Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

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Hydrometallurgy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hydromet

Sodium stannate preparation from stannic oxide by a novel soda

roastingleaching process
Yuanbo Zhang, Zijian Su, Bingbing Liu, Zhixiong You , Guang Yang, Guanghui Li, Tao Jiang
School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 25 August 2013
Received in revised form 28 February 2014
Accepted 7 March 2014
Available online 27 March 2014
Keywords:
Sodium stannate
Soda roasting
Leaching
Sodium carbonate

a b s t r a c t
Sodium stannate is widely used in the electroplating and tin alloy industries. The traditional sodium stannate production processes suffer a variety of disadvantages including long owsheet, high production cost and strict requirements for the equipment. In this study, a novel process for preparing sodium stannate is developed by
roasting tin dioxide and sodium carbonate in CO/CO2 mixed gas followed by leaching the intermediate products
in a diluted sodium hydroxide solution. The effects of roasting and leaching parameters on the leaching efciency
of Sn were investigated. The Sn leaching efciency reaches 85.6% under the optimal experimental conditions:
roasting temperature of 875 C, CO content of 15%, roasting time of 15 min, Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio of 1.5,
liquid-to-solid ratio of 4 cm3/g, leaching temperature of 40 C, leaching time of 60 min, and stirring speed of
300 rpm. Sodium stannate trihydrate (Na2SnO3 3H2O) having a purity of 95.8% is successfully produced from
cassiterite concentrates with a SnO2 content of 76.4% through the new process, which is superior to the traditional approach for producing the industrial rst-grade stannate.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Sodium stannate trihydrate (Na2SnO3 3H2O) is a raw material
widely used in the electroplating (Vitkin, 1951), tin alloy production
(Barry and Thwaites, 1983; Wright, 1982) and catalysts for organic
synthesis (Soler et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2011). Recently, the demand
for sodium stannate has grown rapidly because the conventional
ame retardant (Sb2O3) is gradually replaced by stannates (such as
magnesium/zinc stannate) (Horrocks et al., 2012; Huang, 2000;
Rashad and El-Shall, 2008), which are generally prepared from sodium
stannate through hydrometallurgical processes (Huang et al., 2004;
Wang et al., 2010). Hence, much effort has been spent developing an
economical and efcient method for the production of highly pure sodium stannate.
Sodium stannate, as reported, has readily been generated by hydrothermal reactions in concentrated sodium hydroxide solutions using tin
as the raw material. Sodium nitrate (Horn, 1978; Mciyhenney, 1929) or
hydrogen peroxide must be used as an oxidant during the process (Su
and Tang, 2012). Sodium stannate of acceptable quality can be obtained
after ltration, purication and crystallization (Read and Marvel, 1928).
However, this process has a few drawbacks, such as high production

Corresponding authors at: Biology Building, No. 320, School of Minerals Processing &
Bioengineering, Central South University, 410083 Changsha, Hunan, China. Tel.: +86
731 88877656; fax: +86 731 88830542.
E-mail addresses: zybcsu@126.com (Y. Zhang), yzx445474096@126.com (Z. You),
jiangtao@csu.edu.cn (T. Jiang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.03.008
0304-386X/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

cost and long process ow, because metallic tin must be rst produced
by reduction smelting at high temperatures. A further disadvantage of
the process is the emission of noxious gasses (NO2 or NH3), resulting
in serious air pollution.
Several attempts were made to prepare sodium stannate using cassiterite concentrates as raw materials (Wang and Pu, 1987; Wright,
1982). In this process, the preprocessed cassiterite concentrates react
with fused sodium hydroxide in an electric arc furnace, forming primary
sodium stannate melts at high temperatures (generally higher than
800 C). Then, the melts undergo cooling, crushing, leaching, purifying,
ltering, crystallizing, drying, etc., before the highly puried sodium
stannate is obtained (Little, 1930). However, excess sodium hydroxide
used in this process causes severe equipment corrosion and environmental pollution.
Some secondary tin-containing resources, including tin plating slag,
stanniferous alloy, steel scrap and electronic waste, have also been used
for preparing sodium stannate (Barakat, 1998; Jha et al., 2012; Jun et al.,
2004; Kkesi et al., 2000; Rimaszeki et al., 2012). However, multiple
metallic elements, such as Cu, Pb, Sn, Ni, Fe, Zn and Pd, are commonly
present in these materials, making it difcult to purify the products
and remove these harmful elements (Deren, 1979; Zhang and Qiu,
2008).
In most cases, cassiterite concentrates seldom react with sodium
carbonate under air atmosphere (Sun and Li, 1994). As a result, tungsten
and tin can be separated from tin-bearing tungsten concentrates by
roasting the material with sodium carbonate in air (Martins, 1996;
Martins and Martins, 1997). On the contrary, it was reported that the

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

gas-sensitivity of stannic oxide may vary substantially after being treated by the reducing gasses (CO, H2, CH4, etc.) (Hyodo et al., 2002; Sergent
and Glin, 2003).
Based on the above analysis, an exploratory experiment on the preparation of sodium stannate from cassiterite concentrates and sodium
carbonate by controlling the roasting atmosphere has been carried
out. The application of sodium carbonate was designed to replace sodium hydroxide, aiming at reducing the production cost and the security
risks for the present sodium stannate production processes. It has
showed that in a weakly reducing atmosphere stannic oxide reacted
with sodium carbonate, forming sodium stannate (Zhang et al., 2012).
Then, high-purity sodium stannate was obtained by leaching the
roasted products with a very diluted sodium hydroxide solution.
In the present work, high-quality sodium stannate is prepared by reduction roasting of chemically pure tin dioxide and sodium carbonate
under CO/CO2 atmosphere followed by diluted sodium hydroxide
leaching. The effects of the roasting and leaching parameters on the
leaching efciency of Sn were also investigated.
2. Experimental

83

Stannic oxide Sodium carbonate

Mixing
Briquetting
Drying
CO/CO2 mixed gas

Roasting
Grinding

Dilute sodium hydroxide solution

Leaching
Filtrating
Residue

Filtrate
Evaporating and crystallizing

2.1. Materials
Stannic oxide and sodium carbonate used in the study were analytical grade reagents with more than 99.5% purity.
The cassiterite concentrates used were taken from Yunnan, China.
They were roasted at 900 C for 120 min in advance and then leached
with 25% HCl to remove the main impurity elements, including Fe, As,
S, Pb, and Sb. It was found that cassiterite (SnO2) seldom reacted with
gangue during the roasting and was insoluble in hydrochloric acid (Li
and Wei, 1996; Song, 2011; Wright, 1982). The chemical compositions
of the original and pretreated cassiterite concentrates are given in
Table 1.
The tested samples were pre-ground to a particle size passing
through a 200 mesh screen (b0.074 mm). The gasses used for roasting,
including CO, CO2 and N2, were more than 99.99% pure.

Filtrating
Filtrate
Distilled water

Dissolution
Recrystallization
Drying
Grinding
Sodium stannatetri hydrate

2.2. Methods
The experimental owsheet is shown in Fig. 1. Stannic oxide and sodium carbonate were rst mixed in a certain mole ratio. About 5.0 g
mixture with 10% moisture was agglomerated to be a cylindric briquette, 10 mm in diameter under the pressure of 10 MPa to avoid blowing away the powder samples by the airow. The green briquettes were
dried in a drying oven at 105 C for 4 h. Then, the experiments were carried out based on the procedures of roasting, leaching and sodium
stannate preparation.
2.2.1. Roasting process
The dried briquettes were placed in a porcelain crucible and loaded
into a heat resistant quartz glass tube. The samples were pushed to the
roasting zone in an electrically heated horizontal tube furnace. Beforehand, the furnace was heated to a preset temperature. The roasting temperature was measured with a PtRh thermocouple and controlled using
a KSY Intelligent Temperature Controller (accuracy 5 C). The experimental schematic diagram is illustrated in Fig. 2. Pure N2 was directed to
the quartz tube until the temperature reached a constant value. Next the
N2 was immediately replaced by the mixed CO/CO2 gas. The content of

Table 1
Chemical compositions of the original and pretreated cassiterite concentrates (wt.%).

Raw material
Pretreated

Primary sodium stannate

Sn

Fe

SiO2

CaO

Al2O3

Zn

As

Pb

42.92
62.93

8.86
0.11

8.31
7.84

6.70
0.17

5.11
0.04

1.16
0.28

1.21
0.02

0.50
0.03

0.38
0.03

Fig. 1. The experimental owsheet.

CO in the CO/CO2 mixture was adjusted by controlling the owmeters.

The inlet gas ow was xed at 4.0 dm3/min. After being roasted at
given temperatures for certain time periods, the briquettes underwent
a reverse ow cooling, contrary to the direction from the entrance of
the tube furnace. The roasted briquettes were cooled to room temperature in pure N2 atmosphere, and then discharged from the quartz tube
followed by precise weighing and grinding until all particles passed
through a 0.074 mm sieve. A computerized X-ray diffraction equipment
(XRD, D/max 2550PC, Japan Rigaku Co., Ltd.) was used to determine
phase compositions of the roasted products.
The preliminary research indicated that sodium stannate was generated during the roasting. It is inferred that the major chemical reaction
involved in the roasting process is expressed as follows:
Na2 CO3 SnO2 Na2 SnO3 CO2 :

2.2.2. Leaching process

In each leaching test, 10.0 g of the ground roasted products was put
into a beaker and leached with a highly-diluted sodium hydroxide
solution in a water bath. Next, the leaching solution was ltered and
prepared for the determination of Sn concentration using ICP-AES
(ICP-AES, PS-6, American Baird Co., Ltd.).
Sodium stannate is water-soluble, while tin oxide or metallic tin is
insoluble (Huang, 2000). Thus, it is possible to separate sodium stannate

84

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the equipment for roasting.

from the roasted products by water leaching. The possible chemical reaction during the leaching process is (Choi et al., 2013):

3.1. Roasting process

2

However, during the process the hydrolysis of sodium stannate may

take place (Sby et al., 2001):
2

SnO3 2H2 O H2 SnO3 2OH :

Generally, a leaching solvent with a pH greater than 10.0 is preferred

for the prevention of stannate hydrolysis (Huang, 2007). As a result, in
all of the leaching tests, the pH value of the leaching solvent was
tuned to 12.0 by adding a sufcient amount of sodium hydroxide.
2.2.3. Crystallization process
After leaching, the ltrate was put into a beaker and heated in a
water bath. After water evaporation, the ltrate was concentrated and
the primary sodium stannate was separated by crystallization and ltration. Then, the primary products were redissolved in distilled water and
the above process was repeated twice. Finally, the recrystallized products were obtained.
The recrystallized products were dried in a drying oven at 110 C for
6 h, and then the nal products were obtained after being ground to a
particle size passing through the 0.074 mm sieve. XRD and ICP-AES
analyses were used to characterize the nal products.
2.3. Evaluation index
The conversion efciency of the tin oxide into the form of leachable
stannate is indicated by the leaching efciency of Sn, which is calculated
according to the following equation:
CV
4
 10

m0

The effects of roasting parameters including CO content, Na2CO3/SnO2

(mole ratio), roasting temperature and roasting time on the conversion
efciency of the tin oxide into the leachable stannate form, indicated by
the leaching efciency of Sn, are examined. The leaching conditions
were xed as follows: liquid-to-solid ratio of 4 cm3/g, leaching temperature of 40 C, leaching time of 45 min and stirring rate of 300 rpm.

3.1.1. Effect of CO content

CO content refers to the CO volume concentration in the COCO2
mixed gas (i.e., CO / (CO + CO2)). The effect of CO content on the
leaching efciency of Sn is shown in Fig. 3.
As observed from Fig. 3, the Sn leaching efciency is considerably enhanced from 12.9% to 85.6% with the increase of CO content from 0% to
15%. The efciency then remains approximately constant when the CO
content further increases to 20%. However, the Sn leaching efciency
decreases to 82.1% and 68.3% when the CO content is further increased

100

Leaching efficiency /%




2
Na2 SnO3 s 3H2 O Na2 SnOH6 aq 2Na SnOH6 :

3. Results and discussion

80

60

40

20

where is the leaching efciency of Sn (%), m0 is the weight of the

roasted sample (g), is the Sn grade of the roasted sample (%), C is
the mass concentration of Sn in the leach liquor (g/dm3), and V is the
volume of the leaching solution (dm3).

10

15

20

25

30

CO content /%
Fig. 3. Effect of the CO content on the leaching efciency of Sn (roasting at 875 C for
45 min with the Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio at 1.50).

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

CO 30%

CO 25%
a

aa
cd d c

Intensity

a a a d d a aa

a dd

a a
a d d a aa

a a
a

a aa

a a

a aa

ab

a a

a aa

a a

a aa

aa
c bc

aa

CO 15%
c

CO 12.5%
b
a

CO 10% b

20

a dd c c

aa
c

10

aa
cd d c

CO 20%

a CO 0%

85

aa
b
c c
c
b
c
c c a
30

c c

c c

40

ab
b

ab

50

60

bb
70

2theta/o
Fig. 4. XRD patterns of the products roasted at different CO contents (roasting at 875 C for 45 min with the Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio at 1.50) (a Na2SnO3, b SnO2, c Na2CO3, d Sn).

to 25% and 30%, respectively. Hence, the CO content of 15% is recommended for the subsequent experiments.
Fig. 4 illustrates the XRD patterns of the samples roasted at the CO
contents of 0%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. It can be seen that
there are diffraction peaks of sodium stannate (Na2SnO3) in all of the
XRD patterns, indicating that sodium stannate was readily formed during the roasting process. At the lower CO content of 012.5%, most of
SnO2 remains inert to sodium carbonate, which explains why only
weak diffraction peaks of stannic oxide (SnO2) can be observed in the
XRD patterns. The diffraction peaks of stannic oxide disappear gradually
with increasing CO content from 12.5% to 15%. Note that the diffraction
peaks of sodium carbonate are still present in the XRD patterns. This
phenomenon may be associated with excessive addition of the
carbonate.
It is noteworthy to mention that the diffraction peaks of metallic tin
appear when the CO content exceeds 25%. It indicates that a small

88

amount of stannic oxide is reduced to metallic tin when the CO content

is higher than 20% (Huang, 2007). The reaction can be given as:
SnO2 2CO Sn 2CO2 :

The inuence of CO/CO2 atmosphere on the mechanism of reaction

between tin oxide and sodium carbonate is ongoing and further ndings
will be reported.

3.1.2. Effect of Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio

The effect of Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio on the leaching efciency of Sn
is shown in Fig. 5. It indicates that the leaching efciency of Sn increases
rapidly until it tends to be balanced at the Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio
higher than 1.50. Thus, Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio of 1.50 is the most favorable value.

86

100

84

Leaching efficiency/%

Leaching efficiency/%

82
80
78
76
74
72

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

Na2CO3/SnO2 (mole rate)

Fig. 5. Effect of Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio on the leaching efciency of Sn (roasting at 875 C
for 45 min with 15% CO content).

80

60

40

20

0
750

800

850

900

950

1000

Roasting temperature/C
Fig. 6. Effect of roasting temperature on the leaching efciency of Sn (roasting for 45 min
with 15% CO content and Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio of 1.50).

86

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

88

90

86

Leaching efficiency/%

Leaching efficiency/%

85
80
75
70
65
60

84
82
80
78
76
74
72

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Liquid-to-solid ratio /

Roasting time/min

(cm3/g)

Fig. 7. Effect of roasting time on leaching efciency of Sn (roasting at 875 C with 15% CO
content and Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio of 1.50).

Fig. 9. Effect of liquid-to-solid ratio on the leaching efciency of Sn (leaching temperature

at 40 C, leaching time of 45 min and stirring rate at 300 rpm).

3.1.3. Effect of roasting temperature

Fig. 6 describes the effect of roasting temperature on the Sn leaching
efciency. As shown in Fig. 6, roasting temperature has a signicant impact on the reaction between stannic oxide and sodium carbonate. The
leaching efciency of Sn increases sharply from 1.5% to 85.6% as the
roasting temperature increases from 775 C to 875 C. When the
roasting temperature further increases to 1000 C, the Sn leaching efciency increases to 97.9%, but the increase of the Sn leaching efciency
becomes slow as the roasting temperature further goes up. Generally,
melted sodium carbonate is inclined to volatilize (the melting point of
Na2CO3 is 851 C), resulting in equipment corrosion at higher temperatures (Hara et al., 1997; Knutsson et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013). Therefore,
875 C is selected to be the suitable roasting temperature.

Sn leaching efciency stays almost unchanged. Consequently, a

roasting time of 15 min is chosen for the roasting process.

3.1.4. Effect of roasting time

To optimize the roasting time required for the reaction, the experiments were carried out in the range of 1045 min. The results plotted
in Fig. 7 show that the reaction between stannic oxide and sodium carbonate is rapid. A Sn leaching efciency of 65.3% is achieved when the
roasting time is only 10 min. As the roasting time is extended
to 15 min, the leaching efciency increases remarkably up to
85.6%. When the roasting time is further prolonged to 15 min, the

3.2. Leaching process

The effects of leaching temperature, liquid-to-solid ratio, leaching
time and stirring rate on the Sn leaching efciency were studied to determine the conversion efciency of tin oxide into the soluble stannate.
The roasting conditions were selected according to the optimal parameters mentioned above: roasting temperature of 875 C, CO content of
15%, roasting time of 15 min and Na2CO3/SnO2 mole ratio of 1.50. The
pH value of the leaching solvent was xed at 12.0 in all of the leaching
tests.
3.2.1. Effect of leaching temperature
A temperature range of 3060 C was chosen to study the effect of
leaching temperature on the Sn leaching efciency. As can be seen
from Fig. 8, the leaching efciency of Sn increases from 75.0% to 85.6%
when the leaching temperature goes up from 30 C to 40 C. By further
increasing the leaching temperature, the leaching efciency of Sn is
nearly unchanged. Therefore, 40 C is considered to be the optimal
leaching temperature.

90

88

Leaching efficiency /%

Leaching efficiency/%

86
84
82
80
78
76

85

80

75

70

74
72

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Leaching temperature/C
Fig. 8. Effect of leaching temperature on the leaching efciency of Sn (liquid-to-solid ratio
at 4 cm3/g, leaching time of 45 min and stirring rate at 300 rpm).

65
100

200

300

400

500

Stirring rate (r/min)

Fig. 10. Effect of stirring rate on the leaching efciency of Sn (leaching temperature at
40 C, liquid-to-solid ratio at 4 cm3/g and leaching time of 45 min).

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

90

3.2.4. Effect of leaching time

The effect of leaching time on leaching efciency of Sn was studied
by varying it in the range of 15 to 75 min. The leaching efciency of Sn
presented in Fig. 11, increases dramatically with increasing leaching
time from 15 min to 45 min and then remains constant. Thus, the suitable leaching time is 45 min.

85

Leaching efficiency /%

87

80
75
70

3.3. Sodium stannate preparation from cassiterite concentrates by the new

process

65
60
55
50
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Leaching time/min
Fig. 11. Effect of leaching time on the leaching efciency of Sn (liquid-to-solid ratio at
4 cm3/g, leaching temperature at 40 C and stirring rate at 300 rpm).

3.2.2. Effect of liquid-to-solid ratio

The effect of liquid-to-solid ratio on the leaching efciency of Sn was
investigated by varying the value from 2 to 6 cm3/g. As shown in Fig. 9,
the leaching efciency of Sn remains constant when the liquid-to-solid
ratio exceeds 4 cm3/g. Thus, the suitable liquid-to-solid ratio is 4 cm3/g.

3.2.3. Effect of stirring rate

Fig. 10 demonstrates the effect of stirring rate on the leaching efciency of Sn. It can be seen that the leaching efciency of Sn remains unchanged when the stirring rate exceeds 300 rpm. Hence, a stirring rate
at 300 rpm is recommended.

In further experiments, the cassiterite concentrate was used to replace

chemically pure stannic oxide for producing sodium stannate. The
pretreated cassiterite concentrate and sodium carbonate were roasted
and leached under the aforementioned optimal roasting and leaching
conditions. Pure sodium stannate trihydrate (Na2SnO3 3H2O) was prepared from the leaching solution according to the methods described
in Section 2.2.
As presented in Table 2, the content of Sn in the nal product is 42.6%
equivalent to 95.8% of Na2SnO3 3H2O. The contents of impurities meet
the requirements of the industrial rst-grade product (GB/T, 2010).
The XRD pattern of the crystallized product is presented in Fig. 12. It
indicates that Na2SnO3 3H2O is the main phase of the product.

4. Conclusions
A novel process for preparing sodium stannate from stannic oxide
and sodium carbonate is developed in this study by roasting the materials in CO/CO2 mixed gas followed by leaching the intermediates in a
diluted sodium hydroxide solution. The leaching efciency of Sn reaches
85.6% under the optimal experimental conditions: roasting temperature
of 875 C, CO content of 15%, roasting time of 15 min, Na2CO3/SnO2

Table 2
The content of Sn and the impurities in the product (wt.%).
Pb

Sb

As

Fe

NaOH

NO
3

Undissolved

42
42.6

0.002
0.001

0.0025
0.0012

0.0010
0.0005

0.01
0.002

3.5
0.014

0.1
0.001

0.1
0.07

Intensity

First-grade product standard

Final product

Sn

10

20

30

40

50

60

2-Theta/o
Fig. 12. XRD pattern of the crystallized product (C Na2SnO3 3H2O).

70

80

88

Y. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 146 (2014) 8288

mole ratio of 1.5, liquid-to-solid ratio of 4 cm3/g, leaching temperature

of 40 C, leaching time of 60 min and stirring rate of 300 rpm.
By using cassiterite concentrate as the raw material for the new soda
roastingleaching process, the trihydrate sodium stannate (Na2SnO3
3H2O) product obtained is 95.8% pure, which meets the requirements
of the industrial rst-grade product. The work provides an effective
and environmentally friendly approach to produce sodium stannate
from cassiterite concentrate and sodium carbonate.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (No. 50725416) for the nancial support of this research and language editing assistance from
Dr. Zhiwei Peng in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Michigan Technological University, USA, and Dr. Yangjun Cai in
Pennsylvania State University, USA.
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