Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

History of Atomic Model

Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Scientist
Democritu
s
(didnt do
any
experimen
ts)

Theory
All matter could be divided into smaller and smaller
pieces until a single indivisible particle was reached
Called it an atom
Believed different atoms were of different sizes and are in
constant motion
Believed there was empty space between atoms

Aristotle

Dismissed atom concept

Believed everything was made up of four basic
substances: air, water, earth and fire

John
Dalton

Theory:
All matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called
atoms
All atoms of an element have identical properties
Atoms of different elements have different properties
Atoms of two or more elements can combine in
constant ratios to form new substances
In chemical reactions, atoms join together or
separate from each other but are not destroyed
Proved the law of conservation of mass and the law of
constant composition

J.J.
Thomson

Used cathode ray tube

Hypothesized existence of electrons
Developed a new model raisin bun/ plum pudding

H.
Nayaoka

Compared to Saturn
Planet represents positively charged; ring represents
negatively charged part of atom

Ernest
Rutherford
(Gold foil
experimen
t)
James
Chadwick

Hypothesized that an atom contains a positively charged

core (nucleus) which is surrounded by empty space
containing electrons
Determined that only a very small proportion of the total
volume of an atom could be attributed to the nucleus
Hypothesized that atomic nuclei must contain heavy
neutral particles (neutrons)
An atom is composed of a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons; # of electrons equal to the # of protons; an
atom is electrically neutral.

Chemical Equations and Balancing

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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Chemical Equation indicates the reactants and products of a reaction.
Reactants the substances that exist before a chemical change (or reaction)
takes place.
Products the new substance(s) that are formed during the chemical
changes.
The Law of Conservation of Mass In any chemical reaction matter is
neither created nor destroyed. The total mass of the reactants is equal to the
total mass of the products (closed container)

Isotopes
2 or more forms of the same element that differ in their mass number
because they have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei (atomic
# will still be the same)
i.e there are 3 types of hydrogen atoms.
History
Curies discovered radium and polonium
Both gave off radiation
As radiation was released, the atoms of the element were transformed
into atoms of different elements (process keeps going until nonradioactive elements formed)
These elements had the same atomic number (# of protons) but
different mass numbers (because of different # of neutrons)
Called ISOTOPES by Frederick Soddy in 1906
Those that are radioactive were called radioisotopes

Mass Spectrometers

Are used to determine the relative abundance and mass of the

isotopes of elements
To find relative abundance:
1. Change each percent to a decimal by dividing by 100.
2. Multiply by the mass.
3. Add it all together

To find percent
abundance:
1. Assume given mass
is 100%
2. Let x rep an isotope% and
rep the other isotope%
3. Multiply the isotope by

(x-1)

Characteristics of
Radiation
Radiation

Approximate Speed

Nuclear
Penetration in Air

Effective Barrier
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Alpha
(, 42 He2+, 42 He)
Beta
(, e,

-1

Gamma
()

Variable, but
relatively slow

A few cm

A sheet of paper

Variable, but
relatively fast

A few m

1-2mm of metal

Very fast, speed

of light

Unlimited

1m of lead or
concrete

e)

Particle
-

Helium nucleus 42He

Gets lighter
Becomes a lighter atom
Can be blocked by a piece of
paper

Particle
-

Electron (high energy) 0-1e

Atomic number increases by
one
1-2mm of metal

Half-Life and Carbon Dating

Radioisotope is an unstable isotope that undergo radioactive decay and give
off radiation
Half Life is the rate at which a radioisotope decays is called the half life. It is
the time taken for one half of the original number of radioactive atoms to
decay.
After one half life the number of radioactive atoms reduces to one half of the
original number. After two half lives only one quarter of the original number
remains; after three half lives one eighth and so on. The decaying atoms
become atoms of other elements.
Ex. Cs-137 has a half life of 30a
(a= year, d=day)
Start with 20g in 30a = 10 g
In 60a = 5g
In 90a = 2.5g
Carbon Dating
The half life of carbon-13 is 5700 years and carbon -14 is present within all
plants, animals, fossil fuels etc. of the carbon cycle. It keeps cycling as long
as the animal or plant is alive. When it dies the exchange of carbon stops and
the C-14 isotopes begin to decay. By finding the ratio of C-14 to C-12
isotopes, scientists can estimate the number of C-14 half lives that have
elapsed. Thus, they can estimate the length of time since it died. This
process is called carbon dating.
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Quantum Model of Atom
Principle Quantum Number (n) and Sublevels
The number of sublevels that an energy level can contain is equal to the
number of the level.
For example, the second energy level would have 2 sublevels (s and p)
The third energy level would have 3 sublevels (s, p, and d)
The forth energy level would have 4 sublevels (s, p, d, and f)
Total Number of Individual Orbitals per Energy Level
An easy way to calculate the number of orbitals found in an energy level is to
use the formula n2. For example, the third energy level (n=3) has a total of 9
or 32 orbitals. This makes sense because we know that the third energy level
would have 3 sublevels; an s sublevel with one orbital, a p sublevel with 3
orbitals and a d sublevel with 5 orbitals. 1+3+5 = 9, so the formula n2 works!
Total Number of Electrons per Energy Level
An easy way to calculate the total number of electrons that can be held by a
given energy level is to use the formula.
For example, the fourth energy level (n=4) can hold 2(4)2 =
electrons.

32

This makes sense because the fourth energy level would have four sublevels,
one of each of the named types. The s sublevels hold 2 electrons, the p
sublevel holds 6 electrons, the d sublevel holds 10 electrons and the f
sublevel holds 14 electrons.
2+ 6+ 10+ 14 = 32, so the formula 2n2 works!
Ground State
- an atom is in its ground state if all of its electrons are in orbitals of the
lowest possible energy
Excited State
- an atom is in its excited state if 1 or more electrons are in energy levels
higher than their ground state
- can occur when atoms absorb radiation (i.e an electric discharge)
Hybridization
- when 2 sublevels blend to form ne atomic orbitals
- these sublevels have the same total electron capacity as the old ones
properties and energies are averaged
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Forming Ions by Identifying Valence Electrons

Valence electrons can be determined from the electron configuration of

an element
To form ions, you would take away or
add electrons to the highest principal
quantum number.
Isoelectronic is when two particles (an
atom and ion) have the same electron
configuration.
Electron Promotion for Stability
Some elements go through electron
promotion in order to get to a state
where a higher number of orbitals are
stable. For example, Chromium

Hunds Law: every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron
before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied
orbitals have the same spin
Pauli Exclusion Principle states that, in an atom or molecule, no two
electrons can have the same four electronic quantum numbers. As an orbital
can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have
opposing spins.

Periodic Trends
-

Metals
Malleable
Ductile
Conductive
Solid

Non-Metals
Most gas or solid
Non-conductive
Brittle if solid
No lustre

Metalloids

Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Periods Horizontal Rows

Periods have outer electrons in the same energy level

Groups/Families Vertical Columns

Elements in groups have similar physical and chemical properties
Groups have the same outer orbital configuration in consecutively
higher energy levels
Periodic Law: When elements are arranged by increasing atomic number,
the properties show a periodic recurrence and gradual change
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Trend
Atomic
Radius

Ion Radius
I.R

Ionization
Energy
I.E

Description
How to find the radius:
1) Bonded atoms, H2
Distance between the two nuclei
divided by two (r=1/2d)
2) Single atoms
The furthest an electron can
travel

Radius of the most common ion of an

element
Atom
Atom Ion=
Ion=Smaller
Bigger
-usually metals
-add electrons
-lose electrons
-increase repulsion
-less repulsion,
electrons get
closer

The energy (Kj/mol) required to

remove an electron of an atom
Outermost is easiest to ping off
atom
X(g) + Energy X+(g) + e^
Ionization energy (i.e)

Electron
Affinity
E.A

Removing the first (outermost/

valence) requires first ionization
energy
To remove another electron,
second ionization energy is
required
X(g) + e- X-(g) + Energy
In most cases, energy is released
when an electron is added to an
atom
F + e- F- + Lots of energy
Positive energy value means

Observations
Period Trends: Decreases
from left to right
-Protons added to the
nucleus, becoming more
positive and electrons have
a greater attraction
Group Trends: Top to
Bottom, more energy
levels are added and are
away from the nucleus
- less attraction between
electrons
- larger atomic radius
The trends follow the same
pattern as atomic size
Period Trends: Decreases
from left to right
Group Trends: Increases
from top to bottom

Period Trends: increases

from left to right
-Nuclear charge is
increasing with no increase
in shielding effect
-Outermost electrons are
closer to the nucleus
Group Trends: decreases
from top to bottom on the
periodic table
-Outermost electrons are
farther from the effect of
the nuclear charge and
therefore easier to remove
-Shielding effect increases
down the table
Period Trends: increases
from left to right
-Nuclear charge is
increasing with no increase
in shielding effect
-Outermost electrons are
closer to the nucleus
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Electronegati
vity
E.N

energy is released
Negative energy value means
energy is required to add the
electron
Once an electron is added, there
is repulsion between electrons
which pulls them further apart
Greater shielding between outer
electron and nucleus
Therefore, adding a second
electron always requires energy
(difficult to do) and energy value
is negative

Group Trends: decreases

from top to bottom on the
periodic table
-Outermost electrons are
farther from the effect of
the nuclear charge and
therefore easier to remove
-Shielding effect increases
down the table

Linus Pauling (1922) used AR, IE,

EA, to assign a number to
elements to indicate their
electron attracting ability
while in a bond
A number that describes the
relative ability of an atom (when
bonded) to attract electrons

Period Trends: Increases

from left to right
-Nuclear charge is
increasing with no increase
in shielding effect
-Outermost electrons are
closer to the nucleus and
attracted more easily
Group Trends: Decreases
from top to bottom on the
periodic table
-Outermost electrons are
farther from the effect of
the nuclear charge and
therefore more difficult to
attract
-Shielding effect increases
down the table

*Shielding effect plays a major role in how strongly the nucleus can pull on its
outermost electrons This mainly effects group trends.
*Nuclear charge is a measure of the strength of a nucleus pull - This greatly
effects period trends because shielding effect is not an issue across a period.

Bonding Structures
Ionic Bond
Bond formed between two ions
by TRANSFER of electrons
Between a metal and a nonmetal
Formation of a crystal lattice
(billions of positive and

Molecular Structures (Covalent)

Bond formed between atoms
due to SHARING of electrons
Non-metals bonded with nonmetals
Molecular compounds and ionic
compounds have different
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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

negative ions packed together
forming a repeating
pattern/lattice)
This is different from a water
molecule which always
contains 2 hydrogens and 1
oxygen atom exactly at any
given time.

properties due to the type of

bond.

Intramolecular Bonds:

Intra= within
The forces that hold atoms together with
a molecule or a crystal lattice
Holds compounds together= bonds
3 types of bonds: ionic, polar and nonpolar

To determine whether an ionic, polar covalent,

or pure covalent bond forms, we have to
calculate the difference in Electronegativity
(the electron attracting ability, number
assigned by Linus Pauling based on other criteria for example AR, IE, EA)
between the 2 bonding atoms.
A polar covalent bond is a bond that has an uneven distribution of charge
due to an unequal sharing of bonding electrons
Use delta () to indicate a small difference in charge
Polar covalent bonds contain a dipole (one end is positive and other is
negative)
Must have polar bonds and asymmetry
A non-polar covalent bond has no charges and has an equal sharing of
electrons
Molecules like H2, O2, Cl2, contain only contain non-polar bonds
because they are two identical non-metals which means that they have
the same electronegativity
Symmetrical
To determine whether an ionic, polar covalent, or pure covalent bond forms,
we have to calculate the difference in electronegativities between the 2
bonding atoms.

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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

Intermolecular Forces

Forces of attraction that hold separate/ distinct molecules together in

liquids and solids
3 types of forces called Van Der Waals Forces

1. Dipole Dipole- are forces that occur between POLAR molecules

the negative end of one polar bond is attracting the positive end
of another polar bond
eg. HCl, H2O
2. London Forces
are very weak forces of attraction between non-polar molecules
for an instantaneous moment, more electrons are located on one
side of an atom
this results in an instantaneous dipole
as this atom (or molecule) approaches another one, the
instantaneous negative end causes the electrons in the
neighboring molecule to repel to the opposite side. This creates
another instantaneous dipole.
The induced negative end of one molecule attracts the induced positive
end of the other.
3. Hydrogen Bonding
Special dipole-dipole bond between H and another extremely
electronegative atom. (FON)
Strongest INTERmolecular force
o But not as strong as intramolecular forces (ionic or covalent)
Eg. H-O, H-F, H-N
Overall STRENGTH ranking

Ionic > covalent > hydrogen bonding > dipole dipole > London

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Unit 1: Matter Trends and Chemical Bonding

*This is important to know because it relates to the physical properties of
substances.
Strong INTERmolecular forces causes:

M. P.

B.P.

F.P

Hardness

Bond

Solubility

Melting
Point

Conductivit
y as a solid

Ionic

High (in
water)
In like
substances

High

Low

Conductivit
y in a
solution
High

Low

None

Low

Molecular

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