Analytical Techniques in Environmental Science

Objective: To impart knowledge and skills in analytical techniques

employed in environmental studies.

Theory
Unit I: Overview and concepts of qualitative and quantitative analytical
techniques used in environmental science; Sampling techniques and
procedures; Factors affecting the choice of an analytical technique;
Interferences and their removal, Field kits and their application.

Unit II
Photometric techniques: Theory, instrumentation and application of
colorimetry and spectrophotometry.

Unit III
Separation techniques: Chromatography- theory, instrumentation and
application of thin layer, paper, ion exchange, size exclusion, high
performance liquid and gas; Methods of preparing biological samples for
chromatographic analysis; Theory and application of electrophoresis;
Principles and uses of ultracentrifugation.

Unit IV
Tracer Techniques: Scintillation counters and radio isotopes in environmental
research.

Practical
Quantitative estimation of organic and inorganic pollutants and toxicants by
UV-Visible spectrophotometer, AAS, HPLC, GC.
Methods of Qunatitative Analysis
The two important steps in analysis are identification and estimation of the
constituents of a compound. The identification steps is called qualitative
analysis. The first step is quitre simple but the second steps of quantitative
analysis is more complicated. Quantitative analysis can be classified
depending upon the method of analysis, or it can be categorized according
to the scale of analysis.

The first step can be subdivided as those involving classical methods

like gravimetry or volumetry, or those involving sophisticated instruments,
Unfortunately for getting reproducible results, one can not always directly
resort to these newer methods. Before that one must get true representative
sample for analysis and it should be free from interfering elements. The
interfering elements are those which come in the way of quantitative
analysis. However both these problems have been solved by the analytical
chemist. Knowledge of sampling and excellent method of separation such as
solvent extraction ion exchange and different method of chromatography
have significantly helped an analyst to mitigate these problems of
interferences. No doubt there are few methods whci can omit this step of
isolation and purification e.g. atomic absorption spectroscopy. The next step
of analysis may involve volumetric method or gravimetry if the sample is
present in milligram concentration. If the components to be anlysed is
present at very low concentration then one has to resort to optical methods
or largely spectroscopic methods like UV-visible, IR spectroscopy, those
involving scattering, molecular luminescence or emission and absorption
spectroscopy. The methods principally used for the elucidation of structure
involve NMR and mass spectroscopy. Thermoanalytical and radiochemical
methos are useful for quantitative work. Another important set of methods
uses available electroanalytical technique. They involve potentiometry,
voltametry including polarography, conductometry and colorometric
methods of analysis.
Selection of methods of Analysis
From the forgoing description of methods, an analytical chemist or scientist
is confronted with the problem of selection of the proper methods from an
array of methods for quantitative analysis. His choice will be determined by
several factors such as speed, convenience, accuracy, sensitivity, selectivity,
availability of instruments, amount of sample, level of analysis.. Of these last
consideration is of parmount importance. In addition to consideration of the
concentration of the analyte, the background of sample will have to be
carefully considered e.g. for analysis of iron (III) from sample of haematite or
polluted water we can not resort to the same method because we have to
carefully watch interfering ions. In haematite we have manganes while in
water we have calcium as an associated metals so we use colorimetrt
(thiocyanate method) for the ore while o-phenanthroline is used in
spectrophotometry for analysis of iron in the water sample. Unfortunately
one can not set a hard and fast rule for the selction of such methods. The
choice of method is a matter of judgement. Such judgements are difficult

and can come only from ones personal experience. It is wrong to suggest
only one selected method of analysis for a particular elemet. The knowledge
of fundamental or basic concepts of analytical chemistry certainly provides
and develops such judgement. Thus, ath analytical chemist should have an
extensive knowledge and understanding of basic concepts underlying
modern methods of analysis. The various steps in the analytical process and
analytical determinations are now considered.
Quantitative analysis and scale of operation