Brazil's Growing Biodiesel Industry

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 415428
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Biodiesel production in Brazil: Current scenario and perspectives

Paulo Andr Cremonez a,n, Michael Feroldi a, Willian Czar Nadaleti a, Eduardo de Rossi a,
Armin Feiden a, Mariele Pasuch de Camargo b, Filipe Eliazar Cremonez b,
Felipe Fernandes Klajn b
a
Western Paran State University (UNIOESTE), Paran, Master in Energy in Agriclture, Department of Energy in Agriculture, Rua Universitria, 2069,
CEP: 85.819-130, Bairro Faculdade, Cascavel, PR, Brazil
b
Federal University of Paran (UFPR-Campus Palotina), R. Pioneiro, 2153, CEP: 85.950-000, Bairro Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, Brazil
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 31 December 2013
Received in revised form
16 August 2014
Accepted 1 October 2014
As a result of the search for energy stability and for the guarantee of national security after the oil crisis
in the 70s, many developed and developing countries started studies and researches in order to develop
alternative energy sources. Currently Brazil stands out in this eld by diversifying its energy mix, having
a large share of renewable energy sources, so much that in 2010 it stood in second place in global
biodiesel production, just behind Germany. This fuel is to Brazil's economy a renewable and effective
source, which aims to complement the national energy matrix and to ensure the security of the country
against the impact caused by the uctuations of the value of petroleum in the exportation market.
Moreover, despite of the fact that soybean oilseed crop is the responsible for most of the production of
biodiesel, the country has continental extensions and a favorable climate that proposes the cultivation of
a wide range of other oil crops that can supply the demand for raw material needed in order to obtain
the fuel. Due to its large installed production capacity and favorable condition concerning raw materials,
Brazil could become a point of reference for biofuel production and, together with its noble destination
in producing, for other forms of fuel too, such as biokerosene and aviation biofuel.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Biofuels
Energy crops
Renewable energy
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biodiesel fuel: denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vegetable oils in biodiesel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of energy balance (IBE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Second generation animal fatty material and microalgae for biodiesel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansion and use of biodiesel in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prospects and market challenges for biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.
The potential of biokerosene associated with biodiesel in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The oil crisis in the 70s led to the end of an era marked by
abundant and low cost fuel [1]. Since then, many developed and
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 44 9927 5099.

E-mail address: pa.cremonez@gmail.com (P. Andr Cremonez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.004
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
415
416
417
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421
423
424
425
425
developing countries started seeking alternative energy sources, a

search that grows stronger each year.
In Brazil, it is expected for the next 10 years a 5.3% increase in
the national energy demand per year, reaching 372 million TOE
(Tonne of Oil Equivalent) until 2020 [2]. Regardless of the
diversication of the current energy mix, petroleum still is the
main responsible for providing energy, with a share of 37.8% [3].
416
P. Andr Cremonez et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 415428
42,4%
86,8%
13,2%
57,6%
Fossil
Renewable
Fossil
Renewable
Fig. 1. Share of renewable energy in Brazil energy mix. Source: BEN [155].
In this context, from economic, environmental and social points of

view, biofuels are seen as an attractive alternative [4], in such way
that from this threefold concept emerged one of the economic
sustainable foundations of a nation, which includes its condition to
ensure logistics and energy in the development of its production
when this condition is given in an environmentally friendly way [2].
Brazil sets itself in a sustainable economic condition, inasmuch
as it is cited as a worldwide reference point in petroleum
production offshore, in ethanol production and in the generation
of hydroelectricity, focusing in the diversity and the increase of its
energy matrix (Fig. 1). Such position encloses several conditions of
environmental adequacy in order to maintain a responsible energy
supply [2].
As mentioned in the Article 23 of the Law 8.174/1991 of the
Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil [5], companies
that economically explore ores, backwaters and electricity concessionaires become responsible for environmental changes and
are forced to retrieve possible damages. In Brazil, this condition is
imposed by the government, according to the Article 176 of the
constitutional text of 1988 [6], which states that the aforementioned resources belong to the Union for the purpose of exploitation and use. The Law 7.990/1989 [7] introduces a nancial
compensation to the State for the results of the exploitation of
oil, natural gas, or water resources aiming electricity production.
The Law 9.478/1997 [8], following the concepts of environmental
protection and property rights, maximizes this nancial compensation.
There is no incidence, therefore, of direct rates related to the
energy sector for landowners who explore biomass energy. What
we have is just a compensatory tax of agricultural products
according to the Law 8.174/1991 [5], providing that the permanent
preservation areas (PPA) are respected, as stated in the Law no
12.651/2012 [9]. I.e. all energy production sources in Brazil tend to
be environmentally friendly, providing that these practices are
legally possible.
The use of biomass for the production of biofuel, however, may
cause huge impasses as it relates to a possible impact on food
supply. Currently, Brazil has demonstrated its differential for been
adherent of this practice, given its high grain productivity which
allows it to obtain high amounts of vegetable oil. This oil can be
used in the production of fuel [10,11], and for this and other
reasons Brazil has promulgated the Law 11.097/2005 [12] which
establishes the introduction of the biodiesel in Brazil's energy mix
as a compulsory blend for the mineral diesel.
Several oilseed crops can be employed in the production of
biodiesel fuel, some, with more efciency, although different
agricultural inputs might be needed and efciency and the energy
density of this crops might not be the same [13]. Moreover, Brazil
stands out for breeding livestook for meat production, and by
doing so, it generates a large amount of fatty materials as
Fig. 2. Main raw materials used of the production of biodiesel in Brazil.
by-production that in general are cheaper compared to vegetable

oils. These materials present great potential in biodiesel fuel
production. From Fig. 2, it is possible to visualize the main raw
materials in potential of use in the production of biodiesel fuel.
Microalgae are also an option for the production of biodiesel
fuel because of their superior photosynthetic efciency when
compared to terrestrial plants, besides that, they use a much
smaller amount of land. On the other hand, collecting algae oil is a
complex and expensive process, moreover, the crop system need
continuous energy for agitation [14,15].
Biodiesel fuel produced from algae, animal or vegetable fatty
materials show similar characteristics, however, there are different
fatty acid compositions in each material. These acids have inuence
on viscosity, cetane number, NOx emission, oxidation level etc. [16].
Thus, the aim of this study is to present the main raw materials
found in Brazil for the production of biodiesel fuel based on
evaluations such as of the production history and the use of the
fuel, and to discuss their prospects of use in the country.
2. Biodiesel fuel: denitions

The rst patent of what is known today as biodiesel is from
1937,which was granted to the Belgian Charles Chavanne from the
University of Brussels when the referred researcher reported the

use of ethyl esters derived from the acidic transesterication of
palm oil. However, only in 1988 the term biodiesel was rst used,
when mentioned in a Chinese scientic paper [17].
Originally, vegetable oils were tested as fuel in internal combustion engines, yet, due to its high viscosity it would cause
serious damages to the engines, such as gum formation during
storage, injector nozzles clogging, compromised engine lifespan,
besides the formation of acrolein through the thermal decomposition of glycerol, which is a toxic and carcinogenic substance
[18,19].
Biodiesel fuel could be described as the product derived from
several raw materials, which comprise different oils, animal and
vegetable fats, used frying oil and other high acidity grease
materials. Some factors, such as the climate and the region in
the country, determine which material shows greater potential for
the production of biodiesel fuel [17]. This fuel is a natural and
renewable substitute for the fossil diesel, and its production occurs
when monohydroxy short-chain alcohols are placed in homogenous, heterogeneous or enzymatic catalyzers [20,21].
Among the methods used for biodiesel fuel production, the
transesterication process via alkaline catalysis in a homogenous
ambience is the most commonly used. However, for the viability of
the process, the fatty material employed must free fatty acids and
low content of water and free fatty acids [22]. The composition of
fatty acids in the raw material employed also affects signicantly
the physicochemical characteristics of the generated biodiesel fuel
and, as a consequence to that, it also inuences the quality of the
product.
Some studies about the fuels derived from algae are quoted
since the 80s. During the Second World War, for example, German
scientists tried to extract algae fatty material in an attempt to solve
the energy crisis at that time. Nevertheless, it is known that
researches on microalgae production are scarce and few technologies have been developed [23,24].
3. Vegetable oils in biodiesel production

In aspects related to vegetable oil production, Brazil has over
150 million hectares of land between new frontiers and rangelands that can be incorporated into the agricultural production.
The country has edaphoclimatic diversity in its entire length, and
that ensures the cultivation and production of several crops, such
as soybean, babassu, peanut, sunower, crambe, palm, jatropha,
canola, among others. It should be emphasized that these crops may
also be explored for the purpose of biodiesel fuel production [25].
In the composition of vegetable oils, triglycerides are the
predominant substances, these are esters formed of long chain
Table 1
Oil content in some oilseeds cultivated in Brazil.
Oilseed
Source
Babassu
Canola
Crambe
Palm
Oilseed Radish
Sunower
Jatropha
Lupin
Soybean
Peanut
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
Almond'soil content.
Oil content (%)

66
40
3045
55*
35
3552
38
612
18
4456
417
carboxylic acids and glycerol. Apart from the triglycerides, vegetable oils present phospholipids and sterols that must be removed
from the oil during the production of biodiesel [26]. The oil
content in the main oilseed cultivars from Brazil that may be
potentially used in biodiesel production are shown in Table 1.
The living organisms synthesize a large number of fatty acids,
indicating that the vegetable oils are formed from a wide variety of
triglycerides. The composition of these oils are directly inuenced
by the raw material used for their production and by the
characteristics of the management employed on the crop. For
example, the melting point of the triglycerides depends mainly on
the number of instaurations in the fatty acids [27], which leads the
produced biodiesel fuel to suffer direct inuence from the raw
materials used in its production.
Although soybean feature low oil content, it is the raw material
mainly used in the production of biodiesel fuel in Brazil, that is
because its by-product (bran) is used as animal feedstock and can
be exported together with the grains. Furthermore, it is basically
produced throughout all the Brazilian territory [40].
In the same way that oil extraction is a supported practice
because it adds value to the protein product sold overseas, the
production of biodiesel from soybean oil is also very supported by
the market trend. Although in the second case, the impact it
causes notorious, especially in Brazil.
The production of biodiesel in Brazil is carried out in the same
way as it is the production of ethanol, which is another biofuel
rooted in the food base, therefore, its price is a reection of the
commodity of its base products. Regarding the ethanol, meanwhile, power plants in Brazil are ready to produce what is mostly
convenient for them, and sugar from sugarcane is the product that
is the most directly proportional in price. As to the biodiesel fuel,
the product that it has direct connection to is the soybean, and
although it is not produced in the same environment, it is
correlated to the above in terms of choice.
The palm oil corresponds to 21% of the total global supply of oil
and fats, and just 1-2% is destined to energy production [41].
Besides the palm oil content being relatively higher than most of
the other oilseed crops found in Brazil, it also presents many
advantages and it is the crop that best adapts to the north and
northeast regions of the country, especially in Amazonian edaphoclimatic conditions. This crop also contributes to an intense regional
development based on the diversication of activities [42].
The babassu, with its elevated oil content, is exploited in Brazil
since many decades and the interest in its use for biodiesel fuel
production was restored with the national biofuel program. Unlike
the Palm, its fruits are extracted from natural forests, mainly from
indigenous ones, and a signicant share of the nancial income
goes to the peasants' families [43,44].
The peanut is in fourth place among the world's most important oilseed crops. Despite this fact, the oil production corresponds
to less than 5% of all vegetable oil produced. In Brazil, So Paulo is
the main peanut producer, with 80% of all national production
rotating with sugar cane crop [4547].
The Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) is also an interesting crop for
the production of biodiesel fuel since it is genetically modied in
order to achieve greater productivity and because it contains nonedible oil, it can be explored to develop a renewable fuel without
compromising the food production [4851].
It should be taken into account that Brazil has vast elds of
arable land available.
The oil's chemical composition varies considerably for each
oilseeds. Babassu, for example, has a high concentration of lauric
acid, while canola is rich in oleic acid, in the same way that the
crambe presents high percentage of erucic acid, and the radish
oilseed has the oleic acid as its predominant fatty acid the oleic
acid (such as canola, however, in minor proportions). In this
418
Table 2
Prole of constituent fatty acids of the oil found in some Brazilian agro-ecosystem oilseeds.
Fattyacids
Caprylic acid (C8:0)

Capric acid (C10:0)
Lauric acid (C12:0)
Myristic acid (C14:0)
Pentadecylic acid
(C15:0)
Palmitic acid (C16:0)
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1)
Margaric acid (C17:0)
Stearic acid (C18:0)
Oleic acid (C18:1)
Linoleic acid (C18:2)
Linolenic acid (C18:3)
Arachidic acid (C20:0)
Eicosenoic acid (C20:1)
Arachidonic acid (C20:4)
Behenic acid (C22:0)
Erucic acid (C22:1)
Lignoceric acid (C24:0)
Oil content (%)

Babassu
[58]
Canola
[59]
Crambe
[60]
Oilseed Radish
[61]
Palm
[62]
Sunower
[63]
Jatropha
[64]
Cotton
[65]
Soybean
[66]
Peanut
[67]
5
6
44
17
0.2
0.48
2.13
6.16
1.72
0.68
2.56.5
0.6
0.83.0
53.070.0
15.030.0
5.013.0
0.11.2
0.14.3
0.6
2.0
1.1
17.8
6.1
2.8
1.7
6.7
3.7
56.7
7.9
1.4
3.1
29.1
16.3
12.7
8.2
14.1
1.2
22.1
0.25
1.91
4.32
37.2
20.6
0.47
0.22
6.0
4.4
20.5
65.8
0.1
0.3
1.1
20.21
18.08
1.03
7.34
38.81
34.65
23.91
0.42
0.08
2.81
16.26
52.68
0.12
0.31
0.15
0.1
11.64
2.89
24.36
53.83
8.02
6.14
1.56
51.26
35.59
2.54
0.97
1.94
4.5
14
2
context, Table 2 shows the prole of some fatty acids found in

vegetable oils.
The rate of oxidation in the biodiesel is also inuenced by
several factors, such as air, light, temperature and especially
chemical composition of fatty acids. Monounsaturated fatty acids
like C18:1 and C16:1 are considered the most interesting ones for
the production of biodiesel fuel compared to polyunsaturated
acids in terms of oxidative stability, besides that, they don't reveal
any adverse effect to the cold properties of the fuel [52].
In the light of these considerations, it is possible to afrm that
some oils exhibit a more interesting composition in biofuel
production, even though they might need to be adapted for
commercial standards. The oils of canola, peanut, jatropha and
palm have better resistance to oxidation than other oils shown in
Table 2 due to the high composition of oleic acid in it (C18:1). The
genetic engineering is an important tool that can assist in the
production of vegetable oil with more appropriate fatty acid
prole thus contributing to the production of a high quality
biodiesel fuel.
4. Index of energy balance (IBE)

The oil content in the seeds and their features are relevant
factors for the feasibility of the oilseed production in order to
obtain biofuel. The energy balance of a crop and the associated
energy costs, however, are the most important variables in assessing the production feasibility [53].
The index of energy balance in biofuels research is referring to
issues of performances, quantifying mainly all entries and implements from fossil energies since the extraction process from raw
material [167]. The positive energy balance of a crop is associated
to the gain of energy, whereas, during the process of production,
more energy is generated than rather consumed [54]. The values
of energy balance vary according to different bibliographies,
farming systems and the management of the technology involved
in the process.
In a study with soybean biodiesel production in the USA,
quantifying all the power inputs in biofuel production process,
only 0.311 MJ were required for the production of 1.0 MJ of
biodiesel [168]. Studies with rapeseed biodiesel in Europe have
provided energy production three times more than the energy
Table 3
Index of energy balance (IBE) for biodiesel production from different sources.
Culture
IBE
Source
Oilseed Radish
Canola
Crambe
Sunower
Palm oil
Castor beans
Soybeans
8.44
2.19
8.98
2.37
4.6
1.28
5.44
[68]
[13]
[69]
[70]
[13]
[71]
[72]
expenditure for production of 3 t of rapeseed per hectare planted

[169]. Chen and Chen [167], analyzing the productive cycle of the
same oleaginous in China, concluded that due to its low production per unit area and the elevated obtaining cost of the biofuel,
the estimated total energy cost to culture was 1.1 times greater
than the prot, considering energetically unfeasible by the present
productive conditions.
From Table 3 it is possible to compare the energy balance of
oilseeds employed in the production of biodiesel fuel in Brazil and
to note that according the surveys, the radish and crambe oilseeds
bring much higher return compared to other crops.
Much of the production of biodiesel fuel made in industrial
scale in Brazil, as suggested by the literature, have a positive
energy balance [5557]. Hill et al. [55] analyzed the biodiesel fuel
energetic costs and concluded that depending on the process or
oilseed employed, the fuel yields 93% more usable energy than it
would require for its own production.
Besides the cost of the production process, depending on the
unsaturated fatty acids content in the oil, there must be an
afterward demand for additives in the fuel that would ensure its
storage stability and a stock available is also needed in order to
facilitate the logistics of the material. These requirements are
primarily met in the process carried out with transesteried
sunower oil.
The crambe, in addition of having great potential for biodiesel
production, has an annual production cycle of 90100 days and a
positive energy index [73]. However, in many crops their energy
balances, although positive, do not provide enough conditions to
obtain large amounts of renewable energy from small cultivated
areas in short periods of time. In this way, the palm is seen as
a great alternative due to its high production per hectare and

elevated oil content. However, because it is a perennial crop and
its production only starts in the third year after it is planted, its
promoting policies are relatively different from that of the other
crops [74], and therefore, it reduces the interest in what may be
invested in this production chain.
As already mentioned, several factors must be considered when
choosing the raw material used for the production of biodiesel
fuel. The region, climate, land, oil content and seed yield per unit
area can vary considerably and impact the nal amount of oil
produced. Moreover, if the oil used does not provide adequate
composition and features, additives will be required so that the
nal fuel can meet the normative and be traded.
These studies are realized aiming to analyze and enhance the
mitigation of production costs of biofuels already developed
through technological strategies available and implementation of
productive policies, In addition to planning the production costs of
other developing biofuel, as the cellulosic ethanol.
5. Second generation animal fatty material and microalgae

for biodiesel production
The population growth observed in the last years has resulted
in an accentuated search for food due to the increase of the
competition for agricultural land. Therefore, the use of non-edible
raw materials like microalgae lipids, and the waste disposal of food
processing industries is already a reality [75,76].
In a study developed by Johnston and Holloway [77], Brazilian
biodiesel potential in the referred year was of around 2.5 billion
liters with an average production cost of $0.62/liter. Currently, the
national production has not exceeded 3 million liters, but it is still
able to serve the national market with soybean as the main
supporting raw material [78,79]. This situation is possibly due to
the still predominant instability of the market, especially of the
international one, what at times tend to pressure the government
to the non expansion of the national production when food raw
material is used.
In response to this problem, the Brazilian government made
attempts to encourage the production of biodiesel from castor oil
plant, among others, through the implementation of the National
Biodiesel Production and Use Program (PNPB), which intends to
promote the production of biodiesel through family farming,
enhancing the favorable effects of using renewable fuel. It also
leverages a non-food crop, what would reduce external pressures
and broaden the range of potential buyers of this product [144].
In fact, vegetable oils receive greater attention on the global
and Brazilian scenario of biodiesel production, however, the need
to reduce the cost of the biofuel makes that the waste animal fats
(WAFs), derived from food processing, receive major emphasis,
considering that the raw material participation in the global cost
of biodiesel fuel is of around 7095% [80,81]. This alternative has
been well investigated once it eliminates the waste disposal,
reduces the cost of the raw material and produces a biofuel that
is very similar to that of vegetable origin [82,80].
According to Barrios et al. [83], the alternative created in recent
years against the rising costs of the traditional raw materials
was the approach to the second generation biofuels, especially
to the biodiesel fuel. The raw materials from this generation
are characterized by not competing with the global food industry.
Among the WAFs, beef tallow, swine and chicken fat are
emphasized.
In Brazil, the beef tallow is responsible for over 13% of the
national biodiesel production [79], given that in 2011 Brazil
produced over 430.000 t of tallow. This value, when compared to
the number of animals slaughtered in the same year, represents an
419
average of 15 kg of beef tallow per animal at disposal. Primarily,

this beef tallow was not commonly intended for the production of
biodiesel, however, in the last few years this proportion increased,
whereas in the year 2003 about 70% of the tallow was used in the
production of soap, and none of the raw material directed to the
production of biodiesel. In 2007 the use of beef tallow for the
production of biofuel increased in 12% and in 2010 this percentage
raised 72% [40].
The use of chicken fat is also a strong alternative for the
production of biodiesel, especially in Brazil, which is currently
the third largest producer of poultry meat in the world. In this
process of production many fatty waste are generated and can be
used in obtaining biodiesel fuel. It is estimated that each bird
raised in conventional farm produces around 67.8 g of fat that can
be used for the production of biodiesel fuel. That is considerably a
high value when considering the amount of birds slaughtered
every day [156].
Because Brazil is a large producer of pork, wastes produced
during pig slaughter are also listed among the ones of most
importance in the country. According to Joo and Oliveira [157],
unlike beef and chicken meat, pork fat has less concentration of
free fatty acids in its composition. Thus, it provides minor
incidents in secondary reactions in the process of fat transesterication employing alkali catalysts. This feature also provides
interesting oxidative stability to the oil and biodiesel produced.
The composition of animal fats encompass mainly saturated
fatty acids, which dispenses high temperatures during the transesterication step [84]. Table 4 shows the fatty acid composition of
some animal fats.
The main obstacle in using animal fats for the production of
biodiesel is the low possibility of its application in cold climates
due to its high saturated fatty acids content [90]. Beef tallow for
example provides 45.6% of SFA (sum of myristic, palmitic and
stearic acids), and for this reason the values of the cold lter
plugging point (CFPP) and kinematic viscosity observed in beef
tallow biodiesel are higher than the standard maximum limits
[9193].
An important feature of the biodiesel fuel produced from
animal fats is the NOx emission. Beef tallow, lard and chicken
biodiesel emission of NOx is low when compared to soybean
biodiesel fuel NOx emissions because of the high content of
saturated fatty acids in these fatty sources [17,94]. Moreover, the
cetane number in these biodiesel fuels is superior when compared
to mineral diesel, and that gives the fuel a faster combustion
[95,96].
Table 4
Fatty acid compositions of animal fats.
% (By weight)
Beef tallow Chicken fat Pork lard

[85]
[86]
[87]
Mutton fat Duck

[88]
tallow [89]
Lauric acid
(C12:0)
Myristic acid
(C14:0)
Palmitic acid
(C16:0)
Palmitoleic
acid (C16:1)
Stearic acid
(C18:0)
Oleic acid
(C18:1)
Linoleic acid
(C18:2)
Linolenic acid
(C18:3)
0.2
2.72
0.5
1.7
25.33
24
23.2
27
17
2.02
5.8
2.7
34.7
5.8
10.4
24.1
29.87
38.2
42.8
40.7
59.4
0.75
23.8
19.1
19.6
1.9
64.7
420
According to Dias et al. [97], the absence of natural antioxidants

and operation inadaptability in cold climates make the biodiesel
fuel derived from animal fats improper for combustion engines
because of its oxidation susceptibility. Hence, the biodiesel blends
could be applied in an intent to solve this issue [158,98100].
In the case of the biodiesel fuel produced from animal fat,
ambient temperature in cold climate regions is enough to cause
solidication or physical variation in the fuel. That is the main
problem in using these fatty material, since the existence of micro
crystals in the fuel might cause problems in the engine ignition
and operation [159,160]. These problems are avoided through the
production of blends of biodiesel with mineral diesel, given that in
additions of 40% of normal diesel to biodiesel, the physical
variations of the fuel are almost unnoticeable [159].
Different animal fatty sources, although studied on a smaller
scale, are also promising on the production of biodiesel fuel. Fish
oil, specially the one extracted from marine oily shes, as wahoo,
salmon, tuna and cod, as the above mentioned, also have very low
viscosity that provides high uidity and reduction in the pump
requirements. Low vicosity can also improve the atomization of
the burner [161163].
Other species of domesticated animals can serve as a source of
lipids on the production of biofuels, however, they require specic
studies since each fatty material presents different features on its
composition and for the fact that some of them even by the
condition of exploration are less promising [164].
Among the second generation raw materials, the microalgae,
due to their strong potential as a fatty acid source for biodiesel
production and innumerable biological advantages, have been
emphasized in recent years [76].
According to Sorguven and zilgen [101], there are microalgae
with an efciency 30 times superior to the terrestrial plants in oil
production per unit of area, in addition to that, they do not require
land areas for cultivation. Even though Brazil has large elds of arable
land at disposal, the production and usage of microalgae does not
suffer interference from this factor. They are usually cultivated based
on the nutritional usage of some industrial liquid wastes, and
therefore they provide a good solid environmental base for its
commercialization, and allow an increase on the energetic feedback.
Microalgae grow more appropriately in closed systems due to
the reduced contamination in these ambience when compared to
what may be in the open ones. However, the high cost for
implementing closed systems focuses the cultivation of microalgae
for biodiesel production on open tanks, a process known as
raceway system [102,15].
According to Chisti [102], the microalgae lipid content can vary
from 5 to 77% (w/w) in dry mass, depending of the specie, as it is
shown in Table 5.
A relevant observation is that the amount of microalgae oil is
520 times higher than that of the palm, worldwide known for its
superiority in production in land [103].
Regarding lipid composition, the fatty acids content can vary
according to the algae specie and the neutral lipids are the most
used in biodiesel production [15].
The high industrial cost associated to harvesting, drying and oil
extraction stages are the main challenges to be overcome for large
scale biodiesel production. The energy expenditure from biodiesel
obtained from algae compared with the one from vegetable oil is
considerably high, and that undermines the practice [104,105].
Another major problem faced by the algae industry is the low
yields reached in the transesterication process. However, the
enzymatic catalysis from lipase enzymes has been reported in
literature in order to enhance such efciency [106]. Moreover, the
use of in situ transesterication is another alternative to solve the
oil extract problem, but the high cost associated to it precludes
this process nowadays [107].
Table 5
Oil content of some microalgae.
Microalgae
Oil content (%)
Botryococcus braunii
Chlorella sp.
Crypthecodinium cohnii
Cylindrotheca sp.
Dunaliella primolecta
Isochrysis sp.
Monallanthus salina
Nannochloris sp.
Nannochloropsis sp.
Neochloris oleoabundans
Nitzschia sp.
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Schizochytrium sp.
Tetraselmis sueica
2575
2832
20
1637
23
2533
420
2035
3168
3554
4547
2030
5077
1523
Source: Chisti [102].
Concerning the feasibility of producing biodiesel fuel from

algae, Brownbridge et al. [165], carried out an economic study
related to the production of algae for these means. In their work,
the authors observed the main factors that affect the cost of the
production of biodiesel from algae and the factors that affect its
protability. The costs are more susceptible in the following order:
Algae oil content4annual productivity of algae per unit area4 plant production capacity 4 price of the carbon credit. On the
other hand, the protability is affected by the same factors with
the same susceptibility, however it suffers inuence of the price of
the petrol as well.
6. Expansion and use of biodiesel in Brazil

The biodiesel is considered a renewable energy source that is
designed to complement the Brazilian and global energy mix
[108]. The interest in the improvement of its production is given
by the mixture of its mandatory nature and the government
incentives. Such incentives are based on the advantages brought
by biodiesel fuel production, and include the reducing emission of
greenhouse gases, family agriculture development and contribution for national energy security. As a consequence, the production
of biodiesel and researches on the use of other biofuels are
signicantly growing worldwide [109,170].
Brazil leads the production of biofuels in Latin America mainly
due to the Law no. 737 from 1938 and subsequent law no. 723
from 1993, which determine the ethanol addition into gasoline.
The use of biodiesel fuel in the country began in the 70s, as already
mentioned. Notwithstanding, the use this fuel was not based on
environmental issues, but in the energy self-sufciency and it was
employed as a way to overcome the economic crisis at the time
[110,111]. In the decade that followed, based on these same
reasons, Brazilian government started the implementation of the
Vegetable Oils Program (OVEG), testing the biodiesel in various
proportions with mineral fuel [112]. From the turn of the century,
a report that was the basis for the creation of the National Program
for Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB) was created, and
published in 2004.
The National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels
(ANP) is the institution responsible for regulating and supervising
the domestic biodiesel production through the control of the
quality of its production and distribution. The only way to trade
biodiesel is through auctions regulated by ANP, which happen on
a quarterly basis. This fact means that to produce and market
biodiesel in Brazil, industries need authorization from the Agency
[113].
The biodiesel program in Brazil differs from programs developed in the United States and in Europe Union because the
Brazilian government aims to convert the biodiesel production
into a tool for promoting social inclusion in family agriculture. This
is done by the development and dissemination of crops that adapt
to specic conditions of each region in the country and by the offer
of raw materials conditioned to the producer's prole [108].
In order to ensure this inclusion through raw materials diversication, Brazilian government, via programs provided by the
Ministry of Agriculture (MDA), stimulated the cultivation of oil
seeds like castor seeds, palm and canola, offering tax exemption
policies to power plants that buy materials for biodiesel production.
This initiative was taken in order to reduce the dependence
producers have on soybean cultivation [114]. The main raw materials used in the production of biodiesel in Brazil are shown in Fig. 3.
An important factor allied to the oilseed cultivation and
production is the way they are harvested. In Brazil, mechanical
harvesting and dened cultivation practices are applied for soybean, cotton, peanut and canola crops, different from crops such as
coconut, palm and babassu [115,116].
The beef tallow is considered a by-product in meat industry
and widely employed in the production of biodiesel due to its low
cost. In the year 2011, produced 430 000 m of beef tallow [117].
The destination of beef tallow used to be for the direct use in
boilers or yet in soap production. From 2007, with the governmental biofuel program operating, the production of biodiesel
from beef tallow raised 6 times, and from then on it became the
main destination for tallow in national commerce since 2010 [40].
The raw material cost is directly linked to the nal price of
the biodiesel fuel, and in most cases, the fatty material corresponds to the largest portion of the nal cost [118]. Thus, the
soybean shows great relevance in the nal price of the biodiesel
fuel, as it is the most used cultivar in its production and an
extremely important product in Brazilian market. This crop is a
global reference in oil and grain valuation, which can inuence in
the price of other oils [4].
According to the Ministry of Mines and Energy [119], the sales
of raw material for biofuel production moved approximately
2 billion of dollars for family agriculture in the harvest period of
2011/2012; the PNPB served to more than 105.000 farmer's
families. Besides Brazil, the production of fuel registered a strong
growth, mainly in European countries and in the United States
(Fig. 4), noting that Brazil's initial participation happened in 2006,
due to the increase of biodiesel in mineral diesel. The global
production had an exponentially growth from values lower than
116 Mton up to 2010 [120].
Brazil stood among the largest producers and consumers of
biodiesel in the world in 2011, with 2.7 billion liters and $6.5
billion moved by the sector [121]. It is possible to note through
Soybean
Bovinefat
Cotton
Other fatty materials
13,36%
81,36%
4,11%
1,17%
Fig. 3. Mainly raw materials employed in Brazil for biodiesel production.
Source: ANP [79]
421
Fig. 4. Global biodiesel production from 2000 to 2010 (Adapted from LAMMERS
[120]).
Figs. 5 and 6 that the production of biodiesel fuel leap is linked to

the need of supplying the demand. In case this demand kept
growing, the country would have by the present date almost
7 million cubic meters of fuel.
Due to its continental size and large availability of agriculture
lands, Brazil can increase its oilseed crops planting area for the
production of biodiesel without interfering in areas that are used
for food cultivation [122]. The regions that have the highest
monthly production of biodiesel fuel are south and center-west
of Brazil. This fact is justied by the higher yields of soybean crops
in the states of Mato Grosso (23.5 million of tons) and Paran (15.9
million of tons), since this crop is the main raw material used to
produce this biofuel [123].
The currently installed capacity for the production of biodiesel
fuel in Brazil is much superior to its current production. That
enables a signicant increase in the production if increased the
demand for blending it to mineral diesel. The production and
consumption follow the same tendency while biodiesel is produced only to meet the nation's demand.
The southern region also stands out in achieving raw materials
arising from family agriculture in PNPB, since a signicant number
of establishments of this type of farming are organized into
cooperatives [124]. The production generated in this decentralized
areas are sent primarily to southeastern region, the most populous
and industrialized region in the country.
7. Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel in Brazil

One of the main advantages in employing biodiesel is the lower
emission of greenhouse gases compared to what it is with mineral
diesel, the values decreases in 50% of carbon monoxide generation
and 60% of soot, less toxicity and sulfur exemption [125]. Furthermore, the absence of sulfur also reduces the product viscosity to
compatible levels according to the standard parameters. By doing
so, it is possible to discard of the use of lubricant additives [18].
It was observed that in soils partially contaminated with biodiesel,
the microorganisms' respiratory activity grew considerably, while
in soils contaminated with petroleum diesel its activity has ceased
[126].
With the intense biodiesel fuel production, mainly from soybean, the industry obtain as a co-product from the process a large
amount of bran and glycerin, which are products that are widely
consumed within the domestic market and chemical industries.
Glycerol is intended for industry use and trade of cosmetics and
the amount of soybean bran produced (12 million tons in 2012) is
sufcient to supply the domestic market, and it still ensures large
scale exportations. From Table 6 it is possible to observe Brazil's
soy bran exportation, highlighting the major importers which are
Uruguay and Argentina [127].
422
Compulsory annual demand for biodiesel

Nominal installed capacity
Annual production of Biodiesel
6000
3000
0
2004
2007
2010
2013
Year
Fig. 5. Annual evolution of the production, compulsory demand and nominal capacity authorized by ANP in the country.
Source: ANP [113]
300000
authorized capacity
monthly biodiesel production
demand B100
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
Center-west
Northeast
North
Southeast
South
Region
Fig. 6. Production, capacity and demand of biodiesel per region in Brazil in the month of October, 2013.
Source: ANP [113]
Table 6
Brazilian soybean bran exportation in the year of 2012 (US$).
Country
Export value
Uruguay
Argentina
Angola
Cape Verde
Nigeria
United Kingdom
Germany
Paraguay
Total
$20,600.00
$3920.00
$840.00
$337.00
$336.00
$214.00
$64.00
$58.00
$26,369.00
Source: MDIC [128].
In Brazil, the oilseed crops cultivation requires agricultural

system adjustments and, therefore, it facilitates the crop rotation,
expands new agricultural areas and intensies those that are
already being used. It is important to mention that biodiesel is
considered an alternative to reduce the consume of petroleum
derived fuels, and does not intend to replace them altogether
[129].
Regarding the disadvantages, the biodiesel is a biodegradable
product, therefore it may eventually produce sludge that may clog
injection nozzles, causing changes in the engine power. This
renewable fuel also have its production costs directly dependent
on the raw material employed, which might lead to costs that are
higher than the cost of the petroleum diesel [130].
There are many challenges faced by the Development Program

of Biodiesel in Brazil, which is directly linked to the fuel obtaining
technologies, agronomic factors and the infrastructure of the
country. The main technology obstacles are related to the stability
of the additives, the development of new transesterication routes,
standardization of biodiesel uses for process efuents and to the
quality of gas generated from fuel combustion. As for the agronomic
problems, we highlight the sustainable production zoning, the
guarantee of low costs for raw materials and the improvement of
the cultivars in order to obtain a large oil production. Finally, there are
infrastructure problems, which encompass the production, transportation and biofuel distribution [130].
Covering environmental questions, the biodiesel production
due to its emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), competition with
food production and biodiversity and biota losses still causes
concerns [171]. The increased use of arable land for energy crops
cultivation can directly impact the biodiversity, soil quality and
grain potential production for food purposes, as in soybean's
case [172].
Although of some biomass' biofuels (including biodiesel) end
the carbon cycle reducing the GHG emissions when compared to
fossil fuels, those still needing petroleum derivatives in their
production chains. Furthermore, the use of agricultural inputs rich
in N2O and burnings after harvest result in a signicant GHG
production [173].
The GHG emissions produced on these productive chains come
directly from the fossil fuels and fertilizers used in the productive
process, and indirectly from the transportation, consumption,
energy storage, etc. [40]. As the index of energy balance, the great
variability of GHG emission cycle become from variations on
production routes, level of agriculture mechanization, management and harvesting.
According Eshton et al. [173], depending of the productive
conditions employed, the biodiesel cannot be able to substantially
mitigate the GHG emissions and as consequence the actual global
climate changes. Although this fact, few studies are conducted to
evaluate the GHG balance in different oilseed supply chains in
Brazil.
Another important point about methanol is that it is the
main alcohol employed in biodiesel production via homogeneous
alcaline catalysis (most used in the country), normally coming
423
from fossil sources. Its use is explained by prevent secondary

reactions, such as the soap route, and for be humidity exempt.
However is the largest alcohol used on biodiesel reaction due to its
low cost compared to anhydrous ethanol, which has greater
environmental appeal by its agricultural origin [174,175].
8. Prospects and market challenges for biodiesel

It is interesting that the Brazilian energy mix would set goals
for medium and long terms for the agroenergy. The current
economic scenario integrates the agribusiness and the biodiesel
fuel as one of its most important components, together with the
bioethanol. Brazil has several advantages that allow it to lead the
agriculture and the global bioenergy market, such advantages are
the possibility of dedicating new lands for agriculture energy
without occupying areas designated to the cultivation of food
crops [131].
By 2020, a signicant growth of the total energy demand which
would reach 372 million Tons of Oil Equivalent is expected, with
the transport sector standing out as the responsible for much of
the consumption [2]. The Brazilian sector of biodiesel production
foresees an investment of R$28 billions for this same year, reaching a domestic consumption of 3.1 million tons of fuel. Furthermore, it is expected that the replacement of diesel by biodiesel
reaches 20% by the end of the decade [132,49]. From Fig. 7, it is
possible to view the biodiesel production and consumption forecasts in Brazil by the year 2022.
Globally, the perspective for 2020 is also quite promising, given
the estimated production of 41.9 billion liters of biodiesel fuel,
with the U.S, Brazil and India representing 75% of this amount [78].
According to forecasts, the production and consumption of
biodiesel in Brazil evolve in a linear rate mainly due to the
increasing demand for fuel and to the consequent increase of the
Brazilian vehicular eet and the prospect of rising the blend of
biodiesel/diesel in the following years. Moreover, it is also
observed that the increase in fuel prices follow the production,
consumption relation, not only depending of the process, but on
the policies and issues resulting from increases in ination rates.
In Brazil, the prospect for the increase on the addition of
biodiesel to mineral diesel has already become a reality since up
3400
3300
Consumption of Biodiesel
Production of Biodiesel
Producer Price
490
Millions of liters
3100
3000
420
2900
2800
2700
350
2600
2500
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Year
Fig. 7. Perspectives of production, consumption and production costs of biodiesel until the year of 2022.
Source: OECD/FAO [133]
2022
Biofuel local currency/100 liters
3200
424
to July 30th of 2014 the mandatory blend was of 5% only, rising to

the actual 6% from July 1st, 2014 and to 7% from November 1st of
2014, according to the Provisional Measure no. 647 from May 28,
2014 sanctioned by the President of the Repubic Dilma Rouseff.
Such measures are established in order to meet the national
demand for biodiesel and to end the idle of the industrial park
of biodiesel, by the fact that in the year of 2013, 2.9 billion litters
were produced from 60 projects installed thorough the Brazilian
territory, which is equivalent to 37% of the capacity installed (7.8
billion of litters). The increase in the blends from the past 5% to the
actual 6% to the future 7% in November equals the range of only
55% of the installed capacity, what still would not exceed 4.3 billion
of litters produced per year [166].
Despite the raises of biodiesel/diesel blend for the following
years, in some national capitals the B20 (20% biodiesel with 80%
conventional diesel) is already a reality. In So Paulo, for example,
the called EcoFrota has more than 3070 buses using B20. In
Curitiba, capital of Paran, the public transport eet uses biodiesel
since 2009, and in 2011 a bus labeled Mega BRT was launched, and
it is 100% fueled with this renewable fuel [134].
For Pinto et al. [130], the future challenges related to biodiesel
fuel production include base subsidiaries policies to nance the
oilseed cultivation, price guarantee, infrastructure, transportation
logistics and technology segment. The need to develop new routes
of transesterication, to optimize the industry, standardize the
biodiesel, stabilize additives and ensure the absorption of glycerin
domestically produced through new uses for it is also emphasized.
Concerns about the future of biodiesel production also involves
the need to equate factors related to the assurance of investments
in industrial plants together with credit offer and technical
assistance for oilseed producers, especially for the small ones.
The need for investments in researches of new crops are also
highlighted, as well the improvement of the existing ones [135]. In
the north and northeast regions in the country, for example, it is
necessary to subsidize more this sector and to implement oilseed
productive systems with crops that come from within the region,
because the problem involves the lling of these sites with oilseed
grains because of the great distance from main country's
producing areas.
The Brazilian government incorporates part of the biodiesel
chain development challenge, given the considerable inefciency
of the PNPB's coordination and planning for the future and its
focus on the creation of jobs alone [108]. Azeredo et al. [135]
believe that biodiesel can notoriously contribute to the generation
of these jobs involving not only social, but strategic, economic and
environmental aspects. In medium-term this biofuel can also
become an important source for foreign exchanges to the country,
reducing Brazil's decit balance of payments, what consequently
decreases the imports of oil and in mineral diesel, as mentioned by
Parada et al. [136].
The increase of the Brazilian biodiesel production had already
been noticed on the rst months of the year 2014, reaching 7.8%.
After submitting to the mandatory addition of 6% blend of
biodiesel to the mineral diesel consumed in the country, this
increase raise to 12.3% compared to the same period in 2013
[137,151].
In aspects involving the national production progress, it is
emphasized that if the biodiesel become an international commodity, the country can establish itself, mainly due to the favorable natural conditions, as a strong producer.
8.1. The potential of biokerosene associated with biodiesel in Brazil
Knowing that the airline industry in Brazil has grown 10% per
year between 2003 and 2008, and a more signicant growth is
expected for the coming years, and that 40% of the operating costs
of airlines are related to fuel, it becomes a necessity to replace fossil

kerosene. Coupled to these factors, the global air transport sector
sets targets to reduce its CO2 emissions, since this booming sector is
already responsible for 3% of the total emissions of this gas [138].
Thus, the companies associated with the International Air
Transport Association undertake to increase the efciency of its
fuel use until 2020 in 1.5% per year and reduce in 50% their
emissions until 2050, based on the amount emitted in 2005.
Therefore, the search for alternative fuels that decrease greenhouse gases production and enable their use without requiring
changes in the infrastructure and distribution is stimulated
[139,140].
UNICAMP, Boeing, Embraer and FAPESP published the Flight
Plan for aviation biofuels in Brazil: plan of action, a publication
that is a result of eight workshops with the participation of over 30
stakeholders from private sector, government institutions, NGOs
and universities. It refers to a report that provides a foundation for
the implementation of a new biofuel sector that aims to replace
aviation fuel [141].
According to the Brazilian Biodiesel and Biokerosene Union
[134], the investments in the production of biodiesel from algae is
intrinsically related to its potential of use for the production of
biokerosene, stressing that several published studies have
reported the promising future of algae for this purpose. Some
Brazilian studies have described the possibility of the separation of
biodiesel esters in light and heavy fractions by vacuum distillation,
so that the lighter fraction could be used as a substitute of the
kerosene or diesel [142;143].
The production of biokerosene from vegetable oils such as
Jatropha and cotton was commonly performed through techniques
of thermal or catalytic cracking, which is totally different from the
transesterication reaction that leads to biodiesel [144]. Therefore,
this method does not allow the utilization of some subsidies
offered by the government for its production.
In this scenario, several innovations have been described in the
literature to increase the efciency of production and rening
processes, as well as alternative methods for obtaining these esters
[142,143]. According to the council of Ulbrabio [134], the aim is to
improve the production of biokerosene in conjunction with other
biofuels in general, highlighting the fact that there are no technological and much less social barriers related to the production of
biokerosene. It is noteworthy that this sector is already being
coupled with the industry of biodiesel production, what still lacks
is the addition of a new stage to the process and a decrease in
costs, even in those concerning the researches.
According to TECBIO [145], the Minister of Aviation, Dlio
Jardim de Matos authorized the researcher Expedito Jos de S
Parente, in 1980, to perform tests of biodiesel applicability in CTA
(Aeronautic's Techonologic Center), located in So Jorge dos
Campos, So Paulo. In this occasion, it was determined that
biokerosene would be used in aviation turbines and included to
the rst patent in this area together with the INPI (National
Institute of Industry Property), PI 8007957, regarding the use
of biodiesel fuel as a raw material [146].
Among the precursor subtracts of methyl and ethyl esters
(biodiesel) which parafnic chain are similar to the distillate cut
levels of the conventional jet fuel (fossil kerosene), are the animal
and vegetable oils and fats that have linear chains or branches
between 13 to 23 carbons. The biodiesel produced from these oils
presents factor 8 in kinematic viscosity reduction compared to
their precursors, and a 12% lower combustion heat. Thus, the
blends of these esters in jet fuels must be limited to 20% to avoid
technical problems of atomization, sludge formation and power
loss [147].
Currently, two processes for obtaining biokerosene are already
approved by the normative ASTM 7566 in limited proportions of
50%, which are the method of biomass gasication and subsequent

synthesis of parafnic kerosene through Fisher-Tropsch process,
and the method of hydroprocessing/hydrotreating/hydrocraking
and rening the triglycerides and fatty acids from vegetable and
animal oils and fats [148].
According to Brazil Agency [149], a claim of Brazilian biodiesel
producers was sent to the presidential palace this year through the
Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME). In this claim, these producers argue that they sustain a capacity of production that is much
higher than the actual demand. When considering the maximum
sales value, there is an average discount of 12.83% in the liter of the
biodiesel fuel, besides that, there is the entire environmental issue
that acts as a basis for claiming rights.
The estimated production of biodiesel in Brazil in 2013 was
around 3 billion liters until December, with a production capacity
of approximately seven billion liters, with soybean as the main
raw material used (it corresponds to 75%). According to ABIOVE
[150], from January to August of 2013 alone, Brazil had imported
7.2 billion liters of diesel, that is, even if the actual potential of
production in the country were used, there could be no way of
attending the decit of diesel in the Brazilian domestic market
[152].
In an international panorama, many international companies
have already made commercial ights using blends of biokerosene
and kerosene, with used frying oil as raw material, as, for example,
the Finnair, Finland, in an A321 aircraft; KLM, Netherlands, in an
B737 aircraft; Thomson Airways, United Kingdom, in a B757
aircraft; Air France, France, in a A321; Qantas, Australia, in a Jetstar
A330 and in a A320 [153].
The Union of the Bioenergy Producers [154] expects that until
2020 the goal of 14% of biodiesel on diesel blend (B14), will be met.
However, caution is needed in releasing the increase of the
content of biodiesel blend on diesel, and future projections for
the use of biodiesel to produce biokerosene are imminent and
tend to consume a portion of Brazil's biodiesel production. This
practices may have great impact in the economy in a near future,
tighten up to the biodiesel production sector already implemented
in the country and racing to the expansion of the biokerosene
sector.
Due to the growing demand for renewable jet fuel, the
materials currently used for the production of biodiesel fuel in
request of the Brazilian vehicle eet may be relocated to this new
market that is currently in expansion: the biokerosene.
9. Conclusion
The biodiesel is, for the Brazilian economy, a renewable and
effective alternative that aims to complement the national energy
mix and ensure security to the country, which reduces the impact
caused by the uctuations in the prices of oil exportations. In short
term, such security will have to conceive the supply for the total
energy demand which can reach 372 millions of tones of oils
equivalent (TOE), led by the transportation sector (railroads and
airlines).
Furthermore, despite of the fact that Brazil has the soybean as
the main responsible for its biodiesel production, it presents great
tracts of arable extensions and favorable climate. Such aspects
favor a wide range of oilseed crops that can supply the demand for
raw material for the production of fuel.
Concerning its social character, a large scale biodiesel production requires some regionalization, which enables a better use of
agriculture development and income generation through agribusiness and the creation of new jobs.
Because of its installed capacity and condition to obtain raw
materials, Brazil has great potential to increase the biodiesel
425
production on the following years, since a strong idle in the

capacity of the industrial park in producing biodiesel is still
noted, one that does not exceed 37% of the potential 7.8 billions
of litters. Thus, the increase of 7% from November/2014 in the
addition of biodiesel to mineral diesel to be consumed in Brazil
might increase the use of the installed capacity up to 55%. This
could make the country become a reference point in the production of biofuel.
In addition, the rampant development of the aeronautical
sector and the compromise of this sector to the reduction of the
emission of greenhouse gases may allocate part of the biodiesel
fuel for the production of another biofuel, the biokerosene.
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Brazil's Growing Biodiesel Industry

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Brazil's Growing Biodiesel Industry

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 415428

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Biodiesel production in Brazil: Current scenario and perspectives

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 44 9927 5099.

developing countries started seeking alternative energy sources, a

In this context, from economic, environmental and social points of

Fig. 2. Main raw materials used of the production of biodiesel in Brazil.

by-production that in general are cheaper compared to vegetable

2. Biodiesel fuel: denitions

University of Brussels when the referred researcher reported the

3. Vegetable oils in biodiesel production

Oil content (%)

Caprylic acid (C8:0)

Oil content (%)

context, Table 2 shows the prole of some fatty acids found in

4. Index of energy balance (IBE)

expenditure for production of 3 t of rapeseed per hectare planted

a great alternative due to its high production per hectare and

5. Second generation animal fatty material and microalgae

average of 15 kg of beef tallow per animal at disposal. Primarily,

Beef tallow Chicken fat Pork lard

Mutton fat Duck

According to Dias et al. [97], the absence of natural antioxidants

Oil content (%)

Source: Chisti [102].

Concerning the feasibility of producing biodiesel fuel from

6. Expansion and use of biodiesel in Brazil

Figs. 5 and 6 that the production of biodiesel fuel leap is linked to

7. Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel in Brazil

Compulsory annual demand for biodiesel

Source: MDIC [128].

In Brazil, the oilseed crops cultivation requires agricultural

There are many challenges faced by the Development Program

from fossil sources. Its use is explained by prevent secondary

8. Prospects and market challenges for biodiesel

Biofuel local currency/100 liters

to July 30th of 2014 the mandatory blend was of 5% only, rising to

of airlines are related to fuel, it becomes a necessity to replace fossil

50%, which are the method of biomass gasication and subsequent

production on the following years, since a strong idle in the

[124] Andrade AR, Cruz B, de PA. Competitividade da cadeia produtiva do biodiesel

[168] Sheehan J, Camobreco V, Dufeld J, Graboski M, Shapouri H. Life cycle

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