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Technical University of Crete, School of Architecture, Applied Mechanics Laboratory, GR-73100 Chania, Greece
University of Vigo, School of Industrial Engineering, Department of Engineering Materials, Applied Mechanics and Construction ES-36208 Vigo, Spain
Technical University of Crete, School of Production Engineering and Management, GR-73100 Chania, Greece
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Available online 13 January 2016
Keywords:
Nondestructive evaluation
Photogrammetry
Finite element analysis
Damage mechanics
Ground penetrating radar
3D modelling
a b s t r a c t
Several numerical models are presented in this article, for the study of the ultimate behaviour of a real
stone arch bridge. For the exact representation of the geometry an integral and comprehensive survey
involving Terrestrial Photogrammetry and Ground Penetrating Radar is in order to provide a realistic 3D
geometric model for the subsequent mechanical analysis of the bridge. The accuracy of the photogrammetric method permitted detecting cracks in different areas and the GPR completed the geometric model
with information of hidden parts such as backll, arch ring thickness, etc. Finite element analysis models,
incorporating damage, elastoplasticity and contact, are then developed. Comparison between these models is considered in a single arch of the structure. The classical four hinges mechanism appears in the
arch. A model of the whole structure, where the arch and the ll are taken into account, is nally developed. Results show how damage is developed in the body of the arch, for loadings that include forces, or
vertical and transverse displacements in the supports.
2016 Civil-Comp Ltd. and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
New photogrammetry techniques allow us measure structures
of complex shapes and create accurate models for further structural analysis. Within this paper we report on an application of
this technique on a model structure, the Cernadela Bridge in Spain.
The purpose of this paper is twofold. First practical diculties arising during the mentioned operation will be briey discussed and
practical structural analysis and evaluation tasks related to a masonry bridge will be presented. Furthermore open questions and
the needs for further development of the involved techniques will
be identied and listed.
Some rst related results have already been published in [1].
In the present article, new information regarding terrestrial photogrammetry is given and details for obtaining the geometry
of the ll over the arch are presented. That leads to an improved and more accurate model, including information from the
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138
has previously impressed. This is possible through the establishment of geometrical relationships between objects coordinates (in
3D space) and image coordinates (in 2D space) into a perspective system, governed by the collinearity condition that establishes
that, at the time of exposure, a point in the object space, the perspective centre and the image coordinates of the point all lie in
common straight line [18].
In essence, two main steps are involved in the solution of that
process. First, the parameters that dene the perspective system
that produces the impression of images are required, which are
achievable through the camera calibration. Then, relative orientation consists of the determination of the relative position and orientation of those perspective systems (cameras) involved in the
photogrammetric model, to be nally transformed to the global coordinate system once scale factor of the model is known.
Photogrammetric data acquisition: an SLR digital camera manufactured by Canon, model EOS 10D, mounted with a 20 mm
Nikkor lens was used for image recording. Camera calibration values, which are very important for a reliable application, can be
seen in [18]. Another factor is related to the PSP, and consequently,
to the distance between camera and bridges surface. During the
image acquisition the surveyors tried to maintain operational distance with values around 15 m. According to camera parameters
the expected PSP would have a value of 5 mm.
Working under the operational distances mentioned, the eld
of view (FOV) of the camera does not cover the whole structure.
Because of this reason the survey of the structure had to be split
in smaller models, being each model composed of three images
taken from different points of view.
The photogrammetric survey of Cernadela Bridge was based on
the principles of convergent photogrammetry where images maintain optimal convergence angles between main directions of cameras of 90. In this sense, 32 individual models were required to
complete the 3D modelling of the whole structures envelope.
Articial targets were distributed in all around the bridge surface so the coordinates of the minimum number of control points
in object space could be collected by topographic equipment. A
total of 100 control points were measured by means of a Total Station Leica TCR1102. The topographic measurements were
subsequently introduced into the photogrammetric workstation to
achieve the absolute orientation. This procedure guarantee not only
to have the 3D model scaled and levelled, but also to control accuracy of nal 3D model by comparing with the truth data provided
by total station.
Also, the position of target marks for the GPR survey where
identied manually in the photogrammetric model to guarantee
the registration of the internal proles on the model envelope
(bridge surface).
Photogrammetric data processing: the images collected in the
eld and the coordinates of control points measured by total station were downloaded to the photogrammetric workstation Photomodeler Pro. The route followed in this application was the
following: 1) Import of images corresponding to each independent model. Each model was composed of 3 or 4 convergent images with optimal convergent angles of 90. 2) Inner orientation.
The geometry of the perspective system used for the impression
of images was reconstructed through the information of camera
calibration. 3) External orientation. The relative orientation was
performed for each independent model by identifying 6 common
points in the homologous images that dened each model. The information of these points in image space allowed solving the relative position between cameras and also those points in the model
space (neither scale nor absolute orientation yet). The 32 3D models orientated in this step belong to different coordinate systems,
and consequently all need to be joined together in order to create
the 3D model of the whole structure. This was done by marking
and transferring common points (at least 3) in the overlapping areas between adjacent models. After this, a relative model of the
whole structure was formed; 4) Absolute orientation. After referring corresponding control points in both topographic data and relative model data, the 3D model of Cernadela Bridge in the global
coordinate system was completed. 5) Restitution. Once all the images were externally oriented the next step consisted of restitution
of all those points that represent the geometry of the elements required for the subsequent structural analysis of the bridge.
2.1.2. Complementary geometric data provided by GPR
As presented in the previous paragraphs, GPR was used as a
complementary source of data to have information of those nonvisible areas of the bridge. Particularly, information of zonication of backll, pavement and ring stone thickness, etc. was estimated. The trajectory of the GPR antennas was accurately marked
by means of articial targets in order to register the path followed
by the GPR into the same coordinate systems used for the photogrammetric model. This operation was performed at the pathway of the bridge. Additionally, different grids were marked also
using articial targets into one of the vaults to provide a more accurate measure of arch thickness and so have an estimation of the
error of estimating arch thickness from the survey made from the
path, and nally, grids were also marked into the pillars where the
conguration 4 of GPR, that is presented in the next sections, was
applied.
GPR survey: the GPR data were collected using a RAMAC/GPR
system from MALA Geoscience. Three different frequencies and acquisition parameters were selected depending on the application
and the data required. The conguration 1 in Table 1, using a central frequency of 250 MHz, was selected to map the lling in the
interior of the whole structure, as well as to determine the paving
thicknesses. Additionally, a 500 MHz antenna (conguration 2) was
chosen to improve imaging resolution. Thus, the paving level was
better recognised and more accurate measurements of thickness
could be obtained. The conguration 3 was carried out to provide
the ring stone thicknesses. This data acquisition was performed in
the longitudinal direction to the bridge structure, through the entire vault intrados surface; while both congurations 1 and 2 were
conducted along the pathway of the bridge in the longitudinal direction. Finally, the conguration 4, in which the GPR proles were
gathered in the vertical direction through the accessible wall piers
of the bridge, allowed for a proper assessment of the presence
of lling or solid granite (ashlar) inside the structure. To measure
the prole lengths, and for trace-interval distance calculation, an
odometer wheel (encoder) attached to the antenna was used.
GPR data processing: all of the collected proles were ltered
before interpretation to correct the down shifting of the signal
caused by air-ground interface and to amplify the received signal as well as to reduce clutter and unwanted noise in the raw
data (both low- and high-frequency noise in the temporal and spatial directions). The objective was to enhance the extraction of
information from the received signals and to produce a subsurface image that includes all of the features and/or targets of interest, which simplies the interpretation of the GPR data. Moreover,
topographic corrections provided by the photogrammetric model
were applied to the proles acquired through the vault intrados
surface. Migration ltering was also applied to the GPR data gathered through the wall piers in order to mitigate the diffraction hyperbolae produced by the heterogeneous lling and irregular ashlar, as well as joints between ashlars, which allowed for a better
recognition of layering and more appropriate estimation of depths
(or thicknesses). The data were processed with the ReexW software [19].
Thicknesses values were determined from Eq. (1). This value
is coincident with the distance travelled by the wave (d), and it
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Table 1
Survey parameters assumed for GPR data acquisition by considering four different congurations based
on the data results desired.
Conguration
Frequency (MHz)
Trace-interval (cm)
Samples/trace
1
2
3
4
250
500
800
500
5
2
1
3
220
100
55
100
566
677
554
710
Fig. 1. (a) 3D wireframe model of the whole structure of Cernadela Bridge. (b) Detailed model of second vault of the bridge with camera position and intersection rays of
some points. (c) Cracks measured in in the spandrel walls between arches 4 and 5. (d) 3D solid model created from the integration of GPR and cracks in the photogrammetryderived model.
d=v
twt
2
(1)
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Fig. 2. Geometrical data obtained from GPR. a) 250 MHz data showing the zonication of lling in the interior of the bridge, and paving thicknesses prole. b) 500 MHz
data interpreting the pavingll interface in detail, and the arch ring corresponding to the rst arch from the left side upstream. c) 800 MHz data obtained through the
intrados surface of the vault, which allowed identifying the ring stone thicknesses prole with more accuracy.
of the bridge (Fig. 2). The 250 MHz data collected along the pathway of the bridge was useful to obtain (Eq. (1)) the paving thicknesses prole (Fig. 2a). This interpretation was validated with the
detailed results produced by the 500 MHz data achieved through
pathway (Fig. 2b). Although the ring stone thicknesses can be appreciate from the 250 MHz data, and more pronounced from the
500 MHz data, the radargram generated when acquiring data with
the 800 MHz antenna through the internal intrados of the vault
provided the ring stone prole with more resolution and, subsequently, more accurate thicknesses values (Fig. 2c).
In terms of inner constructive materials, the 250 MHz data
recorded through pathway shown those areas containing more heterogeneous lling in the interior of the structure (Fig. 2a). Additionally, a 500 MHz GPR survey was carried out along the surface of the accessible wall piers, which demonstrated that such
structural components are composed by solid ashlar until approximately 1 m height (Fig. 3).
Creation of the 3D solid model: in order to integrate this
model into the procedures of structural analysis, the initial point
cloud and the information provided by the GPR have to be postprocessed together in order to create a 3D solid model before creating the FEM mesh. This process performed in two steps using
Geomagic Spark software: rst, the point cloud was converted into
a surface model through a triangulation process, and later, it was
converted into a solid model. The next step involved the partition
of the global 3D model with according to the characterisation provided by GPR, and so, vaults and backll were isolated before creating the FEM mesh.
Introduction of crack information: due to the accuracy of the
photogrammetric model, cracks were visually identied during the
restitution of ashlars. The delineation of cracks was exported as
an independently layer to Geomagic Spark, where it was used as
the pattern to create the partitions of the 3D solid model. Since,
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Fig. 3. 800 MHz GPR data gathered through the wall pier among the two rst arches at the left margin from upstream. The layering of solid ashlar in depth is interpreted,
as well as the interface between ashlar and lling in height.
which in comparison with available predictions from other methods gives us condence that prediction of collapse corresponds to
real collapse and not to numerical failure.
It is noted that in the framework of the present work, nonlinear, incremental nite element analysis is used to depict damage, among others, in a real and complex masonry arch bridge.
From another point of view, one of the most common procedures
which can be used to evaluate the collapse mechanism and the ultimate load is related to limit analysis (see for instance [1113]).
3.3.1. Smeared crack damage model for the arches
In this article two similar continuum models have been used for
the structural analysis of the arches of the structure. The rst one,
a smeared crack damage model, with uniaxial tensile and compressive behaviour shown in Fig. 4, allows for the simulation of brittle
materials, like concrete and masonry.
According to this model, cracking is assumed to occur when the
stress reaches a critical failure surface, given by the relationship
between the equivalent pressure stress, p, and the Mises equivalent
deviatoric stress q, as it is illustrated in Fig. 5.
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The basic unilateral contact law is described by the set of inequalities (1), (2) and by the complementarity relation (3):
h = u g 0 ==> h 0
n
t 0
(3)
t n (u g ) = 0
(4)
Inequality (2) represents the non-penetration relation. Inequality (3) implements the requirement that only compressive stresses
(contact pressures) are allowed in each contact interface. Eq. (4)
is the complementarity relation which states that either separation with zero contact stress occurs or contact is realised with
possibly non-zero contact stress. For a discretised structure the
previous relations are written for every point of a unilateral
interface.
The behaviour in the tangential direction is dened by a static
version of the Coulomb friction law. In particular, two contacting
surfaces start sliding when the shear stress in the interface reaches
a critical value equal to:
t t = cr = |tn |
(2)
(5)
where tt and tn are the shear stress and the contact pressure
at a given point of the contacting surfaces respectively and is
the friction coecient. There are two possible directions of sliding
along an interface, so tt can be positive or negative depending on
that direction. Furthermore, there is no sliding if |tt | < |tn | (stick
conditions).
The Lagrange multiplier method is used to incorporate in the
equilibrium equations, the unilateral contact friction equations.
Finally, an alternative approach of a unilateral contact interface
with a non-zero tensile resistance is adopted in this study.
3.4. Two- and three-dimensional models
Several nite element models have been developed, for the simulation of the Cernadela Bridge. Four of them are used for the simulation of a single arch of the structure and a fth one for the investigation of the behaviour of the whole bridge. In particular, two
2d models are developed with the two mentioned damage laws,
one 3d model is also developed with the smeared crack damage
model in a single arch and one 2d discrete model is developed for
the same arch. Within the rst four models, a parametric investigation of the tensile strength of the masonry and of the width of the
arch has been considered. Finally, the proper material parameters
have been chosen for implementation on the whole structure.
In particular, the rst smeared crack concrete nite element
model is used for the simulation of the second arch (Arch 2) of the
Cernadela Bridge in two dimensions, Fig. 8. The main dimensions
of the bridge are given below [27]:
- Length of spans (right to left, downstream view): 3.58 m,
6.56 m, 10.01 m, 11.14 m, 10.30 m.
- Rise of arches (right to left, downstream view): 1.79 m, 3.77 m,
5.22 m, 5.80 m, 4.75 m.
The model consists of quadrilateral, four-node, plane stress elements with two translational degrees of freedom per node. A typical value for the length of each nite element is 0.03 m. A total
number of 4725 elements are used. In Fig. 9a the mesh of the arch
is shown.
For the implementation of the alternative damage model, the
mesh shown in Fig. 10 is used. The model consists of quadrilateral,
four-node, plane stress elements with two translational degrees of
freedom per node. A total number of 4351 elements are used. The
same mesh has been used in the framework of the model with
contact interfaces.
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Fig. 9. Mesh of the simulated single arch (a) two dimensional and (b) three dimensional model.
Fig. 10. Mesh of the simulated single arch two dimensional model of Marc.
A fourth, three dimensional nite element model has been developed, for the study of the same arch of the bridge, in three
dimensions. The width of the arch is considered equal to 0.5 m.
Three dimensional hexahedral nite elements with three translational degrees of freedom per node have been used. The total number of them is equal to 73,520, Fig. 9b. The smeared crack concrete
model is used for the investigation of the damage in this model. In
the described models, loading conditions include self-weight and a
concentrated load at the quarter span of the bridge.
In [27] the same arch of the structure was simulated with a
discontinuous nite element model, as well as with Ring 2.0 limit
analysis software [28]. In both models, a discrete modelling approach was considered, contrary to the present study where continuum damage models are mainly used. Consequently, comparison
between the results obtained from the continuum and discrete approach will be considered for this arch of the bridge. Thus, the ultimate (limit) load and the collapse mechanism received from both
approaches will be examined. This procedure is used for the validation of the parameters of the used damage models.
Finally, a three dimensional, continuum, nite element model
is developed, for the whole geometry of the bridge, Fig. 11. For the
investigation of the ultimate behaviour of the arch, the smeared
crack concrete model has been used. For the ll, a classical Mohr
Coulomb elastoplastic law has been chosen. Three dimensional,
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Fig. 12. Collapse mechanism obtained from the continuum nite element models (a) two dimensional and (b) three dimensional model.
Fig. 13. Collapse mechanism obtained from the discrete, two dimensional nite element model (a) separation stress = 0.25 MPa and (b) separation stress = 0.00 MPa.
Fig. 14. Forcedisplacement diagrams for the second arch of the Cernadela Bridge
(width of the arch 0.50 m).
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Fig. 15. Forcedisplacement diagrams for the second arch of the Cernadela Bridge
(width of the arch 1.00 m).
the diagrams tend to become horizontal, indicating that the structure is close to collapse. At the same time, the four hinges collapse
mechanism appears.
Fig. 16. Summary of the forcedisplacement diagrams for the second arch of the
Cernadela Bridge (width of the arch 0.5 m).
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Fig. 17. Damage on the fourth and fth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment.
Fig. 18. Damage of the arch for a trac load in the fourth arch.
Fig. 19. Damage of the ll for a trac load in the fourth arch.
Fig. 20. Damage for a trac load in the fourth arch and a transverse movement in the fourth abutment upstream view.
Fig. 21. Damage for a trac load in the fourth arch and a transverse movement in the fourth abutment downstream view.
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Fig. 22. Crack opening on the fth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment Fill Youngs modulus = 23 GPa.
Fig. 23. Crack opening on the fth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment Fill Youngs modulus = 8 GPa.
The mentioned model is nally enhanced by taking into account pre-existing cracks, as they were obtained from the Photogrammetry (Fig. 1d). By taking into account the current state of
damage and deformation, the estimation of the real structural behaviour and strength of the arch can be more realistic and accurate.
To simulate the cracks, a unilateral contact law has been applied to the cracked surfaces. Thus, zero tensile resistance is given
in each interface. In addition, three parametric simulations of the
ll have been taken into account. First, the initial Youngs modulus of the ll (15 GPa) and a vertical displacement of the fourth
abutment are considered. Then, the Youngs modulus is considered
equal to 8 GPa and 23 GPa, respectively. The goal of this investigation is to examine the mechanical behaviour of the structure
with the cracks as well as to understand the inuence of the lls
Youngs modulus on the behaviour of the structure.
According to the output, the bigger elasticity modulus of the
ll results in bigger crack openings (Fig. 22), in comparison with
the case with smaller elasticity modulus (Fig. 23), for the same
value of movement of the abutment. This shows that the properties of the ll may inuence the ultimate behaviour of the cracked
structure.
Fig. 24. Crack opening abutments vertical displacement diagram for a variation
of the elasticity modulus of the ll.
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5. Conclusions
In the present study terrestrial photogrammetry is used for geometry reconstruction of a real masonry arch bridge located in
Spain, the metric model is used for subsequent implementation
in structural assessment tasks. Terrestrial photogrammetry significantly contributes to the accurate geometric representation of historical structures with milimetric precision. It is important to note
some limitations on the use of the photogrammetric method. Although the high level of detail recorded, this may be not enough
for detection of movement or subtle displacements of masonry
blocks. The main advantage of such surveying method is based
on the accuracy reached for the positioning of real masonry elements that will subsequently support the accurate geometric
characterisation during the nite elements based model of the
whole structure. The exact geometry obtained from this method
is then used for the investigation of the ultimate behaviour of the
structure.
In particular, several two and three dimensional, non-linear
models have been developed. To depict the limit load and the collapse mechanism of the structure, continuum damage models have
been used and compared with discrete approaches conducted in
the present as well as in older studies.
According to the results, the classical four hinges mechanism
arises from the structural analysis of the bridge. Moreover, the inuence of parameters such us the width of the structure and the
tensile strength of the material in the forcedisplacement diagrams
is shown.
The simulation of the whole structure demonstrates that a possible out of plane movement of abutments will cause signicant
damage to the bridge. Finally, useful results are obtained when
the existing cracks of the structure are incorporated in the simulation. Values of crack opening and the pattern of hinges which are
activated are received after simulation. Additionally, the variation
of the elasticity modulus of the ll may signicantly inuence the
values of crack opening in the structure.
Acknowledgements
The work of Dr. Georgios Drosopoulos is being supported
by a research project implemented within the framework of
the Action Supporting Postdoctoral Researchers of the Operational Program "Education and Lifelong Learning" (Actions Beneciary: General Secretariat for Research and Technology), and conanced by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Greek State.
References
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