies
a 2kHz sinewave message with a 33.333kHz carrier. This produces 31.333kHz and 35.333kHz
sinewaves on the Multiplier modules output (in other words, a DSBSC signal). Separate to this,
the carrier is phase shifted then simply added to the Multiplier modules output.
Emona Instruments
18-5
Master
Signals
Multiplier
module
Y
Adder
A
Output
2kHz
X
33.333kHz
carrier
Phase
Shifter
Function
Generator
Figure 2
15.
Connect the NI ELVIS II Oscilloscope to the set-up as shown in Figure 3 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
FGEN
TRIG
DC
5V TTL
X
AC
SCOPE
DC
10VDC
7Vrms max
Y
1 00 kHz
SINE
AC
kXY
1 00 kHz
COS
CH 0
MULTIPLIER
A
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
CH 1
8kHz
DIGITAL
X DC
2kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
SINE
Y DC
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
kXY
GA+gB
PHASE
SHIFTER
LO
ANALOG I/ O
PHASE
ACH1
DAC1
0
ACH0
180
DAC0
VARIABLE DC
+
IN
OUT
Figure 3
18-6
Emona Instruments
The scopes connections to the set-up in Figure 3 are shown in Figure 4 below. The scopes
external trigger input is used to help obtain a stable display.
Message
To CH 0
DSBSC
To CH 1
Output
2kHz
X
33.333kHz
carrier
Synchronised
2kHz digital signal
To TRIG
Figure 4
16.
17.
Adjust the scope to view the message and the signal on the Adder modules output.
Essential scope settings include:

18.
Channel 1 Scale to 1V/div and Channel 2 Scale to 2V/div

Coupling for both channels to AC
Trigger Type to Digital
Verify that the Multiplier modules output is a signal with alternating halves of its
envelope forming a copy of the message (in other words, a DSBSC signal).

Emona Instruments
18-7
19.
Modify the scopes connection to the set-up as shown in Figure 5 below.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
FGEN
TRIG
DC
5V TTL
X
AC
SCOPE
DC
10VDC
7Vrms max
Y
1 00 kHz
SINE
AC
kXY
1 00 kHz
COS
CH 0
MULTIPLIER
A
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
CH 1
8kHz
DIGITAL
X DC
2kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
SINE
Y DC
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
kXY
GA+gB
PHASE
SHIFTER
LO
ANALOG I/ O
PHASE
ACH1
DAC1
0
ACH0
18 0
DAC0
VARIABLE DC
+
IN
OUT
Figure 5
18-8
Emona Instruments
The scopes new connection to the set-up in Figure 5 is shown in Figure 6 below. The scopes
Channel 1 input has been removed and its Channel 0 input is connected to the Adder modules
output in preparation for the next set of adjustments.
Output
To CH 0
2kHz
X
33.333kHz
carrier
Synchronised
2kHz digital signal
To TRIG
Figure 6
20.
Adjust the scopes settings as follows:

21.
Channel 1 is disabled
Channel 0 Scale control to 2V/div
Observe the Adder modules output using the scope.

Note: Youll notice that the signal looks like an over-modulated AM signal.

Emona Instruments
18-9
The next part of this experiment gets you obtain a 90 degree phase relationship between the
combined 31.333kHz & 35.333kHz sinewaves and the 31.333kHz carrier (effectively turning
the signal on the Adder modules output into quadrature amplitude modulation).
22.
Disconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules A input.

Note: This removes the 31.333kHz and 35.333kHz sinewaves (the DSBSC signal) from
the Adder modules output.
23.
Set the scopes Channel 0 Scale control to 1V/div.
24.
Adjust the Adder modules soft g control for an output of 4Vp-p.

Note: Theres probably no need to adjust the scopes Timebase control to do this.
25.
Reconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules A input.
26.
Disconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules B input.

Note: This removes the 33.333kHz carrier from the Adder modules output.
27.
Adjust the Adder modules soft G control for an output of 4Vp-p.
28.
Reconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules B input.
29.
Carefully adjust the Phase Shifter modules soft Phase Adjust control to make all of the
peaks on the upper (or lower) envelope the same height.
Note: Once done, quadrature has been achieved That is, there is a 90 degree phase
relationship between the combined 31.333kHz & 35.333kHz sinewaves and the
31.333kHz carrier. The reason these adjustments achieve quadrature is not explained
here (but is explained in Experiment 4).

18-10
Emona Instruments
When quadrature is obtained in this way, the modulation index (m) of the signal on the Adder
modules output is 1. This is too great for the purpose of this experiment so the following
instructions get you to reduce m to 0.5.
30.
Disconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules B input.

Note: This removes the added carrier from the Adder modules output again.
31.
Adjust the Adder modules soft G control for an output of 2Vp-p.
32.
Reconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules B input.

Note: Once done, youll probably find that the envelopes vary in amplitude only slightly.

Emona Instruments
18-11
33.
Suspend the scopes operation by clicking on its Stop control once.

Note: The scopes display should freeze and its hardware has been deactivated. This is a
necessary step as the scope and signal analyzer share hardware resources and so they
cannot be operated simultaneously.
34.
Launch and run the NI ELVIS II Dynamic Signal Analyzer VI.
35.
Adjust the signal analyzers controls as follows:

Input Settings
Source Channel to SCOPE CH 0
FFT Settings

Voltage Range to 10V
Averaging
Frequency Span to 50,000

Resolution to 3200
Window to 7 Term B-Harris

Mode to RMS
Weighting to Exponential
# of Averages to 3
Cursors On box unchecked (for now)
Trigger Settings
Type to Immediate
Frequency Display

36.
Units to dB
Mode to RMS
Scale to Auto
Activate the signal analyzers cursors and use C1 to locate the sinewaves at the following
frequencies: 31.333kHz, 33.333kHz and 35.333kHz.
You may recognise this pattern of sinewaves as the classic spectral composition of an AM
signal (for a 33.333kHz carrier modulated by a 2kHz sinusoidal message). However, remember
that the signal on the Adder modules output is quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) - The
signal analyzer cannot show the 90 phase relationship between the carrier and its sidebands.

18-12
Emona Instruments
Passing the Adder modules output signal through a non-linear circuit such as an amplitude
limiter converts the signals spectrum in the region about the carrier frequency (33.333kHz in
this case) to a good approximation of a 33.333kHz carrier that is phase modulated by its 2kHz
sinusoidal message (provided the modulation index of the QAM signal is not too great). Thus,
the amplitude limited signal can be readily converted to PM (and, indirectly, FM) using a bandpass filter with the same centre frequency as the original carrier. In fact, this technique is
used to generate a (narrow-band) PM signal using a 100kHz carrier in Experiment 4.
Importantly, the non-linear processing of the amplitude limiter also produces equally good
approximations of an FM signal about whole odd-number multiples of the carrier (that is, at
100kHz, 167kHz, 233kHz and so on in this case). In other words, the carrier frequency and
the FM signals sidebands are multiplied. Moreover, the bandwidth of these reproductions is
wider for each successive carrier-multiple. The next part of the experiment demonstrates
this.
37.
Set the signal analyzers Frequency Span to 525kHz.
38.
MASTER
SIGNALS
ADDER
MULTIPLIER
FGEN
TRIG
DC
5V TTL
X
AC
SCOPE
DC
10VDC
7Vrms max
Y
1 00 kHz
SINE
AC
kXY
1 00 kHz
COS
CH 0
MULTIPLIER
A
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
CH 1
8kHz
DIGITAL
X DC
2kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
SINE
Y DC
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
kXY
GA+gB
PHASE
SHIFTER
UTILITIES
COMPARATOR
REF
LO
ANALOG I/ O
IN
PHASE
ACH1
OUT
RECTIFIER
DAC1
0
GND
ACH0
18 0
DAC0
DIODE & RC LPF
VARIABLE DC
RC LPF
IN
OUT
Figure 7
Emona Instruments
18-13
The set-up in Figure 7 can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 8 below. The Adder
modules quadrature amplitude modulated output signal is fed to the input of the Comparator
wired as an amplitude limiter.
Utilities
Y
Output
To CH 0
2kHz
X
33.333kHz
carrier
Synchronised
2kHz digital signal
To TRIG
Figure 8
39.
Examine the signals spectrum closely.
Question 1
How many clusters of FM spectrum approximations are there in the signal analyzers
525kHz span?
Question 2
The notional carrier frequency of the first four of these FM clusters have been
calculated for you and are: 33.333kHz, 100kHz, 167kHz and 233kHz. Calculate the
notional carrier frequency of the remaining clusters up to 525kHz.

18-14
Emona Instruments
Question 3
In what way are these FM spectrum clusters different to each other (apart from their
notional carrier frequency)?
Question 4
In relation to your answer to Question 3, an increase in what attribute of an FM signal
would produce the same effect?
Question 5
What circuit must be used to isolate one of these FM spectrum clusters to obtain a
signal with the same spectrum as a single carrier that is FM modulated by a 2kHz
sinusoidal message?

Emona Instruments
18-15
As you should have identified in your answer to Question 6, a band-pass filter (BPF) can be
used to isolate one of the FM spectrum clusters to obtain a signal with a spectrum that is a
good approximation to that of a single carrier that is FM modulated by a 2kHz sinusoidal
message. The next part of this experiment lets you do this using the 100kHz Channel BPF.
40.
Set the signal analyzers Scale control (in the Scale Settings area) to Manual.
41.
Set the signal analyzers Maximum scale value to 10.0 (dB) and the Minimum to -40.0
(dB).
Note: Making this adjustment forces the signal analyzer to only show sinewaves that are
-40dB or greater (relative to the fundamental).
42.
Suspend the signal analyzers VI by clicking on its Stop button once.
43.

MASTER
SIGNALS
MULTIPLIER
ADDER
FGEN
TRIG
DC
5V TTL
X
AC
SCOPE
DC
10VDC
7Vrms max
Y
1 00 kHz
SINE
AC
kXY
1 00 kHz
COS
CH 0
MULTIPLIER
A
1 00 kHz
DIGITAL
CH 1
8kHz
DIGITAL
X DC
2kHz
DIGITAL
2kHz
SINE
Y DC
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
kXY
GA+gB
PHASE
SHIFTER
UTILITIES
CHANNEL
MODULE
COMPARATOR
REF
LO
CHANNEL
BPF
ANALOG I/ O
IN
PHASE
ACH1
OUT
RECTIFIER
DAC1
0
ADDER
GND
ACH0
180
DAC0
BASEBAND
LPF
DIODE & RC LPF
NOISE
VARIABLE DC
RC LPF
IN
OUT
SIGNAL CHANNEL
OUT
Figure 9
This set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 10 on the next page. The
Channel BPF is used recover just one of the FM spectrum clusters.
18-16
Emona Instruments
Channel BPF
Y
FM signal
To CH 0
2kHz
X
33.333kHz
carrier
Synchronised
2kHz digital signal
To TRIG
Figure 10
44.
Restart the signal analyzers VI by clicking on its Run button once.

Note: Once done, you should observe a dramatic reduction in the signals spectral
complexity.
45.
Set the signal analyzers Frequency Span to 125kHz.
Question 6
The signal on the Channel BPFs output is the same as a carrier that is FM modulated by
a 2kHz sinusoidal message. What is the frequency of this notional carrier?
Question 7
The carrier is referred to here as being notional because at no stage has a sinewave at
this frequency been used to generate an FM signal. Briefly explain how multiplication
obtained this carrier frequency.

Emona Instruments
18-17
Part B Determining the FM signals modulation index

At first glance, the choice to have the signal analyzer display only the sinewaves in the FM
signal that are -40dB or greater may seem arbitrary. Why not choose -30dB or -50dB? To
answer that question, recall that the theoretical bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite. That is,
the unmodulated carriers power is shared between an infinite number of side-frequency pairs.
However, the majority of the sinewaves in an FM signals spectrum are made up of only minute
amounts of the unmodulated carriers power and need not necessarily be transmitted. That
being the case, for practical purposes, an FM signals bandwidth is said to include only the
significant sinewaves.
But what counts as significant? That varies depending on the amount of distortion considered
acceptable for a particular FM communications application. For voice communications,
significant sinewaves may be only those consisting of 5% or more of the original unmodulated
carriers power. However, for high fidelity systems like FM radio, significant sinewaves are
said to be those consisting of much smaller amounts of the original unmodulated carriers
power.
The classic table of Bessel functions (of the first kind) that allows electronics and
communications students to determine the number of side frequencies in an FM signal and
their proportion of the unmodulated carriers power is based on a significance of 1%. That is, it
shows all the side-frequencies made up of 0.01 or more of the unmodulated carriers power.
Relating this back to the question at the top of this page, when 1% is converted to a ratio then
to a voltage decibel, the figure is -40dB.
So, the choice of -40dB here is a good one and allows us to use the Bessel table to work
backwards to determine the FM signals modulation index. Part B of the experiment gets you to
do this.
46.
Use the cursor C1 to locate the FM signals carrier frequency.
47.
Count the number of side frequencies above or below the 100kHz carrier frequency and
let this number equal n.
48.
Locate the row in the table of Bessel functions that has Jn side frequencies.
Note: Youll probably find that there are two.
49.
To determine which of the row of values is applicable to your FM signal, compare the
relative sizes of side-frequencies on the signal analyzers display with the theoretical
predictions in the table.
50.
Once you have decided on the appropriate row of values and then follow the row to the
beginning to read-off the FM signals modulation index (m). Record this value in Table 1
on the next page.
18-18
Emona Instruments
Table 1
The FM signals
modulation index

Question 8
What would you expect to happen to the amplitude of the FM signals 100kHz carrier if
it was unmodulated? Explain your answer.
To verify your answer to Question 8

51.
Note the magnitude of the FM signals carrier frequency.
52.
Disconnect the patch lead to the Adder modules A input.

Note: This removes the 31.333kHz and 35.333kHz sinewaves from the Adder modules
output, effectively removing the 2kHz sinusoidal messages modulating influence on the
100kHz FM carrier.
53.
Observe the effect this has on the 100kHz sinewave in the FM signals spectrum.

Emona Instruments
18-19
18-20
Emona Instruments
Emona DATEx Telecommunications Trainer Lab Manual Volume 2 Further Experiments in Modern Analog and Digital Telecommunications
For NI ELVIS I and II.
Author: Barry Duncan
Emona Instruments Pty Ltd

78 Parramatta Road
Camperdown NSW 2050
AUSTRALIA
web: www.emona-tims.com
telephone: +61-2-9519-3933
fax: +61-2-9550-1378

Emona Datex Vol2 Labmanual Ver1 1 Student

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Emona DATEx Lab Manual for NI ELVIS I and II

Issue Number: Vol2 issue 1.1

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