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Article history:
Received 18 June 2013
Received in revised form 11 December 2013
Accepted 12 December 2013
Available online 22 December 2013
Keywords:
Fish nutrition
Alternative feed
Insects meal
Fish meal
Amino acids
Fatty acid
a b s t r a c t
Due to the expansion of aquaculture and the limited resources available from the sea, it is necessary to nd
substitutes for sh meal for use in aquaculture. We believe that the use of insect meals as an alternative source
of animal protein may be an option. To use insects for this purpose, it is necessary to determine the nutritive
characteristics of these insects. To determinate the potential of insects as a substitute for sh meal in sh food
used in aquaculture, we examined 16 different species, 5 of them as different stage of development, of the orders
Coleoptera (4), Diptera (7) and Orthoptera (5). The insect analysed have a higher proportion of fat and less
protein than sh meal. With the exceptions of histidine, threonine and lysine, the insects present an amino
acid prole similar to sh meal, with Diptera b being the most similar group to sh meal. However, the fatty
acid content of insects is very different from that of sh meal which is rich in n-3, especially 14% EPA, 16%
DHA, practically absent in insects. The insects have higher ratios of omega 6 and monounsaturated fat.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Fish have been a key source of food for humans (Ayoola, 2010), but
the global catch of wild sh declined approximately 3% from 2004 to
2009 at a rate of 0.5% per year (FAO, 2010). Currently, aquaculture is
playing an essential role in the seafood market, meeting the demand
for sh that cannot be met with the wild catch. As a consequence, in
recent years (from 2004 to 2009), aquaculture production has grown
by 32%, a growth rate of approximately 5.6% per year (FAO, 2010).
Fishmeal is one of the major components of the feed used in aquaculture. It is generally added to animal diets to increase feed efciency
and animal growth through better feed palatability; it also enhances
the uptake, digestion, and absorption of nutrients (Mile and Chapman,
2006). It is estimated that approximately 30% of the total sh catch is
converted to sh meal and sh oil for use in animal and sh feeds
(Ogunji et al., 2006).
The percentage of sh meal that is used for aquaculture feeds has increased from 10% in 1988 to approximately 45% in 2002. The increasing
global demand for and decreasing availability of sh meal has led to
sharp increases in the price of sh meal, and hence, the cost of aquaculture production has increased as well (Ayoola, 2010). The price of
producing sh through aquaculture has risen from US $600/metric ton
194
Table 1
Order, stage of developement and origin of the species of insect analised.
Order
Scientic name
Stage
Abbreviation
Origin
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Phyllognathus excavatus
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Tenebrio mollitor
Zophoba morio
Calliphora vicina
Chrysomya megacephala
Chrysomya megacephala
Eristalis tenax
Hermetia illucens
Hermetia illucens
Lucilia sericata
Lucilia sericata
Musca domestica
Musca domestica
Protophormia terraenovae
Protophormia terraenovae
Acheta domestica
Anacridium aegyptium
Gryllus assimilis
Heteracris litoralis
Locusta migratoria
Adult
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae (L3)
Pupae
Larvae (L3)
Larvae (L5)
Pupae
Larvae (L3)
Pupae
Larvae (L3)
Pupae
Larvae (L3)
Pupae
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
PeA C
RfL C
TmL C
ZmL C
CvL D
CmL D
CmP D
EtL D
HiL D
HiP D
LsL D
LsP D
MdL D
MdP D
PtL D
PtP D
AdA O
AaA O
GaA O
HlA O
LmA O
Free-ranging
Free-ranging
Captivity*
Captivity*
Captivity*
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity**
Captivity*
Free-ranging
Captivity*
Free-ranging
Captivity*
195
The lipid levels in sh meal (8.2%) and soy meal (3.0%) are lower
than in insects. The lipid contents of most of the insects reached 20%.
The highest values were obtained for Locusta migratoria, Musca
domestica larvae and Tenebrio mollitor with 30% lipids and Zophoba
morio with 38.0% lipids.
These insects contain between 5 and 20% of nitrogen free extract
(NFE). Only three of the species had nitrogen free extracts above 35%.
NFE involve carbohydrates, sugars, starches, bre and chitin (primarily
a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide).
Regarding ash, sh meal contains a higher percentage (18.0%) than
insect meals (except for Hermetia pupae, 19.7%) or soybean meal.
The amino acid analyses are summarised in Table 3. In general, the
amino acid patterns were quite different among species.
The dendrogram in Fig. 1 illustrates the similarity of the essential
amino acid proles of the insects, sh meal and soybean meal. As
shown in Fig. 1, two major groups or cluster were formed; (1) sh
meal and Diptera, (2) Orthoptera, soybean meal and Coleoptera. Thus,
Diptera appears to be the most similar to sh meal in terms of its
amino acid composition, especially the larvae of Hermetia, Musca and
Eristalis, whereas Coleoptera is the most different from sh meal in
amino acid composition. Soybean meal is closer to Orthoptera in the
dendrogram. These results veried the relationship between similarity
in amino acid composition and insect taxonomy, as each order was
grouped into a different cluster.
Fig. 2 presents the signicant differences in the proportion of
essential amino acids among the three orders of insects, sh meal and
soybean meal for all essential amino acids. Relative to sh meal, the
insect meals are decient in the amino acids histidine, lysine and
threonine, but better in lysine methionine and tyrosine than soy meal.
Diptera shows a histidine, lysine and threonine proportion similar to
sh meal (Fig. 2 and Table 3). Diptera also has a similar proportion of
methionine and a higher proportion of phenylalanine compared to
sh meal and soy meal. However, Diptera exhibits a relative decit in
leucine that does not occur in Orthoptera or Coleoptera. The percentages of tyrosine and valine were higher in all analysed insects than in
sh meal.
These data reveal that Diptera has similar amino acids prole to sh
meal. Ortopthera and Coleoptera, although not so similar to sh meal,
have better amino acids prole than soy meal.
Table 2
Proximate analysis (% dry matter) of selected insects, sh meal and soybean meal.
Specie
Phyllognathus excavatus
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Tenebrio mollitor
Zophoba morio
Calliphora vicina
Chrysomya megacephala
Chrysomya megacephala
Eristalis tenax
Hermetia illucens
Hermetia illucens
Lucilia sericata
Lucilia sericata
Musca domestica
Musca domestica
Protophormia terraenovae
Protophormia terraenovae
Acheta domestica
Anacridium aegyptium
Gryllus assimilis
Heteracris littoralis
Locusta migratoria
Fish meal
Soybean meal
ASH %
PeA C
RfL C
TmL C
ZmL C
CvL D
CmL D
CmP D
EtL D
HiL D
HiP D
LsL D
LsP D
MdL D
MdP D
PtL D
PtP D
AdA O
AaA O
GaA O
HlA O
LmA O
FM
SM
7.8
6.6
3.5
2.5
8.0
7.2
6.1
13.9
9.3
19.7
4.9
4.9
6.5
8.4
3.9
8.8
5.6
3.7
4.8
5.1
4.0
18.0
7.8
EE %
0.2
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.9
0.2
1.5
2.9
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.0
15.9
11.8
30.1
38.0
20.1
27.0
16.5
5.8
18.0
15.6
28.4
26.6
31.3
33.7
28.3
23.6
15.9
17.6
23.2
8.8
29.9
8.2
3.0
Values are means SD of triplicate determinations. EECrude fat. CPCrude protein. NFENitrogen-free extract.
CP %
1.4
1.5
0.7
0.3
0.7
3.2
0.0
0.6
1.6
0.1
1.5
1.0
1.6
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
65.7
34.6
58.4
53.5
48.3
61.8
46.8
40.9
36.2
40.7
53.5
59.0
46.9
40.1
46.3
56.0
73.1
66.0
64.9
74.4
58.5
73.0
50.4
NFE %
1.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.1
0.9
0.3
0.4
4.4
1.5
4.1
0.4
0.6
2.0
3.3
5.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.8
0.2
10.6
47.0
8.0
6.0
23.6
4.0
30.6
39.4
36.5
24.0
13.2
9.5
15.3
17.8
21.5
11.6
5.4
12.7
7.0
11.7
7.6
0.8
38.8
0.1
1.3
0.2
1.1
0.1
3.4
1.1
1.1
1.0
0.7
4.6
0.1
4.0
0.3
0.1
2.2
0.3
4.8
0.3
1.0
0.1
0.7
0.3
196
Table 3
Amino acid (as a percentage of total amino acids) of selected insects, sh meal and
soybean meal.
Specie
ARG
HIS
ILE
LEU
LYS
MET
PHE
PRO
THR
TYR
VAL
PeA C
RfL C
TmL C
ZmL C
CvL D
CmL D
CmP D
EtL D
HiL D
HiP D
LsL D
LsP D
MdL D
MdP D
PtL D
PtP D
AdA O
AaA O
GaA O
HlA O
LmA O
FM
SM
5.76
4.82
6.14
5.72
8.57
7.83
8.99
7.69
8.24
8.05
8.84
7.67
6.83
8.76
7.49
7.71
8.53
9.63
9.23
7.93
7.58
7.42
8.03
4.19
3.62
3.64
3.87
5.02
5.08
5.20
4.22
5.29
5.16
5.12
5.18
4.68
5.17
5.48
5.35
2.93
4.04
3.03
2.69
2.98
7.86
3.28
5.71
5.85
5.87
6.36
5.09
4.85
5.23
6.16
5.76
5.34
5.05
5.10
4.89
5.20
5.20
5.08
5.31
5.16
5.05
5.34
5.27
5.04
5.47
7.59
6.63
8.65
8.25
6.69
6.89
6.96
7.62
6.87
6.83
6.43
6.96
6.75
6.57
6.29
6.77
8.69
7.28
8.06
8.88
8.31
7.81
8.01
6.34
6.18
6.03
5.82
7.99
8.53
7.87
8.45
7.60
7.31
7.66
7.91
8.36
7.57
8.23
7.89
6.16
5.73
6.46
6.01
6.33
8.78
6.34
1.42
0.45
0.64
0.76
2.16
2.22
2.76
2.37
1.50
3.26
3.36
3.08
3.00
3.44
2.30
2.55
1.49
2.36
1.10
1.02
0.54
2.93
1.01
4.17
5.81
4.29
5.00
7.12
7.17
6.73
6.64
6.88
6.22
7.42
7.02
7.01
6.86
8.10
7.15
4.23
5.00
4.10
3.63
3.84
5.38
5.79
5.80
7.38
7.17
5.62
4.71
4.56
4.76
5.06
6.16
5.56
4.95
4.83
5.33
5.37
4.91
4.98
5.84
7.21
6.20
6.75
7.46
4.76
4.99
4.10
4.00
4.49
4.33
4.86
4.51
5.02
5.02
5.39
4.95
5.38
4.60
4.87
5.28
4.78
4.83
4.10
4.49
4.11
3.90
4.28
6.26
4.17
4.26
9.84
4.18
6.28
6.36
6.68
6.02
5.21
6.35
7.14
6.64
6.29
5.79
5.91
7.43
7.10
4.91
5.75
4.31
4.51
4.48
3.91
2.93
7.15
6.69
7.61
7.55
5.93
5.77
6.14
6.52
6.31
6.34
5.88
6.03
6.08
6.08
5.99
6.05
6.99
6.64
6.60
7.48
7.01
5.56
5.45
larger; sh meal contains only 2.5% n-6, and soy meal 55,4%, whereas insects have a intermediate proportion, in some species reaching over
than 30% (e.g., Tenebrio mollitor, Gryllus assimilis and Acheta domestica).
Eristalis tenax is the only studied species that had a proportion (1.9%) of
n-6 similar to that of sh meal.
The variability of fatty acid proles among species (Fig. 3) was
greater than the variation in essential amino acids, with signicant
differences in only some fatty acids. The Orthoptera exhibited a higher
proportion of n-3, especially for ALA 18:3 n3. No differences between
groups for n-6 acids were observed except for the lower proportion of
linoleic acid (18:2 n6) in Diptera compared to Orthoptera.
The dendrogram (Fig. 4) illustrates the similarities of the fatty acid
compositions among insects, sh meal and soybean meal. The results
of the cluster analysis show several groups and the distances are higher
than the amino acids. Farthest group is composed of sh meal, Eristalis
tenax and Hermetia ilucens larvae. Soybean meal and the other insects
(Diptera, Coleoptera and Orthoptera) are mixed in more distanced
groups.
4. Discussion
The results obtained of nutrients composition of insect show
differences regarding shmeal and among species and/or stage.
4.1. Proximal composition
Fig. 1. Cluster analysis of amino acids similarity among insect species, sh meal and soybean meal.
197
Fig. 2. Differences between insect orders studied in the percentage of essential amino acids (using sh meal and soybean reference).
198
Table 4
Fatty acid content (as a percentage of total fatty acid) of selected insects, sh meal and soybean meal.
Specie
12:0
14:0
16:0
PeA C
RfL C
TmL C
ZmL C
CvL D
CmL D
CmP D
EtL D
HiL D
HiP D
LsL D
LsP D
MdL D
MdP D
PtL D
PtP D
AdA O
AaA O
GaA O
HlA O
LmA O
FM
SM
Mean
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.8 0.6
43.4 0.6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.1 1.3
S.D.
0
1.6 0.1
2.2 0.0
1.1 0.1
1.6 0.1
1.5 0.1
1.8 0.1
17.2 0.8
7.9 0.1
2.4 0.2
3.7 0.1
2.9 0.1
2.4 0.1
2.5 0.1
2.4 0.1
2.4 0.1
0.5 0.0
1.9 0.4
0.4 0.6
1.1 0.1
2.3 0.1
7.9 0.4
0
24.2
37.8
16.6
30.2
19.4
24.7
25.6
18.1
13.2
16.6
21.7
22.6
23.1
22.6
21.9
22.8
24.9
24.1
26.4
17.5
28.4
23.0
15.1
3.0
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.1
1.1
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
1.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
1.5
0.0
0.5
0.1
0.6
0.2
17:0
18:0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.4 0.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.5
3.2
3.4
7.6
7.6
9.7
8.1
1.7
2.8
43.5
2.5
3.3
7.2
4.9
2.8
1.4
8.8
4.4
7.2
9.2
5.8
5.3
4.8
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.8
0.1
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
16:1 n7
18:1 n7
18:1 n9
20:1 n9
18:2 n6
18:3 n6
20:4 n6
22:4 n6
2.0 0.0
4.2 0.1
2.2 0.0
1.0 0.0
12.8 0.1
5.4 0.3
7.5 0.5
45.4 0.3
2.3 0.1
2.2 0.0
19.3 0.4
17.3 0.1
15.1 0.8
15.4 0.7
11.0 0.1
10.4 0.2
0.9 0.0
1.4 0.1
1.7 0.0
0.9 0.2
2.5 0.1
7.9 0.3
0
0
0
0
0
2.6 0.0
0.7 0.1
0.6 0.1
0.3 0.4
0
30.4 0.1
0.3 0.0
0.5 0.0
0.3 0.1
0.3 0.1
0
0.2 0.3
0
0
0
0
0
4.0 0.7
0.8 0.0
55.1 0.5
40.3 0.1
43.6 0.1
34.7 0.4
24.9 0.1
24.6 0.2
27.1 0.1
4.6 0.1
14.6 0.3
0
35.3 0.5
36.5 0.4
37.1 0.7
38.3 1.4
33.8 0.0
33.0 0.6
20.4 0.1
37.4 0.9
25.8 0.4
26.8 0.1
45.3 0.6
8.4 0.1
14.3 0.3
0
0
0
0
0.4
0
0.3
0
0
0
0.2
0
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0
11.0 0.4
11.2 0.4
30.4 0.1
22.6 0.0
10.8 0.1
15.1 0.1
12.5 0.2
1.6 0.0
15.2 0.4
0
8.1 0.2
7.5 0.1
6.5 0.0
6.6 0.2
16.1 0.1
16.2 0.2
41.4 0.1
12.1 0.3
34.4 0.2
22.3 0.1
11.2 0.2
1.1 0.1
48.5 0.6
0
0
0
0
0.9
1.4
1.3
0
0
1.1
0
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12.5 0.2
12.0 0.4
9.3 0.1
0
0
0
0.7 0.1
2.7 0.1
0.4 0.0
0.4 0.1
2.8 0.1
2.6 0.1
0
0
0
0
0
1.4 0.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.7 0.0
0
0
0
0
Specie
18:3 n3
18:4 n3
20:5 n3
22:5 n3
22:6 n3
Other
PeA C
RfL C
TmL C
ZmL C
CvL D
CmL D
CmP D
EtL D
HiL D
HiP D
LsL D
LsP D
MdL D
MdP D
PtL D
PtP D
AdA O
AaA O
GaA O
HlA O
LmA O
FM
SM
0.9 0.1
1.9 0.1
1.1 0.0
1.4 0.0
0.2 0.3
0.6 0.0
0.5 0.0
0
0.7 0.1
0
0.4 0.0
0.3 0.0
0.3 0.0
0.3 0.0
0.8 0.0
0.8 0.0
1.8 0.0
17.9 0.4
1.8 0.0
19.4 0.1
4.7 0.1
0.2 0.3
6.9 0.2
0
0
0
0
1.3
0.4
0.7
0
0
0
0.2
0
0.1
0.2
1.1
0.8
0
0
0
0
0
1.9
0
0
0
0
0
1.4 0.0
1.3 0.1
1.5 0.1
0
0
0
0.1 0.0
0.4 0.0
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.8 0.0
0.9 0.0
0
0
0.7 0.1
0.4 0.0
0
14.1 0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0.7
0.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.7
0
0
0
0
0
0.4 0.0
0
0.2 0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16.1 0.1
0
1.5
0.1
0.6
1.6
2.9
2.3
3.0
6.5
0.1
0.6
7.8
6.0
7.2
8.5
6.3
8.3
1.3
1.0
1.0
2.7
0.1
6.0
5.6
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
species and stages have been studied. The results show that the prole
of amino acids is related to the taxonomic group (Fig. 1) and Diptera
are most similar, in terms of essential and limiting amino acids, to sh
meal (Fig. 2). This group has a similar proportion of methionine to sh
meal and higher values of histidine, lysine and threonine. Orthoptera
and Coleoptera have a higher proportion of leucine.
These results are consistent with several studies in which low levels
of methionine have been observed in Orthoptera (Bernard et al., 1997;
Finke, 2002, 2007) and Coleoptera (Cerda et al., 1999; Finke, 2002,
2007; Ramos-Elorduy et al., 2006) and high levels in Diptera (Newton
et al., 1977; Ogunji et al., 2006). Regarding lysine, the proportions
obtained for both Coleoptera and Orthoptera, 6%, are similar to those
described by Finke (2002, 2007). In Diptera, the lysine level obtained
in this work, 8%, coincided with the value previously reported by
Newton et al. (1977).
The proportions of arginine have been shown to be adequate for
Diptera and Orthoptera; however, the Coleoptera are in decit. These
results differ somewhat from earlier studies, which found that the
proportion of arginine in Orthopterans was approximately 7% (Finke,
2002, 2007) and those in Diptera (Newton et al., 1977; Ogunji et al.,
Satura.
2.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.6
1.1
1.2
0.2
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
1.9
0.1
0.0
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.8
28.7
42.5
22.2
38.8
28.5
35.9
35.4
41.7
67.1
65.8
27.8
28.8
32.6
30.0
27.1
26.6
34.2
30.3
34.0
27.7
36.4
36.1
24.0
3.0
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.2
1.2
0.6
1.4
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.1
1.1
0.2
1.6
0.1
1.7
0.6
0.6
0.1
1.1
1.9
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.4
Monoun.
-6
58.1
44.4
45.8
35.7
40.7
30.6
35.4
50.3
16.9
32.6
55.0
54.3
52.7
54.1
44.8
43.5
21.3
38.7
27.5
27.6
47.8
20.6
15.1
11.8
13.0
31.5
24.0
24.1
28.5
23.0
1.6
15.2
1.1
8.8
10.3
7.1
7.0
19.2
19.2
43.2
30.0
36.9
41.7
15.9
2.7
55.4
0.5
0.0
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.5
0.3
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
-3
Polyuns.
0
0
0
0
3.9 0.3
2.9 0.4
3.2 0.4
0
0.7 0.1
0
0.7 0.0
0.7 0.0
0.5 0.1
0.6 0.1
2.7 0.1
2.5 0.0
0
0
0.7 0.1
0.4 0.0
0
34.7 0.2
0
11.8
13.0
31.5
24.0
28.0
31.3
26.2
1.6
15.9
1.1
9.5
11.0
7.6
7.5
21.9
21.7
43.2
30.0
37.5
42.1
15.9
37.3
55.4
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.8
199
Fig. 3. Differences between insect orders studied in the percentage of fat acids (using sh meal and soybean reference).
megacephala and Calliphora vicina, which have between 1.3 and 1.5%
EPA, far lower proportions than sh meal, which contains up to 14 to
16% EPA.
The lack of EPA and DHA in insects is one of the most important
limitations to its use in seawater sh feed, since it involves a limit in
their inclusion in aquafeed.
Nevetheless there are evidences that the fatty acid proles of insects
most likely reect the fatty acid composition of their food. In wild
Hetteracris Littoralis and Anacridium aegyptium individuals that
consume plants in the eld have a high amount of a-linolenic acid
(ALA, 18:3 n3), a precursor of the n-3 series, whereas three other
species of orthopterans, bred in captivity and fed only with our and
bran cereals, present with lower ALA, 18:3 n3. Finke (2002) has
achieved FA proles virtually identical to those obtained in this work
in Zophoba morio and Tenebrio mollitor, species bred in captivity. The
fatty acid content of Locusta migratoria determined in this experiment
is very different from that obtained by Beenakkers and Scheres
(1971), who measured 26% oleic acid (18:1 n9) and 21% ALA
(18:3 n3), whereas the results of this experiment show 45% oleic acid
and 5% ALA. These differences could be related to diet; Locusta used
in this experiment are from pet stores, whereas in the work of
Beenakkers and Scheres (1971), Locusta were provided with a diet of
reed, endive, or pear (supplemented with some reed). In addition,
these authors obtained a fair correlation between the percentages on
oleic and linoleic acid in the tri- and diglycerides of both diet and
body fat. These results indicate that lipid quality could be manipulated
by feeding, which amplies the nutritive values of insects meal. On
the other hand in this work we have not sampled any aquatic insect.
Freshwater insects have a high proportion of EPA because they ingest
freshwater algae, which generally contain ALA. EPA levels above 15%
as have been observed by Bell et al. (1994).
The data obtained in this experiment agree with Justi et al. (2003):
fatty acids content of insects is more dependent on diet, in contrast
with amino acids, more related to the taxon.
Fig. 4. Cluster analysis of fatty acids similarity among insect species, sh meal and soybean meal.
200
The comparison with sh meal and soy meal reveals lower levels of
n-3 and n-6 in insect meal.
Finally, it is interesting to note the following considerations:
The utilisation of insects has other advantages that cannot be ignored; insects do not compete with human resource and can be
reared on by-products or human waste as efcient biotransformers
to convert abundant low-cost organic wastes into animal biomass
that is rich in proteins and suitable for use in animal nutrition
(Ramos-Elorduy, 1999, 2005). Regarding soybean production,
which is largely oriented toward animal feed, insects require fewer
natural resources (i.e., land, water, fertiliser) than soybean, the
production of which could compete with human food production.
The current aquaculture production system, supported by sh meal,
is clearly unsustainable. As reported by the FAO (2010), capture
sheries have been rather stagnant or even declining in some
countries, particularly sheries of wild marine sh stocks; 3% are
under-exploited, 12% are moderately exploited, 53% are fully
exploited, 28% are over-exploited, 3% are depleted and 1% is recovering from depletion. This situation, together with the increase in
demand for sh, indicates that sh meal will become a more limiting
ingredient in both production and price. Therefore, it is essential to
obtain potential alternatives.
5. Conclusion
The data obtained in this work indicate an adequate nutritional composition of the insect meals evaluated, for inclusion in sh food. The
great variety of insect species, habitats, development stages, feeding
habits and other characteristics most likely affects insect nutritional
value and makes insect meal very interesting to study as an alternative
to sh meal.
Although insects generally present some characteristics that do not
match with the sh meal, the amino acid prole of the Diptera shows
that this group of insects could be a possible alternative protein source
to be used in aquaculture. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to
know the digestibility, chitin content and digestive effect, presence of
toxic, meal treatments (such as degreasing), adequate mixtures of different insect species or to modify the nutritional value of insects by
changing their diet or rearing condition. Insects can potentially play a
fundamental role in animal nutrition, so further studies are required
on their nutritional value in the context of their use in animal feed.
Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to the Consejera de Innovacin y
Ciencia, Junta de Andaluca (project AGR5273), Fondos Europeos de
Desarrollo Regional (FEDER Funds) and Campus de Excelencia
Internacional Agroalimentario y del Mar, Ministerio de Educacin,
by nancial support. The authors are thankful to Bioytech
(www.bioytech.com) for y samples (Diptera) analyzed in this
paper.
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