UNIT 3 i

Curriculum design

Unit 3
EED 505/05

Curriculum Development

Curriculum Design

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EED 505/05 Curriculum Development

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UNIT 3 iii
Curriculum design

Contents
Unit 3 Curriculum Design
Unit overview

Unit objectives

3.1 Philosophical foundations of curriculum design

Objectives

Introduction

Perennialism

Idealism

Realism

Experimentalism

Existentialism

Suggested answers to activity

3.2 Psychological foundations of curriculum design

Objectives

Introduction

Behaviourism, cognitivism and phenomenology and

humanistic psychology

Curriculum designs

12

Suggested answers to activities

22

Suggested answers to self-assessment exercise

23

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3.3 Social foundations of curriculum

25

Objectives

25

Introduction

25

Social forces in society

25

Treatment of knowledge

26

Human growth and development

27

Learning as a process

29

Suggested answers to activities

30

Summary of Unit 3

31

References

33

UNIT 3 1
Curriculum design

Unit Overview

esigning a curriculum requires consideration of what needs to be learned and

how it should be delivered to the learners. Such considerations are based on
the curriculum designers philosophical stands that is, how he or she views
education and learning, and the variety of learning theories that determine our
instructional approach to teaching and learning.
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009, 182) define curriculum design as a process
concerned with the nature and arrangement of four basic parts: objectives,
content, learning experiences, and evaluation. Each of these four parts or
components corresponds to each of the following questions:
1. What should be done?
2. What subject matter should be included in the curriculum?
3. What instructional strategies, resources, and activities should be employed
to teach the curriculum?
4. What methods and instruments should be used to appraise the results of
the curriculum?

Unit 3 will discuss the second and third components of curriculum design
content and learning experiences of curriculum design. The first component,
objectives, has already been discussed at length in Unit 2 while the final component,
evaluation, will be explained in detail in Unit 4.
In this unit, you will explore the five main educational philosophies of curriculum
design: perennialism, idealism, realism, experimentalism and existensialism. Each of
these philosophies has its own fundamental beliefs about the purpose of education,
what should be included in a curriculum (i.e., the content) and how it should be
taught to learners.
Subsequently, you will explore the three psychological foundations of curriculum
design: the behaviourism, cognitivism and phenomenology and humanistic
psychology. Each of these three becomes the basis of deciding what kind of
learning experiences the learners will go through in his or her process of learning.
You will then be introduced to the three basic designs of learning experiences:
subject-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred designs.
Finally, you will be exposed to some important social factors that influence
curriculum designs: social forces in society, perceptions of knowledge, aspects of
human growth and development, and views on learning as a (social) process.

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Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 3, you should be able to:
1. Describe the five main educational philosophies of curriculum design.
2. List down three psychological foundations of curriculum design.
3. Differentiate the basics of subject-centred, learner-centred and problemcentred designs.
4. Explain how social forces influence curriculum design.

UNIT 3 3
Curriculum design

3.1 Philosophical Foundations of

Curriculum Design
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of philosophies in designing a curriculum.
2. Differentiate the five main educational philosophies of curriculum design.

Introduction
Philosophy is a crucial element in curriculum design as it provides educational
administrators and educators a guiding framework in managing schools and
classrooms, and in deciding which curriculum goals, content and learning
experiences should be chosen (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). In this section we
will explore the five main educational philosophies related to curriculum design.
They are perennialism, idealism, realism, experimentalism and existensialism.

Perennialism
Perennialists argue that the purpose of education is to develop a whole, rational
person through discovery of universal truths and law of nature. Because reasoning
is the most distinguishing characteristic of humans, education should focus on
preparing students for the reality of life which can be obtained by applying a
structured programme of study.
As the most conservative educational philosophy, perennialists treasure the
knowledge of the past that has stood out over time and heavily emphasised
cultivating logical and abstract thinking. Thus perennialists like Robert Hutchin
(1952) strongly recommend the study of great Greek thinkers, philosophers and
artists such as Plato, Aristotle and Shakespeare. By studying these philosophers
minds and works, students can learn and cultivate their own intellect which will
better prepared them for the future.
The perennialists curriculum is subject-centred with strong emphasis on language,
literature, mathematics, and science; that is the liberal arts subjects. At school level,
these subjects are reflected in the basic subjects, for instance, the 3-Rs, grammar,
geometry and religious education. These subjects, they argue, are broad and thus
suitable to help achieve their views on educational purposes.
Perennialists favour highly disciplined and structured teaching. Teacher is considered
the most important source of knowledge and authority in learning. Thus, they
favour teacher-centred approach to teaching and learning, and teachers roles as

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stimulating students thinking about the great works of the great thinkers and
artists. Socratic method is viewed as the most appropriate teaching method as
it allows teacher and student to discuss and exchange their views on the subject
matter discussed. In addition, perennialiasts advocate uniform curricula which
are typically based on liberal arts subjects, and value intellectual meritocracy
characterised by standardised testing, tougher academic standards and customised
education for talented and gifted students.

Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that strongly values self-realisation and moral
character development. It has close ties with religious beliefs especially Judaism
and Christianity which are based on Greek philosophers such as Plato and St.
Augustine.
To idealists, the purpose of education is to contribute to the development of a
persons mind, abilities and moral excellence of the student so that he or she is
able to better serve society. The curriculum then needs to emphasise sharpening
students intellectual abilities to make moral and aesthetic judgements, and to
nurture individual freedom, individual responsibility, and self-control (Parwez,
n.d). Thus they favour subjects such as literature, history, philosophy and religion.
Idealists believe that knowledge is not to be taught, but to be discovered through
skilful questioning (Maheshwari and Bansal, 2010). Teachers are viewed as
experts and are expected to be the exemplar of intellectual and moral excellence.
Teachers too are responsible to stimulate students discovery of knowledge,
provide opportunities for reflective and logical thinking, and analysis of personal
moral choices. The teaching methods focus on Socratic questioning method,
lecture, discussions and reading biographies of examplary people and heroes.

Realism
Unlike idealists who favour ideas, realists view the world as it is (Wiles and Bondi
1998, 43), that is in terms of objects and matters. Advocated by Aristotle and later
Thomas Aquinas, realism believes that people learn about the world around them
through their senses and understanding of the logic behind their existence.
Realists favour school subjects of the here-and-now world (Wiles and Bondi
1998, 43) such as mathematics and science; subjects that prepare students survival
in the real world. Teaching, to them, should not just focus on memorisation of
facts, rather understanding of how the facts are derived. Some proponents of
realism such as John Locke and Maria Montessori recommend the integration
of physical activities and variety of learning objects in the teaching and learning
approaches in order to cultivate critical reasoning and reflective thinking skills.
Realists believe in structured education and well-disciplined classroom. Teaching
methods should involve critical reasoning based on observations of natural
phenomenon and the curriculum should be practical and useful for the students.

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Curriculum design

Realists put strong emphasis on the manipulation of the real objects and the
physical world, particularly the study of science and mathematics. It also focused
on the mastery of factual information and basic knowledge through demonstration
or recitation.

Experimentalism
Experimentalism, or sometimes referred to as pragmatism, is a contemporary
philosophical theory which advocates the idea that learning is constantly changing
and occurs through ones experience with the real world. Experimentalists believe
that experience is the source of knowledge, and one can only know (i.e., learn)
when they have experienced it. Change is the key concept to this philosophy,
where learners need to identify and solve relevant problems in an ever-changing
society (Ediger, 1976).
The idea was proposed by the popular American philosopher, John Dewey. Dewey
was especially concerned with using experience as the medium of education for
children. He argued that children should be encouraged and allowed as much
freedom as possible to explore and discover the real world by themselves (Hardon,
1952). By doing so, children will learn by doing.
The school curriculum should be integrated with society and include practical
usefulness as well as real-world problems. Experimentalists curriculum includes
learning through social interactions and experiences, with a focus on social change
and moral values. Learners need to be open to change and face new situations or
new problems. Teachers roles include guiding the learners as they discover new
knowledge through social inquiry, problem-solving and critical thinking. The
teaching is more exploratory rather than explanatory; it is more on asking why,
how come and what if questions rather than what, who or when questions
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).

Existentialism
Existentialism stresses on an individuals self-awareness and how he or she interprets
the world around them. The philosophy focuses on the sense of individuality
and personal consciousness, where students are free to choose what and how
they will learn. Advocates of existensialism include Maxine Greene, George
Kneller and Van Cleve Morris (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).
Existentialists curriculum allows children to be aware of their personal needs and
choices, where they are allowed to choose from a variety of subject options according
to their preferences. The teacher focuses on the learners needs, as opposed to the
subject content. Lessons are much more subjective, such as arts including drama,
music and literature, where children are given the opportunity to express their sense
of individuality and personal freedom. Existentialists do not favour the learning in
groups method because such method does not allow one to express him or herself.
Such thinking is criticised by some scholars who thought of it as unsuitable for
schools which emphasise socialisation and a systematic educational curriculum.

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Activity 3.1
1. Discuss the differences between the five educational philosophies in terms of
aims of education, curriculum focus, and teachers roles.
Philosophy

Aims of education

Curriculum focus

Teachers roles

2. Personal reflection: Reflect on your own educational philosophy. How does

your philosphy influence your instructional practices in your classroom?
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

UNIT 3 7
Curriculum design

Summary
So far we have discussed the five main educational philosophies of curriculum
design and how these philosophies influence the decision on what to be covered
in a curriculum and how it should be taught. Next, you will learn about the
psychological foundations that also influence curriculum designs.

Suggested answers to activity

Activity 3.1
1.

Philosophy
Perennialism

Aims of education Curriculum focus Teachers roles

To develop a whole,
rational person
through discovery
of universal truths
and law of nature.

Uniformed
curriculum, and
favours a highlydisciplined and
structured teaching.
Teacher-centred
approach.

Idealism

To contribute
towards the
development of the
students mind,
abilities and moral
excellence so that
he or she is able to
better serve society.
Values self-realisation
and moral character
development.

Curriculum is
knowledge-based
and subject-based,
such as classic arts,
philosophy, theology,
and mathematics.

Teacher assists
students to think
rationally, and is
considered the
most important
source of
knowledge.
Teachers are
the experts and
expected to set
an example of
intellectual
and moral
excellence.
Teachers too
are responsible
to stimulate
students
discovery of
knowledge,
provide
opportunities
for reflective
and logical
thinking, and
analysis of
personal moral
choices.

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Philosophy
Realism

Aims of education Curriculum focus Teachers roles

To prepare students Curriculum is
survival in the real highly-structured,
world.
and practical, with
the emphasis on
the physical world,
particularly science
and mathematics.

To cultivate
rational
thoughts, be a
moral and
spiritual leader,
as well as an
authority.

Experimentalism To prepare students

to interact with
the ever-changing
environment.

No permanent
knowledge or
subjects, however,
prepares individual
to face changes
and how to solve
problems.

To cultivate
critical thinking
and scientific
processes.

Existentialism

Includes electives,
emotional, aesthetic
and philosophical
subjects.

To cultivate
personal choice
and individual
self-definition.

To focus on freedom
of choice and the
development of
authentic individuals
as they make
meaning out of
their lives.

Source: Ornstein and Hunkins (1998)

2. Answers vary according to the students personal educational philosophy.

Students may match their instructional practices with any of the five
educational philosophies covered in this unit.

UNIT 3 9
Curriculum design

3.2 Psychological Foundations of

Curriculum Design
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate the different views on learning between behaviourism,
cognitivism, and phenomenology and humanistic psychology.
2. Explain how each perspective may influence curriculum designs.
3. Discuss in brief the characteristics of each of the three curriculum designs.
4. Reflect on how social factors influence the choice of curriculum designs.

Introduction
Curriculum design is a complicated process. It involves decisions on what and how
to teach (Marsh, 2009). All teachers create a repertoire of practices as they interact
with their students and shape the environment around them with the intention of
educating their students (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2004). When designing the
curriculum, often the teacher will address questions such as, What content should
I teach today?, What are the learning activities that I shall give to the students?,
and How do I teach the students? Such questions are deeply related to three
main theories of learning: behaviourism, cognitivism, and phenomenology and
humanistic psychology (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).

Behaviourism, cognitivism and phenomenology and humanistic

psychology
Behaviourism
As the oldest learning theory, behaviorists stress on behaviours that are observable
and measurable, and thus ignore the thought processes occurring in the mind.
They believe that all intended behaviours including learning can be achieved
through the principles of stimulus-response conditioning. In the context of
learning, this means that given appropriate stimuli, learners minds can be shaped
to learn and/or adapt to new concepts presented by the teachers. Some important
key players in the behaviourist theory are Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and Edward
Thorndike.

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Classical conditioning Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning is based on the works of Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist
who was famous for his food-dog-and-bell experiment. Pavlov discovered that a
dog will salivate at the sound of a bell that was simultaneously presented with
food. He concluded that the dog associated the stimuli (bell and food) so closely
that the dog will then substitute the bell for the food, which caused it to react
(salivate) to the sound of a bell (stimulus) as it originally reacted to the food
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).

Web Reference
Follow the link below to read more and look at the illustration provided about
classical conditioning. The weblink below is also available in WawasanLearn.
http://xavierappsychology.wikispaces.com/Chapter+6,+Period+7 (Accessed 21 May
2012)

Operant conditioning B. F. Skinner

Extending on Pavlovs classical conditioning, Skinner believed that humans can
have voluntary mental control over their responses and that their past reactions
(or experiences) towards certain stimuli can influence their future behaviours.
He introduced the concepts of positive (e.g., praises given for correct answers)
and negative reinforcements (e.g., being able to avoid detention by being on time
to school) to increase intended behaviours, and punishment (e.g., being expelled
from school due to fighting) to decrease unintended behaviours (Roblyer and
Doering, 2010).

Web Reference
Follow the links below to read more about operant conditioning. The weblink below
is also available in WawasanLearn.
1. https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/PSYCH484/3.+Reinforcement+
Theory (Accessed 21 May 2012). Pay close attention to the Types of
Reinforcement.
2. http://www.abacon.com/slavin/images/t48.gif (Accessed 21 May 2012)
This image will give you an illustration of the reinforcement strategies in
a school context.

UNIT 3 11
Curriculum design

Note: Image source originates from Jake Does Psych 100: Operant Conditioning
and Schedules of Learning. Retrieved from http://jacobsussmanpsych100.blogspot.
com/2009/11/operant-conditioning-and-schedules-of.html (Accessed on 21 May
2012)

Cognitivism
Cognitivism is introduced as a response to behaviourists ignorance towards the
mental activities that go beyond observable behaviours. Cognitivism is concerned
with how people process knowledge into meaningful information and how they
utilise the information to reason, solve problems and make conclusions. They
identify two types of memory short-term and long-term memories that
explain how information is processed in the brain. Based on the popular Atkinson
and Shriffin (1968) information-processing model, it is assumed that senses or
knowledge received through humans sensory (e.g., hands, eyes, ears, etc.) are
first transferred to short-term memory (STM) for 5 to 20 seconds. Unless it is
processed by the brain and transferred to long-term memory (LTM), the information
will be perceived as less important and thus discarded or lost from the persons
memory.
This belief leads cognitivists to the concepts of information attention and retention
by means of repetition. Cognitivists recommend that information presented to
learners must be interesting so that it can be registered in the STM, and repeatedly
discussed and practised so that it will be easily remembered and stored in the
LTM. Maria Montessori, Jean Piaget and Robert Gagne are among the important
cognitivists whose concepts of teaching and learning are still being practised today.

Phenomenology and humanistic psychology

Phenomenology sometimes referred to as humanistic psychology is a
learning theory that concerns the affective aspects of humans learning. Unlike
the mechanistic and deterministic views of both behaviourists and cognitivists,
humanistic psychology appreciates a person as human, and recognises that his or
her feelings may influence his thinking, attitudes and acts. It implies that human
psychology plays important roles in creating successful learning experiences. Thus,
human psychologists strongly emphasise the need to include and apply concepts
such as motivation, self-awareness, self-actualisation and freedom of learning in
curriculum designs. Some influential psychologists are the German psychologists
who introduced the Gestalt learning theory, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

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Curriculum designs
As previously explained, a curriculum designer tends to design a curriculum
that suits well with his/her perspectives on learning. There are three basic ways
of designing curriculum: subject-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred
designs. Each of these three designs will be briefly discussed below.

Subject-centred design
Subject-centred design is the most popular and widely used curriculum design in
schools worldwide. The main focus of its curriculum content is the subject matter
knowledge and context. There are four types of design pertaining to subject-centred
curriculum design. They are: subject design, broad-fields design, correlation design,
and process design.

Subject design
Subject design is the oldest and most common form of curriculum design used in
schooling systems worldwide. Its emphasis is on the mastery of specific content of
a subject and on verbal actions because it was assumed that knowledge and ideas
are best communicated and stored in verbal form (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009,
192). Therefore, classroom activities mainly involve group discussions which could
range from simple to complex tasks, progressing throughout the lessons.
The teacher assumes the role of knowledge provider and content specialist, and is
responsible to present lessons directly to the students. Students in this design are
considered learning when they are able to acquire knowledge of the subject matter.
Additionally, subject design curriculum relies heavily on the textbook and it rests
on the assumption that subjects are best outlined in textbooks (Ornstein and
Hunkins 2009, 192).
Henry Morrison is one of the advocates of subject design. He believes that subject
design is important and contributes the most to mastery of literacy skills which
is the central focus of elementary school curriculum. Other courses or subjects,
too, need to be offered to meet students needs (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009). At
the secondary school level, this type of design allows students to develop interests
and competencies in particular subject areas. The curriculum in subject design
is organised and compartmentalised according to the subject area. For example,
the English language subject is divided into several components, such as reading,
grammar, literature, and oral communication.
Subject design has been criticised for its lack of ability to acknowledge learners
needs, individuality, as well as learning styles because it only stresses on the subject
content. Students are also not able to choose the subjects which they are interested
to learn, or are meaningful to them. Another disadvantage of this design is the
possibility of students being passive learners when receiving knowledge via direct
instructions from the teacher.

UNIT 3 13
Curriculum design

Activity 3.2
Why do you think subject design curriculum remains as the popular choice in the
curriculum system up until today?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Broad-fields design
Broad-fields design, also known as interdisciplinary design, is developed to
overcome the issue of compartmentalisation and fragmentation of subjects
in subject design. Broad-fields curriculum designers strove to give students
a sweeping and understanding of all content areas (Ornstein and Hunkins
2009, 194) rather than separated understanding of specific content areas as
recommended by subject designers.
Broad-fields designers favour the idea of hybrid-type knowledge in which subjects
that are logically related are combined into one broad field of study. For example,
biology, chemistry and physics are combined together into general science.
The proponents of this approach, Broudy, Smith and Burnett (1978) suggested a
unique approach to broad-fields design. School curriculum can be organised into
five categories:
1. Symbolics of information (English, foreign languages, and mathematics).
2. Basic sciences (general science, biology, physics, and chemistry).
3. Developmental studies (evolution of the cosmos, of social institutions, and
of human nature).
4. Exemplars (modes of aesthetic experience, which includes arts, music, drama
and literature).
5. Molar problems, which would address typical social problems (Ornstein
and Hunkins 2009, 194).

Others suggested a combination surrounding specific themes or around conceptual

clusters, which is also called holistic curriculum. This could save time in school
and lift the burden of students having to learn too many subjects at one time.
Learners too can experience, learn and relate various elements in the subject.

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Critics argued that there is an issue of breadth versus depth of knowledge in this
type of curriculum design. Students may have a wide area of knowledge concept
when learning social sciences, however, the knowledge might just be a surface
knowledge as they do not learn it in depth. In contrast to learning one concept of,
say history in a period of time, students may have a greater depth of knowledge
when learning about one specific subject.

Correlation design
The concept of correlation design lies in between subject design and broad-fields
design. The idea is to relate the subjects, but maintain their distinct identities as
individual subjects. Correlation design provides linkage to separate subjects to
avoid fragmentation of curricular content (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009). The two
most common subjects that are usually connected together are mathematics and
science. For example, learning science involves some mathematical calculations
especially when conducting experiments and vice versa. This shows that these two
subjects are correlated with each other.
Harold and Elsie Alberty (1962) presented a correlation design with an overarching theme for secondary education. The content of the subjects is retained but
is carefully selected and organised within a broad theme, problem or unit. This
will allow various teachers to work together in selecting appropriate content and
assignments, and present it in innovative ways. For instance, a specific concept
in science may be taught together with a specific formula or calculations in
mathematics. The science teacher may introduce the concept to students and the
mathematics teacher will then guide students to apply a formula that correlates to
the science concept.
However, this curriculum design requires advanced planning between teachers
as they need to plan their lessons cooperatively. Such task can be very difficult to
implement as each teacher has different schedules.

Activity 3.3
What are the differences between broad-fields design and correlation design?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

UNIT 3 15
Curriculum design

Process design
Process design involves the learning of general procedures or processes instead of
focusing on a specific discipline or subject matter. This type of design emphasises
critical thinking and aims to make children achieve meaningful learning. The
main focus is on the learning process instead of the product of learning. Students
are encouraged to actively engaged in their learning, learn to think critically and
creatively, and then construct meaning out of it. As what Ornstein and Hunkins
(2009, 196) put it, students are taught to think and they are the meaning maker.
Therefore, learning is based on students perceptions and interpretations of the
reality of knowledge, which could lead to individualised learning.
One of the disadvantages of process design is the lack of emphasis on content,
because of its focus on the process of acquiring the knowledge. This may lead
to difficulty in having a standardised learning content in schools and also in
evaluating students performance. Because the learning processes are dependent
on how students interpret the meaning based on the context, there is an issue of
reliability and correctness as different individuals may perceive things differently
from others, or from what they should learn.

Learner-centred design
Despite the popularity of subject-centred design due to its emphasis on content
and disciplines, it is also important to take into account the learners needs.
Learner-centred designers intend to create curriculum that is supportive of the
learners needs and development. Three types of designs will be discussed: childcentred, experience-centred, and humanistic designs.

Child-centred design
The main idea of child-centred design is that children should remain the central
focus of the lesson and must actively participate in their learning environments.
One of the earliest advocates of child-centred design theory is John Locke, who
believes that childrens mind is like a blank slate that gets shaped and formed by
his or her own experiences... from the outside world (Hammond, Austin, Orcutt
and Rosso 2001, 4). The childrens mind would gather data through senses and
create simple ideas from their experience, which in turn will become complex
ideas (Hammond et al., 2001). This shows that students actively construct their
own meaning and understanding instead of passively receiving information
directly from the teacher.
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) in summarising Arthur Ellis stand on child-centred
design remind educators that attending to students needs and interests requires
careful observation of students and faith that they can articulate those needs and
interest and that young learners interests must have educational value (p. 197).
This means that children should be given the freedom to explore the world around
them in order to discover new skills and knowledge, and that learning should not
be constricted only to the classroom environment. This view concurs with Jean

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Jacques Rousseaus idea, a French philosopher who believes that children should
learn within the context of their natural environment instead of in an artificial
environment, which is the classroom.
However, emphasis on the childs interests and needs may likely displace the
emphasis on the subject matter. Therefore, it is important to take into account
both subject matter and learners needs as well as development. One such way is
to ensure that students learn and understand the key concepts pertaining to the
subject matter, and relate or apply it to their life or other contexts so that learning
becomes more meaningful to them. The key is to give children the freedom to
explore, but with guidance from the teacher to ensure that they are on the right
track.

Experience-centred design
Experience-centred design and child-centred design are similar in that children are
the central focus of the curriculum. What makes experience-centred design different
is that childrens needs and interests cannot be anticipated; therefore a curriculum
framework cannot be pre-planned for all children (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).
This means that the teacher needs to be prepared to respond to spontaneous situations
as responses from students cannot be expected. Consequently experience-centred
design is seen as very challenging on the teachers part and is almost impossible to
implement due to the nature of the design.
In experience-centred design, the childrens needs, interests and creativity are put
forward as the main focus. Therefore, the teacher should create a stimulating as well
as an engaging learning environment so that the children can explore and make
sense of the world around them. Learning occurs through social interactions and
students take ownership of their own learning, where they uncover the knowledge
themselves with the assistance of the teacher.
John Dewey, a well-known American philosopher who advocates this type of
learning design, suggests that learning should be based on the childs interests
and education should not be separated from real life. Dewey also suggests that
children learn best through life experiences, because the childs experiences are
fluid and dynamic, thus the curriculum would continually change to address
students needs (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009, 199). Although Dewey proposes
that students need to take charge of their own learning, he never advocated
making their interests as the curriculum or placing them in the role of curriculum
maker. Instead, he suggests that teachers need to carefully analyse childrens life
experiences and link these experiences with the formal curriculum.

Humanistic design
The humanistic design emerged in response to the excessive emphasis on subject
matter and cognitive learning in the 1960s and 1970s. The design stresses on the
learners self-development and interpersonal skills with the aim of achieving the
individuals full potential.

UNIT 3 17
Curriculum design

This design is based on Abraham Maslows concept of self-actualisation, which

consists of eight characteristics:
1. Accepting of self, others and nature.
2. Spontaneous, simple and natural.
3. Problem-oriented.
4. Open to experiences beyond the ordinary.
5. Emphatic and sympathetic towards the less fortunate.
6. Sophisticated in interpersonal relations.
7. Favouring democratic decision-making.
8. Possessing a philosophical sense of humour.
Source: Ornstein and Hunkins (2009, 201)

Another proponent of humanistic design is Carl Rogers, who advocates the

concept of self-directed learning. Through self-directed learning, students find
their own way in their learning which would improve their self-understanding.
This type of design concerns the development of learners self-concept with an
emphasis on the affective domain outcomes. The aim of humanistic curriculum is
to produce, according to Maslow, self-actualising people, or according to Rogers,
total human beings (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009, 201).
In this design, teachers assume the role of facilitators and motivators, who are
concerned with students emotions and well-being. This is to ensure that the
students enjoy learning and develop positive self-concept. The drawback of this
design is that teachers are required to have the skills and ability to face different
types of individuals, which may be difficult to achieve due to the number of
students in a classroom.

Activity 3.4
Discuss two advantages and disadvantages of learner-centred design based on the
context of your own teaching/curriculum.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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Problem-centred design
The final type of design is problem-centred design, which focuses on real-life issues
of individuals and society. Problem-centred design situates the learners within a
real but well-planned social setting. Its emphasis is on the nature of the problems
to be studied, which often transcends beyond the pre-identified subject matter
boundaries. Nevertheless, the scope of the problems still needs to address the
learners needs, concerns, and abilities. The dual emphasis on both content and
learners development distinguished problem-centred design from the other major
types of curriculum design (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009). This design prepares
students with the knowledge and skills needed for them to face the real-world,
which means they are engaging in authentic learning.
Two types of designs, life-situations and reconstructionist designs, are discussed
below.

Life-situations design
Life-situations curriculum design focuses on two key aspects: life situations and
experiences. This design is based on Herbert Spencers writings on a curriculum that:
1. Sustain life.
2. Enhance life.
3. Aid in rearing children.
4. Maintain the individuals social and political relations.
5. Enhance leisure, tasks and feelings.
Source: Ornstein and Hunkins (2009, 203)

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), there are three fundamental assumptions
of life-situations design. They are:
1. Dealing with persistent life situations is crucial to a societys successful
functioning and it makes educational sense to organise a curriculum
around them.
2. Students will see the relevance of the content if it is organised around
aspects of community life.
3. Having students study social or life situations will directly involve them in
improving society.

UNIT 3 19
Curriculum design

The learning method involved is problem-solving, where students will analyse a

particular situation or issue. They will take into account their past and current
experiences in order to analyse the issue. One of the advantages of this curriculum
design is that students can gain an insight about the issues that are happening
around them, and they could find ways to contribute and help improve society.
Another advantage is that students could relate or find relevance about what they
are studying with their life, and apply their prior knowledge to the new situation.
Critics argued that this type of curriculum design does not contribute much
towards students knowledge in subject matter. It is also difficult to set the scope of
study due to the wide range of social issues involved. Therefore it is important for
teachers to carefully determine and select the scope of study which is related and
useful for the students to learn.

Reconstructionist design
The advocates of reconstructionist design believe that curriculum should foster
social actions aimed at reconstructing society and promote the societys social,
political and economic development. Change is the key aspect of reconstructionist
design, and the aim of this design is to change the world to be a better place
through education. Students are deeply engaged in critically analysing current
issues at the local, national and international levels. Special attention is given to
the political practices of business and government groups and their impact on
the workforce (Ornstein and Hunkins 2009, 205). Such analysis will hopefully
result in positive political and business practices. Reconstructionist design is
gaining popularity with those newly interested in addressing social and economic
inequality and injustices.
The idea of reconstructionist design was proposed by two scholars, George Counts
and Theodore Brameld. Counts believes that society must be totally reorganised to
promote common goods (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009), while Brameld suggests
that schools apply a reconstructionist curriculum to help bring about the social
changes necessary to create a better social order (Bazile and Nauman, 2004).

Activity 3.5
How does problem-centred design help improve the community?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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Self-assessment exercise
You have learned about three main curriculum designs. What are the there main
advantages and disadvantages of each of these designs?
Advantages
Subject-centred
design
1.

2.

3.

Learner-centred
design

Problem-centred
design

UNIT 3 21
Curriculum design

Disadvantages
Subject-centred
design
1.

2.

3.

Learner-centred
design

Problem-centred
design

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Summary
You have explored the two important factors that influence the designs of a
curriculum: educational philosophies and psychological foundations related
to various learning theories. You have also learned the three main curriculum
designs: subject-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred designs. Next,
you will explore the social factors that influence decisions on curriculum
designs.

Suggested answers to activities

Activity 3.2
With subject design, it is easy to have a standardised curriculum, where the
content is organised based on the importance of the knowledge and subject matter.
Knowledge can be easily interpreted based on the textbooks and supporting
materials are easily available, thus making it easier to plan the instruction. Moreover,
direct instruction by the teacher, which is presented in verbal form can be easily
communicated and presented by the teacher.

Activity 3.3

Nature
of design

Broadfields design

Correlation design

Integrates several subjects which

are logically related to form one
broad area of study.

Correlate subjects, but their

distinct identities are maintained
as individual subjects.

Activity 3.4
1. Advantages of learner-centred design:
a. Emphasises learners needs and interests while selecting and organising
the content.
b. The curriculum revolves around the students, and is relevant to them as
their needs and interests are taken into account while planning.
c. Students learn actively and take part in their own learning, which in turn
leads to an enriched and meaningful learning experience.

UNIT 3 23
Curriculum design

Activity 3.5
As learning are planned based on real-life social issues, learners will analyse and
address the problems with the aim to help improve the society.

Suggested answers to self-assessment exercise

Advantages
Subject-centred
design

Learner-centred
design

Problem-centred
design

1.

A standardised
curriculum can be
achieved with organised
content.

Emphasis is on learners
needs and interests
while selecting and
organising the content.

Since the design focuses

on real-life issues, this
design prepares students
with the knowledge and
skills needed to face the
real world.

2.

The curriculum
emphasises the knowledge
and lessons that are
considered as essential.

The curriculum revolves

around the students, and
is relevant to them as
their needs and interests
are taken into account
while planning.

Students can easily

relate the concepts they
learned with their actual
life experiences, and
able to apply their prior
knowledge to the new
situations they are in.

3.

Easy to deliver knowledge

to students because
knowledge can be
interpreted based on
the textbook and easily
available materials.

Students learn actively

and take part in their
own learning, which in
turn leads to an enriched
and meaningful learning
experience.

Students can make

significant contribution
to society to make the
world a better place.

Subject-centred
design

Learner-centred
design

Problem-centred
design

Lack of ability to
acknowledge the learners
needs and diverse
learning styles.

The content can extend

beyond what was
pre-identified.

It is difficult to set the

scope of the study due
to the wide range of
social issues involved.

Disdvantages

1.

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Subject-centred
design

Learner-centred
design

Problem-centred
design

2.

Students cannot
choose the subjects
which interest them.

Teachers need to have

extensive skills and be
prepared to face various
situations because
everything needs to be
done on the spot because
childrens needs and
interests cannot be
anticipated.

Critics argued that this

type of curriculum
design does not
contribute much towards
students knowledge in
subject matter.

3.

There is a big possibility

of students being passive
learners.

There is a tendency
to overemphasise the
learners individuality
that it tends to displace
the emphasis on the
subject matter.

Difficulties in formally
assessing students
knowledge and
development.

UNIT 3 25
Curriculum design

3.3 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Describe how social forces influence curriculum design.
2. Explain how the redefinition of knowledge impacts on curriculum design.
3. Discuss how data on human growth impacts on the development of
curriculum design.
4. Illustrate how understanding of human learning affects approaches to
teaching and learning.

Introduction
Educational philosophies and psychological learning theories serve as pillars of
curriculum designs. Besides these two foundations, there are other factors that can
influence the designs of curriculum. They are social forces in society, treatment
of knowledge, human growth and development and learning as a process. In this
section we will discuss each area respectively to enable you to see the patterns
and how it influences the selection of curriculum designs in the public education
system.

Social forces in society

Social forces can be referred to as consensual actions among a number of members
of a society who get together to bring about social action or social change. Social
forces have the capability to influence and affect individuals as well as causing
changes in society. It involves the promotion of certain ideas and values of various
groups of people including their social goals, ideas about cultural uniformity and
diversity, social pleasures, plans for the future and concept of culture (Colella,
2007). A nation which undergoes the transformation process is one of the major
factors of the change in educational programme. This is due to the need for
the curriculum to transform along with the changes, as social forces are always
continually changing. As Wiles and Bondi (1998, 17) mentioned ... if a changing
society insists that schooling retain traditional forms in the face of massive
changes, it may well doom itself to obsolescence and decline.
Communication is an example of critical social forces that influence curriculum
designs. At the beginning of the 20th century, communication channels were
limited to printed papers. The telephone and motion pictures were only at the
early stages of development. During this period, mass communication was scarce.
However, the trend has changed within a fifty-year period with the availability of

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three mass communication devices; radios, televisions and computers (Wiles and
Bondi, 1998). These devices enable a large amount of information to be spread
around to the audiences in a short period of time.
With the mass spreading of information and knowledge to the audiences comes
its pros and cons. Information received and shared could influence the audiences
positively as well as negatively and this could impact an individuals thinking and
perception. In todays society, with the advancement of computer technologies, it
does not only change the way people think and learn, but also affect the education
system significantly. In order to keep up with the rapid changes of technology and
a vast array of information, curriculum has been redesigned to include the use of
various technological hardware and software that can assist teaching and learning
of specific, especially abstract concepts in science, for instance.
In the United States of America (USA), publication of a report titled A National
at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform in April 1983 is considered the
classic example of how social forces influence curriculum designs. The report
described the public perceptions that something was lacking in the American
education system as compared to the other nations active development in the area
of science and mathematics. As a result, the committee which prepared the report
proposed a total educational reform that focused more on:
1. Increasing the standards, requirements and state-level control of education.
2. Focusing on the basic the 3Rs in the curriculum.
3. Increasing the funding for education.
4. Focusing on having tangible results for learning (Posner, 2004).

Activity 3.6
In your opinion, what are the social forces that need to be considered when
designing curriculum in Malaysia?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Treatment of knowledge
Due to rapid technological advancements, knowledge has become widely available
to the learners. Additionally, the pre-identified curriculum which was deemed
important in the 1990s is no longer seen as important in the 21st century. The
rapid changes in knowledge coupled with its fast distribution via technologies
such as Internet force curriculum planners and designers to keep updating existing

UNIT 3 27
Curriculum design

curriculum so that it will parallel with the current knowledge of the century. Such
task is very challenging due to the mass volume of knowledge that is considered
as important to be learned in schools. One approach in dealing with this issue is
for curriculum designers to refocus on the structure of information and skills of
obtaining information rather than on the information itself. Three factors are put
into consideration when utilising this approach (Wiles and Bondi, 1998):

Factors curriculum planners need to put into consideration

1

In choosing the most current content and knowledge, the emphasis

is on learning goals and objectives.

Curriculum designers need to acknowledge the learners reactions

to the information that they will receive.

Curriculum designers need to put into consideration the issue of

language as well as the medium of delivery.

Human growth and development

The next factor that curriculum designers need to put into consideration is human
growth and development. This is where knowledge on psychological and learning
theories comes into play. The knowledge and understanding of human growth and
development are important as we need to look at learning from the perspectives of
each individual. It is important to acknowledge the fact that each individual learns
differently. We will look at this in two aspects, namely, intelligence, or cognitive as
well as social and emotional development.
Intelligence/cognitive aspect
Currently, the model that we are operating with, are models of how people are
believed to develop and the normal ranges of development in the capacity to
think (Wiles and Bondi, 1998).
One of the dominant models is Jean Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development,
which consists of four stages of development:
1. Sensorimotor Period ( Birth to 2 years old).
2. Preoperational Thought (2 to 6 7 years old).
3. Concrete Operational Stage (6 7 to 11 12 years old).
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 12 years old to adult).

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Web Reference
Follow the links below to read more about Jean Piagets Theory of Cognitive
Development. The weblink below is also available in WawasanLearn.
1. http://penta.ufrgs.br/edu/telelab/3/piagets.htm (Accessed 21 May 2012)
2. http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm (Accessed 21 May
2012)

Activity 3.7
Based on your readings, how do you think Jean Piagets Theory contributed to the
process of curriculum planning?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Social and emotional growth

Knowing the subject matter alone is insufficient as children need to be able to learn
how to control their own feelings and emotions, understand the feelings of their
peers as well as teachers. In order to achieve an optimal learning outcome, children
need a mixture of skills such as intellectual, motivational and socioemotional
skills.
It is important for us to take into consideration childrens social and emotional
development, to understand it as well as to emphasise certain types of cognitive
and affective growth.

Web Reference
Follow the link below to read more about the importance of social and emotional
development for children in their earliest years. The weblink below is also available
in WawasanLearn.
http://nieer.org/resources/policyreports/report7.pdf (Accessed 21 May 2012)

UNIT 3 29
Curriculum design

Learning as a process
Schools can help promote students learning by acknowledging the various types
of learning styles. According to Wiles and Bondi (1998, 25), there are three
major approaches to the structure of learning in schools, namely, the behavioural
approach, an approach incorporating drive theories and environmental approach.
Behavioural approach
The focus is on achieving a certain goal or learning objective, where the changes
in students behaviour indicates the accomplishment of goals.
Activities are planned to match the learning objectives.

Drive theories
Learning activities are planned based on human growth and development.

Environmental approach
This type of learning approach acknowledges the uniqueness of each individual
and aims to expose the potential that lies inside every student. In this approach,
students are free to explore and share ideas in order to promote learning.

Summary
This section provides information on the social aspects of curriculum design.
In particular, you are introduced to the four social aspects that influence
curriculum design: the impact of social forces, perspective of new knowledge,
data on human growth and knowledge of how humans learn. Each of these
influences or forces gives society ideas on how curriculum should looks like and
what to be included to better prepare learners for their real-life survival.

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Suggested answers to activities

Activity 3.6
Social forces that need to be considered when designing curriculum in this country
are:
1. Religion and culture, especially in our multicultural society.
2. Various institutional views, such as the ministry.
3. Students background/family background/socioeconomic status.

Activity 3.7
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development is based on the thought process behind
the behaviour. The changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators to
what is happening inside the learners mind (Mergel, 1998). This model, which
also provides idea about the continual and progressive change in the structure of
behaviour and thought in children, has assisted educators in preparing intellectual
experiences in schools (Wiles and Bondi, 1998).

UNIT 3 31
Curriculum design

Summary of Unit 3
In this unit, you have learned about the three main foundations of curriculum
designs: philosophical, psychological and social foundations. These three
foundations serve as important factors that influence the decisions on what to
include in a curriculum, how it should be taught and why, and how much to be
covered and taught to learners. Although it is difficult to categorise the many
types of designs, you have been introduced to the basic three subject-centred,
learner-centred and problem-centred designs used in designing curriculum.
Additionally, you also learned how other social factors such as social forces, views
on knowledge and human growth and development contribute to the selection
of specific design.
Understanding curriculum designs will prepare you for the next unit in which
you will learn about the various concepts and methods to assess a curriculum.
Curriculum assessment is an effort to maintain its effectiveness and/or modify it
according to the current needs of society.

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UNIT 3 33
Curriculum design

References
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York: Macmillan.
Atkinson, R C and Shiffrin, R M (1968) Human memory: A proposed system
and its control processes in Spence, K W and Spence, J T, The Psychology of
Learning and Motivation, vol. 2: 89 195, New York: Academic Press.
Bazile, T E and Nauman, A (2004) Reconstructionism Social Change Through
Education, http://lionsden.tec.selu.edu/~tbazile/Reconstructionis1.doc (Accessed
21 May 2012)
Broudy, H S, Burnett, J R and Smith, B O (1978) Democracy and Excellence in
American Seconday Education: A Study in Curriculum Theory, New York: R. E.
Krieger.
Colella, A J (2007) Reaction Paper Chapters 1 4, ctimpone.wikispaces.com/file/
view/Reaction+Paper+1-4.doc (Accessed 21 May 2012)
Ediger, M (1976) Philosophy of Education in the Curriculum, http://www.eric.ed.
gov/PDFS/ED236140.pdf (Accessed 21 May 2012)
Hammond, L D, Austin, K, Orcutt, S, and Rosso, J (2001) How People Learn:
Introduction to Learning Theories, California: Stanford University School of
Education, http://www.stanford.edu/class/ed269/hplintrochapter.pdf (Accessed
21 May 2012)
Hardon, J A, John Dewey Radical Social Educator, http://www.ewtn.com/
library/HOMESCHL/JNDEWEY2.HTM (Accessed 21 May 2012)
Hutchins, R M (1952) Great Books of the Western World, Chicago, IL: Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Joyce, B, Weil, M and Calhoun, E (2004) Models of Teaching, 7th edn, Boston:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Marsh, C J (2009) Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum, Oxon: Routledge.
Maheshwari, V K and Bansal, S (2010) Idealism in Education, http://www.scribd.
com/doc/31456268/Idealism-in-Education (Accessed 21 May 2012)
McKimm, J (2007) Curriculum Design and Development, http://www.faculty.
londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/setting-learning-objectives/Curriculum_design_
and_development.pdf (Accessed 21 May 2012)
ONeill, G (2010) Overview of Curriculum Models, http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/
ucdtlp00631.pdf (Accessed 21 May 2012)

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Ornstein, A C and Hunkins, F P (1998) Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and

Issues, 5th edn, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
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parvez-video.com/idealism_theory.asp (Accessed 21 May 2012)
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