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RICHARD J. GOLDFARB,
U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046, MS 964, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225-0046, and
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, 2200 Colorado A ve., Campus Box 399, Boulder, Colorado 80309
AND JEREMY
P. R ICHARDS
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3
Abstract
Thermal decay of Earth resulted in decreased mantle-plume intensity and temperature and consequently a
gradual reduction of abundant komatiitic basalt ocean plateaus at ~2.6 Ga. In the Neoarchean, ocean crust was
~11 km thick at spreading centers, and abundant bimodal arc basalt-dacite magmatic edifices were constructed
at convergent margins. Neoarchean greenstone belt orogenesis stemmed from multiple terrane accretion in
Cordilleran-style external orogens with multiple sutures, where oceanic plateaus captured arcs by jamming
subduction zones, and plateau crust melted to generate high thorium tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite suites.
Archean cratons have a distinctive ~250- to 350-km-thick continental lithospheric mantle keel with buoyant refractory properties, resulting from coupling of the buoyant residue of deep plume melting to imbricated
plateau-arc crust. In contrast, Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle is <150 km thick,
denser, and less refractory and therefore easily reworked in younger orogens. The supercontinent cycle has operated since ~2.8 Ga: Kenorland assembled at ~2.7 Ga, Columbia ~1.8 Ga, Rodinia ~1 Ga, and Pangea ~0.3
Ga. Dispersal may have been triggered by superplumes.
Komatiite-hosted Ni deposits are related to plumes, where sulfide saturation resulted from crustal contamination. Base metal-rich volcanic rock-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits accumulated on thinned, fractured lithosphere within extensional oceanic suprasubduction environments, or back arcs, which were intruded
by anomalously hot subvolcanic sills; hence, their abundance in the Superior province of Canada (thick continental lithosphere), contrasting with few in the Y ilgarn craton of Australia (thick lithosphere). Orogenic gold
deposits formed in sutures between accreted terranes associated with assembly of Kenorland. Diamonds were
created by reaction of carbonate-rich asthenospheric liquids with continental lithospheric mantle at >240-km
depth, mostly pre-2.7 Ga. They were entrained in kimberlitic to lamproitic melts related to superplume events
at 480, 280, and ~100 Ma. Preservation of resulting mineral provinces stems from their location on stable
Archean continental lithospheric mantle.
Decreased plume activity after 2.6 Ga caused sea level to fall, leading to the first extensive passive-margin
sequences, including deposition of phosphorites, iron formations, and hydrocarbons, during dispersal of
Kenorland from 2.4 to 2.2 Ga. Deposits of Cr -Ni-Cu-PGE were generated where plumes impinged on failed
rifts at the transition from thick Archean to thinner Proterozoic continental lithospheric mantle, e.g., the Great
Dyke, Zimbabwe, and later at Norilsk, Russia. Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts, for example, the Trans-Hudson
orogen in North America and the Barramundi orogen in Australia, welded together the new continent of Columbia. Foreland basins associated with these orogens, containing reductants (graphitic schists) in the basement, led to the formation of unconformity U deposits, with multiple stages of mineralization generated from
diagenetic brines for as much as 600 m.y. after sedimentation. Plume dispersal of Columbia at 1.6 to 1.4 Ga led
to SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits in intracontinental rifts of North America and Australia, extensive belts of Rapakivi
A-type granites on all continents, with associated Sn veins, and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. All were controlled by rifts at the transition from thick to thin continental lithospheric mantle. Plume impingement on Rodinia at ~1 Ga formed extensive belts of anorogenic anorthosites and Rapakivi granites in Laurentia and
Baltica, the former hosting Fe-Ti-V deposits. Sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits formed in intracontinental
basins from plume dispersal of Rodinia at ~800 Ma.
Iron formations and mantle plumes have common time series: Algoman type occur from 3.8 Ga to 40 Ma,
granular iron formations precipitated on the passive margins of Kenorland at ~2.4 Ga, Superior -type formed
on the passive margins of Laurentia, and Rapitan iron formations were created in rifts during latter stages of
dispersal of Rodinia at ~700 Ma. Accordingly, such deposits are not proxies for the activity of atmospheric O 2.
Rich Tertiary placer deposits of Ti-Zr-Hf, located on the passive margins of Australia and Southern Africa, reflect multiple cannibalistic cycles from orogens that welded Rodinia and Pangea.
Orogenic Au deposits formed during Cordilleran-type orogens characterized by clockwise pressure-temperature-time paths from ~2.7 Ga to the Tertiary; Au-As-W and Hg-Sb deposits reflect the same ore fluids at progressively shallower levels of terrane sutures. The MVT -type Pb-Zn deposits formed in foreland basins, with
Corresponding
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KERRICH ET AL.
Phanerozoic Pb-Zn SEDEX ores localized in rifted passive continental margins containing evaporites at low
latitudes. Porphyry Cu and epithermal Au-Ag deposits occur in both intraoceanic and continental margin arcs;
ore fluids were related to slab dehydration, peridotite fusion, and hybridization with upper -plate crust. Deposits exposed today are largely <200 m.y .-old, given their low preservation potential in topographically elevated ranges.
for; and (4) extrapolation to the Precambrian met with uncertainties as to tectonic processes during that era. W
indley
Lindgren (1933) pioneered the concepts of both metallo(1995) compiled a concise list of metallic and nonmetallic regenic provinces and epochs. In the Economic Geology Fifti- sources for each era, documenting their geodynamic and geeth Anniversary Volume, Turneaure (1955) synthesized global ologic settings.
metallogenic provinces. He emphasized different classes of
It is now generally accepted that plate tectonics operated
ore deposits, stable versus orogenic settings, lithologic or
from ~3.4 Ga, albeit in some early form that likely differs
magmatic associations of specific metal groupings, and the
from today, with intermittently more intense plume activity to
role of young mountain belts in preservation potential. Met1.9 Ga (Fyfe, 1978; Isley and Abbott, 1999). Archean cratonallogenic provinces of different ages were recognized, albeit
scale faults are commensurate with lithospheric plate interacwith large age uncertainties. Primary depositional setting ver- tions (Sleep, 1992). In addition, Cenozoic-type convergent
sus replacement was, and remains, an issue. Independently , margin arc associations, including the presence of boninites,
Bilibin (1968) and Smirnov (1976) documented specific litho- Mg andesites, and adakites, in Precambrian supracrustal tertectonic and age associations for various classes of metallic
ranes require that arc-trench migration occurred (Polat et al.,
deposits in the former Soviet Union. Other comparative stud- 2003). An alternative precept of Archean geodynamics is
ies of major ore provinces recognized the evolving crust-man- given by Hamilton (1998).
tle system as a control on lithological associations, magmatic
Advances in geochronology have resolved many of the unstyle, and types of ore deposits (Pereira and Dixon, 1965;
certainties in the timing of both metal deposits and metalloStanton, 1972; Hutchinson, 1981). Atlases of the distribution genic provinces. This constraint permits evaluation of funcof metallic deposits by geologic terrane and age were comtional relationships between lithotectonic associations,
piled by Dixon (1979) and Derry (1980).
magmatism, pressure-temperature-time (P-T -t) conditions
Meyer (1981) generated a global database of representative and fluid compositions, and geodynamic setting, concurrently
or type metallic mineral deposits, and their age-lithotectonic
resolving the syngenetic issue (e.g., Kerrich and Cassidy
,
association, in the Economic Geology Seventy-Fifth Anniver- 1994). Based on Meyer s (1981, 1988) compilations of the
sary Volume. He formulated the space-time distribution of
space-time distribution of metallogenic provinces, Barley and
metallogenic provinces in terms of two parameters: intervals
Groves (1992) provided insights into the episodic developof geologic history during which specific classes of metallic
ment of distinct classes of metallic deposits as a function of the
deposits formed, and changes of characteristics within a given supercontinent cycle. Geologic processes are intrinsically stoclass over the interval when that class formed. Meyer obchastic, so there is progressive uncertainty in reconstructing
served that trends of crustal evolution were not contempora- the supercontinent cycle back through the Precambrian. Y et,
neous globally but did not cast his reviews in a plate tectonic
this framework confers an elegant account for metallogenic
context (Meyer, 1981, 1988).
provinces and their episodicity from 2.7 Ga to the present.
The theory of plate tectonics was established in the 1970s,
During the last 25 years there have been profound gains in
supplanting the geosynclinal concept of lithotectonic associa- knowledge as to how plate tectonics operates through time,
tions (Kay, 1951; see Sengor, 1990, for a review). Elements of stemming from the heuristic approach of geology as a field and
the theory included: recognition of ocean-floor spreading
analytical science. In addition to development of the concept of
from ages of volcanic islands and transform faults (W ilson, the supercontinent cycle, knowledge has advanced on many
1965; Hess, 1968) and magnetic domains (V
ine and
fronts relevant to metal deposits, including: (1) how evolution
Matthews, 1963), relative to mid-ocean ridges; exponential
of lithospheric mantle controls crustal evolution (Jordan, 1988);
decrease of heat flow orthogonal to spreading centers (Sclater (2) recognition of superfamilies of orogenic belts (Sengor and
and Francheteau, 1970); and earthquake distribution at conNatalin, 1996); (3) the role of mantle plumes and their intervergent margins (Benioff, 1964). Historical accounts of the
action with lithospheric plates (Condie, 2001; Wyman and Kerevolution from a static to dynamic worldview are given by
rich, 2002); (4) transitions in both plume and convergent marUyeda (1978) and Allegr (1988).
gin magmatism near the Archean-Proterozoic transition
Initial hypotheses of the relationship between different
(Taylor and McLennan, 1995; Isley and Abbott, 1999); (5) declasses of ore deposits and their plate tectonic settings were
velopment of, and processes in, convergent margins (see reset out by Rona (1980), Mitchell and Garson (1981), and
view by Richards, 2003); (6) characterization of geothermal sysSawkins (1984). These accounted for the distribution of some tems on land (Elder, 1981) and submarine counterparts, some
ore deposit types in the Phanerozoic. However , there were of which are actively depositing sulfide minerals, such as in the
limitations: (1) at the time, genetic hypotheses for many types Lau back-arc basin (Ishibashi and Urabe, 1995; Mills and Elof ore deposit were predicated on syngenesis; (2) where con- derfield, 1995); (7) quantification of global geochemical cycles
sensus existed on a syngenetic versus epigenetic origin, the
(Jacobson et al., 2000); (8) seismic tomography (van der Hilst
age of mineralization was not well constrained; (3) epochs, or et al., 1998); (9) precise geochronology (Dalrymple, 1991); and
secular cycles, of metallogenic provinces were not accounted (10) the fractal, or scale-invariant, nature of many geologic
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FIG. 1. A. Map of continental and oceanic lithospheric plates. Triangles signify polarity of subduction, trenches migrate
in the opposite direction as slabs sink approximately vertically. Length of arrows proportional to plate velocity. Red symbols
= Cordilleran superfamily of orogenic belts; green symbols = continent-continent superfamily of orogenic belts. Modified
from Condie (1997). B. Distribution of Archean cratons and Proterozoic and Phanerozoic terranes. After Kusky and Polat
(1999). C. Thickness of continental lithospheric mantle from Artemieva and Mooney (2001).
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FIG. 2. A. Cross section through oceanic lithosphere, modified from Keary and Vine (1996). B. Cross section through continental lithosphere, illustrating the thick, refractory irregular base or keel of the continental lithospheric mantle, distinc tive
of Archean cratons. This mantle includes subcreted plateau lithosphere metasomatized by subduction at shallower levels, the
source of Neoarchean and Proterozoic cratonic norites. Deeper levels are the residue of plume melting, buoyantly coupled
to overlying continental lithospheric mantle and crust. Such Archean mantle is refractory and thus is responsible for the high
preservation potential of Archean mineral deposits; this level includes the diamond facies. T ranslithospheric structures are
focused at the transition to thinner Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle, controlling the location of
plume-related N i-Cu-PGE and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. Modified from N ixon and Davies (1987), Artemieva and
Mooney (2001), and Wyman and Kerrich (2002). C. Cross section through oceanic crust, illustrating the location of VMS deposits that form in back arcs and podiform Cr deposits generated at intraoceanic suprasubduction zones. Modified from
Keary and V ine (1996). D. Age-thickness relationship of continental lithospheric mantle from velocity structure (after
Artemieva and Mooney , 2001). E. Depth-differential strength relationships of oceanic and continental lithosphere; for
oceanic lithosphere this relationship controls the thickness of obducted ophiolites; for continental lithosphere the minimum
at ~35 km controls the thickness of accreted terranes. F . Depth-shear wave velocity relationships of different geodynamic
settings. (E) and (F) modified from Keary and V ine (1996).
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asthenospheric and crustal magmatism. Delaminated continental lithospheric mantle has been imaged by teleseismic tomography beneath the Alpine-Himalayan orogen (Schott and
Schmeling, 1998). Delamination is in progress beneath the
Basin and Range province and Tibetan plateau, is interpreted
to have occurred beneath the Puna plateau of northwestern
Argentina (Kay and Kay , 1993), and characterized the late
stages in the development of the V ariscan and Grenvillian
continent-continent orogens (Windley, 1995).
The low-velocity zone is the thermal boundary layer between torsionally rigid lithospheric plates and the convecting
asthenosphere; low S wave velocities result from domains of
partially melted lherzolite, conferring low strength. This zone
is 100 to 200 km thick below ridges where thermal gradients
are high, thinner below normal continental lithosphere, and is
thin to absent beneath Archean continental lithospheric mantle where thermal gradients are low (Fig. 2 A, B; Keary and
Vine, 1996).
Characteristics of plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries: As oceanic plates separate at
ridges due to far-field extensional forces, decompressional melting of asthenospheric mantle generates mafic magmas that accrete to the edges of plates to form new crust (Keary and V ine,
1996). Upwelling of asthenospheric upper mantle beneath
ridges is passive, in response to plate separation. In a simplified
cross section, the oceanic lithosphere is composed of lower ultramafic mantle (mantle tectonites, dunites, lherzolites, and
harzburgites) at the base, and mafic crustal rocks (gabbros,
sheeted dike complex, and basalts) at the top, bounded by the
oceanic Moho. The thickness of the lithosphere increases from
zero at ridges to 70 to 100 km at an age of ~70 m.y., then maintains approximately uniform thickness, as plates move away
from spreading centers. Commensurately , the depth of the
ocean floor increases with the age of oceanic lithosphere, due to
thermal cooling of the lithosphere associated with thickening
and subsidence (Fig. 2A; Parsons and Sclater, 1977).
Convergent plate boundaries: At convergent margins, the
plate with higher density sinks beneath the lighter plate,
forming a subduction zone, and the leading edge of the overriding plate becomes a paired fore arc and magmatic arc.
Where two oceanic plates converge, the older and denser
oceanic plate generally sinks beneath the younger and lighter
one, generating oceanic island arcs, such as the Marianas and
the south Sandwich arcs. Given its higher density , oceanic
lithosphere subducts underneath continental lithosphere to
form a continental magmatic arc, such as the Andean, Sumatran, and Japanese arcs.
Convergent margins generally feature the following tectonic elements: (1) a deep marine trench seaward of the fore
arc; (2) a subduction-accretion complex located between the
underriding plate and the fore-arc basin; (3) a fore-arc basin
between the arc axis and the subduction-accretion complex;
(4) a magmatic arc; and (5) an inboard foreland basin-thrust
belt, which undergoes subsidence and sedimentation due to
tectonic loading, tectonic imbrication, and later compressiondriven uplift (Fig. 4). Porphyry Cu deposits form in oceanic
and continental arcs, and most preserved volcanic rock-associated massive sulfide deposits form in oceanic arcs or
oceanic or continental back arcs.
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FIG. 4. A. Life span-geodynamic relationships of sedimentary basins. Modified from Woodcock (2004). Abbreviations: BA
= back arc, FA = fore arc, FL = foreland, IA = intra-arc, O = oceanic, PM = passive margin, R = continental margin rift, RA
= retro-arc, SS = strike slip, T = trench, TS = trench slope. (A) after Kyser et al. (2000), (B), (C), and (D) modified from Ross
(2000), (E) a composite from miscellaneous sources and R. Kerrich.
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pillow basalts in many cratons (de W it, 2004). Higher geotherms in the Archean are reflected by the widespread highgrade gneissic basement rocks, which, with refractory continental lithospheric mantle, have preserved the mid-crustal
Cordilleran-like greenstone belts for billions of years. Similarity in the geologic evolution of Precambrian and Phanerozoic Cordilleran-style continental margins is reflected in a
similar metallogenic record being preserved in metamorphosed rocks of all such orogens, regardless of geologic age
(Goldfarb et al., 2001).
Continent-continent orogens: A second type of orogen is
termed continent-continent collisional or T ethyan. It is typically marked by the closure of an ocean basin, a single welldefined Z- or C-shaped suture zone containing ophiolites between blocks of continental crust, a magmatic arc on the
active margin, and deformation of passive margin sequences.
Collision is orthogonal to oblique, with an exceptional amount
of crustal thickening, and reworking of the older crustal
blocks (Windley, 1995; Sengor and Natalin, 1996a). This tectonism includes metamorphism, widespread partial melting
of the lower crust during lithosphere thickening, delamination, and commonly underplating by mafic magmas. Depending on the structural complexity , these orogens may show
abundant, high-level overthrusting exemplified by the Alpine
type or limited thrusting of allochthonous blocks as in the Himalayan type (Sengor, 1990; Sengor and Natalin, 1996a).
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continental lithosphere followed by sedimentation, magmatism linked to thinned continental lithosphere, and evolution to ocean lithosphere. The Atlantic margin, with its continental shelf, continental slope, and rise, is a typical
example. The sedimentary wedge may be deposited at normal, oblique, or transform continental margins. T ransfer
faults accommodate differential extension rates and patterns
of sedimentation. Subsidence initiates by lithospheric thinning from far-field forces and then evolves by thermal contraction and sediment loading. Basins driven mainly by thermal subsidence are characterized by concave-up subsidence
patterns, as documented for aging oceanic lithosphere,
whereas foreland basins have concave-down subsidence patterns (Fig. 4C; Ross, 2000).
Phosphorites and iron formations accumulated on passive
margins from ~2.4 Ga. Rifted passive-margin clastic sedimentary sequences, formed at low latitudes, are favorable
hosts for Phanerozoic Pb-Zn ores. The deposits are generated
by metal-rich brines that evolved in adjacent carbonate units
and basement (Leach et al., 2005a,b). Placer deposits of T iZr-Hf are preserved in T eriary and younger passive margin
sequences (Freeman and Donaldson, 2004).
Where extension is focused within a continent, as in the
Basin and Range province, a continental back-arc basin may
develop. The Bathurst and Iberian pyrite VMS provinces are
examples of continental back-arc basins that closed; sill-sediment complexes in the Gulf of Cortez may be a present-day
analog (Boulter, 1993).
The supercontinent and/or superevent cycle
The concept of the supercontinent cycle emerged in the
late 1980s from recognition that the continental masses assemble and disaggregate in a cyclic pattern on a timescale of
200 to 500 m.y. (Fig. 5; Hoffman, 1988; Murphy and Nance,
1992; Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004). All of the
present continents formed a single landmass, Pangea, that
broke up ~180 Ma. Previous supercontinents were Kenorland
at ~2.7 to 2.2 Ga, Columbia at ~1.7 to 1.4 Ga, and Rodinia at
~1.0 at 0.6 Ga (Fig. 5; Condie, 2004; Zhao et al., 2004).
A consensus has emerged that rifting of continents and dispersal of supercontinents is generally triggered by a mantle
plume, in keeping with Zieglers (1993) estimates of tractional
forces for plumes that impinge on continents (White, 1992;
Duncan and T urcotte, 1994; Carlson, 1997). Sill-sediment
complexes of the Mesoproterozoic Sullivan Pb-Zn deposit and
Neoproterozoic basalt sequences associated with the Central
African Cu province are expressions of mantle plumes that dispersed the supercontinents Columbia and Rodinia, respectively. Condie (1998, 2004) envisaged superevent cycles at 2.7,
1.9, and 1.2 Ga in which graveyards of subducted oceanic
lithosphere, stored at the 670-km D' boundary , avalanched to
the core-mantle boundary , thus ejecting plumes from that
boundary and causing plume bombardment under the lithosphere (Fig. 5). Larson (1991) associated the increased rate of
ocean crust formation at ridges and plateaus in the Pacific
Ocean with a superplume ejected from the core-mantle
boundary, coinciding with cessation of magnetic field reversals
at 41 Ma (for a contrary view see Anderson, 1994).
Murphy and Nance (1992) recognized two principal styles
of supercontinent aggregation, which they termed internal
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FIG. 5. A. Secular distribution of collisional orogens and juvenile crust, with supercontinents (modified from Condie,
1997; Columbia after Zhao et al., 2004). B. Secular distribution of mineral deposits, modified from Meyer (1988). C. Supercontinent cycle, modified from Rodgers (1996).
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and external. Internal aggregation corresponds to continentcontinent collision, for exmple, the Alpine-Himalayan, Appalachian, and Grenville orogenic belts. External aggregation
corresponds to Cordilleran-style tectonics, where allochthonous tectonostratigraphic terranes are transpressively accreted to a continental margin. Neoarchean magmatic-accretionary events in the Superior and Slave provinces of Canada,
Finland, southern Africa, India, and W estern Australia likely
correspond to an early external supercontinent aggregation
that was associated with development of orogenic gold
provinces (Kerrich and Wyman, 1994). Internal cycles involve
internal oceans between continents. The North and South Atlantic Oceans have opened and closed two or three times, as
N orth America-South America and Europe-Africa diverged
and then closed in Wilson cycles. The Pacific Ocean is an external ocean outboard of the external Cordilleran orogen.
Supercontinents may assemble in two configurations. Introversion involves breakup, opening then closing of interior
oceans, and reassembly. In extroversion, following supercontinent dispersal, exterior margins of continental fragments rotate and collide during reassembly . Combinations of the
processes may occur. The Paleozoic Appalachian-CaledonianVariscan orogen is an example of supercontinent introversion.
In contrast, during the N eoproterozoic East African and
Brasiliano orogens, the exterior ocean surrounding Rodinia,
which broke up at ~750 Ma, was consumed during the amalgamation of Gondwana, representing extroversion (Murphy
and Nance, 2003).
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(Figs. 1, 2C). Sparsity of these deposits in Precambrian terranes reflects the same process responsible for the absence of
blueschists and eclogites, or of complete ophiolite sections,
given that the upper basaltic sections of thicker oceanic
lithosphere were obducted (Fig. 2E; Moores, 2002; Polat et
al., 2004).
VMS deposits
VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 2005) form in oceanic
spreading centers, arcs, and rifts (Hannington et al., 2005),
but mid-ocean-ridge crust is rarely preserved in the geologic
record due to the likelihood that oceanic lithosphere will be
subducted (Cloos, 1993). Many VMS deposits formed at
convergent margins under extensional conditions, specifically
in back arcs, where thinned and fractured lithosphere,
upwelling asthenosphere, and high-temperature magmas
generate long-lived high heat flow and enhanced hydraulic
conductivity (Figs. 2C, 4E). Back-arc lithosphere is more
readily obductible, being young and hot. The fact that all
VMS deposits are associated with some mafic magmatism signifies a functional relationship to thermal anomalies in the
upper mantle (Barrie and Hannington, 1999). A lack of significant VMS deposits in the Mesoproterozoic and N eoproterozoic (Hutchinson, 1981; Meyer , 1981, 1988) reflects the
drift stage in dispersal of first Columbia and then Grenville
orogens that stitched together Rodinia. These orogens now
expose deep erosional levels, which is ultimately due to delamination of mantle lithosphere (Fig. 5).
Metallogeny of Intraoceanic Arcs
Based on rock associations, and therefore tectonic setting,
Barrie and Hannington (1999) and Franklin et al. (2005)
Podiform Cr
classified VMS deposits into five groups. Mafic and bimodal
Podiform bodies of spinel are an important resource of
siliciclastic rock-associated deposits are mainly restricted to
chromium. Most of the deposits are in Caledonian or younger the Phanerozoic. The former consists of tholeiitic with minor
suprasubduction zone ophiolites. Notable are the ~500, ~460, boninitic rocks and includes ocean-ridge deposits that were
and ~370 Ma ophiolites of northwestern China, obducted
obducted as part of ophiolite fragments, exemplified by
during accretion of arc terranes along composite sutures beTethyan ores of Cyprus and Turkey. The geodynamic setting
tween the Kazakhstan, Siberian, and T
arim blocks; Apis a suprasubduction zone, and such magma-ore associations
palachian ophiolites; Hercynian ophiolites of Eurasia;
extend to the Paleoproterozoic Flin Flon VMS province
Tethyan Mesozoic ophiolites, including those in T
urkey, (Wyman, 1999). The latter , characterized by large tonnages
Oman, and Cyprus; and Mesozoic-Cenozoic ophiolites in ac- with high Pb but low Cu contents, formed in a continental
creted terranes of the North American Cordillera. Rare pod- arc or back-arc setting; VMS ores of the Bathurst and Iberiform chromitite bodies have been reported from a 3.0 Ga
ian Pyrite Belt provinces are prominent examples of this
ophiolite in the Ukraine, and the 2.5 Ga Zunhua ophiolite of
group.
the North China craton (Thayer, 1976; Duke, 1996a; Zhou et
The other three groups of VMS deposits have broader secal., 2001; Polat et al., 2004).
ular distributions. Bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic group
Podiform bodies are dominated by Cr -rich spinels endeposits occur in oceanic terranes back to the Neoarchean of
veloped by dunite in harzburgite of the mantle section, or the some cratons. The former represent primitive oceanic arcs or
crust-mantle transition, of oceanic lithosphere from intraoback arcs; examples include Noranda and Matagami, Quebec,
ceanic arcs. Podiform morphology reflects mantle flow paths. some ores of Flin Flon, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and
A current model for development of chromitite bodies inJerome, Arizona. The latter represents precipitation of VMS
volves generation initially of hydrous basaltic melts in the
deposits in mature arcs, such as the Mt. Read district, Tasmaperidotitic mantle wedge from dehydration of the subducting nia. A mafic volcanic-volcaniclastic rock and turbidite associslab. Hydrous melts depolymerize, enhancing the octahedral ation with VMS formation occurred from the Mesoproterosite preference for Cr 3+. Subsequent reaction of melt with
zoic through the Phanerozoic. These deposits developed in
peridotite in an open system induces polymerization accomsediment-rich oceanic rifts, notably W indy Craggy , British
panied by precipitation of Cr spinel at ~7-km depth and 0.2
Columbia, or in propagating continental rifts, exemplified by
GPa (Fig. 2C; Edwards et al., 2000).
the Besshi district of Japan. The Middle Valley and Escanaba
Podiform chromite deposits reflect obduction of intraotrough, and the Sea of Cortez, are present-day metal-rich
ceanic arc crust-upper mantle sections in both continent-con- analogs to these two environments in the final group, respectinent (Appalachian, T ethyan) and Cordilleran-type orogens
tively (Barrie and Hannington, 1999).
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FIG. 6. A. Normal subduction configuration beneath a continental arc (from Richards, 2003; modified from Winter, 2001).
Slab dehydration leads to hydration of the overlying asthenospheric mantle wedge and partial melting in the hotter central
regions of the wedge. Hydrous basaltic melts pool at the base of the crust due to density contrasts, where they fractionate,
release heat, and interact with crustal materials to generate more evolved, less dense andesitic magmas (by melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenizationMASH process of Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988), which can then rise to upper crustal
levels. It is these evolved magmas that are directly associated with porphyry Cu deposit formation. B. Oblique convergence
leads to the generation of structurally permeable transpressional sites along trench-linked strike-slip faults, up which magma
may ascend from lower crustal MASH zones. Rapid, voluminous emplacement of magmas in the upper crust is regarded here
to be a prerequisite for the subsequent formation of large porphyry Cu deposits by magmatic-hydrothermal fluid exsolution.
a regional architecture of translithospheric structures may influence the location of magma ascent by providing relatively
permeable pathways. Optimal sites are extensional structural
domains formed at jogs and stepovers in large strike-slip fault
systems deforming under mildly oblique compressional stress
(Fig. 6B). Although magma ascent can occur in the absence
of such structures, their existence may act to focus magma
flux, thus enhancing subsequent ore-forming potential. A
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one or the other environment but not necessarily both environments. For example, Bissig et al. (2002) recently proposed
that regional uplift and erosion history was critical in controlling the development of mineralized epithermal systems in
the El Indio-Pascua belt (Chile and Argentina), which are associated only with apparently barren plutons. Thus, drilling
beneath a known epithermal deposit will not necessarily reveal an economic porphyry deposit, although evidence of a
high-temperature magmatic hydrothermal system is likely to
be encountered.
Unlike high-sulfidation systems, low-sulfidation epithermal
deposits do not show a clear , exclusive relationship to subduction zone magmatism, and many deposits are generated
by thermal anomalies caused by crustal extension, such as
epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the Basin and Range district,
Nevada (Berger and Bonham, 1990; John, 2001; Simmons
et al., 2005). In this respect, the involvement of specific
magmatic components (both volatiles and metals) in low-sulfidation epithermal systems is less clear, and the key input for
such systems may simply be a heat source of any origin. By
contrast, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems are
commonly found in porphyry districts, and either a direct or
distal association with magmatism has been proposed in many
instances (e.g., Rye, 1993; Hedenquist et al., 1996; Hayba,
1997; Faure et al., 2002). A common structural control on
most epithermal-type deposits is extensional faulting and
brecciation, either generated regionally by tectonic stress
fields (as in the case of the Basin and Range) or locally by
forces involved with magma emplacement (crustal doming)
or by elevated fluid pressure (hydraulic fracturing). The latter
tectonic condition is commonly generated in association with
porphyry formation but not exclusively so.
Metallogeny of Cordilleran Orogens
Metallogenic context
In contrast to the shallow crustal regions that characterize
continental magmatic arcs, as described above, much of an
evolved orogen exposes rocks that were deformed and metamorphosed at deeper crustal levels. Crustal rocks that would
have hosted porphyry and related epithermal mineral deposits are typically unroofed and eroded in fore- and back-arc
regions. The exposed middle crustal rocks in these regions are
dominated, in contrast, by mineral deposits that reflect
deeper hydrothermal processes that are active in convergent
to transform continental margins. These processes form
mainly orogenic Au deposits, with commonly related As, W ,
Sb, and Hg resources. In addition, preaccretionary mineral
deposits, such as podiform Cr and VMS deposits that were
described above, may also be present and hosted within the
same blocks of accreted juvenile crust (Fig. 1A).
High heat flow and intense fluid regimes are important tectonic features inherent to most Cordilleran orogens. The generation of Barrovian P-T conditions is typical for progressive
accretion of a broad zone of radiogenic juvenile material
scraped off a downgoing slab, where clockwise P-T -time trajectories generate deeper and later metamorphism. Under
these heat-flow conditions, peak metamorphism at mid-crustal
levels (greenschist facies) predates peak metamorphism in
the deeper crust, such that fluids generated by dehydration
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KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 7. Cordilleran-type orogens are recognized for the widespread distribution of orogenic gold deposits in metamorphosed juvenile rocks on either side of the magmatic arc. Ore-forming fluids in the fore arc may be derived from prograde
metamorphism of accreted material above a subducting slab and from the slab itself; where slab fluids are released into the
mantle wedge, mantle-derived melts may carry some of the fluid into the accreted oceanic rocks. The metalliferous fluids
are focused along major crustal shear zones in the fore arc, which previously may have been sites of terrane suturing.
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observed in Alaska, older orogenic gold provinces reflect earlier subduction closer to the craton margin. Giant deposits
such as Olympiada and Zun-Kholba formed in Proterozoic
terranes along the southwestern side of the craton in the latest N eoproterozoic and early Paleozoic, followed by ores in
more seaward regions of Kazakhstan and the Urals in the
mid-Paleozoic, and then the Permian ores developed along
the edge of the closing Paleo-T ethyan Ocean (Herrington et
al., 2005; Yakubchuk et al., 2005).
Significant characteristics of the Altaid orogen (Y akubchuk
et al., 2005) illustrate other broad tectonic controls on orogenic gold in Cordilleran orogens. First, the immense gold resource at the Sukhoi Log deposit, probably of mid-Paleozoic
age (Goldfarb et al., 2001), is hosted by carbonaceous and
pyrite-rich flysch in a retroarc location within complexly deformed N eoproterozoic pericratonic Baikal terranes (Bulgatov and Gordiyenko, 1999). The thermal event associated
with emplacement of the immense Angara-V itim batholith
(Yarmolyuk et al., 1998) correlates with the major period of
orogenic gold deposit formation within 100 km of the craton.
Thus, there are clearly significant exceptions to the general
observation that orogenic gold ores in a Cordilleran orogen
will always be younger in an oceanward direction. Second,
with the exception of this Baikal region, large gold placers,
such as those that dominate the circum-Pacific goldfields, are
absent. Perhaps this reflects the fact that continent-continent
collision closed the Altaid orogen and has, at least temporarily, formed a Paleozoic craton. This preserved paleoCordilleran margin has thus not been susceptible to reworking and erosion of significant amounts of its contained lode
gold systems. Further support for such a concept is that much
of the interior of the Altaid orogen still contains numerous
Paleozoic porphyry and epithermal deposits (Y akubchuk et
al., 2002, 2005), whereas such shallow crustal levels have
been already removed by uplift and erosion from many of the
circum-Pacific Cordilleran terranes.
The Paleozoic T asman orogen of eastern Australia, which
includes the gold-rich Thomson, Hodgkinson-Broken River ,
and, particularly, Lachlan fold belts, may also be considered
an accretionary orogen but with important differences from
the more classic Cordilleran-type orogens of western N orth
America and the Altaids. Rather than a series of accreted terranes, much of the more deformed and metamorphosed sectors of the orogen reflect a single, quartz-rich turbidite fan
system shed off the Delamerian-Ross highlands in the earliest
Paleozoic. Ordovician-Silurian orogenesis was dominated by
shortening and folding, as is typical of Cordilleran orogens,
but these were thin-skinned tectonic events and lacked any
major uplift of basement blocks (Coney, 1992; Goldfarb et al.,
1998). This difference in crustal response may be indicative
of subduction and/or accretion in association with a large fan
system, rather than a series of terranes, along a continental
margin (Gray and Foster , 2000). The extensive ores of the
Victorian goldfields formed during Late Ordovician deformation, metamorphism, and subduction in the western province
of the Lachlan fold belt (~440 Ma: Bierlein et al., 2001); however, no magmatic arc developed during subduction beneath
the deforming turbidite wedge (Fergusson, 2003).
Thrust-fault development and uplift of the V ictorian ore
host rocks began at ~455 Ma, with perhaps slab rollback ~15
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KERRICH ET AL.
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KERRICH ET AL.
U: Foreland-intracontinental basins
Thirty percent of the global U resource is sited in Proterozoic siliciclastic sequences, proximal to unconformities (Fig.
5; Ruzicka, 1996). Sedimentary basins evolved on all cratons
after supercontinent assembly at ~2.0 to 1.8 Ga (W indley,
1995), but preserved economic deposits of U have only been
found in foreland-intracratonic basins (Fig. 4B, D) in North
America, Australia, and western Africa. N ash et al. (1981)
suggest that the U geochemical cycle was widely established
from 2 Ga onward, with Proterozoic sedimentary accumulations setting the stage for 1.0 Ga metamorphic U provinces in
the Grenville and Damara orogens, as well as the sedimentary-hosted U provinces of western T exas and the Colorado
Plateau.
Granitoid Sn-W
The conjunction of two geodynamic events may have been
Magmatic deposits of Sn-W are associated with granites in
responsible for initiating large-scale near -surface U geocontinent-continenttype orogens, as well as some Cordilleran chemical cycles; i.e., transition from flat to steep subduction
and Andean orogens. Source magmas are the highly fractionat ~2.6 Ga, and decreased intensity of plume activity since 2.6
ated peraluminous granites of Ishiharas (1981) ilmenite series, Ga (except the 1.9 Ga superplume; Figs. 3A, 5). Archean slab
involving melting of reduced sedimentary facies and mantle
melt TTG possess Th/U ratios of 5.8 and lower U abundances
melts. These granites are enriched in the incompatible elethan younger intermediate to felsic arc magmas, where Th/U
ments Cs, Rb, Th, U, Nb, T a, Sn, W, Mo, and LREE, and the ratios average 3.7 (Drummond et al., 1996). Lower plume
volatile elements F and B (Sinclair, 1996). Intrusions and min- intensity increased the continental freeboard, permitting deeralization are constrained by structures imposed by regional
velopment of extensive continental siliciclastic sequences
tectonics (Clarke et al., 2000). Mineralization is triggered by
(Fig. 3B).
mixing of saline magmatic and low-salinity meteoric waters
The Athabasca basal unconformity developed on Archean
during regional uplift (Kontak and Clark, 2002).
cratons and in Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks that
Large Sn-W metallogenic provinces developed in Paleozoic- include reductants such as Fe 2+ and graphite. The unconformity corresponds to a transition from intracontinental
Mesozoic continent-continent orogens. Prominent deposits
transtensional basins controlled by escape tectonics outboard
are Grey River and East Kemptville, Nova Scotia, in the Appalachian orogen; Xhuashan, China; the Erzgebirge and Mas- of the Trans-Hudson orogen, to a Laramide-type distal foresif Central, provinces at 325 to 300 and 290 to 260 Ma, and the land or perimeter basin (cf. Dickinson et al., 1988), to the
Trans-Hudson orogen. Collision of the Reindeer and Hearne
southwest England and Portugal (Panasqueira) province at
~290 Ma of the V ariscan orogen in Europe; and the Sinobur- terranes from 1810 to 1710 Ma generated topographic uplift
malaya terrane of the Permo-Triassic (300200 Ma) orogen of of ~10 km in the Trans-Hudson orogen. Four depositional sequences total 1,800 m of quartzose sandstones capped by 500
southeastern Asia (Pollard et al., 1995). Granites were generm of oolitic or stromatolitic dolomite, with three regional unated in overthickened crust following collision and emplaced
in a tensional regime, possibly after delamination of continen- conformities; these sequences developed in a fluvial to lacustrine environment with an aeolian input (Ramaekers and
tal lithospheric mantle and gravitational collapse of crust.
Catuneanu, 2004). Sedimentation commenced at 1830 Ma in
Prominent granitoid Sn-W provinces of inner arcs of Anthe Athabasca and correlative Thelon basin (Rainbird et al.,
dean orogens are Llallagua, Chojlla, and Chambillaya in the
2002), continuing intermittently to 950 Ma. Coeval cratonic
Tertiary of Bolivia, and San Rafael and Pasto Bueno of Peru.
Cordilleran-type orogenic Sn-W provinces include the Aber- sequences in Laurentia include the Hornby Bay Group, and
foyle and Ardlethan districts of the Tasman orogen, as well as Sioux, Baraboo, and Mazatzal sandstones (Ross, 2000).
Two meteoric water -dominated hydraulic systems develthe Regal Silver and Kalzas deposits in northwestern N orth
oped during extensional subsidence at ~1500 Ma. Isotopically
America (Sinclair, 1996).
evolved fluids at 180 to 240C advected through the baseThe conjunction of elements that lead to the formation of
ment, interacting with reductants, whereas formation brines
orogenic Sn-W granites are (1) siliciclastic sediments from a
dissolved U as aqueous U +6 within the Athabasca sequence.
weathered catchment deposited under the chemocline, (2)
input of mantle melts, (3) melting of overthickened crust, and Uranium was deposited where the two fluids mixed proximal
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to the unconformity , where it was transected by northeasttrending faults that parallel the structural grain of Trans-Hudson orogen accreted terranes (Kotzer and Kyser, 1993, 1995).
This event was coeval with assembly of the Colombia supercontinent. A second mineralization stage developed at ~1400
Ma, coeval with intracontinental rifting of Columbia; a third
stage at 1260 Ma was related to extension during the Mackenzie large igneous province event; and a fourth occurred
during diking in the Athabasca basin or possibly in response
to distal tectonic events, such as Nipigon rifting, the Racklan
orogen in the Y ukon, or the Grenville orogen (Kotzer et al.,
1992; Kyser et al., 2000; Ramaekers et al., 2005).
In Australia, the McArthur River foreland basin developed
during the 2.0 to 1.8 Ga Barramundi orogen. As much as 15
km of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments accumulated from
1800 to 1770 Ma in a marine to terrestrial environment with
intermittent volcanism. The principal unconformity-related
deposits are Jabiluka, Ranger , and N abarlek, in the Pine
Creek sub-basin of the McArthur River basin. Uraninite precipitated at 1640 Ma from saline (Na-Mg-Ca-Cl), diagenetic
fluids >100 m.y. after termination of sedimentation, as in the
Athabasca basin. A pronounced change in the apparent paleomagnetic wandering path throughout the McArthur River
basin at 1640 Ma corresponds to the timing of both sedimentary rock Pb-Zn-Ag and U mineralization (Idnurm et al.,
1995). Diagenetic fluids advected through the basin intermittently for >900 m.y . (Kyser et al., 2000, and references
therein; Polito et al., 2004).
There are several common factors in the evolution of the
Athabasca and McArthur basins and their U deposits, as well
as the 2 Ga Oklo U province, Gabon. These include (1) Paleoproterozoic orogens that sutured supercontinents, such as
Baltica, Laurentia, and East Antarctica into N ena (Fig. 8A;
Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004); (2) reductants in
the basement; (3) foreland basins that promoted high hydraulic conductivity in sediments, (4) evaporites in some sequences that generated saline diagenetic brines; and (5) evolution to intracontinental basins underlain by some amount of
Archean continental lithospheric mantle, which accounts for
their preservation compared to geodynamically equivalent
Phanerozoic basins. Protracted fluid flow was tectonically
triggered and generated multiple stages of mineralization
>100 m.y. after sedimentation (Hoeve and Quirt, 1987; Ramaekers et al., 2005).
Rollfront sandstone-hosted deposits on most continents
represent ~30 percent of global U resources; they formed at
<100 Ma (Fig. 5B). Key factors in their formation are (1) development of extensive upland terrestrial forests at ~100 Ma;
(2) intermontane or intracratonic basins with fluvio-lacustrine
sediments characterized by the conjunction of large hydraulic
conductivities, with both oxidized and reduced facies; (3) tectonic uplift induced orographic rainfall; and (4) topographically driven fluid flow (Nash et al., 1981).
1119
Fe oxide-Cu-Au-Ag-REE
The Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposit class has a variety of metal
budgets, possibly reflecting a spectrum of crustal depths
(Hitzman et al., 1992; Davidson and Large, 1998; McMaster ,
1998; Porter, 2002; W illiams et al., 2005). Economically the
most important deposits in decreasing age include Carajas,
Brazil (2.57 Ga); Kiruna-Bergsdalen, Sweden (18901880
Ma); the Great Bear magmatic zone, Canada (18851865
Ma); the Cloncurry District of the Mt. Isa terrane (1.791.74
Ga) and Olympic Dam (1.59 Ga), Australia; and the St.
Francois district of Missouri (14501350 Ma). V ariants may
include Slipfontein, an Fe-Cu-Au-F deposit pipelike deposit,
hosted by a 2.06 Ga Bushveld granite; the 2.09 Ga Palabora
carbonatite ring complex, sited at the margin of the Kaapvaal
craton (Figs. 5, 8B); and Kiruna as an Fe-dominant end member (Pirajno, 2000; Groves and V ielreicher, 2001). The unifying characteristics are enrichment of Fe-P-F and alkali metasomatism of the host rocks (Pirajno, 2000; Groves et al.,
2005).
The Olympic Dam Cu-Au-Ag-REE deposit developed
within the 1.59 Ga Roxby Downs A-type granite. Lithospheric attenuation was focused at the eastern margin of the
Archean Gawler craton where the T orrens hinge zone developed at the transition to thinner post-Archean continental
lithospheric mantle. The Adelaide intracontinental rift basin
filled with a siliciclastic and volcaniclastic rock sequence,
most likely with evaporites. Basaltic magmas were generated
by decompressional melting of hot asthenosphere and/or a
mantle plume that advected into the base of thinned lithosphere. Basalts ponded at the Moho, fusing refractory , halogen-rich, lower crust, the residue of previous hydrous melt
extraction, to form anhydrous A-type granites emplaced at
shallow crustal levels (Campbell et al., 1998). T
wo fluids
mixed in the breccia: a cooler, oxidized, hypersaline formation
brine at hydrostatic pressure carrying Cu-Au-U-S, and a lithostatically pressured deeper Fe-F-Ba-CO 2-rich fluid likely
Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn
evolved from A-type magmas (Haynes et al., 1995).
Deposits of the St. Francois Mountains are associated with
Carbonate-hosted MVT deposits of Pb-Zn are reviewed
Nd
by Leach et al. (2005a). These workers emphasize that oro- A-type felsic to intermediate anorgenic magmas. The
values of LREE-enriched mineralization in these deposits of
genic uplift is a key factor to create elevated recharge for
Proterozoic to Tertiary age span depleted mantle to enriched
topographically driven flow of formation fluids through
values in common with associated igneous rocks, indicating
sedimentary rock aquifers in foreland basin sequences (but
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KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 8. A. Configuration of the Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia of Zhao et al. (2004), illustrating the distribution of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits proximal to Archean or Paleoproterozoic margins. Recast from
Lydon (2000). B. Columbia, after Zhao et al. (2004), with 1.8 to 1.5 and 1.4 to 1.1 Ga belts of anorogenic magmatism from
Haapla and Rm (1999).
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mineralization predated the main stage of Lufilian orogenesis. Selley et al. (2005) similarly report an unpublished Re-Os
date of 816 62 Ma for stratiform sulfide deposition at the
Konkola deposit in Zambia, consistent with a diagenetic or
late-diagenetic timing for mineralization. Richards et al.
(1988a, b) also dated rutile and uraninite from late quartz
veins cutting the Ore Shale at Musoshi and obtained an age
of 514 Ma, indicating that these veins postdated the Lufilian
orogeny, and that they could, therefore, not have been responsible for original introduction of Cu into the Ore Shale.
Ore textures indicate a permeability control on metal distribution, reflected in the concentration of Cu sulfides within
more sandy laminae of the siltstone sequence, with finer
grained, less permeable laminae being almost devoid of sulfides except possibly syndepositional pyrite (Richards et al.,
1988b). Permeability in the sediments during introduction of
Cu implies an origin prior to regional metamorphism, perhaps during early diagenesis, because pore space would subsequently have been filled by diagenetic and then metamorphic minerals (Brown, 1978). An early diagenetic timing
Sedimentary rock-hosted Cu-Co deposits
would also coincide with advanced development of the rift
Copper sulfide and native Cu deposits, commonly with
basin, involving crustal thinning and increased mantle-dehigh Co concentrations and locally PGE (Kucha, 1982; Hitzrived heat flow . In contrast, Selley et al. (2005) propose a
man et al., 2005), occur as stratiform deposits in fine-grained model involving secondary permeability development during
clastic sedimentary rocks and silty dolomites within rift-reearly orogenic fluid flow.
lated sedimentary basins. The best known of these sedimentA common characteristic of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
hosted Cu deposits occur in the Central African Copperbelt
deposits is that they are hosted by what were originally orof the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia (Selley ganic-rich black shales or dolomites, typically representing
et al., 2005) and the Kupferschiefer of central Europe. Isothe first marine transgression in previously subaerial clastic
lated large deposits include White Pine (Michigan), Redstone sedimentary basins (Oszczepalski, 1999). In some Cu-Co
(N orthwest T erritories, Canada), and Dzhezkazgan (Kazaprovinces, such as the Central African Copperbelt, the unkhstan). These deposits are of various, commonly imprecisely derlying clastic rock sequences are referred to as red beds, reconstrained, ages, ranging from N eoproterozoic (Central
flecting subaerial oxidation of relatively immature sandstones
African Copperbelt, Redstone, White Pine), through Car(commonly dune-bedded), arkoses, and conglomerates; evapboniferous (Dzhezkazgan), to Permian (Kupferschiefer) but
oritic horizons also occur locally (Jackson et al., 2003). Knifeshare a common tectonic setting in failed intracratonic rifts or sharp contacts between the Ore Shale and underlying conaulacogens (Fig. 5; Raybould, 1978).
glomerates attest to sudden flooding of the subaerial basin,
Many of these rifting events have been terminated by basin with a switch to deposition of fine-grained clastic sedimentary
inversion, resulting in deformation, metamorphism, and late
rocks with high organic content, followed by deeper marine
hydrothermal overprinting (e.g., Richards et al., 1988a, b).
carbonate deposits. A link is thus suggested between hydroThese effects have hampered interpretations of original met- carbon maturation, diagenetic flow of oxidized basinal brines
allogenic processes, to the extent that models ranging from
in the footwall sequences, and base metal sulfide deposition
synsedimentary deposition (Renfro, 1974; Garlick, 1981),
by reduction upon interaction between these brines and orthrough early diagenetic fluid flow (Bartholom et al., 1973), ganic-rich shales (Annels, 1979; Kelly and N ishioka, 1985;
to late epigenetic hydrothermal Cu introduction (Sales, 1962) Sverjensky, 1987; Jowett, 1992; Mauk and Hieshima, 1992).
have all been proposed over the last several decades (see reRed-bed formation has been suggested as a key precursor facviews by Gustafson and W illiams, 1981; Kirkham, 1989;
tor in this process, by causing the breakdown of primary siliSweeney et al., 1991; Selley et al., 2005).
cate and oxide minerals to render trace concentrations of base
In the case of the Central African Copperbelt, the timing of and other metals labile (Zielinski et al., 1983; Brown, 1984).
sedimentary and tectonic events is not well constrained.
These metals are then available for dissolution by later fluxes
However, it is clear that synsedimentary or diagenetic models of warm, oxidized basinal brines (Rose, 1976).
would require a pre-Lufilian orogeny age (pre-600550 Ma;
Expulsion of metalliferous brines from the deeper parts of
Porada and Berhorst, 2000), whereas an epigenetic model
sedimentary basins is recognized to be an essential part of the
would suggest an early or syn-Lufilian age, because the ores
ore-forming process, not only of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
are clearly deformed by this orogenic event. Richards et al.
deposits but also of other sedimentary rock-hosted base metal
(1988a) obtained a two-stage Pb-Pb model age for least redeposits such as MVT and SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits (Cathles
crystallized Cu-Fe sulfides from the Musoshi deposit of 645 and Adams, 2005; Leach et al., 2005a). The different metal
15 Ma, which was interpreted either to reflect the timing of
inventory of these deposits, but otherwise similar environCu introduction into the Ore Shale, or isotopic disturbance of ments of formation within intracratonic sedimentary basins,
preexisting sulfides. Either explanation indicates that primary may reflect simply the dominant composition of sedimentary
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KERRICH ET AL.
rocks. For example, Sverjensky (1989) has suggested that Pband Zn-rich deposits form where brines have flowed predominantly through sandstone and carbonate aquifers, respectively, whereas Cu-rich deposits form where aquifers contain
a significant amount of immature sediments, such as red-bed
arkoses. The high Co contents of some Central African Cu
deposits may reflect leaching from mafic materials, either
present as clastic components in the arkosic sediments or sills
deep within the sedimentary sequence (Annels and Simmonds, 1984).
The onset of basin inversion is commonly regarded as an important tectonic driving force for fluid flow , resulting in high
fluid pressures in deeper parts of the basin that force fluids to
escape by percolation through normally impermeable shale
horizons, thereby bringing oxidized metalliferous brines into direct contact with reductants in these shales (Cathles and Adams,
2005). Metal deposition as sulfides also requires a source of reduced sulfur, which may be generated by in situ reduction of
sulfate carried by the same brines (McGowan et al., 2003).
The formation of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits, like
other sedimentary basin-hosted base metal deposits, may thus
be seen as part of the larger supercontinent cycle, forming
during the early stages of rifting (Raybould, 1978; Barley and
Groves, 1992; Titley, 1993). Successful rifting will generate a
new ocean basin, with the original rift sediments forming part
of a passive margin sequence. However , such sequences are
either currently submarine, or have been caught up in and
potentially destroyed by later collisional events, and are
therefore either inaccessible to, or of low potential for, exploration. In contrast, failed rifts have high preservation potential within stable continental interiors and are thus the most
prospective regions for discovery of economic deposits.
Passive Margins
Phosphorites
Most sedimentary phosphate deposits accumulated on the
continental shelves of the western margins of continents and
in passive margin marine settings, within 45 of paleoequators. Deposition occurred in zones of high bioproductivity
from upwelling of cold polar currents moving toward the
equator in oceanic gyres. Ocean basins ~3,000 km wide are
required for gyres, implying deposition of phosphate 15 to 20
m.y. after rifting. Deposits may also form on east-facing passive margins, such as in the Miocene basin of Florida (Fig.
4C; Chandler and Christie, 1996).
Significant phosphorite units were deposited as the first extensive passive margins developed during dispersal of the supercontinent Kenorland at ~2.4 to 2.2 Ga (Fig. 5). Examples
are units in the 1.95 to 1.85 Ga Animikie Group in Minnesota
and in the 2.0 Ga Trans-Amazonian Central Guiana belt, Suriname. Major phosphate accumulations became widespread
on passive margins (e.g., Russian platform) following breakup
of the supercontinent Rodinia at ~600 to 500 Ma, which
marked the Neoproterozoic-Cambrian boundary. The largest
deposit is the Permian (300251 Ma) Posphoria Formation,
Montana and Idaho, deposited on the western margin of late
Paleozoic Pangea in an epicratonic sea. These deposits are associated with global sea-level high stands linked to maxima of
plume or ocean-ridge activity. Phosphates also occur on ocean
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global superplume event (Fig. 3A; Isley and Abbott, 1999; Pirajno, 2000). The Great Dyke, emplaced at 2050 Ma, represents extension in the Zimbabwe craton, following amalgamation of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons. The 2060 to 2050
Ma Bushveld Intrusive Complex was emplaced proximal to
the Murchison-Thabuzimbi lineament that also controlled
the architecture of the intracratonic T ransvaal sedimentary
basin. These African cratons were possibly adjacent to the
Antarctic and Pilbara cratons at ~2.5 to 2.2 Ga (Pirajno,
2000). The intrusive complexes are likely an early stage of the
1.9 Ga superplume (Fig. 3A). In the Great Dyke and
Bushveld Intrusive Complex, oxide ores of Cr , Ti, Fe, and V
and sulfide ores of Ni, Cu, Co, and PGE were associated with
ultramafic liquids possessing high Mg number but low incompatible element abundances (Pirajno, 2000, 2005). Given
the constraint on depth of plume decompressional melting
imposed by the thick continental lithospheric mantle,
Archean intrusive complexes such as the Bushveld may either
reflect lateral flow of plume melts into the craton or , alternatively, hotter Archean plumes melted at greater depths (Xie et
al., 1993).
Critical factors for transition metal ores in ultramafic to
mafic magmatic bodies are an increase of SiO 2 content to induce S saturation and open-system conditions. Increase of
SiO2 content of the parental liquid occurs either by assimilation of crustal rocks or by mixing with noritic melts (Fig. 2B).
In an open system, sulfides equilibrate with successive pulses
of melts or by mixing of melts. Many Archean and Proterozoic
mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes have vast quantities of
norites. N orites are not evolved, or crustally contaminated,
tholeiitic basalts. Intriguingly , these intracontinental norites
feature incompatible element enrichment in conjunction
with depletions of N b-T a, the characteristics of convergent
margin mafic magmas (Hall and Hughes, 1990; Pearce and
Peate, 1995). Some intrusive complexes have units with Ushaped REE patterns compositionally akin to Phanerozoic
boninites and recent boninites of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc
(Stern et al., 1991; T aylor et al., 1994). Shallower mantle
lithosphere of Archean terranes acquired a subduction zone
signature in subcreted normal oceanic and ocean plateau
lithosphere during accretionary assembly of the terranes into
cratons. Subsequently , the deep residue of plume melting
coupled buoyantly to form the deeper continental lithospheric mantle (W yman et al., 2002; Schmitz et al., 2004),
which later remelted at shallower depths by decompression
during extension and/or plume impingement. This generated
intracratonic norites with a subduction signature and allowed
mixing of plume material with high Si norite liquids in layered
complexes (Fig. 2B).
Other well-documented examples of magmatic N i-, Cu-,
and Co-bearing sulfide deposits stemming from plume impingement on incipiently rifted lithosphere are discussed
below. In the circum-Superior craton belt, Ni sulfide deposits
in Manitoba occur at the cratonic margin, in ~1.8 Ga sills
compositionally evolved from dunite to pyroxenite, which are
an expression of the ~1.9 Ga superplume event (Fig. 3A;
Condie et al., 2001). The 1850 Ma Sudbury igneous complex
is located at the boundary between the Archean Superior craton and Proterozoic Southern province. Large volumes of
norite are present, hosting Cu-, Ni-, and Co-bearing sulfides
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KERRICH ET AL.
with significant PGE. Crustal melting was induced by a meteorite inpact (Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005), so this igneous
complex is an exception to the association of magmatic Ni-Cu
sulfide ores with mantle plumes. In the Neoproterozoic, NiCu sulfide deposits occur in (1) the 1.1 Ga Duluth complex of
the mid-continent rift associated with the Keweenawan large
igneous province; (2) the 1.1 Ga Coppermine large igneous
province of the N orthwest T erritories, with the Muskox intrusive complex; and (3) the Jinchuan deposit, China, which
occurs in ultramafic bodies that intruded translithospheric
faults at the southwestern margin of the North China craton.
Deposits of the Insizwa complex, South Africa, are associated
with the Karoo large igneous province and formed at 200 to
180 Ma; impingement of the ancestral Iceland plume on Laurentia-Baltica induced their rifting, as part of the T
ertiary
North Atlantic large igneous province. In Greenland, the 55
Ma Skaergaard intrusion, hosting PGE-Au deposits, is a relict
of that plume-lithosphere interaction (Fig. 3A; Saunders et
al., 1997; Pirajno, 2000).
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co-PGE deposits in the Norilsk-Talnakh
metallogenic province have clearcut expressions of the coupled geodynamic and magmatic elements that are associated
with this deposit type. The province is sited at the edge of the
Siberian craton, where the transition from thick (Archean) to
thinner continental lithospheric mantle guided the location of
the regional, translithospheric Kharayelakh fault. Incipient
rifting created intracontinental basins between the Siberian,
eastern European, and T aimyr cratons. Impingement of a
plume at 250 Ma near the failed triple junction led to extensive decompressional melting under thin continental lithospheric mantle, and plume magmas erupted onto a Devonian
epicontinental sedimentary sequence generating 3.5-kmthick continental flood basalts. Tholeiitic basalts are prevalent, with minor alkali basalts and picrites indicating melting
in an anomalously hot plume tail. Assimilation of low S continental crust led to increase of SiO 2 content and S saturation
of basaltic melts, with gravitational accumulation of magmatic
sulfides that partitioned N i-Cu-PGE from multiple pulses
through open-system magma conduits. More than 12 Gt of S
entered the system from stoping of sulfate-rich evaporites,
but only ~1 percent of this S entered the orebody (Naldrett,
1989; Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997).
The largest komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu deposits are in the 2.7
Ga N orseman-W iluna belt, Y ilgarn craton. Komatiite flows
erupted in a deep marine environment over sulfidic sediments deposited in a ~200-km-wide intracontinental rift. Sulfur saturation of the ultramafic liquids may stem from assimilation of the sediments (Lesher and Keays, 2002). Similar
deposits are present in the 2.7 Ga Abitibi belt and
Neoarchean greenstone terranes of Botswana and Zimbabwe.
Paleoproterozoic equivalents formed in greenstone terranes
of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec (Ungava, Raglan), Finland
(Hitura), Russia (Pechenga), and Tanzania (Kabanga). A common geodynamic element for these deposits is eruption of
high-temperature, S-undersaturated ultramafic melts through
continental (N oresman-W iluna) or dominantly oceanic
(Abitibi) crust (N aldrett, 1989; Eckstrand, 1996; Cassidy et
al., 2002; Lesher and Keays, 2002).
Tholeitic intrusion-hosted cumulus Ni-Cu sulfide deposits
occur dominantly in Archean greenstone terranes, with fewer
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in Paleoproterozoic counterparts of Finland and Russia (Naldrett, 1989; Ekstrand, 1996). Their common secular distribution with komatiite-hosted deposits is consistent with plume
magmas advecting into an arc, back-arc, or sub-continental
flood basalt setting.
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulfide deposits at V oiseys Bay, Newfoundland, are sited on the 1.8 Ga translithospheric suture
between the Archean N ain and Paleoproterozoic Churchill
provinces. Troctolite magmas, likely part of the 1350 to 1290
Ma anorogenic Nain Plutonic Complex, intruded the suture
at 1.3 Ga, coeval with dispersal of the supercontinent Columbia, triggered by a mantle plume. Interaction with graphitebearing paragneisses of the host terrane by assimilation and
fractional crystallization added Si, K, Na, and S to the troctolites, triggering S saturation and segregation of immiscible
sulfide liquids (Eckstrand, 1996; Naldrett and Ripley , 2001).
In summary, magmatic Ni deposits have the same secular distribution as mantle plumes.
Economic stratiform chromite deposits are all Archean or
Paleoproterozoic in age. The largest deposits are Selukwe, in
the 3420 Ma Sebakwian sequence of the Zimbabwe craton;
Kemi in Finland (2444 Ma); and Campo Formoso in Brazil
(2000 Ma). All involve plumes interacting with Archean continental lithospheric mantle (Fig. 2B; Duke, 1996b). Stratiform chromite in the Neoarchean Bird River Sill, Manitoba,
and Big Trout Lake intrusion, Ontario, appear to be the result
of plume-related intrusions emplaced into Archean greenstone terranes (Duke, 1966b). Crystallization of chromite was
triggered by mixing of a high Mg primitive melt with SiO 2rich norites, raising the Si activity in the former .
Diamonds
Diamonds form by reaction of asthenospheric carbonatitic
liquids with peridotite (p-type) and eclogite (e-type) of deep,
mostly Archean, continental lithospheric mantle (Gurney et
al., 2005). Accordingly , ages of inclusions in diamonds span
3.3 Ga to Mesoproterozoic (Fig. 2B; Kirkley et al., 1991). Carbon is introduced into the continental lithospheric mantle
both from deep asthenospheric fluids and from subducted
ocean crust, in keeping with independent evidence for residence of subducted material in Archean continental lithospheric mantle (Cartigny, 2005). Diamonds are transported as
xenocrysts from the continental lithospheric mantle to shallow crustal levels in kimberlites or lamproites, both incompatible element-enriched and volatile-rich ultramafic magmas (Mitchell, 1995; Dawson, 1999). Kimberlitic melts are
generated in the upper mantle, some at depths of 450 to 670
km as indicated by inclusions of beta majorite garnet, but may
also form below the 670-km D' transition zone. In southern
Africa, continental lithospheric mantle with slower P-wave
velocity correlates with a greater proportion of eclogitic silicate inclusions in diamonds, younger Sm-Nd ages of the inclusions, more depleted 13C, and fewer diamonds characterized by low N contents. Converse properties characterize
high P-wave domains of continental lithospheric mantle
(Shirey et al., 2004). Whereas mantle plumes do not undergo
decompressional melting at ~300 km beneath Archean continental lithospheric mantle, volatile-rich kimberlites possess
the buoyancy flux to penetrate this mantle along preexisting
structures (Fig. 2B).
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KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 9. (A). Secular distribution of mantle plumes, after Isley and Abbott (1999). (B). Iron formations after T rendall and
Blockley (2004). Rapitan (C), Algoman (D), and VMS (E) after Ohmoto (2004a). (F). V olume of ocean crust from Condie
(1997).
1126
FIG. 10. Secular variation of specified classes of mineral deposits according to geodynamic setting. Peak height on the yaxis is scaled according to relative size of the metallogenic provinces. A. AM = anorogenic magmatism; CA = continental arc;
CC = continent-continent orogen; CO = Cordilleran orogen; CR = continental rift; IA = intraoceanic arc; PL = plume-lithosphere. Porphyry-epithermal and VMS deposits form in both intraoceanic and continental arcs, but for simplicity of illustration the former are plotted on the continental arc track. Similarly, magmatic Sn deposits occur in both Cordilleran and
continent-contenent orogens, but are illustrated only on the latter. B. Sedimentary basins. BA = back arc; FA = fore arc; FL
= foreland; IC = intracontinental; O = oceanic; PM = passive margin; RM = rifted continental margin; SS = strike slip. Placer
gold deposits accumulate in the fore arcs and back arcs of orogenic belts, but for simplicity of illustration are plotted in fore
arcs. Sources: Meyer (1988), Goldfarb et al. (2001) for orogenic Au, Groves et al. (2005) for Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE.
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KERRICH ET AL.
elevated tectonic belts, such as magmatic Sn and porphyry-epithermal deposits, in the Archean; the sparsity of several deposit
types over the interval from ~1.8 to ~0.8 Ga; the onset of several classes of sedimentary rock-hosted deposits with the first
stable passive margins and increased freeboard; prevalence of
Fe-Ti-V deposits in belts of Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism;
and the low prospectivity of intracontinental settings.
In terms of preservation, the sparsity of many deposit types
from ~900 to 500 Ma may have resulted from a secular decrease in thickness and buoyancy of the continental lithospheric mantle, coupled with Grenvillian orogens having deep
levels of erosion due to delamination of continental lithospheric mantle. The secular distribution of ore deposits in the
Phanerozoic (Fig. 10) reflects enhanced preservation, especially of deposits in topographically elevated ranges, notwithstanding thinner continental lithospheric mantle.
Four potential future directions for research may provide
useful insights for exploration. At the scale of cratons, better
seismic imaging of continental lithospheric mantle topography
may assist in the exploration for magmatic Ni-Cu and Fe oxide
Cu-Au-REE deposits. Refined reconstructions of the supercontinent cycle allow projections of metallogenic provinces
(Fig. 8). At the scale of terranes, investigations on the conjunction of thermal, structural, and lithological factors will help to
determine the distinction between a metallogenic province
versus regions of subdued mineralization. At the scale of a
province, efforts to systematize Damkohler (N d D) numbers
(Johnson and DePaolo, 1994) will help to determine why large
or small deposits of a given type may form from the same oreforming fluids but with subtleties of geochemistry that may indicate size; e.g., large deposits may have high Nd signatures.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Bruce Eglington, Franco Pirajno, Paul
Ramaekers, Vlad Sopuk and Derek W yman for reviewing
some, or all, sections of an intial draft of this manuscript. The
section on geodynamics draws on a document written by Ali
Polat and RK for an unpublished report to the Canadian Association of Mining Industry Research Organization
(CAMIRO). Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary
Volume reviewers, Dallas Abbott and David Groves, conferred
insights and identified errors that resulted in substantial improvement to the final version. Glen Caldwell, Kevin Cassidy ,
Bruce Eglington, and Mike Lesher guided RK to information
where background was lacking. Karen McMullan and Ignacio
Gonzales are thanked for assistance with the text, and Ryan
Schmidt, June McLintock, and Tim Wardell for generating the
figures. RK acknowledges the George McLeod endowment to
the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of
Sasktchewan, and JPR and RK acknowledge support of Discovery Grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We appreciate the invitation by Jeff
Hedenquist to write this article.
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