[ bréef ] (n)

1. concise: containing only necessary

information, without any extra details
[ bréefing ] (n)
for those who need a quick synopsis on a particular topic
2. to provide information about the
..but are too busy to do their own research
main facts of an issue or situation
Encarta World English Dictionary 24 June 2010

Contents Topic: Invasive Alien Species [acronym-IAS]

Food for Thought!
Food for “Despite the global dialogue, IAS are still not high on national, regional and global
thought! agendas and this warrants urgent attention. In particular, more information needs to
be gathered on the economic, social and ecological impacts of IAS to help policy
Definitional
issues
makers put the problem in its proper perspective”.
Sean T. Murphy, CABI Bioscience, UK Centre (2004)
Global Context Defining Invasive alien species
Alien species - a species, sub-species or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural
past or present distribution; includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules
Author‟s Simple
of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce. Invasive Alien
Interpretation
Species (IAS)- an alien species whose introduction and spread threaten ecosystems,
Application to habitats, or species with economic or environmental harm.
the Caribbean
Source: Convention on Bio-Diversity (CBD), 2002
FYI
Global Context
Links to Regional Globalisation has fostered increased movement of people, equipment and
Agendas commodities, creating pathways, both intentional and accidental, for the
introduction of non-native/invasive species into countries all over the world.
The Bottom Line Whether these organisms are plants, animals, insects or microbes, invasive species
are considered to be one of the greatest threats to human health and natural
biodiversity (National Invasive Species Information Centre 2007).
Recommended A report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has
Readings estimated that, worldwide, the total economic cost of invasive alien species (IAS) is
US$400 bn annually (Chenje and Mohamed-Katerere, 2004). The impacts of an IAS
“Invasive Species Threats in
the Caribbean Region: are felt at several levels (e.g. ecosystem, production, trade). However, despite the
Report to the Nature general focus on ecological or scientific concerns from the presence of these
Conservancy.” invaders, the issue remains largely an economic problem in terms of the causes,
Authors: Kairo, M. and Ali, B. effects and remedies, given the range of potential effects on multiple aspects of
2003. CAB International.
human lives and livelihoods. Hence, the focus on IAS as a problem is because of
(http://www.issg.org/datab
ase/species/reference_files their impacts on economic systems and human wellbeing (GISP 2008).
/Kairo%20et%20al,%202003. Over the last two centuries, more than 50,000 foreign plant and animal species
pdf) have become established in the United States (US) alone. About one in seven has
“Economic Dimensions of become invasive, with damage and control costs estimated at more than $138 bn
Invasive Species” each year. For example, the value of annual crop losses to weeds in the US has
Author: Evans, E. 2006. been estimated at $20 bn in 1991 dollars (USDA 2000), with roughly 50–75 % of the
(http://www.choicesmagaz
costs attributed to non-indigenous weed species (APHIS 2001).
ine.org/2003-2/2003-2-
02.htm) As globalisation has intensified in the last few years, so too has the problem of
invasive species, making it a serious challenge to globalised trade. Trade of
agricultural commodities experienced more than 15 fold increase within 33 years,
Related Issues which indicates that trade over time is occurring faster than ever (Hosein, 2010).
“Animals, plants, and microbes can now migrate across the planet to new homes
 Biodiversity with unprecedented ease” (The Economist 2000). These invasives have spawned
preservation greater distances by hitchhiking on other organisms, especially in the trade of live
 Biosecurity animals and horticultural and raw animal products. The US Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS), has cited dramatic increases in the incidence of
 Ecosystem Valuation invasive pests and diseases in the US. Examples of these are the exotic fruit fly
infestations in California and Florida, entry of the Asian longhorn beetle into New
1

York and Illinois, the introduction of the Asian gypsy moth in North Carolina and
Page


Oregon, and citrus canker infestations in Florida (Evans 2003).
Briefs-2-Go ~ for those who need a quick synopsis on a particular topic but are too busy to do their own research.
CaRAPN, a Caribbean project of the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) and the Technical
Centre for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation (CTA). The views and opinions expressed herein, errors and omissions are
those of the author and not necessarily those of IICA or the CTA. Comments, corrections and additional information may
be sent to Diana.Francis@iica.int
 Briefs-2-Go – Invasive Alien Species

In addition, in the United Kingdom (UK) the problem of invasive plants has
become so acute that conservationists believe that they are second only to

(top) Perna viridis (Green Mussel); (centre) Screw worm (Cochliomyia omonivorax) larvae;
habitat destruction as a cause of species extinction and environmental decline
(Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 20031).
Arguably, the range of possible effects that could be accounted for is by no
means exhaustive, and as such, unrealistic to mitigate in entirety. As a result, the
full range of economic costs of biological invasions goes beyond the immediate
impacts on the affected agricultural producers (Evans, 2003). This means that other
sectors and stakeholders in the economy may suffer as a result of the effects of an
IAS related to agriculture. Agriculture is important to livelihoods; but so too is the
(bottom) Red Lion fish (Pterois volitans)
health of humans and the natural environment. Also, promoting innovation and
development in agriculture and agribusinesses may necessitate inputs that may
not be available locally and would have to be source abroad, creating further
avenues by which alien pest and disease species may enter. In the context of
liberalised trade and increasing “openness” of markets, the IAS threat increases
exponentially.
Invasive species can cause considerable damage and the costs for eradication
and control for societies may be high. However, quite often only the partial and
most obvious impacts are taken into consideration. Within recent years however,
greater efforts have been made to assess the full impact, that is, the full extent of
the costs of damages caused by pest incursions (Evans, 2003). This requires
addressing both the financial costs and importantly, the economic costs. Recent
experiences have highlighted that loss to the agricultural producers may extend
beyond the eradication of the pest or disease, associated with a phenomenon
caused by consumer perception of the product. This is of particular concern to
CARICOM states as they are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of such
invasions (CBD 2003 and IUNC/SSC/ISSG 2001). With many CARICOM states
dependent on agriculture for income, food and nutritional security and economic
development, the potential and actualised impacts on agriculture take centre
stage.

Understanding the Key Words in the Concept

Author’s Interpretation
The Encarta World English Dictionary defines:
Invasive as:
1. Intruding: involving an intrusion or infringement, e.g. of somebody‟s privacy or rights;
2. Growing aggressively: growing aggressively in an area and stifling the growth of pre-existing plants;
3. Involving or mounting a military attack on a territory, especially with a view to conquering it.

Alien (adjective) as:

4. Strange: outside somebody‟s normal or previous experience and seeming strange and sometimes
threatening;
5. Inconsistent with somebody or something: not in keeping or totally incompatible with the nature of
somebody or something;
6. Not from country: not a citizen of, or not belonging to, the country in question.

Applying the meaning of these Key Words from a Caribbean perspective, one can understand IAS as a
strange living organism (plant, animal and/or microbe) that is not from the Caribbean region but has
intruded and is growing aggressively in the Caribbean marine, freshwater and/or terrestrial ecosystems with
a view to conquering the native plants, animals, microbes or other living organisms found growing and living
there.
In other words, the IAS threat is a very real and present danger to Caribbean ecosystems, as we know it,
and failure to take pre-emptive, preventive, offensive and in when all else fails, defensive actions further
exacerbates the region‟s development challenge and raises the economic, environmental and socio-
political stakes for all in the Caribbean.

1 http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/t4invasive_species.pdf
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 Briefs-2-Go – Invasive Alien Species

IAS in the Caribbean

Alien species are not a new concept; especially in Caribbean agriculture. Many of the common
breeds and cultivars in livestock and agronomic production today which are deeply rooted in the
fabric of Caribbean culture, particularly traditional agriculture, are in fact extra-regional. Breadfruit was
brought to the Caribbean in the 18th Century; banana likewise originates from Southeast Asia. Also,
many of “our” fruit trees were introduced into the Caribbean. Traditionally, the greatest levels of
agricultural production for any crop are usually outside of its region of origin (McNeely et al., 2001). This
point showcases the nature of agriculture as an initiator of movement of new or alien species, as well
as a primary medium by which this practice is judiciously encouraged; and rightly so, as not all alien
species are bad. It must be stressed that an alien species is not necessarily a bad thing to have as they
can contribute meaningfully to production, increased competitiveness and new, higher-earning
market opportunities.
However, it is the unintentional and unprepared for effects (invasiveness) of the introduction of an
alien species with the potential to be invasive, which present the significant threat to human and
animal life, as well as the environment. This would describe species (plant, insect, etc.) that we have
traditionally referred to as new or „exotic‟ „pests‟. A species‟ invasiveness is reflected in several key
characteristics including inter alia, the ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually, high birth rates
(fecundicity), rapid reproduction and growth, high dispersal ability (i.e. easily transmittable), tolerance
of a wide range of environmental conditions and ability to live off a wide range of food types.
Consequently, based on these features, the introduction of an alien/non-native species into an
ecosystem does not necessarily mean that it is, or will become invasive.
Kairo et al (2003) identified 23 species categorized as being major invasive threats to the Caribbean
region. This list includes a few species that may surprise: domestic sheep (Ovis aries), the common rat
(Rattus rattus) and Red sandalwood tree/Barbados pride (Adenanthera pavonina). In more recent
years, the Region has faced new, increasingly invasive aliens. This list of the Region‟s least wanted
include the Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles) – a voracious predator that threatens the entire
Caribbean reef ecosystems; the Green Asian mussel (Perna viridis) – a rapid growth mussel that
dominates water courses and structures affecting the local biodiversity; Frosty pod rot (Moniliophthora
roreri) - a devastating disease of cocoa which is a threat to other native flora as well; and the New
world Screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) – the „man eater‟.
The Insular Caribbean presents some unique challenges to countervailing IAS threats. For one, the
close proximity of islands favours the dispersal of invasives, especially those that can move freely across
waters or by vectors for them. For example, cattle egrets were identified as contributing to the spread
of the Tropical Bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum) from St Kitts to Nevis and neighbouring islands, and
in the case of the Lionfish it can simply swim its way through the Region. Given that the Region is a
valuable centre of biodiversity characterized by unique biotas and a high level of endemism, threats
that range across nations should be justifiably addressed. In addition, the geographical situation and
historical development of the Region as a trading hub between the European mainland and the
Americas highlight the Regions‟ strategic position as an important port of call. Together with tourism,
the Caribbean is collectively an active area for the movement of goods and people, and thus IAS as
well.
Assessment of the extent of impacts caused by accidental and intentional introduction of IAS may
be grouped under broad categories, some of which include:
1. Human Many IAS are a threat to human life; for example, the H1N1 and H2N1 diseases, considered
health- pandemics, which together, have caused over 14,000 deaths worldwide. Also, human well-being is
life adversely affected through the undercutting of opportunities and sustainability of resources upon
which livelihoods and development are often based (Chenje and Mohamed-Katerere, 2004).
Invasives may also contribute to creating suitable habitats for disease-carrying pests. For example,
water fern (Salviniales spp) has been identified as a contributor to increased breeding of mosquitoes
and snails carrying bilharzia (schistosomiasis) which infects more than 300 mn annually in Africa and
the tropics.
A little closer to home is the New world Screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivoraxis) which is present in
Jamaica. Known as the “man-eater” on account of the flesh-eating nature of the larvae, the screw
worm fly lays eggs in open wounds which provide the environment for development of larvae which
feed on living tissue. If left untreated the feeding action of the larva will enlarge the wound thus
increasing the chances of infection as well as inviting more flies to lay eggs. In Jamaica there are on
average 7 or 8 cases reported every month resulting from screw fly infections. Loss of human life has
been recorded.

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 Briefs-2-Go – Invasive Alien Species

2. Bio- Many IAS are out-competing natural fauna and flora which are important to maintaining the
diversity natural environment and its diversity of life (biodiversity). Preserving the biodiversity of the
and Eco- Caribbean is important to numerous sectors, such as, tourism, lumber, arts and craft, fisheries,
system manufacturing, pharmaceuticals and beauty-care and agriculture. These all depend on the
resources of the natural environment. In the case of the Caribbean, the low density of indigenous
species provides for greater vacant niche space and less competition than would be found on
mainland territories, thus affording IAS a greater foothold for establishment and displacement of
native species. For example, invasive plants impact on the habitat of important birds and terrestrial
animals, as well as the watersheds/water courses which preserve breeding grounds for aquatic
species. Without these specialized ecological spaces, many native species may face extinction
leaving society without opportunities to actualize potential benefits from their use. For example, the
Insular Caribbean is the home to some 6,550 endemic species of plant from which new medicinal
treatments may be developed.
3. Production Productivity can be directly hindered by an invasive species‟ damage to crops and livestock.
Many of the IAS of concern are parasitic organisms, such as, the Giant African snail, the Red palm
mite, and Pink mealybug. IAS such as these directly reduce the production base for agriculture by
attacking the crop/livestock species upon which production is dependent. Non-agricultural
production systems are also affected. For example, power generating plants in Jamaica are facing
significant increases in maintenance costs for water pipes used in cooling equipment because of
the Zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) and Asian Green (Perna viridis) mussels. These mussels tend to
cluster in pipes clogging them and hampering water intake. Because of their high growth and
reproduction rates, production must be stopped to allow pipes to be cleaned; and much more
frequently, resulting in increasing power generation costs.
4. Trade and Agriculture is a production system and as such, impacts in one area, or link of the system, may be
Economy transferred, directly or indirectly to other stages depending on the strength of inter-dependence. For
example, at pre-production stages, supply of needed inputs to the production process may be
halted, resulting in losses. Related to this would be cases where on-farm impacts affect the activities
of agro-processors in the value-adding stages, thus hindering production as well. In addition to losses
from reduction in production, such losses include market opportunities lost as a result of the threat of
transfer and hence the triggering of SPS-related barriers to trade. Also important are the prospects of
losing competitive advantage in an export market and possibly the premium from supplying
disease-free products (Hosein, 2010). Trade in non-food commodities (e.g. wooden craft and
boxes/crates, clothing and carpets, human resources) may likewise be barred given the avenue to
unwittingly transport the invasive species. In addition, where protocols are enforced for border
protection, these are often seen as barriers to trade since not may exporters are prepared to, or
have the resources to meet the requirements in the protocol. As a result, these protocols are
bypassed predisposing countries to invasion. Not only does this affect trading relations, it affects the
small producers and exporters whose welfare is largely linked to a smooth trading system.
Spread of invasives can have negative effects on the aesthetic and cultural environment which
directly affects tourism (Chenje and Mohamed-Katerere, 2004). Forested areas may be decimated.
Tourism is a particularly good example of how the true impacts and costs of IAS in agriculture can
extend to other critical sectors of the economy.

A good predictor of invasiveness is whether a species has successfully or unsuccessfully invaded

local biodiversity found in three main ecosystems
Terrestrial Freshwater Marine

Antigua & Barbuda Landscape Lake Capoey, Guyana Underwater scene, Dominica
(photo IICA Antigua) (Photo IICA Guyana) (photo Brent Theophille)

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 Briefs-2-Go – Invasive Alien Species
Links to Regional Agendas
Livelihoods in the Caribbean are integrally tied to its environment and the biodiversity it supports. While
awareness of IAS impacts is still generally inadequate, participation in international agreements and
protocols has supported an increased awareness and capacity in member states to address IAS related
management issues. The main initiatives are profiled below.
i. Convention on Biodiversity (CBD): is premised on the
need to cooperate on preservation of biodiversity,
recognising “the intrinsic value of biological diversity
and of the ecological, genetic, social, economic,
scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and
aesthetic values of biological diversity and its
components”. Accordingly, this principle supports
national preservation responses such as the RAMSAR
and UNESCO World Heritage Sites which are, largely,
well enforced in the Caribbean. These provide a basis
for building public awareness of IAS, communicating
first-hand the value (e.g. aesthetic, economic) of our
distinct environment.
ii. Cartagena Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region: this is a partner initiative to the CBD
where the contracting parties will “endeavour to
conclude bilateral or multilateral agreements
including regional or sub-regional agreements for the
protection of the marine environment of the wider
Caribbean Region”. Its principles relate directly to the
mandate of the Caribbean Regional Fisheries
Mechanism (CRFM) and should be accounted for in
ongoing work in sustainable management of the
marine resources of the Region. For example, the ACP
Fish II Programme for Strengthening Fisheries
Management in ACP Countries (entered Phase II Jan
2010) has as its overall objective “to contribute to the
sustainable and equitable management of fisheries in
ACP countries”. Mitigating the debilitating effects of
IAS, such as, the Lionfish and the Green Asian and
Zebra mussel on the marine ecosystem is an integral
element of the sustainable management task.
Moreover, with the Caribbean Sea being recognized
as a “special area” under the International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships
(MARPOL), as well as the Protocol Concerning
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the
Convention for the Protection and Development of
the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean
Region (SPAW), their is copious precedence for the
incorporation of IAS management issues into dialogue
on preserving livelihoods tied to the marine space.
iii. CRISIS Strategy of the CISWG: The overall purpose of
the Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention
Strategy (CRISIS) is to safeguard the wider Caribbean
from the threat of invasive alien species and to
develop concerted action to deal with existing
problems. The strategy recognises multi-faceted nature
of the IAS problem and the need to tackle the
problem at the farm/production level and beyond,
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encompassing the entire agri-food system. This
demands an expanded and broader mandate for
agricultural health and food safety institutions and the
need for greater private and public sector
cooperation. CRISIS aims to outline a plan of action
that would assist the region in developing the
necessary policy and technical framework for
preventing and mitigating the introduction and spread
of invasive alien species, and accessing and retaining
markets. Also, the Strategy is positioned to reinforce
and guide national initiatives to determine when
regionally coordinated thrusts are needed and
complement other invasive species programmes.
iv. CAB International – Mitigating the Threat of Invasive
Species in the Insular Caribbean: This project
implements a component of the CRISIS that seeks to
holistically address the threat posed by invasive alien
species. Through this initiative, Caribbean states
recognised the need for a regional strategy and
expressed strong interest in linking national efforts in
implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on
Biodiversity (CBD) which aims to “prevent the
introduction of, control or eradicate those alien
species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or
species”. Member states have begun a series of
activities towards developing a regional strategy for
managing invasive alien species. Efforts are also under
way to build capacity for conducting impact
assessments whereby the true economic and
ecosystem cost of invasives may be determined. These
two points were underscored at a Regional
Consultation and Capacity Building Workshop held 9 –
12 June 2010 in Trinidad and Tobago.
v. Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety
Agency (CAHFSA): a new CARICOM organ, officially
launched in March 2010, responsible for developing
policies to improve health and safety practices in
agriculture and food production and formulating
standards for trade in agricultural practices.
Compliance with the WTO Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary
(SPS) measures is essential, with emphasis on
consensual protocols preventing the spread of IAS by
trade. CAHFSA is well positioned to support not only
Regional recognition of the threat of invasive alien
species but to also mobilize cooperative response
through the legislative framework that encourages
adherence to mitigating strategies. This should include
focus on identifying potential entry points for IAS into
the supply chain/trade and rapid response practices
to minimize disruptions of trade flow.
 Briefs-2-Go – Invasive Alien Species
FYI:
Some Facts on IAS in the Caribbean
 Total reported loss to the Caribbean from the pink
mealy bug was approximately US$138, 000,000;
 8:1 social benefit: cost ratio of Trinidad and Tobago
biological control programme for Pink mealy bug
over the period 1998 – 2004 with a net benefit of
US$ 34,956, 829 (Singh, 2004).
 If the Carambola fruit fly (Bactrocera carambolae),
now present in Suriname and Guyana, establishes
throughout the region, estimated losses could be
over US$ 212 million/ year.
 1998 estimate of annual economic losses on the
Jamaican livestock of the New World Screwworm
sector amounted to US$ 5.5-7.8 million.
 Priority areas for IAS management:
- Policy and legislation: most countries have not
developed appropriate legislation specifying the
required legal and institutional environment for
managing IAS. The legislation which refers to IAS is
embodied in other sectoral laws (e.g. Plant
Protection and Quarantine Acts) where several
projects related to IAS are ongoing but remain
largely unintegrated.
- Strategy: clearly defined strategies for managing
IAS threats are needed and with emphasis on the
particular needs of ecological-specific threats
(freshwater, terrestrial, marine).
- Border surveillance: poor and many countries rely
on point-of-entry or destination inspection without
placing resources on managing the risk at the
point of origin, thereby encouraging the spread of
IAS.
- Risk assessment: identifying potential threats at
point of origin and appropriate countermeasures;
- Impact assessment – quantifying the (potential)
impacts of IAS.
- export diversification,
- regional integration
 Main priorities identified for improving response to
the IAS threat:
- improved public awareness, support, and
engagement in managing IAS threat
- stronger governmental support & investment in
preventative measures
- improved research capacity
- improved cooperative information collating and
knowledge sharing
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The bottom line!
IAS are a threat to ALL our livelihoods!!
The IAS problem in the Caribbean is multi-sectoral in
nature and affects human wellbeing and livelihoods
across the business and stakeholder borders: tourism and
industry are just as at risk as agriculture. This fact demands
the involvement of governmental and non-governmental
agencies, as well as collaboration among a broad range
of stakeholders at the local, national, regional and
international levels to collectively address the IAS threat.
Generally, within the Caribbean the management
capacity to mitigate the threat of IAS is limited. Except for
The Bahamas, comprehensive national legislation on IAS
is non-existent.
Notwithstanding, there is an urgent need for new
economic approaches to mitigate the IAS threat to local
biodiversity and economy. Moreover, in order to minimize
economic and human loss, the management of
information should be more judiciously handled given the
influence on human behaviour. Initiatives cognisant of
these sensitive areas should target the audience both
inside and outside of agriculture given the range of social
and health issues that could arise. In this stead, it must be
recognised that all stakeholders in the economy have a
role to play in combating the IAS threat as all are
predisposed to harm.
There is the view, however, that the small island states
of the Caribbean have a unique opportunity to combat
IAS in that the similarities in trade patterns, products,
climate and weather allow for productive responses in
both prevention and control to be more quickly
transferred and adopted which increases the ability of
other islands to mitigate the damage done. The work in
the Region on the pink mealybug is an example.
Moreover, as a result of well-established organs for
dialogue and cooperation in the Caribbean (e.g.
CARICOM, CARIFORUM and OECS) it is possible for an
integrated collaborative effort to be staged in border
control and policy enforcement for mitigating IAS.
Because an ounce of prevention is better than a pound
of cure cooperation on preventative measures should be
the focus.
The goal of policy makers, thus, should be to develop
effective management programs to help prevent,
control or mitigate such invasions, and where all else fails
to identify adaptation strategies which minimize the long-
term negative effects of an IAS. In this regard, rather than
try to eliminate the pest or disease when it has occurred,
countries are now trying to employ preventative methods
at management. The emphasis is on the benefits and
costs of treatments to determine how best to manage
the particular pest or disease (Evans 2003).