The Sustainability of Non-Native, or Achieved

Bilingualism
Greg Collins1
1

Penn State University

Abstract
Like many other skills and abilities which individuals are gifted with or
learn how to perform, bilingualism is not something which is simply
achieved and then remains as something static and unchanging for a
person. A person needs to continually work to keep their proficiency
high, or at least retain some of the information which they have.
However, for many speakers of multiple languages, balancing the two
sets of languages can result in some issues. The interesting issue
arises when comparing the changes to a bilingual who was raised with
both languages simultaneously as they grew, and those who grew up
speaking their L1 but then learned their L2 much later on. Along with
numerous other differences which divide these two subsets of
bilinguals, the sustainability and rate of attrition for these languages is
the main focus of what will be discussed here. After delving into detail
on what exactly separates these two groups, the focus will then be put
on items such as how both non-native and native bilinguals
maintain their fluency. Once the information is thoroughly presented
and elaborated upon, the question of what are the most efficient
means of sustaining bilingualism in this modern society will be
addressed as well.
Keywords
Native Bilingualism, Non-Native Bilingualism, L1, L2, attrition
____________________________________________________________
The paper itself aims to show exactly what differences exist
between bilinguals who have developed their abilities of
bilingualism in different manners, and what those differing
origins affect as far as overall fluency is concerned. The other
main focus of this paper is to outline the methods which can be
utilized by both native and non-native bilinguals in order to best
maintain their abilities to effectively communicate in both of
their known languages, minimizing any attrition which would
normally occur, and showing what actions should be taken in
order to assure that bilinguals can continue to thrive in the

places in our modern society where they are so very much

needed and depended on.
Defining the term of a native bilingual creates some issues due
to the nature of bilingualism overall, so rather some aspects of
each type will be outlined here, just so the further information
can be clear enough to allow for a complex discussion. The term
itself can be defined as a term which specifies the nature of
acquisition rather than actual fluency, so it is an individual who
grew up immersed in two distinct languages which were both
used constantly by those around this person and by the person
himself. This groups members also keep both languages relevant
through regular use amongst their community, so as to avoid a
loss in the utility which they acquired throughout their early and
critical years. However, there are some who do link this term
directly with the fluency, saying that these people must have a
speaking proficiency equivalent to that of a native born speaker
from each respective language (SIL International).
In contrast, non-native bilinguals are not as clearly defined as
their counterparts. This group tends to contain people who were
raised in an area where their L1 was prominently used, and later
in their lives they acquire their L2 for one reason or another. Due
to this difference in the usage of the language as well as the
developmental differences that arise due to the gap in time
between the periods of acquisition, it makes sense that some
differences will arise. Depending on the person, they likely may
vary in the amount of use of one language or the other, using
one language over the other based on the given scenario, but
the distinction that both languages arent being used
consistently during those early times is what separates the two
groups.
Based on solely these definitions, it seems that those who have
both languages embedded into their ways of communication,
also known as the native bilinguals, would be able to more
easily sustain both of their languages without so much trouble
when compared to the non-natives. However, this is not
necessarily true, because despite the deep rooted nature of both
languages in the first group, the use and exposure of the
languages may be more vital in language sustaining than the
point of origin of the language in a persons life.

Current Techniques Used by Non-Native Bilinguals to Maintain Both

Languages
Firstly, it has been said that when learning the second language
at a later point in life, strength in the L1 may actually make the
process easier. (Giambo, Debra A., and Szecsic p.57) This does
make sense seeing as the strength of ones connections between
concepts and the word used in their L1 may make the initial
learning process quicker since the concept goes from the idea, to
the L1, and finally to the L2 as the learning process begins. Also,
it has been noted that the community and environment in which
one lives has a drastic effect on how well ones language skills
are over time, such as in a purely monolingual community where
a person would never get the chance to practice their L2 outside
of personal and familial interactions. (Giambo, Debra A., and
Szecsi p.56). Like any acquired skill, the concept that practice is
the best way to maintain something which you needed to
consciously work toward in order to acquire rings very true for
the non-native bilinguals.
Also, the environment can both heavily hinder and help the
development or growth of either language. In the case of the
earlier years, the driving force of peer pressure can drive
younger people to do many things, including strictly use what is
considered to be normal or cool rather than stick with what is
socially accepted (Wang). But, by still finding smaller outlets and
opportunities to utilize the L2 in a comfortable, natural setting,
these people can still find ways to better their abilities whilst still
sticking to the norms of their respective culture.
In addition, finding ways to blend aspects of one language into
moments of use of the other may also aid in the maintenance of
ones language abilities. By incorporating grammar structures,
small pieces of vocab, and even cultural notions into everyday
conversation, some people may find it easier to speak in the less
prominent language more easily, despite the fact that they are
still making use of the language which is most convenient or
acceptable at the moment. In some ways, this method may not
be so helpful for those who have trouble with either codeswitching or code-blending in certain scenarios, but the
intermixing of the two languages will surely lead to positive
growth of the connections between the two languages, and
possibly the concepts associated with L1 will slowly grow to be
directly connected with the L2.

Effects of Passive/Inconsistent Use of L2 on the Strength of that L2

Of course, there exists a large amount of studies which aim to
determine which methods produce the best bilinguals, and one
split in the methods which people believe to be the better of the
two is whether a person learns passively or actively. Many
seem to think that the passive learning technique is better,
giving the example of how when a person is born they dont
explicitly receive instruction on how a language works, but rather
they learn by pure exposure alone. (Kornakov) There is some
opposition to this line of thinking, where some believe that adults
may be able to grasp concepts actively at a faster rate than
children, its only that children arent held to such high standards
of language, and they also have months upon months of
exposure to the language during a period of time when their
brains are taking in constant information. Developing a language
passively and actively both have their merits depending on the
situation, but the issue of maintaining the language remains an
extremely relevant topic in this area.
Again, going back to the metaphor of practicing any specific skill,
language seems to strengthen and weaken overtime depending
on the volume of use and practice of that certain activity. As for
general attrition, it is accepted that what is learned earlier on is
maintained longer, whereas what is learned later is more prone
to attrition (Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen, and David Stringer). So,
based off of this information, our so called native bilinguals
would see language attrition occur at a slower rate than those
who acquired the second language later on in life. In addition,
the use of the L2 in solely specific settings, or in only a passive
fashion, would cause attrition for the L2, but most likely at a
slower rate than abandoning the language altogether. The L1
isnt going to be as quickly or as negatively affected by attrition
as the L2, which is why more attention needs to be given to the
L2 if it is going to sustain a level high enough for effective
interaction. Thats not to say that the L1 cannot significantly
worsen overtime, and in fact the L2 may overtake the L1 if the
roles of the languages are such that the user has no further need
or sees no further value in its use.
Elaboration on the Major Points of the Other Two Sections (How to
Maintain Bilingualism and Effects of Passivity on Bilingualism)

Taking a look at the information presented thus far, there does

seem to be quite a few distinctions between the two types of
bilinguals discussed that make the maintenance of their
bilingualism achievable in different manners. First looking at the
native bilinguals, the first method in which they are able to
maintain their levels of fluency for both languages is to continue
with the methods which allowed them to get to that point
originally. If they grew up in an environment where the languages
were constantly used by those around them in all facets of life,
the information they knew was both relevant for those around
and was also reciprocated by the locals, and the place even
further developed any linguistic skills which this person
potentially developed since birth, then remaining there would
almost definitely lead to a highly fluent bilingual status.
Alternatively, the native bilinguals could also find a balance
between living in areas which accept either languages, or places
where only one is widely used. Thanks to the deep rooted nature
of both of these languages, the connections which concepts have
to both languages would remain fixed much longer than they
would for a non-native bilingual, since non-natives dont
inherently have conceptual connections between their L2s and
the actual items and ideas they see in everyday life.
As for the non-natives, things are much more difficult overall.
Due to the later connections with the concepts, the L2 needs to
be constantly stimulated and improved upon in order to maintain
the bilingual nature. As long as the rate of attrition is slowed
down and the volume of L2 use is large enough, the person
shouldnt have too large of an issue. However, the L1 still needs
to be given some sort of attention, otherwise attrition may even
occur for the persons native language, which although it is a
strange concept, it is quite possible for someone who is not
stimulating those parts of their minds on a regular enough basis.
For either of these groups, it seems that action and continued
learning is how one is able to maintain high level fluency for both
of the individual languages. Without it, certain grammatical
aspects, various vocabulary, and also natural sounding sentence
structures will start to fade over time. Also, these passive actions
become more and more detrimental as one grows older, and
without somewhat active involvement with either language,
older individuals will find that this passivity will more quickly lead
to issues with comprehension.

Research Proposal and Predicted Results

The larger question which is being posed amongst all this
information seems to be this; how do native and non-native
bilinguals start to diverge as time goes on? Based on what has
been seen in the prior information, it can be said that if native
bilinguals were to partake in similar methods of conditioning and
practicing both of their languages, they would be much more
effective bilinguals than the non-natives. In addition, it also
seems that in the case of bilinguals who do not put in the effort
to sustain their language abilities, the native bilinguals would still
start to notice attrition over time, just at a slower rate than that
of the non-natives.
In order to test to see if these predictions would be true, it would
be necessary to carry out a study which would take a number of
years so that the growth and development of bilingualism could
be better compared between the two groups. The best research
proposal in this case would be to take a large group of young
children (as large as possible), ages ranging around three or four,
and divide them into four groups. The children would be divided
based on their language backgrounds, where the first have
bilingual background and continue to learn as time passes. The
second group would also be of bilingual background but would
not put in as much practice with either of their two native
languages. The other two groups would consist of non-native
bilinguals, where in one group puts in practice to sustain their
languages abilities, and the other group learns the language up
to a certain level but then declines to uphold that level of
language ability as time goes on. In order to make sure that the
children are getting similar language instruction so that this
variable of the study can be controlled, the groups will all be
taken from the same school district which would need to be an
institution that allows students to learn a foreign language if
theyd like, preferably from an earlier age. Also, the groups would
have to consist of either English monolinguals or English-Spanish
bilinguals at the start of the study, so that the ability to learn the
language wouldnt be affected by the ease with which a child
could learn it, so no English-French bilinguals for example.
Due to the long term nature of this study and the large impact
which the study could have on the lives of these children and

their families, it would need to be clear from the start what is

going to occur over these many years of their childs
development. To determine what differences arise due to the
different language upbringings and practice put into said
languages, the kids would be tested on a semi-annual basis up
until the age of eighteen. During each encounter with the
researcher, the children would be judged based on their abilities
in their L1, how their L2 compares to the level of their L1, and
also how their abilities in each language have grown since the
previous visit. The children who would be a part of the groups
who do not put in the practice to sustain the language would be
told to do so at age thirteen, an age which can be seen as a point
when the critical learning period for their L2 is ending so that
they still get as much information from learning the L2 as
possible and also at the most pivotal point for the learning. The
children who are in the groups who continue with their language
practices will be monitored up until age eighteen along with the
other groups, and at that point the final data points will be
collected and the data will be summarized to determine what
exactly the effects are of native vs non-native bilingualism, and if
the actual practice of language helps one group more than the
other in the long run.
Possible Results
Although purely hypothetical, its possible to say that the results
which may occur from these groups could be predicted correctly
with some background knowledge on how native and non-native
bilinguals grow. The group consisting of native bilinguals who
continue to practice their abilities in the L2 would most likely be
the most skilled out of all the groups, since increased exposure
overtime as well as exposure during the vital early periods of
time would give them an extreme advantage over the others.
The group consisting of native bilinguals who did not continue to
practice their abilities would probably differ to a fair degree by
the time they become eighteen. During that five year gap, its
very possible that they retain much of the knowledge which they
have gathered during that key period of their lives so that they
are still able to have somewhat to a fair understanding of the
language, but not to a degree that could be compared to the first
group.

The non-native group with large amounts of practice, possibly

the most interesting of the data groups, is also the one which
would vary the most within the group itself. Its possible that this
group would have very strong ability in the L2 thanks to the
rigorous training and exposure over such a long period of time,
but its also a possibility that they still may not surpass the
second group with the native bilingualism but the lack of
practice. Without the ingraining of the language during the early
periods, this group gets off to a poor start without a doubt, but if
determined and passionate about acquiring this second method
of communication, they may even be able to match or surpass
those of the second group. Unfortunately, it would be highly
unlikely that this group surpasses the first group in terms of their
abilities, but the results which may occur here do give hope to
those who are wishing to take on a new language despite a late
acquisition.
As for the final group, the non-native bilinguals who ceased
practicing after they reached their teenage years, this group
would most likely be the most prone to attrition of the second
language. Without the early exposure or the practice of the
language later on, all they have is some experience with the
language during a period which is not ideal to the long term
retention of a second language. They might certainly be able to
hold on to certain parts of the language which they learn later
on, but their understanding and production skills would still likely
lack behind the other three groups.

Discussion
Overall, it can be said that despite numerous issues that may,
and possibly will arise with upholding bilingualism on an
individual basis, it is absolutely possible. In fact, once groups of
people are able to thoroughly understand how to best bring
bilingualism to more members of their society, things may
become much easier for that society in the present, as well as
the future.
One of the best possible ways to promote this maintenance may
be the desire to invest this time in order to pass down this
language for generations to come. This great motivation may
make non-natives not only inspired to learn the language, but

could also become a driving force despite the difficulties they

face in comparison to those who are native speakers. (Valds)
As for the native learners, there do in fact still exist some issues,
particularly those of cultural clashes between the countries
associated with the languages. Some may feel threatened or
frightened to use a particular language because of a negative
connotation which that language holds in a certain area, which in
turn may lead them to not introduce the language to their
children (Fafalios). Regardless of culture clashing, these
bilinguals need to continue to exist in our modern society, since
without them communication between groups becomes
somewhere between difficult and impossible. Without it, not only
would less communication occur between important individuals,
but a loss of human interaction and emotion may become lost in
the language gap as well.
Non-native bilingualism is most certainly not something which
occurs naturally in our worlds societies. It requires immense
determination, commitment, and a willingness to invest your
time in the ideas and culture of an entirely new group of people.
This practice is still quite sustainable, as long as the person
wishing to maintain their bilingualism is also willing to continue
to hone and sharpen their abilities as time goes on, whether that
is through consistent use of both languages, switching
environments so to better ones abilities in the respective
language, or simply meeting with groups who are trying to
accomplish similar linguistic goals so that they all are able to
keep their languages relevant and potent. Although it may not be
as simple of a task as sustaining bilingualism which has been
nourished and developed since birth or another earlier time, nonnative bilingualism can be sustained if the right amount and type
of effort is consistently and thoughtfully nourished and carried
out.

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