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Rev.
Date Revised
Section
Revised
00
21/12/2016
N/A
00A
30/12/2016
N/A
00
03/01/2017
N/A
01
05/01/2017
4&5
01A
09/01/2017
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02
16/01/2017
Revision Description
DOCUMENTS PROPERTIES
Prepared by
Reviewed by
Alberto Balarezo
Approved by
Date of Creation
Saved Date
Number of Words
22913 Words
File Name
Site.Inspection.XC-1306.86-M8.CFB.Peru.Rev.02
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6 Megabytes
II
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TABLE OF CONTENT
1
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
ECONOMIZER ....................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.5
EVAPORATORS .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.6
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
CORROSION.......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.2
EROSION ............................................................................................................................................... 18
3.3
FATIGUE ................................................................................................................................................ 18
3.4
OVER-HEATING .................................................................................................................................... 19
3.5
3.6
VIBRATION ............................................................................................................................................ 19
4.1.1
VISUAL ................................................................................................................................................... 22
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
ULTRASONIC......................................................................................................................................... 23
4.1.4.1
4.1.4.2
4.1.4.3
4.1.4.4
4.1.4.5
4.1.4.6
4.1.5
4.1.6
RADIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 26
4.1.7
4.1.8
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4.1.9
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ACOUSTICS ........................................................................................................................................... 29
4.1.10
4.1.11
4.1.12
4.1.13
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
5.1.1
5.1.1.1
CRACKS ............................................................................................................................................. 32
5.1.1.2
TIGHTNESS OF BOLTS..................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.1.3
5.1.1.4
5.1.1.5
5.1.1.6
5.1.2
FANS ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
STACK .................................................................................................................................................... 34
5.1.6
5.1.7
INSTRUMENTATION ............................................................................................................................. 35
5.1.8
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
REFRACTORY ....................................................................................................................................... 36
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.4.1
STEAM-COOLED ............................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.4.2
WATER-COOLED............................................................................................................................... 38
5.2.5
RISERS .................................................................................................................................................. 38
5.2.6
HEADERS .............................................................................................................................................. 38
5.2.6.1
5.2.6.2
LOW TEMPERATURE........................................................................................................................ 41
5.2.7
ATTEMPERATORS ................................................................................................................................ 41
5.2.8
5.2.8.1
5.2.8.2
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5.2.9
5.2.9.1
Phase I................................................................................................................................................ 43
5.2.9.2
Phase II............................................................................................................................................... 44
5.2.10
5.2.11
5.2.11.1
5.2.12
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.2.1
5.3.2.2
5.3.2.3
5.3.2.4
5.3.2.5
5.3.3
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5.3.3.1
HOPPER ............................................................................................................................................. 52
5.3.3.2
WIND-BOX ......................................................................................................................................... 53
5.3.3.3
5.3.3.4
PENTHOUSE ..................................................................................................................................... 53
SAFETY.......................................................................................................................................................... 54
6.1
EXPLOSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 54
6.2
IMPLOSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 55
7.2
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Non-reheat Circulating fluidized bed boiler major components ............................................................... 8
Figure 2 General arrangement of a typical circulating fluidized bed boiler ............................................................ 9
Figure 3 Air and feed circuit of a CFB boiler with an external heat exchanger .................................................... 10
Figure 4 Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger ....................................... 12
Figure 5 Arrangement of a CFB boiler with impact separators ............................................................................ 14
Figure 6 CFB boiler with a vertical non-circular cyclone ...................................................................................... 15
Figure 7 Application of steel, refractory, and expansion joints to a CFB boiler .................................................... 16
Figure 8 A novel design of CFB boiler with central multi-entry cyclone ............................................................... 17
Figure 9 Three phase (levels) of boiler damage assessment .............................................................................. 21
Figure 10 Steam side oxide scale on ID surface ................................................................................................. 24
Figure 11 Typical ultrasonic signal response ....................................................................................................... 24
Figure 12 - Sheer wave technique for detecting hydrogen damage ....................................................................... 26
Figure 13 Basic principles of EMAT operation ..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 14 B&Ws Fast-Scanning Thickness Gage (FST-GAGE) ....................................................................... 28
Figure 15 - header locations susceptible of cracking .............................................................................................. 39
Figure 16 - Steam temperature variation in a header ............................................................................................. 40
Figure 17 - Super-heater tube leg temperatures vary with load .............................................................................. 40
Figure 18 - Large ligament cracks on header ID. ................................................................................................... 41
Figure 19 - Typical attemperator assembly ............................................................................................................ 42
Figure 20 - Failed attemperator spray head ........................................................................................................... 42
Figure 21 - Acoustic Ranger schematic ................................................................................................................ 46
Figure 22 Membrane wall construction ................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 23 Fully studded membrane wall .............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 24 Flat stud tube wall construction with inner casing shown .................................................................... 50
Figure 25 Tangent tube wall construction with outer casing shown ..................................................................... 51
Figure 26 Casing attachment to membrane wall ................................................................................................. 51
Figure 27 Tangent tubes with closure rods.......................................................................................................... 52
Figure 28 Widely spaced tubes with flat studs and closure bars ......................................................................... 52
Figure 29 Tie bar and buck-stay arrangement at corner of furnace ..................................................................... 55
Figure 30 CFB Boilers Reheat and Non-reheat ................................................................................................. 100
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BOILERS INSPECTION
Inspections are done to determine the amount of maintenance required to have the equipment operate
properly, until the next turnaround. Boilers should be inspected at least every two years. Inspection
intervals are based on service and experience.
Inspection is not an exact science and requires the use of judgment and experience as well as science.
Records should be reviewed before an inspection, to become thoroughly familiar with the equipment. This
review should result in identifying expected problems and planning areas of emphasis for the planned
inspection. The following records that should be checked are as follows:
1. Original Design Drawings
2. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs)
3. E & I Single Line Diagrams
4. DCS (Distributed Control System)
5. Boiler Log
6. Maintenance Records
7. Safety Instruction Sheets (SIS)
8. Hydrostatic Test Diagram
9. Previous hydrostatic test results
The original design drawings and the P&IDs provide information on the pressure and temperature of the
original design. The original design drawings indicate inspection points, with notes on inspection
procedures. These drawings also contain notes on how to access equipment. The P&IDs should also
show all pipe sizes, materials of construction, vent and drain locations, and blind. They also provide
material specifications and original thickness of equipment.
The boiler log provides a record of each inspection, maintenance check, and notes on the equipment.
These notes are necessary to prepare for inspection. The maintenance records indicate conditions found
in a previous inspection that required maintenance. The Safety Instruction Sheets (SIS) provides operating
pressure and temperature information, and pressure test targets. It also contains the retirement thickness
on critical piping. The hydraulic test diagram is a line drawing showing blinds, piping layout, and location
of pressure test connections. The test diagram will specify the relief valve size, set pressure, and location.
Previous hydraulic test results indicate problem areas from previous inspections.
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Figure 3 Air and feed circuit of a CFB boiler with an external heat exchanger
The following section describes the working of the boiler, tracing the path of air, gas, solids and water
through it.
The primary air fan delivers air at high pressure (10 to 20 kPa). This air is preheated in the air preheater
of the boiler and then enters the furnace through the air distributor grate at the bottom of the furnace.
The secondary air fan delivers air, also preheated in the air preheater, at a relatively low pressure (5 to
15 kPa). It is then injected into the bed through a series of ports located around the periphery of the
furnace and at a height above the lower tapered section of the bed. In some boilers, the secondary air
provides air to the start-up burner as well as to the tertiary air at a still higher level, if needed. The
secondary air fan may also provide air to the fuel feeder to facilitate the smooth flow of fuel into the furnace.
Loop-seal blowers deliver the smallest quantity of air but at the highest pressure. This air directly enters
the loop-seals through air distribution grids. Unlike primary and secondary air, the loop-seal air is not
heated.
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2.1.2
SOLID STREAM
Fuel from the bunker drops on to a belt or some other type of feeder, which then feeds measured quantities
of fuel into the fuel chute. In most large CFB boilers, the fuel chute feeds the fuel into the loop-seals
inclined pipe (Figure 3 Air and feed circuit of a CFB boiler with an external heat exchanger). Here, the
fuel mixes with hot solids recirculating around the CFB loop, and therefore enters the bed better dispersed.
Other boilers either take the fuel directly into the lower section of the bed through the front wall or use
another conveyor to take it around the furnace for sidewall feeding.
The sorbent is generally finer than the fuel, so it is carried by conveying air and injected into the bed
through several feed injection points. As sorbents react very slowly, the location of their feed points is not
as critical as that for the fast-burning fuel.
The ash or spent sorbent is drained from the boiler through the following points:
1. Bed drain
2. Fly ash collection hopper under the fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator
3. Economizer or back-pass hopper
In some cases, ash is also drained partially from the external heat exchanger. In the case of a coarse bed
drain, the ash is cooled by air or water before it is disposed of. The fly ash, being relatively cold, can be
disposed of without cooling. Its particles are generally smaller than 100 mm with a mean size of 30 mm
and are, therefore, easily carried pneumatically into a fly ash silo, where they are hauled away by truck or
rail wagon as necessary.
The mixture of fuel, ash, and sorbents circulate around the CFB loop. Particles, coarser than the cyclone
cut-off size, are captured in the cyclone and recycled near the base of the furnace. Finer solid residues
like ash or spent sorbents, generated during combustion and desulfurization, escape through the
cyclones. These are collected by the fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator located further downstream.
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2.1.3
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Figure 4 Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger
Figure 4 Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger shows the water
steam flow circuit through a typical CFB boiler. Here, one can detect the following heat transfer surfaces
in the boiler:
1. Economizer in the back-pass
2. Evaporator in the furnace wall
3. Super-heaters in both the back-pass and furnace
4. Re-heaters in both the back-pass and furnace
A CFB boiler could locate parts of the super-heater and re-heater in an external heat exchanger as shown
in Figure 3 Air and feed circuit of a CFB boiler with an external heat exchanger.
2.1.4
ECONOMIZER
The boiler feed pump feeds the water into the economizer located in the back-pass or convective section
of the boiler (Figure 4 Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger). The
economizer is a conventional shell-tube heat exchanger that uses the waste heat of the flue gas to preheat
water. The water is forced through the economizer to flow directly to the drum. Water enters the cooler
section and leaves from the hotter upper section of the economizer making it a counter-flow heat
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exchanger. The temperature of the water leaving the economizer is generally kept at least 288C below
the saturation temperature of the water to ensure good circulation. Some high-performance boilers allow
steam formation, but considering the possibility of non-uniform flow distribution between tubes, flow
instabilities and other factors the rise in enthalpy in the economizer should be guided by the following
equation (Stultz and Kitto, 1992):
Equation 1
2 1 =
2
( 1 )
3
Where H1, H2, and Hf are enthalpies of water entering the economizer, leaving the economizer and at
saturated condition at the economizer outlet pressure, respectively.
The water velocity through the economizer is typically in the range of 600 to 800 kg/m2s and gas velocity
is in the range of 7 to 15 m/s.
2.1.5
EVAPORATORS
In a typical subcritical boiler, the water flows down large-diameter unheated pipes (known as downcomers) into distributing manifolds called headers. The header distributes water amongst vertical tubes
rising along the walls of the furnace. Water rises through these tubes and hence they are called riser, or
water wall tubes. To make an airtight enclosure around the furnace, these tubes are generally welded
together by means of fins between them in the form of panels.
As the water rises up the tubes it absorbs heat from the furnace, converting part of it into steam. Hot water,
carrying steam bubbles, leaves the top of the water wall panels and is collected in headers, which in turn
carry it to the steam drum. Steam is separated from the water in the drum, which mixes with fresh water
from the economizer and flows down through the down-comer and into the riser for heating again.
Sometimes four walls of the furnace cannot provide sufficient surface area to carry the entire evaporative
load of the boiler. Additional surfaces are provided in the form of wing walls in the furnace (Figure 4
Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger) or in the form of bank tubes
downstream of the furnace to take this load.
2.1.6
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Low pressure steam enters the re-heater section immediately upstream of the economizer (Figure 4
Water and Steam circuit of a CFB boiler without an external heat exchanger). It then passes through the
final re-heater section upstream of the final super-heater. One may use a bypass valve between the entry
and exit of the re-heater section to control the steam temperature.
2.2
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2.2.1
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2.2.2
2.2.3
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partially in the furnace and partially outside it. They are not as efficient as centrifugal-type cyclones, so an
additional multi-clone or other type of gassolid separator is required downstream of the back-pass. Solids
from these separators are also recycled to the furnace. Compactness is a major feature of such boilers.
2.2.4
2.2.5
OTHER TYPES
In addition to the above, many of other types of CFB boilers are available in the market and are generally
used in smaller-sized units. An important type is the innovative Cymicq design shown in Figure 8 A novel
design of CFB boiler with central multi-entry cyclone. Here the gassolid separator and the standpipe are
located in the center of the furnace, with risers around it. Gassolid suspension enters the central cyclone
through a number of tangential vanes, forming a vortex. The solids drop into the central standpipe while
gas leaves from the top. The collected solids move to the riser through openings at the bottom of the
standpipe as shown in Figure 8 A novel design of CFB boiler with central multi-entry cyclone. This design
is very compact and needs less refractory because it makes greatest use of heating surfaces. Large
boilers can be built with multiple central tubes in a rectangular riser chamber.
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3.1
CORROSION
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Corrosion occurs inside and outside the tubes, pipes, drums and headers of these lower temperature
components. Internal corrosion is usually associated with the boiler water, contaminants in the water, and
improper chemical cleaning or poor storage procedures. External corrosion can be caused by corrosive
combustion products, a reducing atmosphere in the furnace, moisture between insulation and a
component, and acid formed on components in the colder flue gas zones when the temperature reaches
the acid dew point. Corrosion results in wall metal loss. This wall thinning raises the local stresses of the
component and can lead to leaks or component failure.
Corrosion may also be accelerated by the thermal fatigue stresses associated with startup and shutdown
cycles. Furnace wall tubes, in areas of high structural restraint or high heat flux, often contain internal
longitudinal or external circumferential or longitudinal corrosion fatigue cracks in cycled units.
Corrosion fatigue can occur in the steam drum around rolled tube joints. The residual stresses from the
tube rolling process are additive to the welding and operating pressure stresses. Corrosion from chemical
cleaning and water chemistry upsets acts on this highly stressed area to produce cracking around the seal
weld or the tube hole. Extensive cracking can require drum replacement.
3.2
EROSION
Erosion of boiler components is a function of the percent ash in the fuel, ash composition, and local gas
velocity or soot-blower activity. Changing fuels to a high-ash western United States (U.S.) fuel may lead
to more erosion, slagging and fouling problems.
Changing fuels might also require a change in the lower temperature convection pass elements to
accommodate higher fouling and erosion. The tube wall loss associated with erosion weakens the
component and makes it more likely to fail under normal thermal and pressure stresses. Erosion is
common near soot-blowers; on the leading edges of economizers, super-heaters and re-heaters; and
where there are vortices or around eddies in the flue gas at changes in gas velocity or direction.
Such changes are caused by closely spaced tube surfaces, slag deposits, or other obstructions including
extended surfaces and staggered tube arrangements.
3.3
FATIGUE
The thermal stresses from temperature differentials that develop between components during boiler
startup and shutdown can lead to fatigue cracks. These cracks can develop at tube or pipe bends; at tubeto-header, pipe-to-drum, fitting-to-tube, and support attachment welds; and at other areas of stress
concentration. Smaller, lower temperature boilers are less prone to fatigue failures because the thermal
differentials are lower and operate over small distances in these units. As unit size and steam temperature
increase, the potential for thermal stresses and the resulting fatigue cracking also rises.
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OVER-HEATING
Overheating is generally a problem that occurs early in the life of the plant and can often result in tube
ruptures. These problems may go undetected until a tube failure occurs. Overheating attributable to
operation is generally resolved during the early stages of boiler life. Other problems regarding overheating
may be difficult to ascertain, and specialized boiler performance testing is generally required to identify
the source and determine corrective actions.
In spite of these aging mechanisms, low temperature components are normally expected to be replaced
after more than two decades without major overhauls unless the unit burns a corrosive fuel, burns fuel in
a reducing atmosphere, or is improperly operated. When erosion, corrosion, fatigue, or overheating lead
to frequent leaking, failures, or the threat of a major safety related failure, then component repair, redesign,
or replacement is appropriate.
3.5
HYDROGEN DAMAGE
Boilers operating at pressures above 1200 psi (8274 kPa) and 900 F (482 C) final steam temperature
suffer from more complicated aging mechanisms than lower temperature units. These boilers are
generally larger than the low pressure, low temperature units and this increases the likelihood of thermal
fatigue from boiler cycling. The higher pressures and associated higher furnace wall temperatures make
these units more susceptible to water-side corrosion. The high temperatures in combination with any
furnace wall internal deposits may promote hydrogen damage of the furnace tubing in areas of high
corrosion or heavy internal deposits. Severe cases of furnace wall hydrogen damage have forced the
retirement of older units.
3.6
VIBRATION
Excessive vibration can cause failures of the tubes, insulation, casing and supports. These vibrations can
be produced by external rotating equipment, furnace pulsations from the uneven combustion of the fuel,
or turbulence in the flowing streams of air or gas in flues, ducts and tube banks.
Tube walls, flues and ducts are designed to limit vibration during normal operating conditions. In regard
to wall tube vibrations, buck-stays are typically spaced to ensure that the natural frequency of the wall
tubes is greater than or equal to 6 hertz. The moment of inertia of a buckstay must be chosen to ensure
that the buckstay natural frequency is greater than or equal to 3 hertz, based on a simply loaded uniform
beam. Flues, ducts and casings are similarly stiffened by bars or structural shapes to limit vibration. This
stiffening is particularly necessary in sections of flues and ducts where the flow is highly turbulent, as in
the fan discharge connecting piece. Every effort should be made to eliminate the sources of severe
vibration, such as unbalanced rotating equipment, poor combustion and highly turbulent or unbalanced
air or gas flow.
Vibration ties or tube guides are required on some end-supported tube sections. These ties may be
needed if the natural frequencies within the boiler load range are in or near resonance with the vortex
shedding frequency. Stringer tubes are also subject to vibration. This vibration is magnified by long
unsupported stringer tube lengths near the large cavity below the convection pass roof.
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Assemble Historical
Records
Is key
information
Missing?
NO
Level I
Methods
YES
Establish
Re-Evaluation
Period
YES
Establish
Re-Inspection
Period
Yes
Is RL >= DL?
NO
Additional
Information
(Generally
Inspection
Results)
Level II
Methods
calculate
RL and DL
LEVEL II
Is RL >= DL?
NO
Cost
Evaluation
Level III
LEVEL III
NO
Economically
Justified?
YES
Additional
Information
(Sampling,
Analysis,
Inspection)
Mitigation of
Driving Force
Level III
Calculate
RL and DL
Establish
Re-Evaluation /
Re-Inspection
Period
Establish
Re-Evaluation
Period
LEVEL III
YES
NO
Is RL >= DL?
YES
Establish
Re-Evaluation &
Re-Inspection
Period?
NO
Establish
Re-Inspection
Period?
Establish
Re-Inspection
Period
YES
NO
Choice of
Repair/Replace
Refurbish
Components
Understand Root
Cause of Damage
DL:
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NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATIONS
Most nondestructive examination (NDE) methods for fossil fuel-fired plants have been in use for many
years, although new methods are being developed for major components. Nondestructive testing does
not damage the component.
The NDE methods used in evaluating electric utility power stations and industrial process plants include:
4.1.1
1. Visual,
7. Nuclear fluorescence,
2. Magnetic particle,
8. Electromagnetic acoustics,
3. Liquid penetrant,
9. Acoustic emissions,
4. Ultrasonic,
5. Eddy current,
6. Radiography,
VISUAL
Whether the inspected component is subject to mechanical wear, chemical attack, or damage from
thermal stress, visual examination can detect and identify some of the damage. Visual inspection is
enhanced by lighting, magnification, mirrors, and optical equipment such as borescopes, fiberscopes and
binoculars.
4.1.2
MAGNETIC PARTICLES
Magnetic particle testing (MT) and wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT) detect surface and
near surface flaws. Because a magnetic field must be imparted to the test piece, these tests are only
applicable to ferromagnetic materials. The choice between these techniques generally depends on the
geometry of the component and the required sensitivity. For typical power plant applications, one of two
methods is used:
1. The component is indirectly magnetized using an electromagnetic yoke with alternating current (AC)
2. The part is directly magnetized by prods driven by AC or direct current (DC).
In magnetic particle testing, any discontinuity disrupts the lines of magnetic force passing through the test
area creating a leakage field. Iron particles applied to the area accumulate along the lines of magnetic
force. Any leakage field created by a discontinuity is easily identified by the pattern of the iron particles.
Dry magnetic particle testing is performed using a dry medium composed of colored iron particles that are
dusted onto the magnetized area. In areas where a dry medium is ineffective, such as in testing overhead
components or the inside surfaces of pressure vessels, the wet fluorescent method is more effective. With
this method, fluorescent ferromagnetic particles are suspended in a liquid medium such as kerosene. The
liquid-borne particles adhere to the test area. Because the particles are fluorescent, they are highly visible
when viewed under an ultraviolet light.
4.1.3
LIQUID PENETRANT
Liquid penetrant testing (PT) detects surface cracking in a component. PT is not dependent on the
magnetic properties of the material and is less dependent on component geometry. It is used by The
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Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) in limited access areas such as tube stub welds on high temperature
headers which are generally closely spaced. PT detects surface flaws by capillary action of the liquid dye
penetrant and is only effective where the discontinuity is open to the component surface. Following proper
surface cleaning the liquid dye is applied. The penetrant is left on the test area for about ten minutes to
allow it to penetrate the discontinuity. A cleaner is used to remove excess penetrant and the area is
allowed to dry. A developer is then sprayed onto the surface. Any dye that has been drawn into the surface
at a crack bleeds into the developer by reverse capillary action and becomes highly visible.
4.1.4
ULTRASONIC
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is the fastest developing technology for nondestructive testing of pressure
components. Numerous specialized UT methods have been developed. A piezoelectric transducer is
placed in contact with the test material, causing disturbances in the interatomic spacings and inducing an
elastic sound wave that moves through the material. The ultrasonic wave is reflected by any discontinuity
it encounters as it passes through the material. The reflected wave is received back at the transducer and
is displayed on an oscilloscope.
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4.1.5
EDDY CURRENT
Measuring the effects of induced eddy currents on the primary or driving electromagnetic field is the basis
of eddy current testing. The electromagnetic induction needed for eddy current testing is created by using
an alternating current. This develops the electromagnetic field necessary to produce eddy currents in a
test piece.
Eddy current testing is applicable to any materials that conduct electricity and can be performed on
magnetic and nonmagnetic materials. The test is therefore applicable to all metals encountered in power
station condition assessment work.
Parameters affecting eddy current testing include the resistivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeability
of the test material; the frequency of the current producing the eddy currents; and the geometry and
thickness of the component being tested.
4.1.6
RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography testing (RT) is the most common NDE method used during field erection of a boiler.
Radiography is also valuable in condition assessments of piping. As x-rays and gamma rays pass through
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a material, some of the rays are absorbed. Absorption depends upon material thickness and density.
When the rays passing through an object are exposed to a special film, an image of the object is produced
due to the partial absorption of the rays.
In practical terms, a radioactive source is placed on one side of a component such as a pipe, at a weld,
and a film is placed on the opposite side. If x-rays are directed through the weld and there is a void within
the weld, more rays pass through this void and reach the film, producing a darker image at that point. By
examining the radiographic films, the weld integrity can be determined. During the field erection of a boiler
and power station, thousands of tube and pipe welds are made and radiographed.
The major disadvantage of radiography is the harmful effect of excessive exposure to the radioactive rays.
RT is also limited in its ability to provide the orientation and depth of an indication.
4.1.7
NUCLEAR FLUORESCENCE
The primary use of this testing in condition assessment is the verification of alloy materials in high
temperature piping systems. When certain elements are exposed to an external source of x-rays they
fluoresce (emit) additional x-rays that vary in energy level. This fluorescence is characteristic of the key
alloys common to high temperature piping and headers. Chromium and molybdenum are the key elements
measured. The nuclear alloy analyzer is a portable instrument that contains a low level source of x-rays.
A point on the surface of the pipe is exposed to x-rays emitted from the analyzer. As the source x-rays
interact with the atoms of the metal, the alloys emit x-rays back to the analyzer. Within the detector system
of the analyzer, the fluoresced x-rays are separated into discrete energy regions. By measuring the x-ray
intensity in each energy region, the elemental composition is also determined.
4.1.8
ELECTROMAGNETIC ACOUSTICS
Electromagnetic acoustics combine two nondestructive testing sciences, ultrasonics (UT) and
electromagnetic induction. This technology uses an electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) to
generate high frequency sound waves in materials, similar to conventional ultrasonics. Conventional UT
transducers used for field testing convert electrical impulses to mechanical pulses by use of piezoelectric
crystals. These crystals must be coupled to the test piece through a fluid couplant. For electrically
conductive materials, ultrasonic waves can be produced by electromagnetic acoustic wave generation. 5
In contrast to conventional contact UT where a mechanical pulse is coupled to the material, the acoustic
wave is produced by the interaction of two magnetic sources. The first magnetic source modulates a timedependent magnetic field by electromagnetic induction as in eddy current testing. A second constant
magnetic field provided by an AC or DC driven electromagnet or a permanent magnet is positioned near
the first field. The interaction of these two fields generates a force, called the Lorentz force, in the direction
perpendicular to the two other fields. This Lorentz force interacts with the material to produce a shock
wave analogous to an ultrasonic pulse, eliminating the need for a couplant.
Figure 13 Basic principles of EMAT operation; shows the basic principles of EMAT operation. A strong
magnetic field (B) is produced at the surface of the test piece by either a permanent magnet or
electromagnet. Eddy currents (J) are induced in the test material surface. An alternating eddy flow in the
presence of the magnetic field generates a Lorentz force (F) that produces an ultrasonic wave in the
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material. For boiler tubes that are electromagnetically conductive (including alloys such as SA-213T22),
the EMAT technology is ideal.
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As with conventional UT, the FST-GAGE system can assess internal tube damage by evaluating the loss
of signal amplitude (attenuation) as a shear wave is transmitted through the tube wall. By monitoring and
indicating signal amplitude, the system can also be used to detect tube damage such as hydrogen
damage, similar to B&Ws patented FHyNES technique. The FST-GAGE has also demonstrated the ability
to detect internal tube pitting, caustic gouging, and under-deposit corrosion.
As with any NDE method, surface preparation is important for effective testing with EMATs. However,
EMAT is not as sensitive to scale as conventional UT since it produces the ultrasonic wave within the
material. Some scales, such as magnetite oxide of uniform thickness, have no detrimental effect on the
signal generation of the EMAT probe. When the plant burns a clean fuel such as natural gas, testing may
be conducted without any special surface cleaning. To protect the coil from damage, surface preparation
will normally be required for boilers firing oil or solid fuels. Some gas-fired units may require surface
cleaning if external buildup or corrosion is present. Grit blasting or water blasting are effective methods of
cleaning larger areas. Smooth metal is the preferred surface to ensure rapid testing.
EMAT technology continues to be applied where its unique properties have advantages over conventional
UT techniques. B&W and EPRI are developing a system for the detection of cracking in boiler tubes
associated with corrosion fatigue. Waterside corrosion fatigue is a serious boiler tube failure mechanism.
The failures usually occur close to attachments such as buckstay welds, wind-box attachment welds, or
membrane welds. The combination of thermal fatigue stresses and corrosion leads to ID-initiated cracking
that is oriented along the tube axis. The EMAT system under development for corrosion fatigue has unique
characteristics that enhance its ability to scan past welds and attachments and scan the full circumference
of the boiler tube. The EMAT equipment uses a tone burst EMAT signal allowing the use of horizontally
polarized shear wave (SH waves) to detect cracking adjacent to external tube attachment welds.
B&W has developed an EMAT application to inspect horizontal banks (i.e., economizer, re-heater) of
tubing within the boiler. Horizontal bank tubing may experience tube failures caused by out of service
corrosion pitting forming aligned voids in the tube ID. The purpose of this EMAT test is to detect the internal
aligned pitting at the lower portion of the horizontal tube internal surface. The test is accomplished by
scanning along the outside of the horizontal tube at either the 3 or 9 oclock positions with an EMAT
transducer generating a Lamb wave (ultrasonic waves that travel at right angles to the tube surface) which
is focused at the 6 oclock position on the tube.
B&W has also developed a surface wave EMAT application to show surface indications including axially
oriented cracks in boiler tubes. Conventional surface nondestructive test methods were unsatisfactory
because they lacked adequate sensitivity and had slow production rates for testing on large areas. A tone
burst EMAT technique was developed that uses a bidirectional focused surface wave EMAT that follows
the tube surface circumferentially until the signal is reflected back from a longitudinally orientated OD
crack.
4.1.9
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics refers to the use of transmitted sound waves for nondestructive testing. It is differentiated from
ultrasonics and electromagnetic acoustics in that it features low frequency, audible sound. B&W uses
acoustic technology in testing tubular air heaters. Because the sound waves are low frequency, they can
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only be transmitted through air. A pulse of sound is sent into the air heater tube. As the wave travels along
the tube, it is reflected by holes, blockage or partial obstructions. By evaluating the reflected wave on an
oscilloscope, the type of flaw and its location along the tube can be determined.
4.1.10
ACOUSTIC EMISSIONS
Acoustic emissions (AE) detect subsurface crack growth in pressure vessels. When a structure such as a
pipe is pressurized and heated, the metal experiences mechanical and thermal stresses. Due to the stress
concentration at a defect such as a crack, a small overall stress in the pipe can produce localized yield
and fracture stresses resulting in plastic deformation. These localized yields release bursts of energy or
stress wave emissions that are commonly called acoustic emissions. AE testing uses acoustic transducers
that are positioned along the vessel being monitored. AE signals are received at various transducers on
the vessel. By measuring the time required for the signal to reach each of the transducers, the data can
be interpreted to identify the location of the defect.
4.1.11
METALLOGRAPHIC REPLICATION
Metallographic replication is an in situ test method that enables an image of the metal grain structure to
be nondestructively lifted from a component. Replication is important in evaluating high temperature
headers and piping because it allows the structure to be examined for creep damage. Prior to the use of
replication techniques, it was necessary to remove samples of the material for laboratory analysis. The
replication process involves three steps: grinding, polishing and etching, and replicating. In the first step,
the surface is rough ground then flapper wheel ground with finer grit paper. In the second step, the surface
is polished using increasingly finer grades of diamond paste while intermittently applying a mixture of nitric
acid and methanol in solution. The acid solution preferentially attacks the grain boundaries of the metal.
In the final step, the replica, which is a plastic tape, is prepared by coating one face of the tape with
acetone for softening. The tape is then firmly pressed onto the prepared surface. Following a suitable
drying time, the tape is removed and mounted onto a glass slide for microscopic examination.
4.1.12
STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Strain measurements are obtained nondestructively by using strain gauges. Gauges used for piping
measurements are characterized by an electrical resistance that varies as a function of the applied
mechanical strain. For high temperature components, the gauge is made of an alloy, such as platinumtungsten, which can be used at temperatures up to 1200 F (649 C). The gauge is welded to the surface
of the pipe and the strain is measured as the pipe ramps through a temperature-pressure cycle to
operating temperature. Strain gauges used for lower temperature applications such as for analysis of
hanger support rods are made of conventional copper-nickel alloy (constantan). These low temperature
gauges are made of thin foil bonded to a flexible backing and are attached to the test surface by a special
adhesive.
4.1.13
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Most temperature measurements can be obtained with sheathed thermocouples (TC). In special
applications where temperature gradients are needed such as detailed stress analysis of header
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ligaments, special embedded TCs are used. The embedded unit is constructed by drilling a small hole into
the header. A sheathed TC wire is then inserted and peened in place.
4.2
DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATIONS
B&W tries to minimize the use of sample analysis because it is generally more expensive to perform
destructive testing. However, for certain components, complete evaluation can only be done by removing
and analyzing test samples. Destructive testing is described for two types of specimens, tube samples
and boat samples.
4.2.1
TUBE SAMPLES
Tubes are the most common destructively tested components. Tube samples are generally removed from
water- and steam-cooled circuits. A relatively large number of samples may be removed for visual
inspections, from which a smaller number are selected for complete laboratory analysis. A tube analysis
usually includes the following:
1. As-received sample photo documentation,
2. Complete visual inspection under magnification,
3. Dimensional evaluation of a ring section removed from the sample,
4. Material verification by spectrographic analysis,
5. Optical metallography, and
6. Material hardness measurement.
On water-wall tubes removed from the boiler furnace, the analysis includes a measurement of the internal
deposit loading [g/ft2 (g/m2)] and elemental composition of the deposit. On steam-cooled super-heater and
re-heater tubes, the thickness of the high temperature oxide layer is also provided. Specialized tests are
performed as required to provide more in-depth information. Failure analysis is a common example. When
failures occur in which the root cause is not readily known from standard tests, fractography is performed.
Fractography involves examination of the fracture surface using a scanning electron microscope.
4.2.2
BOAT SAMPLES
Boat samples are wedge shaped slices removed from larger components such as headers, piping and
drums. The shape of the cut allows the material to be replaced by welding. Because the repairs usually
require post weld heat treating, the use of boat samples is expensive. In most instances, replication is
adequate for metallographic examination of these components and boat sample removal is not required.
4.3
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4. Through-insulation radiography.
EMAT technology is being refined and studied for further applications in the NDE field.
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.1.1 CRACKS
Inspect welds and structural steel for cracks. Remove floor plates to inspect supporting structure. Inspect
crevices by picking them with a pointed scraper. Determine if a crack warrants repair or further inspection
via ultrasonic measurements.
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5.1.2
FANS
Both forced and induced draft fans should be inspected when a boiler is shutdown. The inspection should
include:
1. Removal and inspection of motor including bearings and lubricant
2. Rotor and rotor blade inspection for loose blades. Examination of coupling and alignment of all parts
3. Inspection of induced draft fans for corrosion
4. Inspection of all dampers for operability and corrosion
5.1.3
5.1.4
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Inspect all connections between columns, beams and girders. Visually inspect walls and wall alignment
for any signs of bulging or movement. Inspect walls for signs of hot spots or discoloration that would
indicate refractory problems. (See section 5.3 on page 46).
Foundations are steel reinforced concrete. Inspect the foundation for calcining, settling, cracks, and/or
spalling. One of the main causes of deterioration of the foundation is high temperature. High temperature
may cause calcining and/or cracks. Calcining is the drying out of concrete so that it has very little cohesion.
Locate calcining by chipping at the suspected area with a hammer.
Cracks in concrete may be caused by high temperature, poor design, and/or improper installation
(materials, curing). Cracks provide an entrance for water to corrode the reinforcing steel. When the steel
corrodes, it expands making cracks wider, which results to more corrosion. Spalling can result from
internal corrosion of reinforcing steel and/or overheating.
All foundations settle to some extent. Little or no trouble may be experienced if the settling is small and
evenly distributed. When settlement is noted, examine all pipe connections to the boiler. Inspect all anchor
points for the support structure for indications of excessive stress. Check various points with a bubble
level to find settlement. Spalling is a form of concrete deterioration caused by heat, corrosion of steel or
insufficient thickness of concrete over reinforcement. Major cracks or spalling may indicate the necessity
to removal of a core for testing.
Note all deficiencies on the inspection sheets.
5.1.5
STACK
Stacks have been known to collapse when allowed to deteriorate.
Deposits that accumulate in the stack can be explosive.
Deposits should be removed occasionally.
Inspect brick, concrete, and steel stacks for conditions that may weaken these structures. Use field
glasses to inspect high stacks from the ground. Use infrared temperature measurements to look for hot
spots that would indicate internal refractory problems.
Conduct a thorough hammer testing of the steel stacks. Pay particular attention to the seams, stiffening
rings, lugs, and nozzles. Acids in the flue gas that may condense may attack the upper cool portion of a
stack.
Inspect bolts at the base and at elevated sections for loosening and breakage. Check a loose bolt for
abrasion from movement of the structure. Inspect guy lines for corrosion. Inspect lightning rods and
grounding cables to see that they are securely grounded and not corroded. Guy line connections to the
dead-man at the bottom, and at the top are especially subject to corrosion due to moisture settling retained
around these connections. Guy wires should be replaced at safe intervals, since inspection is impractical
between the dead-man and the top. The electrical resistance of the ground should be less than 25 ohms.
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BOILER PIPING
A leak or failure in a piping system may be a major problem or a minor inconvenience, depending on the
location and service. Study historical records to determine which sections may be approaching retirement
thickness. Inspect all lines including vents, drains, fuel supply lines, steam atomizing lines and fuel
smothering steam piping.
Inspect piping supports, and spring hangers for external corrosion, distortion, damage, settlement or
movement of the foundation.
Inspect for internal corrosion, using ultrasonic testing. X-ray and/or inspect internally when the lines are
opened. Ultrasonic inspection may not detect pitting, which is why internal visual inspection is important.
5.1.7
INSTRUMENTATION
Inspect all lines to instrumentation for leakage. Inspect all control valves for leakage. Verify if any safety
devices or alarms are bypassed. Alarm and shutdown settings should be verified when possible.
Inspect water glasses, since these are extremely important in operating the boiler. Make sure they are
well lit. Have the operator blow down the water gage in a normal manner and observe how the level
returns. A sluggish response may indicate an obstruction in the pipe connections to the boiler.
Check pressure gages in the field against those in the control room. Test the pressure with a test gage.
5.1.8
5.2
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5.2.1
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SAFE ENTRY
Entry into a boiler is not safe until the following have been done:
1. All fuel supply lines have been blocked in and blinded.
2. The boiler has been purged and tested to be free of fuel and flue gases.
3. Pumps are shut-down and tagged.
4. All feed valves have been blocked, tagged, padlocked and blinded, if necessary. Boiler has been
rained of all liquids. All drain lines and vents are open.
5. Manhole and hand-hole plates have been removed.
6. Boiler has cooled sufficiently for safe entry.
7. An entry permit has been issued.
5.2.2
REFRACTORY
The firebox refractory should be visually inspected for breakage, crumbling, spalling, and open joints.
Leakage of hot gases through the joints when the edges have crumbled, or when the tile or insulating
concrete has fallen out, may expose supporting steel to high metal temperatures, rapid oxidation, and
corrosion.
Fly-ash corrosion may occur, when fly ash and refractory are in contact. Fluxing occurs and produces a
slag that may be fluid at heater operating conditions. Slagging may cause rapid deterioration of hardware,
such as tube hangers. Metal oxides found in fuel oil are the fluxing agents that cause slagging. Spalling
can be caused by overheating, or heating up too fast after a turnaround or after repairs to refractory.
Sagging of refractory would indicate problems with the refractory supports. Overheating or corrosion of
supports usually causes support problems.
External deposits may indicate the need for external water washing. The water washing procedure may
include sealing the refractory with bitumen sealer to prevent water damage of the refractory, and the use
of 0.5% soda ash solution to minimize stress cracking of austenitic steels such as stainless steels. Under
no circumstances should raw water or salt water be used for water washing boilers. The bitumen sealer
will be burned off during normal operation.
Inspect all baffles for condition of baffle and refractory protecting baffles. Inspect the linings of all stacks
and ducts for cracks, wear, and structural soundness. Use ultrasonic measurements to check wall
thickness.
Field experience has demonstrated that corrosive slag in any form should be kept away from the tubes by
a refractory coating. Experience on operating units has proven that the most durable refractories are ramtype high density formulations. The specific refractory selection may be contingent upon the specific plant
fuel.
Key overall issues to achieve the best potential chance for increased refractory life include:
1. Ensure proper maintenance/application of studs (along with maximizing stud density).
2. Choose the proper refractory for the application (proven positive experience).
3. Use refractory that has not exceeded its shelf life.
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5.2.3
STEAM DRUM
The steam drum is the most expensive boiler component and must be included in any comprehensive
condition assessment program. There are two types of steam drums, the all-welded design used
predominantly in electric utilities where the operating pressures exceed 1800 psi (12.4 MPa), and drums
with rolled tubes. The steam drum operates at saturation temperature [less than 700 F (371 C)]. Because
of this relatively low operating temperature, the drum is made of carbon steel and is not subject to
significant creep. Creep is defined as increasing strain at a constant stress over time.
Regardless of drum type, damage is primarily due to internal metal loss. The causes of metal loss include:
corrosion and oxidation, which can occur during extended outages; acid attack; oxygen pitting; and chelant
attack. Damage can also occur from mechanical and thermal stresses on the drum that concentrate at
nozzle and attachment welds. These stresses, most often associated with boilers that are on/off cycled,
can result in crack development. Cyclic operation can lead to drum distortion (humping) and can result in
concentrated stresses at the major support welds, seam welds, and girth welds. The feed-water
penetration area has the greatest thermal differential because incoming feed-water can be several
hundred degrees below drum temperature.
A problem unique to steam drums with rolled tube seats is tube seat wee-page (slight seeping of water
through the rolled joint). If the leak is not stopped, the joint, with its high residual stresses from the tube
rolling operation, can experience caustic embrittlement. In addition, the act of eliminating the tube seat
leak by repeated tube rolling can overstress the drum shell between tube seats and lead to ligament
cracking.
Condition assessment of the steam drum can include visual and fiber optic scope examination, MT, PT,
WFMT, UT and replication.
5.2.4
BOILER TUBING
5.2.4.1 STEAM-COOLED
Steam-cooled tubing is found in the super-heater and reheat super-heater. Both components have tubes
subjected to the effects of metal creep. Creep is a function of temperature, stress and operating time. The
creep life of the super-heater tubes is reduced by higher than expected operating temperature, thermal
cycling, and by other damage mechanisms, such as erosion and corrosion, causing tube wall thinning and
increased stresses. Excessive stresses associated with thermal expansion and mechanical loading can
also occur, leading to tube cracks and leaks independent of the predicted creep life.
Super-heater tubing can also experience erosion, corrosion, and interacting combinations of both.
Condition assessment of the super-heater tubes includes visual inspection, NOTIS, UTT and tube sample
analysis. Problems due to erosion, corrosion, expansion, or excessive temperature can generally be
located by visual examination.
JOS AGUSTN GONZLEZ
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5.2.4.2 WATER-COOLED
Water-cooled tubes include those of the economizer, boiler (generating) bank and furnace. The convection
pass side wall and screen tubes may also be water-cooled. These tubes operate at or below saturation
temperature and are not subject to significant creep. Modern boilers in electric utilities and many industrial
plants operate at high pressures. Because these boilers are not tolerant of waterside deposits, they must
be chemically cleaned periodically, which results in some tube material loss. Proper water chemistry
control will limit tube inside surface material loss due to ongoing operations and cleaning.
With the exception of creep deformation, the factors that reduce steam-cooled tube life can also act upon
water-cooled tubes. Erosion is most likely to occur on tube outside surfaces in the boiler or economizer
bank from soot-blowing or ash particle impingement. Corrosion of the water-cooled tubes is most common
on internal tube surfaces and results from excessive waterside deposits. Deposit accumulations promote
corrosion, caustic gouging or hydrogen damage.
5.2.5
RISERS
The riser tubes are generally found in the penthouse or over the roof of the boiler. They carry the saturated
steam-water mixture exiting the upper water-wall headers to the steam drum. Condition assessment
includes UTT measurements on non-drainable sections and on the extrados (outside surface) of bends.
When access is available it is advantageous to perform internal visual inspection with a fiber optic or video
probe.
5.2.6
HEADERS
Headers and their associated problems can be grouped according to operating temperature. High
temperature steam-carrying headers are a major concern because they have a finite creep life and their
replacement cost is high. Lower temperature water and steam-cooled headers are not susceptible to creep
but may be damaged by corrosion, erosion, or severe thermal stresses.
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the header can occur. See Figure 16 - Steam temperature variation in a header. Changes in boiler load
further aggravate the temperature difference between the individual tube legs and the bulk header. As
boiler load increases, the firing rate must increase to maintain pressure. During this transient, the boiler is
temporarily over fired to compensate for the increasing steam flow and decreasing pressure. During load
decreases, the firing rate decreases slightly faster than steam flow in the super-heater with a resulting
decrease in tube outlet temperature relative to that of the bulk header Figure 17 - Super-heater tube leg
temperatures vary with load. As a consequence of these temperature gradients, the header experiences
localized stresses much greater than those associated with steam pressure and can result in large
ligament cracks as shown in Figure 18 - Large ligament cracks on header ID. In addition to the effects of
temperature variations, the external stresses associated with header expansion and piping loads must be
evaluated. Header expansion can cause damage on cycling units resulting in fatigue cracks at support
attachments, torque plates, and tube stub to header welds. Steam piping flexibility can cause excessive
loads to be transmitted to the header outlet nozzle. These stresses result in externally initiated cracks at
the outlet nozzle to header saddle weld.
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5.2.7
ATTEMPERATORS
The attemperator, or desuperheater, is located in the piping of the super-heater and is used for steam
temperature control. The spray attemperator is the most common type used. (See Figure 19 - Typical
attemperator assembly) In the spray unit, high quality water is sprayed directly into the superheated steam
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flow where it vaporizes to cool the steam. The attemperator is typically located in the piping between the
primary super-heater outlet header and the secondary super-heater inlet header. Steam exiting the
primary header at temperatures of 800 to 900 F (427 to 482 C) enters the attemperator, where relatively
cool water [approximately 300 F (149 C)] is sprayed into the steam and reduces the temperature to the
inlet of the secondary super- eater. Because of the large temperature difference between the steam and
spray water, parts of the attemperator experience thermal shock each time it is used. Over a period of
years this can lead to thermal fatigue and eventual failure (Figure 20 - Failed attemperator spray head).
Condition assessment of the attemperator requires removal of the spray nozzle assembly. The thermal
stresses occurring in the attemperator are most damaging at welds, which act as stress concentrators.
The spray head and welds on the nozzle assembly are examined visually and by PT to ensure there are
no cracks. With the spray head removed, the liner can be examined with a video or fiber optic probe. For
larger attemperators, it may be necessary to remove radiograph plugs before and after the attemperator
to better view the critical liner welds.
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5.2.9
5.2.9.1 Phase I
To determine where physical testing is required, the following preliminary steps are part of a Phase I
evaluation: plant personnel interviews, plant history review, walk-downs, stress analysis, and life fraction
analysis.
Plant personnel interviews are conducted to gather information that is not readily available from plant
records. Significant history may only be found in recollections of experienced personnel.
Operating history reviews complement personnel interviews. They can provide problem histories and
design or operating solutions.
JOS AGUSTN GONZLEZ
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Piping system walk-downs serve three major functions: to evaluate pipe supports and hangers, to find
major bending or warpage, and to verify changes.
Pipe hangers and supports should be carefully examined. This can be done by creating a baseline
inspection record of all supports.
While the data are being taken on the piping walk-down, the general appearance should also be noted. In
particular, inspections may reveal the following damages: necked-down rods or yokes, spring coil
fractures, deterioration of the hanger can, and deterioration of tiebacks into building steel.
Many times a walk-down reveals that a modification was performed. If the entire system was not reviewed
during the modification, other problems may result.
Stress analysis of the piping system can now be performed. Typically, a computer program is used to
perform the stress calculations based on design and any abnormal conditions found during the walk-down.
Once a piping system is modeled, the analysis allows the engineer to pinpoint high stress locations. The
objective is to limit the nondestructive examination work to these high stress areas.
Life fraction analysis (LFA) of a pipe is done if the primary failure mode is creep due to operating
temperatures above 900 F (482 C). The LFA is based on the units operating history and stress levels
are calculated using design conditions and minimum wall thicknesses. This analysis is discussed at length
later.
5.2.9.2 Phase II
Phase II of the evaluation includes all physical testing of the piping system. The majority of the testing
should be nondestructive; however, some destructive testing may be required. The results from Phase I
testing provide test location priority. Specific test recommendations are shown in Table 1 Typical Piping
System Tests.
The test data generated from the inspections must be evaluated to determine the remaining component
life. This is known as the Phase III evaluation and is covered under Analysis techniques.
Table 1 Typical Piping System Tests
TEST AREA
TEST TYPE
OPTIONAL*
Circumferential welds
A, B, D, E, F, G, H
C, I, J
Longitudinal welds
A, B, D, E, F, G, H
C, I, J
Wye blocks
A, B, E, F, G, H
C, D, I, J
A, B
C, F, G, J
A, B
C, F, G, J
Branch connections
A, B, D, E, F, G, H
C, I, J
RT plugs
A, B
C, F, G, I
A, B
C, I
Elbows / bends
A. E, F
B, C, G
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5.2.10
Visual
Replication
Magnetic particle
Material ID
Liquid penetrant
Dimensional
Ultrasonic sheet
Radiography
Ultrasonic thickness
Metallography
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TYPICAL FAILURES
The most typical steam pipe failure is cracking of attachment welds (support welds or shear lugs). These
cracks are caused by thermal fatigue, improper support, or improper welding.
Radiograph plugs often have cracked seal welds. Although the plug threads are the pressure bearing
surfaces, they can become disengaged over time due to corrosion, creep swelling or oxidation.
Steam pipe warping is another serious problem. If the pipe has deformed, it has undoubtedly gone through
a severe thermal shock. The high strain between the upper and lower sections of pipe can cause
permanent deformation.
Two final common failure areas are the boiler outlet headers and turbine stop (throttle) valves. These
areas should always be considered in any piping evaluation.
5.2.11
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BOILER SETTINGS
The boiler components that are not part of the steam-water pressure boundary are general maintenance
items that do not have a significant impact on remaining life of the unit. The non-pressure components
include the penthouse, boiler casing, brickwork and refractories, and flues and ducts. Deterioration of
these components results from mechanical and thermal fatigue, overheat, erosion and corrosion. In all
cases, condition assessment is done by performing a detailed visual inspection. For flues, ducts and
casing, it is of value to inspect the in-service boiler to detect hot spots, air leaks and flue gas leaks that
can indicate a failed seal.
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The structural members of the boiler must be reviewed during a condition assessment inspection.
Normally these members, along with the support rods above the boiler and auxiliaries, last the life of the
boiler. However, because non-uniform expansion can lead to boiler load movement, the support system
should be examined during the boiler outage inspections. Particular attention should be given to header
and drum supports that could be damaged if the vessel is distorted.
The term boiler setting originally applied to the brick walls enclosing the furnace and heat transfer surfaces
of the boiler. Today, boiler setting comprises all the water-cooled walls, casing, insulation, outer covering
and reinforcement steel that form the outside envelope of the boiler and furnace enclosure. The term
enclosure may refer to either the entire setting or to a part of it.
As larger capacity steam generating units were demanded, boiler settings underwent a long evolution
from uncooled brick surfaces to todays water-cooled walls. Water-cooled walls began as widely spaced
tubes exposed to the furnace and covered with insulating block. These progressed to tangent tubes
covered with refractory. They gradually evolved to the present day construction of membrane tubes.
5.3.1
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The boiler settings must safely contain high temperature pressurized gases and air. Leakage, heat loss
and maintenance must be reduced to acceptable values. The following factors must be considered in the
setting design:
1. Enclosures must withstand the effects of temperatures up to 3500 F (1927 C).
2. The effects of ash and slag, or molten ash, must be considered because:
a. Destructive chemical reactions between slag and metal or refractory can occur under certain
conditions,
b. Accumulation of ash on the water-walls can significantly reduce heat absorption,
c.
Ash accumulations can fall causing injury to personnel or damage to the boiler, and
d. High velocity ash particles can erode the pressure parts and refractory.
3. Provisions must be made for the thermal expansion of the enclosure and for differential expansion of
attached components.
4. The buckstay system must accommodate the effects of thermal expansion, temperature and pressure
stresses, as well as wind and earthquake loading appropriate to the plant site.
5. The effect of explosions and implosions must be considered to lessen the risk of injury to personnel
and damage to equipment.
6. Vibrations caused by combustion pulsations and the flow characteristics of flue gas and air must be
limited to acceptable values.
7. Insulation of the enclosures should limit the heat loss to an economical minimum.
8. Neither the exterior surface temperature nor the ambient air temperature should cause discomfort or
hazard to operating personnel.
9. Enclosures must be gas-tight to minimize leakage into or out of the setting.
10. Settings of outdoor and indoor units that require periodic wash-down must be weatherproof.
11. Settings must be designed for economic fabrication, erection and service life.
12. Serviceability, including access for inspection and maintenance, is essential.
JOS AGUSTN GONZLEZ
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13. Good appearance, in conjunction with cost and maintenance requirements, is desirable.
5.3.2
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in the design of outdoor installations where temperatures may, at times, be below flue gas dew point
temperatures.
With the use of externally insulated casing, corrosion problems are greatly reduced because the flue gases
are completely contained by a metal skin, which is well above the dew point temperature. However, even
with the inner casing, seals and expansion joints must be insulated properly to avoid cold spots and
consequent corrosion.
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Figure 24 Flat stud tube wall construction with inner casing shown
In the current method, the flat studded tubes are backed with refractory covered with a welded inner hot
casing that is insulated and covered with metal lagging for protection. The casing is supported from
channel tie bars welded to the tubes at each buckstay row. The walls are reinforced with buck-stays and
the inner casing is reinforced with stiffeners. Stiffener spacing and size are set by the design pressure of
the walls between buck-stays. This system provides a better gas-tight enclosure than the former method.
In former practice, as shown in Figure 25 Tangent tube wall construction with outer casing shown, the
tubes are backed with refractory, followed by a dense insulation and an outer cold casing. The casing is
supported from the buck-stays with expansion folds at the attachments. These folds minimize stresses in
the casing caused by differential expansions between the hot tube wall and cold casing. This method is
now obsolete, but found on many old boilers that are still in service.
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Figure 28 Widely spaced tubes with flat studs and closure bars
These methods have been effective on many boilers, providing an improved gas seal with considerably
less maintenance and longer life than the casing seal they replaced. Their biggest drawback is high
installation costs because the entire boiler must be stripped of its existing casing and insulation, then a
new insulation and lagging system must be installed.
5.3.3
CASING ENCLOSURES
The casing is the sheet or plate attached to pressure parts for supporting, insulating, or forming a gastight
enclosure.
A boiler unit contains many cased enclosures that are not water-cooled. These enclosures must be
designed to withstand relatively high temperatures while having external walls that minimize heat loss and
protect operating personnel.
Casings are constructed of sheet or plate reinforced with stiffeners to withstand the design pressures and
temperatures. When the casing is directly attached to the furnace walls, expansion elements are added
to allow for differential thermal expansion of the tubes and casing.
5.3.3.1 HOPPER
Hopper enclosures are used in various areas of the boiler setting that may include the economizer hopper,
furnace hopper enclosure and the wash hopper for dry bottom units.
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The enclosure provided by the hopper casing may also serve as a plenum for the recirculating gas which
leaves the economizer hopper through ports and enters the furnace through openings between tubes in
the furnace hopper
5.3.3.2 WIND-BOX
The wind-box is a reinforced, metal-cased enclosure that attaches to the furnace wall, houses the burners,
and distributes the combustion air. It may be located on one furnace wall, on two opposite furnace walls,
or on all furnace walls using a wraparound configuration. The attachments to the furnace walls must be
gas-tight and permit differential thermal expansion between the tubes and casing.
For large capacity boilers, the wind-box may be compartmented and placed only on the front and rear
furnace walls. The wind-boxes are compartmented (internally separated with horizontal division plates)
for better combustion air control.
5.3.3.4 PENTHOUSE
The penthouse casing forms the enclosure for all miscellaneous pressure parts located above the furnace
and convection pass roofs. It is a series of reinforced flat plate panels welded together and to the top
perimeter of the furnace pressure parts. Various seals are used at the penetrations through the penthouse
walls, roof and roof tubes. Some examples are cylindrical bellows or flexible cans sealing the suspension
hangers, large fold (pagoda) seals around the steam piping and refractory or casing seals around heating
surface tube penetrations through the roof tubes. On many utility and some industrial boilers a gas-tight
roof casing is used on top of the roof tubes as the primary gas seal (pressure boundary). Penthouses may
or may not be designed as pressure-tight enclosures with seal air. It depends upon whether the boiler is
a pressure fired or a balanced draft unit and whether the roof seals are seal welded gas-tight or are of the
refractory type.
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6
SAFETY
6.1
EXPLOSIONS
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In the design of settings, the effect of possible explosions must be considered to minimize the possibilities
of personnel injury and serious equipment damage. It is imperative that all types of boilers be designed to
minimize the risk and effect of explosion. This requires that all new boilers and boilers undergoing major
alterations be designed and evaluated so that they are in compliance with the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) 85 Standard, Boiler Combustion Systems Hazards Code. On units with fluid or
fluidized fuels, care must be taken to avoid puffs that can occur from improper fuel and air mixture during
startup. A better understanding of the technical problems and the development of adequate design and
operating codes have eliminated most explosions.
The enclosure is designed to withstand common puffs and large transient gas-side pressure excursions.
A design can be provided that results in the failure of studs, stud attachments and welds rather than failure
of tube walls in the event of a major furnace explosion.
This minimizes the risk of release of large quantities of high pressure steam. Unfortunately, this design
may also result in extremely hot gases being directed at platforms and steel in areas that were not
designed to accommodate high temperature gases. Explosion doors were once used on small furnaces
to relieve excessive internal furnace pressure. These doors are no longer used because the rapid internal
pressure increase from a fuel explosion is not significantly relieved by opening one or more doors.
Explosion doors may also be more of a hazard than a safety margin because, in the event of a puff, they
may discharge hot gases that would otherwise be completely contained within the setting.
The forces from normal operating negative or positive furnace gas-side pressures and from transient
negative or positive furnace gas-side pressures, as defined by NFPA 85, are contained by rectangular
bars called tie bars and/or channel tie bars attached to wall tubes to form continuous bands around the
setting. Cold beams (buck-stays), which are attached to the tie bars with slip connections, accommodate
the gas side pressure loadings and limit the inward and outward deflection of the wall tubes.
Because the buck-stays are outside of the insulation, special corner connections are required that allow
the walls to expand Figure 29 Tie bar and buck-stay arrangement at corner of furnace. Forces generated
by furnace gas-side pressures concentrate at the corner connections. These connections must be tight
during startup when the walls have not fully expanded and during the normal operating fully expanded
position.
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IMPLOSIONS
Implosions are usually caused by an extremely rapid decay of furnace pressure due to sudden loss of fuel
supply or by the improper operation of dampers on units with high static pressure induced draft fans.
The risk of furnace implosions exists whenever a fan is located between the furnace and the stack. This
risk exists even if the furnace is not normally being operated at a negative pressure since the rapid furnace
temperature decay occurring on a Master Fuel Trip (MFT) results in the furnace being exposed to the
maximum head capacity of the fan on a transient basis during the fuel trip. This risk is also increased
where axial flow forced draft (FD) fans are used since they can go into stall on the negative transient,
blocking air flow into the furnace which is needed to restore the furnace pressure. The rules for determining
minimum continuous and transient design pressures for the furnace enclosures can be found in the NFPA
85 Standard. In addition, induced draft fan controls are specified in NFPA 85 to minimize possible
operating or control errors and to reduce the degree of furnace draft excursion following a fuel trip.
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150 MW utility re-heat internal re-circulation circulating fluidized bed CFB (IR-CFB) boiler
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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7.1
Synergy Engineers
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.1.
Refer to
5.1.1
Page
32
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.1.3.
1.1.4.
1.1.5.
Security of handrails
1.1.6.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 58 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.2.
Refer to
5.1.1
Page
32
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.2.5.
Security of handrails
1.2.6.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 59 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.3.
Refer to
5.1.1
Page
32
1.3.1.
Condition of flooring
1.3.2.
Deformations
1.3.3.
Cracks
1.3.4.
Tightness of bolts
1.3.5.
1.3.6.
Security of handrails
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.4.
Refer to
5.1.4
Page
33
1.4.1.
COLUMNS
1.4.1.1.
1.4.1.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.4.1.3.
Condition of paint
1.4.1.4.
1.4.1.5.
Welded joints
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.4.2.
BEAMS
1.4.2.1.
1.4.2.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.4.2.3.
Condition of paint
1.4.2.4.
1.4.2.5.
Welded joints
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.4.3.
GIRDERS
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
Tightness of bolts
1.4.6.
Condition of paint
1.4.7.
1.4.8.
Welded joints
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.4.9.
1.4.10.
1.4.11.
Tightness of bolts
1.4.12.
Condition of paint
1.4.13.
1.4.14.
Welded joints
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.4.15.
SUPPORTS
1.4.16.
1.4.17.
Tightness of bolts
1.4.18.
Condition of paint
1.4.19.
1.4.20.
Welded joints
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.5.
Refer to
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
5.1.2
Page
33
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.6.
Refer to
1.6.1.
1.6.1.1.
5.1.3
Page
1.6.1.2.
Expansion joints
1.6.1.3.
1.6.1.4.
Supports
1.6.1.5.
Tightness of bolts
1.6.1.6.
Reinforcing elements
33
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.6.2.
1.6.2.1.
1.6.2.2.
Expansion joints
1.6.2.3.
1.6.2.4.
Supports
1.6.2.5.
Tightness of bolts
1.6.2.6.
Tightness of bolts
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 68 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
1.6.3.
1.6.3.1.1.
1.6.3.1.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.6.3.1.3.
1.6.3.1.4.
Deformations
1.6.3.1.5.
Galvanized surfaces
1.6.3.1.6.
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.7.
Refer to
5.1.3
Page
33
1.7.1.1.
1.7.1.2.
Tightness of bolts
1.7.1.3.
Vibration dampeners
1.7.1.4.
Insulation protection
1.7.1.5.
1.7.1.6.
Deformations
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.8.
Refer to
Page
1.8.1.
1.8.2.
Deposits
1.8.3.
Cracks
1.8.4.
1.8.5.
Welding
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.9.
Refer to
Page
1.9.1.
1.9.2.
Deformations
1.9.3.
Deposits
1.9.4.
Joints
1.9.5.
Cracks
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.10.
Refer to
Page
1.10.1.
1.10.2.
Deposits
1.10.3.
Joints
1.10.4.
Cracks
1.10.5.
1.10.6.
Welding
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.11.
Refer to
5.2.2
Page
36
1.11.1.
1.11.2.
1.11.3.
1.11.4.
1.11.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 74 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.12.
Refer to
Page
1.12.1.
1.12.2.
1.12.3.
1.12.4.
1.12.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 75 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.13.
Refer to
5.2.12
Page
46
1.13.1.
1.13.2.
1.13.3.
1.13.4.
1.13.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 76 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.14.
Refer to
5.2.12
Page
46
1.14.1.
1.14.2.
1.14.3.
1.14.4.
1.14.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 77 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.15.
Refer to
Page
1.15.1.
1.15.2.
1.15.3.
1.15.4.
1.15.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 78 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.16.
Refer to
5.1.5
Page
34
1.16.1.
1.16.2.
1.16.3.
1.16.4.
1.16.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 79 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.17.
Refer to
5.1.6
Page
35
1.17.1.
1.17.2.
1.17.3.
1.17.4.
1.17.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.18.
Refer to
5.1.7
Page
35
1.18.1.
1.18.2.
1.18.3.
1.18.4.
1.18.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 81 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
1.
YES
A
1.19.
Refer to
5.1.8
Page
35
1.19.1.
1.19.2.
1.19.3.
1.19.4.
1.19.5.
the
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 82 of 100
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7.2
Synergy Engineers
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.1.
Refer to
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
5.2.3
Page
37
2.1.4.
2.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 83 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.2.
Refer to
5.2.5
Page
38
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.2.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
Page 84 of 100
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.3.
Refer to
Page
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.3.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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FINDINGS
ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.4.
Refer to
5.2.6.1
Page
38
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
2.4.4.
2.4.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.5.
Refer to
5.2.6.2
Page
41
2.5.1.
2.5.2.
2.5.3.
2.5.4.
2.5.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.6.
Refer to
5.2.4.2
Page
38
2.6.1.
2.6.2.
2.6.3.
2.6.4.
2.6.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.7.
Refer to
5.2.4.2
Page
38
2.7.1.
2.7.2.
2.7.3.
2.7.4.
2.7.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.8.
Refer to
5.2.4.2
Page
38
2.8.1.
2.8.2.
2.8.3.
2.8.4.
2.8.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.9.
Refer to
5.2.4.1
Page
37
2.9.1.
SUPER-HEATER WING-WALLS
2.9.1.1.
2.9.1.2.
2.9.1.3.
2.9.1.4.
2.9.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
2.9.2.
SECONDARY SUPER-HEATERS
2.9.2.1.
2.9.2.2.
2.9.2.3.
2.9.2.4.
2.9.2.5.
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.10.
Refer to
5.2.7
Page
41
2.10.1.1.
2.10.1.2.
2.10.1.3.
2.10.1.4.
2.10.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.11.
Refer to
5.2.4.1
Page
37
2.11.1.
COLD RE-HEATER
2.11.1.1.
2.11.1.2.
2.11.1.3.
2.11.1.4.
2.11.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
2.11.2.
HOT RE-HEATER
2.11.2.1.
2.11.2.2.
2.11.2.3.
2.11.2.4.
2.11.2.5.
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.12.
Refer to
5.2.4.2
Page
38
2.12.1.
IN-FURNACE U-BEAMS
2.12.1.1.
2.12.1.2.
2.12.1.3.
2.12.1.4.
2.12.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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ITEM
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
2.12.2.
U-BEAMS
2.12.2.1.
2.12.2.2.
2.12.2.3.
2.12.2.4.
2.12.2.5.
YES
A
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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INSPECTION REQUIREMENT
NO
SQ
2.
YES
A
2.13.
Refer to
5.2.8.2
Page
43
2.13.1.1.
2.13.1.2.
2.13.1.3.
2.13.1.4.
2.13.1.5.
MINOR FINDING
MAJOR FINDING
SQ
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION
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6. Maintenance Records
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