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FOREWORD
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1 don 't yet fully und erstand th e co mpulsio n th at drew me to the life of a sold ier. Certainly th ere
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was a traditi o n of m ilitary service in my fam ily; but there was an invisible, mo re powerful force
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that was abo ve family tradition . Kipling o nce wrote th at " Irishmen m ove to th e sound of guns
like salmo n to the sea". Perhaps it is j ust so.T he regime nts in w hich I served, the R oyal Irish,
with over three hund red years of history and th e much yo unger Spec ial Air Service, have both
left an ind elible mark o n me. It was the regiments that made me th e man I am .
Increasingly in modern societies, th e affl ue nt first wo rld, w here mi litary serv ice is reser ved for
the daring and the inspired, th e pri vilege of bel on gin g to a profession al army unit is still an
expe rience that changes the ind ivid ual, their o utlook, and how the world perceives them. It
is also extremely expensive for the nation s to maintain such forces - with the largest portio n
go ing o n salaries. Has it not always been th e case that elite fighting men co mmand a premium?
Societies have raised and maint ained the se standing fightin g elites since before wr itten record s.
Many were th e preser ve of k in gs and em pero rs, while othe rs, like the Zulu ill/pis or th e Spartan
regim ents, embo died a warrior code th at was woven int o th e very fabric of th eir society. So me
were pri vileged elites, set apart from so ciety like N apoleon 's Imperial G uard, and some even
becam e so influ enti al that the y challenge d the very power of th e state they were created to
prot ect, like the Otto man janissaries did in th e ISth cent ury.
But o ne thing remai ns co nsistent; the m ilitary o rganizatio ns from across the m illen nia reflect the
society fr om w hich they arc drawn and arc underpinned and m otivated by the standards of th at
soc iety. T hey reflect not j ust the values of the soc iety bu t the way in w hich those soc ieties wish
to see th em selves. Essent ially it is the way that soc ieties organize their fightin g forces that gives
those forces their uniqu e qualities. In Asian soc ietie s th e mart ial tradit io n is preserved wit hi n
tribes and castes. In Japan it was formalized under the code of bushido, the " warrio r's way".
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In Europe, th e broad principl es o f military traditi on evo lved o ut o f th e m edi eval co ncept
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Kin gd om and its em pi re, th e traditi on was m aintain ed by th e regiments, w ith eac h o ne tracing
its own history back to the date of its formation . In Pru ssia and subseq ue ntly in th e Germ an
Em pire, states relied m ore o n their own history as a state, altho ugh ce rtain regiments withi;l
elite form ations did maintain unit histor ies. The Fren ch, meanwhile, created th e co nce pt
of esprit de corps, or pride in o ne's unit, within most elite o r uniqu e Frenc h units.
But a sing le th read , a bond forged by histo ry, gro up ri tual, an d an invisible force of wi lling
obligatio n runs th rou gh all these traditi on s. It is beca use of th is thread , thi s co m mon need, that
th e mann er in w h ich states and soc ieties have raised and o rgan ized th ei r fightin g forces across
the conti ne nts of th e wo rld has rema ine d essentially the same for over two tho usand year s.
Soldier takes yo u th rou gh th e story of th is m arti al tradi tion . It features 30 key in dividual
soldiers and warr iors, inclu di ng sailors and air me n, w ith over 70 o thers covered in lesser detail.
T hese inc lude not o nly th e fighting elites of great em pi res, but also inexpe r ienc ed conscr ipt s an d
voluntee rs. For eac h of th e key soldiers th ere is a full acco unt of the ir orga nizat io n and eq uipment
w ith insights into th eir m otivation and an assessme nt of th eir achievemen ts. T his will allow yo u to
sense th e spiri t of th e G reek hoplite co nv ince d that the re was nothing finer in life th an to stand in
a ph alan x bristlin g wi th 2.7 m (8ft) spea rs, see th e remot e o utposts of th e R oman Em pire throug h
th e eyes of a legi on ary, and under stand th e co nfide nce o f th e British red coats standing !;ISt, loadi ng
and firin g more qu ickl y and acc ura tely than th eir foes. M ore m odern ar m ies arc featured too,
allowi ng yo u to trace the unbro ken thread o f darin g, o bedie nce, and skill that lin ks the sold iers
of every per iod o f h um an history.
CO LONEL T I ,\ \ C O L LI N S
600 BC E -
300 B C E
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th en in th e Peloponn esian Wars that pitted At hen s aga inst Sparta . Wi dely
recogni zed as th e finest foot sold iers of th ei r time, G ree k hoplites later
serve d in th e all-conquering army of Alexand er th e Great and as mercen aries
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TH E KO PIS, A LO NG
SLASHING KNIFE
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Cooking on campaign
The Greeks madeportableearthenware
cooking stoves that were fuelled by
charcoal. These may well havebeen
used by Greekarmies on the march.
Trireme
It took 170 men to crew the oarsof a
trireme and synchronizing the strokes
wasnot easy, as volunteersaboard the
reconstructed trireme Olympias discover.
FIG HT I NG T HE PERSI A NS
The fig hti n g qu a liti c of t he Greek
hoplitc we re p ut t h o rou g h ly to th e
test wh en larg e Pe rsian a r mi e s
in vad ed G reece, fi rst i n 4<JO Be E
a n d th en ag a in a d e c ad e later. On
the fir st o c ca sio n a pr ed ominantl y
At henian force cl ash ed w it h a ( I r
larger Pe rsia n a r ru y, includi n g
Gre ek w arrior
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Ochre dye
used to create
red stnpes
on crest
Chalcidian helm et
Once thought to have originated in the
Greek city of Chalcis, this o rnate style of
helmet w as made in the Greek colonies
of southern Italy in the 5th century BCL
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Art iculated
cheek. piece
can be rarsed
to vent ilate
the face
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Styl es of f ighting
PHALAN X
VIEWED
FRO M ABOV E
Phalanx eight
ranks deep
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ROMAN LEGIONARY
IN EVERY BATTLE VICTORY IS GRANTED NOT BY MERE
NUMBERS AND INNATE COURAGE BUT BY SKILL AND
TRAINING ... WE PREVAILED BY SKILFUL SELECTION OF
RECRUITS, BY TEACHING THE PRINCIPLES OF WAR, BY
PUNISHMENT FOR INDOLENCE.
VEGETIUS, A MILITARY DIGEST, 4TH CENTURY CE
At the heart of th is form idable organi zati on w ere th e legion aries - tough
professio nal infan try equipped w ith sword, sh ield, and javeli n. Equa lly
do mi nant in pit ched battl es and in siege wa rfare, th ey we re used to cow
or destroy the ene m ies of R ome in cam paig ns of ruthless effic iency .
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LIF E I N T H E LEGI ON S
The .u t ractio ns oflife ill th e leg io n we re su ch
as wo u ld ap pea l to m en who o therw ise f;lCl'd
lives bli ght ed b y in securit y and poor pr o spe ct .
Em ployme nt as a legionary o fti.-rcd m od e st pay -
a comucen
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Fronti er f o rce
The bulk of th e Roman army w as stationed
alon g th e Empire's frontiers, alth ough th e
major citie s of th e eastern Mediterranean also
came under th e legion's wa tchfu l eye. Only
short stretches of frontier w ere forti fied.
IYR I N I
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T RA I N I NG AND WO RK ING
Most lcgi ou ar ics w ere po st ed to so me remote
a rea ncar th e fronti e rs of the Em p ire or to (HIt,.'
o f t he c ities o f the e aster n M ed ite r ra nea n . suc h
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an d played an
increasingly
important role
in battle.
Cavalry training
Cavalry training in
the useof the spear
isdemonstrated by
re-enactors. Note that
Roman horsemen did
not have stirrups.
CAVALRY HELMET
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The tortoise
Using the tor toise formation
manoeuvre successfully,
they we re immune to the
arrows and other missiles
directed against t hem by
the defenders (far right) ,
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NAM E OF EACH SOLD IER WAS ALSO W RITTE N O N HI S SH IELD, TOGETHER W ITH
TH E NUMBER OF THE COHORT A ND CENTURY TO WH ICH HE BELONGED.
VEGETIUS, A M ILI TA RY DIG EST, 4TH CENTURY CE
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I N T O II AT TL E
Pu ll-s cale' field ba tt les we re infre q ue nt, bu r th ey
were the ulti mate test of a leg io n ar y's mora le an d
fighting ski lls, Con fro n ted w ith a "bar bari an"
army. the R o m an s h ad no c r u cia l tec h no logica l
adva ntage 0 11 the bat tlefield . T hey did d epl oy field
a rr illcr y ill t he for m of sma ll ba llistae k now n as
" sco r pio ns" , b ut a lt ho ugh these we re acc u rate
a nd l.,trt.'ct ivl.' mi ssile wea po ns th ey wer e not
de cisive, T he R o m ans ra rel y m ad e u se o f Ii '14
to rt ifi rnri on s, a nd th e n o n ly to defe nd the ir
Hank s. It was the d iscipline, stam in a, an d t
of th e l q.~i on a r y th at so o fte n b ro ug ht vi
H e was , it is t r ue. bett er ar mo u red t h an hi s
o ppo ne n ts, bu t sword, spe ar, and sh ield were
co m mo n to bot h sides . T he savage ry o f
close-quart ers co mba t de ma nde d emotio nal
co m m itm e n t to co u nte r hi s inev itab le
fear. H er e hi s bo nd in g w ith co m rad es
fight ing alo ngs ide a nd id ent ificat io n
w it h t he hon our of the coh o rt a nd
I~gio ll wo u ld have their fu ll effect.
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chilling shou t and hurl their javelins into the mass of the
Cavalryheld
In reserve
until required.
when It would
probablybe
deployedon
the wings
CAVALRY
RESERVE
LEGIONARIES
DO
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Direction of
Infa ntry adva nce
SliNGERS &
SLiNGERS &
SKIRM ISHERS
SKIRMISHERS
Ord e r of battle
Depending on how the enemylined up, the Romans might
greet them with arrowsand artillery boltsor harass them
with skirmishersand slingers. The latter would withdraw
asthe main infantry force of legionariesadvanced .
Comicen
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ROMAN FORT
NORTH GATE
The Romans were the greatest experts in fortificatio n in th e Ancient World. When
on campaign. a legion wou ld co nstruct a fortified camp. surro unde d by a rampa rt and
dit ch . at every stop . Whereas fighting migh t often be left to less wel l-t rai ned auxi liaries.
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CAVALRY BARRACKS
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building wo rk was always the job of legio naries. T hey wou ld have bu ilt th e fort show n
here at Arbei a in northern Eng land, altho ugh it subseq uently housed aux iliary tro ops.
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WORKSHOPS
EAST GATE
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GRANARIES
OFFICER'S HOUSE
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INFANTRY BARRACKS
Building a fort
legionaries on the Dacian campaign (101102CE) build a stone fort. They are working in
full armour in case of a surprise enemyraid.
Gatehouse battlements
The plaque statesthat the fort wasbuilt
by l egio VI Victrix under SextusCalpurnius
Agricola, governorof Britain ( .163- 166 CE.
Doorway
The solid wa lls and doors of the for t wo uld have
kept out the tribal fighterswho might carry out
raidsin Roman-occupied Britain.
Gat ehouse
The gatehouse of the for t of Arbeia, on th e
Tyne estuary in nor thern England, has been
recontru cted to give an impression of its
original appearance. Built in the 2nd century CE,
the fo rt became a majo r supply depot for the
troop s manning Hadr ian's Wall. Although the
tw in tow ers are imposing, th ey are smaller than
those at some othe r Roman forts, which had
gateho uses up to four storeys high .
TH E BARRACKS
T he barrack blocks at Arbcia were built of plastered sto nework
o utside w ith wartl c- and-daub dividin g walls in side . The aux iliary
t roops th at wen.' statio ned th er e would have be en di vid ed , lik e
legion ari es, into eig ht- ma n ( tlU / u b n tt ;ll . O[ "tent gro ups". Each
in [;lIlt r y block hous ed five ( llJlu/n'", i" and each (dUlubt'rlli" m
was allo tted a cramped two-roomed su ite . which also had to
accom mo da te mu ch of their equipment, The cent ur io n and
thv lower rank ing officers lived in a slightly larger su ite at th e
end of the barracks. Cavalryme n were bill eted in sim ilar sized
barr acks. W ith 30 men and th eir horses housed in each blo ck ,
co nditio ns were even less en viab le rhan those of the in fantry.
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Do rm itory
The ordinary soldiers of a Roman
contubernium wou ld have spent
most of their time in the larger of
their tw o rooms . It was here th at
they slept - either under wooll en
blankets on beds like these or
simply on matt resseson the floo r.
Sanitation
Many fort s had a bathhouse
out side th e fort for the troops,
w hile the commanding off icer's
family had their own bath s in th e
house. This communal latr ine near
Hadrian's Wall makes up for lack of
privacy w ith hiqh-quehty plumbin g .
courtyard of th e hous e
The house w as arranged around an op en courtyard, whi ch may have
contained fountains. Courtyard wa lls-are likely to have been decorated
w ith garden scenes. The principal roo ms led off a colonnaded walkway.
Sing le room
The smaller room of th e suite allotted
to a contubernium was either a living
area or th e space where the soldiers
stored their military equipment.
Board game
Soldiers are known to have
whiled away off-duty hour s
with a variety of board games
played with dice and coun ters.
COMMANDING
OFFICER'S HOUS E
In dramatic co ntrast to th e pr ivation s of barr ack-r oom
life, th e co m ma ndi ng offic er of th e fort was provided
with a co m fortable hou se, Sin ce th e R om an s took th eir
dom estic arch itec tura l sty les wh er ever th ey went , th e
building would have mimicked a typical Med iterran ean
town hou se, complete with dinin g roo ms, bedrooms,
a kit ch en . stables. and its ow n hyp ocau sr (u nder- floor
heating system). No co ncessions we re nude to the local
clima te , and th ese airy hou ses huilt aro u nd an ope n
central courtyard may not have been so appealing du ring
mid -winter in th e northern reach es of the empire.
--
ENEMIES OF ROME
T he forces agai nst w hic h th e R oman s fou ght ranged from th e
var ied in th eir battl e tacti cs, th eir level of orga n izatio n and
the west and the Parth ian s and Sassan id Per sian s in th e cast - to
triba l wa rba nds and nomad ic cava lry. Althou gh th ere was never
any great tec h no logica l gu lf di stin gui shin g th ese d iffer ent forces
from one anot her or fro m the R oman s, th ey wer e ex tre m ely
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ORNATE
CARTHAG INIAN
BREASTPl ATE
THE GERMANS
Gcrm ani c tribes and fed er ati ons - Teuron es,
Alam anni, G oths, Franks, Vandals, a nd m an y
o the rs - w er e amo ng th e m o st d et ermined and
pe rsistent e ne m ies o f thc R oman Em pire from
th e 2 nd cen tu ry BC E to th e 5th ce nt u ry C I'. Lik e
th e C elts. th e Germa ns wer e used to m arc o r
less pcrm an cnt tribal warfare, often pr actised b y
wa rba nd s o f yo u ng men led by an exp eri en ced
fighter o f noted prowcss. T he ir battlefield tacti cs
see m to have differed from rhe C elts in so far as
the y invo lved a m or e co m pac t formati on and a
THE CELTS
T he C elts of weste rn Eu ro pe - G au ls, Ib eri ans.
Br itou s - had a di stinctive style o f wa rfarc th at
co nt rasted strik ing ly with th at of rhe R om ans .
Bands o f yo u ng m en , foll owing a leader of
ack no w ledged stre ng th a nd co u ragc, would
regularl y e m bark o n raid s o n uci ghbouriu g
peopl es. Tribal bat tics we re probabl y heav ily
formal izcd, with individual warrio rs fir st
stepping forward to procla im their prowcss
and cha llenge ene m ies to sing le co m ba t.
A n attack invo lved a wi ld charg e
CELTIC
HORNED
HELMET
Ceremonial shield
Ma de of bro nze wi th studs of colou red glass,
this shield once belonged to an elite Celt ic
wa rrio r in Britain. Dat ing from the 2nd
centu ry BeE, it was probably inte nded for
ceremonial use rather than fo r comba t .
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In
800-rroo
VIKING
fir st appeared in
ca m pa ig ns o f conq uest and perm an ent set tle me n t. Vik in gs voyaged as (;11'
as N orth Am erica and, via Ru ssian ri vers,
to
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t he k in g do m s
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EXPAN D ING HO RI ZO NS
was laid was t,' ill K)(. a nd N an tes ill H4J. III H45 a
sho ck of th e ti rs t k n o wn ra id is
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THE VIKING WORLD c.80 0 - 1000 CE
GREEl\'I..A N D
NORTH
AMERICA
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Newfoundland
A TL ANTI C
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C E A N
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Ship's prow
Longships had high curving stem and
stern posts, oft en carved in the shape
of dragons. These clearly helped strike
terror into the victims of Viking raids.
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FATIM IO S
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BAT T LE FO RM AT IO N
W hen th e Vik in gs we re o b liged to fi g ht a
pi tched batt le. th e y for m ed up 0 11 to o t, probably
w ith a line o f m en sho u lde r- to -s ho u lde r c reating a
sh ield w all. their spl'ars br istl in g o ut ward th ro ugh
t he sm all ope nin gs b et w e e n sh ield and sh ie ld.
T he elite w arr io rs w ith th eir ar mo u r a nd he av ier
w l'apo n ry wo u ld stand clo se to th eir lead er . w ho se
ba n ne r wo u ld be ra ised be h ind th e fr ont li ne. A
bat t l alwa ys bl'g all w it h an exc ha nge o f mi ssile
ti n ' . th e Vik ing bo w m en form in g all essent ial if
ra rel y m e ntio ned par t o f til e ar m y. Skir m ishers
wo u ld thro w spears o r sm all a xes and there wo u ld
probab ly be sling sho ts also used , At so me poin t o ne
o r o the r side wo u ld mo u nt a ch arge . At th e battle
V I KI N G SETTLE M ENTS
As th e .un o u nr o f te r rit o r y
co n tro lled by t he V ik ings
ill En g la nd . lrelaud , and
par tl y a tr ibut e to th e q u al it y
norrh crn Fr an ce inc rea sed ,
of th e d iet they enjoyed iu thei r
II l al 1Y w arr io rs we re re wa rd ed
Sc and inav ia n hom ela nd . In
w ith g ra nts of lan d . and ra id s
co m b at the y w ielde d th ei r la rge
Dice cup
a nd ex pe di tio n s of co nq ues t
sw o rd s a nd a xe s w it h fe ro ciou s
Ar chaeo logica l find s show t hat the Vikings
b ecame le ss fre q ue nt . V ik in g
clll' rg y th at put ph ysical streng th
had exact ly the interests you wou ld expect
m CI1 bl' gan to i nr crmnrr y
in a wa rrior race - dr inking and gam bling .
a nd e nd u ranc e at a premi u m .
w it h w o m e n fro m the lo cal
populatio n a nd in re g ion s suc h as N orma nd y.
GO I NG BERSERK
ce ntral and no rth er n Eng land . a nd the a re a
The nat ure of Vik ing c u ltu re also m c n tully
aro u nd I)ublin t here we re ex te nde d pe r io d s o f
st reng thl'lll' d th e warr ior's co m m it me n t to t he
peace fu l coex iste nce . Fa r off Vik in g co lo n ists in
battle , T he c u lt o f O din , th e one- ey ed ~{)d of
Icel and face d a d iffe ren t problem: t here w as 110
wa r. st ressed th e im po rta nce o f a w arr io r d yin g
he roi call y ill battle rat her tha n sh.u u cfu lly ill
native populat io n an d co nse q ue nt ly a se ve re
h is bed . O d in 's m o st e n thus iast ic d evo tees w e re
sho r tage o f WOlI Il'n . Th ese h ad to be sh ippe d
t he " b e rserke rs". A ltho ug h co nteste d b y so m e
h istorian s, th l' ex iste nce o f th e se wi ld w arrio rs
HUNTIN G HORN
is w ell attested in N o rse li te rar y so u rces.
Ad m itte d ly m :1I1 Y o f these w e re not co m m it te d
w r it ing unt il 30 0 years atte r th e even ts th e y
d escr ibe , Bcsc rkcrs apl", ar to h aw fought na ked
to
LATER V I K IN G C O N Q1JES TS
R e latively q u iesce nt throu gh mu c h o f t he ln rh
centu ry. Viki ng po wcr unde rwent a rcsurgcnce..'
fro m the 9Hlls. An ~lo -Sa x on Br ita in su ffe red the
aggrc ssivc raids o f the fe arsome O laf Trygva sson ,
KNYTL/NGA SAGA. DESCRIBING KING (NUT WARRING IN ENGLAND, PROBABLY WRITTEN AROUND 1250
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YOU WORK ED WELL IN THE SHIELD -WAR, WARRI ORK I NG : BROW N WAS THE FLESH OF BOD IES SE RVE D
TO THE BLOOD-BIRD: IN THE SLAUGHT ER. YOU WON ,
SI RE , WITH YOUR SW O RD ENOUGH O F A NAME
VIKING LO NGSH IP
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The Viking lo ngship was a sw ift, sturdy, and versatile m ilitary transpo rt. Propelled
yard
Backstay
either by a sailor by oars, it cou ld cross th e o pen seas but also, because of its shallow
Fore stc1v
draught , penetrate inland along rivers or be pu lled up onto a beach . T he lon gship
featured here, known as Havhingstenjra
Glcllda/(lll.~h
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Defensive
wall of shields
Prow
Longsh ip p ro fil e
The long, narrow shape of the longship was designed
for speed. Sku/de/ev 2 w as appro ximately 30m (98ft)
long but on ly 3.8m (12ft 6in) wide. It could sail in
wate r less than a metr e (3ft 3in) deep.
Landf all
Viking s waited fo r a favourable wind
before sett ing sail on a raid. Theywou ld
get hardly any sleep on the gruelling
voyage from England from Denmark,
but could make it in about two days.
Shie ld
Vikings used their shields
as a defen ce as they rowed
to land on a hostile shore, but
it is not known how they we re
attached to the side of the ship.
Sail pow er an d o ar po w er
The rope fastened to the cleat (lef t) is one of the sheets that
controls the yard (t he wooden spar that carries the sail). When
the ship wa s under sail and the oar s not in use, the oar ports (right)
w ere sealed with a special lock.so that they w ould not let in water .
Bu ilt f or spee d
Sku/de/ev 2 wa s th e produ ct of
W eather vane
Many laterViking ships
had a high ly decorative
weather vane, madeof
gildedbronze,attached
to the prow.
Oars
The pine oarsare about
4.55m (15ft) long With
blades just 15cm (6in)
across. It has been found
that thiswidth isthe most
effective for rowing long
distances at sea.
Blowing horn
The Vikings used blowing
horns to call their ships
tog eth er. They could be heard
from long distancesand would
have been especiallyuseful at
night and in foggy weather.
w ide spread in securit y th rou gh ou t Europe and the Mediter ran ean
sel f-equ ipped lev ies - men for ced int o serv ice. In the Srh and 9th
but it was the Norma ns, Fre nch-s pea king descendan ts of th e
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" ho usccarls"
- :1 syste m
THE FRANKS
SWO RD
AND
Handle
made of
antler _ _
SCA BBA RD
Blade
served as
tool and
weapon
SCRAM ASEAXE
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THE BYZANTINES
T he Byzant ine Empire was th e co ntinuatio n
o f th e R oman Empire in th e cast and its armed
force ' at fir st follo w ed t he R o m an pro fessio n al
model. In th e 7t h ce nt ury, ho w eve r, w he n th e
e mpire came u nder th reat from Mu slim A rab
force s, a new form o f military organi zation
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THE NORMANS
A Viki ng w arba nd co n u u .mdcd by R oll o se tt led
in nort her n Fra nce in <) 11, wi th t he agreeme nt
of th e Fra nki sh kin g. C h arles the Sim ple. R oll o",
"
Riveted bands
reinforcinglap
of helmet
Reinforcement
of rim
Norman helmet
The Normans wore a conical
helm made of sheet iron. While
offering some protection, it
would not have been strong
enough to withstand a direct
blow with a sword or axe.
Crusading knight
This knight armed with a spear wearsa Norman
helmet and carriesa Norman shield. The distinctive
long. kite-shaped shield is emblazoned with a cross
that indicates that the knight isa crusader.
.
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Sicilian stronghold
Some of th e most enduring monuments to th e military pow er
of the Nor mans are to be fo und in Sicily, such as this cast le
perched high on a cliff to p at Erice in th e we st of the island.
MEDIEVAL KNIGHT
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION O F KNIGHTS? TO GUARD THE
CHURCH , TO FIGHT UNBELIEVERS, TO VENERATE THE
PRIESTHOOD, TO PROTECT THE POOR FROM INJURIES ,
TO POUR OUT THEIR BLOOD FOR THEIR BROTHERS ...
AND IF NEED BE , TO LAY DOWN THEIR LIVES.
JOHN OF SALISBURY, POLICRATICUS, 1159
H E EU HO I'EAN KN I GH T
horseman equ ippe d w ith lan ce and swo rd who - in prin ciple
if no t always in practi ce - domin ated the m edi eval battl efield
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COST LY RO LE
Kin g s in c reasing ly assu med the excl us ive righ t
to c0 11 I<'r kni g ht ho o d s and u sed th is as a l1le;lll"
l ita
amhit i on s
C H I VA LRY A N D GLO RY
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Heraldry
Heraldic devices. such ao; the shieldsdisplayed by this
15th-centuryknight in the Codex capodi/ista, wereboth
a military statussymbol and a mark of social standing.
1l101 1L't ar y
metal in hot sun. From the 15th century onwa rds. plate
armour was at its most elaborate. Metalworkers in Milan
ded icat ed to follow ing ~l 1Il 0 1l ;1 ~[ i ( ru le or secu lar like till' Order of th e
OWIl
ho use hol d
TO U RNA MENTS
O nce the warrior cas te of knigh ts h ad been
M A KI NG WAR
M edi eva l kni ghts we re co m m itte d to an idea l
o f wa r fare in wh ich mo u nte d warriors fo ug ht
o ne ano the r at close qua r te rs in a ta il' co nt est
of co u rage. st re ngt h . and sk ill. Bu t th e
rea lity of wa rfare wa s o fie n \'(.'r y di fferent ,
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Siege wa rfa re
An illustration from the Chronicles
of Charles VII showing a group of
knightsand other men -at- arms
under the banner of the Dauphin
Louis spearheading an assault on
the bastille at Dieppe in 1443.
PITCHED BATTLE
TACTICS
,-1/
C LOSE C O M BAT
Knights o f Christ
A lineof crusader knights
charge their opponents at
Ascalon, near Jerusalem, in
Tourna me nt ar mour
During the 16th century. specialist armour for use in
tou rnaments became common . This ornate German
suit feat ures heavier protectio n along th e more
vulnerable left arm and shoulder, while ventilation
holes are kept to the right -hand side of the visor.
LIVI N G O N
Eve n in th e l-lt h ce n t u ry , th e
battlefield domin an ce o f kni ghts
w as ch alle nged by lightl y
ar mo u re d foot so ld ie rs at
Cou r t ra i a nd Banno ckburn
and b y a rch ers at C recy, Fro m
rh e second ha lf o f th e 15th
centu ry, g u npo wd er w eapo n s
w ere in creasin gly effect ive. as
were d isciplined in fan tr y armed
w ith pik es. But a r mo u red
cava lry w as not dri ven fro m the
ba ttle field by arro w s. ca n no n or
ar q ue b uses. In so m e th ing close to
it s medieva l form it rem ained a n
impo rt ant cle me nt in bat tl es int o
th e lat e 1(,th ce ntu ry . By th en ,
ho w e ver , th e soc ia l a nd c u lt u ra l
basis of kn ightho od had d ecline d
wi th a n in c rease in ce n tra l state
p owe r a nd t he in exorable ri se of
pro fessio na l so ld ie r ing .
HAN D AN D AH AlF
SWORD. EARLY 15TH
CENTU RY
Great hall
ce ntres. ll odiam Cas tle in so uthern England . constructed during the Hundred Years'
War . is an exampl e o f a fortified individual dwel ling - th e residen ce of a we alth y knight.
Sir Edward Dallin gridgc, who beli eved hi s horne was at risk from att ack by the Fren ch .
Square
side tower
Chapel
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Drawbridge
Barbrcan
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vDraWb"dge
Outwork
Causeway
Bodi am Cast l e
Built around a courtyard, Bodiam Castl e had round
towe rs at each corner, square towers on each side, and
for ti fied gatehouses at both t he front and the back.
Knight in armo ur
A castle was stocked with
armou r and weapons. Full
plate armou r and visored
helme ts of sophistica ted
shape came into use in
the 15th century.
W at er o bsta cle
An aerial view shows how the
moat would force any attacker to
advance up the narrow causeway
at the front of the cast le.
Cast le g ate
The main gate was a potential weak point,
since it could succumb to a battering ram .
The gate would be protected during a siege
by lowering the iron portcullis.
Sieg e engi ne
The tor sio n-pow ered ballista
was inherited by med ieval
Europe from the Roman
Empire. It was, in effect,
a powerful crossbow.
Ston e sh ields
Heraldic shields carved above the castle gates
were meant to impress visitors with the owner's
status . Many owners, however, were in fact
minor knights grown rich on plunder.
Battl em ents
Corbels support the
battlements, which
have crenels (gaps)
used by archers .
Fin e ceili ng
The castle's inner chambers boasted
elaborately vaulted ceilings. Such
Great hall
Sturdy w alls
Ston e interi or
The castle buildings were hard to
heat. The stone floors were strewn
with rushes. straw, or herbs and
Fairy-tale castl e
Aesthetics were as important in the design
of Bodiam as military considerations . It was
consciously built to fulfil the ideal of a beautiful
castle as described in medieval romances .
Machicolations
Loophole
Round tower
M uslim - do mina ted eastern M edi ter ran ean fro m 1098 to 1291,
that , u nder most circu m stances, the armo ured fight ing m an o n
Muslim cncm ies wer e equa lIy inspired by rei igiou s ent husiasm,
cava lry me n, altho ug h all fighting with lan ce and sword, were
as well as by more practi cal moti ves. At the other ex tre me, bands
o f m ercen ari es led by faith less kni ghts fou ght cy n ically for
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KNIGHT TEMPLAR
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TEUTONIC KNIGHT
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Crusader helm et
The flat-topped "pot helm", wi th
a hinged visor covering the face,
was the standard headgear of
Christian knights in the Crusades.
Templ ar castle
In Portugal the Order
of Christ took over th
Templar headquarters
at Toma r, where it
preservedthe tradition
of warrior-monks.
THE CONDOTTIERI
In th e l-Ith and 15 th ce n tu r ies , th e wars foughr
as
It alian sallet
This fine example
of a sallet, a
style of helmet
that came into
fash ion in the
mid- 15th century,
was made in Milan
around 1480.
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MUSLIM WARRIORS
Th e invasion of Palestine by C hri sti an armies at
the e nd of the 11th ce n tu ry wa s a sh oc k to the
Islam ic wo rld . It provoked a rev ival of the spir it
ofjilltJd (religious w ar) ill a se ries of co unteroffensives thro ugh the fo llowi ng two ce nturies.
The Kurdi sh- bor n r u ler of Egy pt, Sa ladi n,
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11 10 LO N GBOW
key to th e militar y power of Eng lish kin gs in th e l-lrh and l St h cent uries,
allow ing th em to defeat "the Ro wer o f Fren ch ch ivalry" at C recy, Poitier s,
and Agincourt. T he arche rs we re recogni zed as an elite force, althoug h
w ith out th e social status to m atch their importan ce to th e English cro w n .
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MA SS AND SKI LL
'I'he grl'at adva ntage o f
t he lo ngbo w co m pared
w it h the c ross ho : - a
co nsi dera bly mo re
po we rful and co m ple x
\\Ta pOII - w as its t;Jr
g reate r rat e of shot .
An e xper ie nced a rc he r
wa s expected to sho o t
around 12 a r ro ws ;)
m iu u tl', ifl1l' wa s
only rel] uirl'd to
ai m in the ge ncra l
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di recti o n o f the l'l1l'lllY, T he EIl~ lis h so ug ht
to put tho u san d s o f arc lu-r-, in the ti cld. By th e
l Srh ce n tury t he n ' we re at l c.i vt t h ree h owm cn
to ev e ryo ne k ni ght ill the EIl!-di sh ar m y. a nd
th e ratio llIay have risc u at t i m cs to tell to o ne ,
Collec t ive ly th is m ass o f ar chcrv wo u ld ddu ge
th e e ne my ill a d l'lI Sl' showe r ofa r ro w s almos t
co m pa rab le to m o der n mu chinc-gu n ti re , At
th e bat tle o fAg inco urr ill l-l lS, it is thought
t ha t t he Enp li.. h 10 ngh o\\'lll l' ll Illa y have had
th e capac it y to lo o se ()O .ll()() ar rowv a m inute .
A medieva l ...tate incvir.iblv round it 3
ch alle nge to ... uppl y wl'aponr y and ammunition
o n such a sca le. III 1.>41 Edward III sco u red hi s
ki ngdom to co llect 7,7t1t1 bow and 13t1.tItiti
sheaves of ar row.... which were th en store d in th e
Tower of Lo ndon and other ar m o u r ic s. It w as
sa id t hat in the IJ 511s not all a rro w w as to b e
tou nd in till' whole of En gl and, since the k in g
had rakcn them all t'{u' h is cam paign in France.
T he problem (If su pply illg hows and arrows
w as no thing, ho wever. co m pare d with th e
d iffi c u lty of assl' mhlillg su ffic ie nt numbers of
arc he rs . Shooti ng a lon g bo w wa s a spec ialist
sk ill. requ irin g li t,:loll g pr art irc - boys ty pi ca lly
learn ed t he USl' o f t he how trom t he ag e of
seve n. The arc he r had to d evel op co n side rab le
physica l st re ng th, Arch e rs' ske leto ns o f
th e pe r io d h ave be e n fo u nd w ith
d efo r m ed Id i: arms and shou lde r
bon es, and badly tw iste d
ver te brae . as a result of the
rep eat ed dl(l rt of drawi ng
t he I. HIll (M t) bow. Awa re
of th e need to ma in ta in
;1 pool of bowmen fro m
w hom till' b est co u ld be
BARBED ARROWHEADS
l o ngbow s in action
At the battl e of Aljubarrota
in 138 5 (right) English
longbowmen helpedthe
Portuguese defeat the
French and Spanish forces .
Here,asin manymedieval
illustrations. mostof the
archers are shown firing
their arrows from the
wrong side of the bow.
A modernre-enac tor (far
right) demonstrates how
the bow should be drawn.
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CALL TO A RMS
T he lISC of III i!\sih.' Wl'apo ns. especia lly bows and
arrows, was ge nerally deni grated ill medi eval
European war fare , Kn igh ts affecte d to despise
a , ty le o f co m bat th at allowed a m an to k ill fro m
a di stan ce, d en ounci ng it as co wa rd ly an d b ase .
A, a resu lt , th e nobilit y a nd ge nt ry d id no t fig ht
as arc hers , Bo w m e n w ere typ ically d rawn fro m
LONGBOWMEN ON
THE BATTLEFIELD
I N BATTLE
NO(k (notch)
Flight. usually
of goose Of
sw an feathe rs
REPLICA ARROWS
.
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arme d w ith pikes, club s, and other sim ple weapo ns pro ved th eir
coward ly, but un fair, at least w hen used aga inst the m . In general
effective ness against armo ure d cavalry when resolute and prop erly
orga n ized. Arm ed w ith mi ssile weapons , whe the r w ith longb ows,
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SCOTTISH
SCHILTRON
III its w ar against England ill the 13t h and l-lth
centu ries. the core o f Sco tland's forces were the
in fantr y sch ilt ro ns. Th e sch iltro n w as a ph ala n xlik e fo r m atio n o f pik cmcn stand ing sho u lde rto - shoulde r, o fte n o rga ni zed in a c ircle, Th e
rn ajo r ity o f th e foo t so ld iers wer e le vi es wh o ,
de pe ndi ng o n t hei r we alth , wer e ex pec te d to
turn up ei ther sim ply w ith a pike . o r w ith
ad d irio na l cq u ip m c nt suc h as a sword, h elmer.
quilted body arm o ur. and prot ective glo ves. T he
armourcd uicn we re placed in th e fro nt rows.
Bristling with pike s. till' sch ilt ro n w as a hi gh ly
e ffi'c tivl' d efe nsive formari on aga inst a cavalry
charge . but co uld also be used offen sivel y as it
w as at Banno ckburn in 1314. But in th eir park ed
fo r ma t io n the Scotti sh in fant ry were vu lner able
to the arrows o f the English king's lo ngb o wmcn .
Battle of Courtr ai
Although the armour and weaponsof the Flemishare not
accu rately portrayed in this painting, it shows how they halted
the knights and methodically unhorsed and killed them.
HUSSIT E SOLDIER
Hu ssitcs w e n: th e radica l fo llowers o f a stric t
for m of C h rist ia n ity ill l Sr h- cc n tur y Bohemi a.
D ecla red he ret ica l b y th e papa c y, t he y had to
d efend t he m sel ves again st a cru sade . U nder t he
lea de rsh ip o f C zech sq u ire J a il Z iz ka , a ba nd of
peasant far m er s, artisans, a nd traders was turn ed
into a di sc iplined for ce , obeyi ng written statute s
that bid dow n rules fo r p un ishmen ts. calll p li fe,
Hussite batt le wag ons
The Hussites formed defensive encampments bycirchng their
wagons. Defended by cannons, arquebuses. and crossbows,
these laagersalmost invariably thwarted any attackers.
GENOESE CROSSBOWMAN
D u rin g th e: Fir st C r usade , a ll ex ped it io n ary
fro m th e Ita lia n c ity of G en o a la nded at
( ) f CC
-=
back . Apart fro m th e bo w. th eir eq u ipme nt
co nsiste d of a helm et. so m e bo dy armo u r. u
d agger. a nd a large sh ie ld , th e pavi sc, T hey
so me t ime s fo ug ht in tea m s. w ith t he bo wm a n
shelte re d by a se rva nt ho ld in g the pav ise an d
po ssibl y back ed up by ano ther assista n t lo ad in g
a seco nd bo w while he sho t t he ti rst.
G c no ese crossbo wmc n co nt in ue d to play J
ke y ro le o n Eu ropea n barrlcficlds. ev en aft e r the
ad ve nt o f h and-held fire arm s in th e 15th cent u ry.
Rotalln g nut
With notch 10 hold
bowstring when
bow is spanned
Crossbow a nd bolts
This late 15th-century bow
required a lever to crank th e
bow string back to it s firinq
po sition , hooked over the
central rotating nut. The
bolt was then placed in the
groove. Pressing the trigger
on th e under side of th e
bow rotated th e nut to
release th e string.
Pavis e
This fo rm of shield
wa s most usefu l when
crossbow men we re
shooting at defenders on
ramparts dur ing a siege.
They wou ld crouch down
behind it to reload.
Flight . made of
wood or paper
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OM t\ D I C H OU SEM EN
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Be fo re th e r ise of T c m uj i n , later k no wn as
NOGAl HORD E
HElMET
tr aders w ho
c.. I~oyt: d
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11 27 di d not chec k t he
co u rse of de st ru ction a nd
ex pa ns io n , In th e 123 0 s
C Cllg h is's SO il O gcr ai se nt
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w it h th e spee d o f m an oeuv re of th e
M on gol hor sem en , nothing sto od
in the wa y of a M on gol co nq uest of
western Eu ro pe. T he M on gol s were
ap proa chi n g Vie nn a w he n , by w h at
BAGHDAD MASSACRE
It was than ks to th is pr ofi cien cy in siege
w arfare th at ill 125 H a M OIIl(ol ar my led by
Hulegu wa s ab le to ca pture Bag hd ad. the scat
o f t he Islamic Abbasid Ca liph ate . Almo st th e
entire populat ion of th e city WJ S ma ssacr ed ,
inc ludi ng th e C alip h h im sel f To th e del ight
of C hr ist ian C rusaders , w ho we re at that rim e
st ruggling to keep J pr csen cc in Palestine, thi s
vi ctory see m ed to ope II up t he Muslim Arab
world for M OIIl(ol co nq u est. Syria
fdl to Hulcgu ill 125 1) . which
left o n ly th e M aml uks o f
Egypt to d efy M OIIl(ol
pow er. But th e M on gol s
Born warriors
As most Mongol warriors
fought as ho rsemen th ey
w ore leather body armour
for ease of movement .
Warrior s form ed a close
bond with th eir horse,
w hich w as impor tant
in the heat of battl e.
Lu-gnitz
JAI'A N
MONGOLS I N C H I N A
In C hi na the M o ngo l style o f war fare e ve nt ua lly
und e rw en t an almos t tot al transfo rm atio n , Fro m
12(,() Ccng h is's de scend ant Kub lai Kh an , r u ling
from Beiji ng, lau nch ed a w ar o f co nquc st agai nst
th e So ng d yn ast y tha t still co ntrolle d so uth ern
C hi na , H is ar my e m ployed so p h ist icated C h ine se
wca ponry, ranging fro m po werfu l c ro ssbo w s, or
ball istas, to va r ie ties of g u npowde r wea pon ,
incl udi ng bombs flun g by cata p u lts, primit ive
flam e- t h ro wers. and early ant eced en ts o f the
handgun , T he M ongol s a lso learn ed from the
C h inese ho w to co nduc t ri ver and seabo rne
operatio ns, Kub la is fin al victory over th e So ng ,
w h ich made h im u nd isputed l'lllpe rOr o f C h i na,
wa s a n aval batt le t(llIg h t in the So uth C h ina Sea ,
No dou b t buoye d by t his success , Kub lai w ent
0 11 to atte mpt a seaborne invasio n ofJ apan, w hich
wa s laun ch ed from Kor ea , Aft er a reco nn aissan cein - force b y a fle et of aro u nd ~()() vess el s in 1274 ,
a fu ll-s ca le invasion invo lvi ng m ore th an 4 ,()(1l )
warsh ips was launched se ve n ye;lfs late r. T he
enco u nter w ith the M o ngol s wa s ce r ta in ly :l
shoc k fo r the j ap an ese samurai, w ho had ne ve r
ex pe rience d anythi ng like t he ir ma ssed bo w men
or g unpo wde r bom bs. But a co m bi natio n o f sto ut
Japanese resistance and a de vastat ing ty phoon
made th e Mo ngol ex pe d itio ns cos tly failure s,
Mace, spear, and bow
This 14th-century depiction of
Mongol warriors, led by Genghis
Khan(with mace), accurately
portrays their weaponry, but
their small, sturdy horses
were very different
from these steeds.
-128 1
Ningbo
a
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South
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Ceylon
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Okm SOO
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omiles
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I N D I A N
OCEAN
OLD H A BI T S
T he M on go ls rema ined essentially true to the ir
roo ts. Eve n as Empe rors o f C h ina , they co ntinued
to de lig ht ill h un t in g and va lue ho rse m anshi p
above all othe r sk ills . Th ey also ne ver e sca pe d
from the bad habit of ti ght ing eac h o the r ove r
the successio n to lcad e rsh ip. By the late 13th
ce lltu ry Mon go l ru le e xte nde d fro m Ru ssia
to C h ina and Korea. bu t th is ar e a was div ide d
into four separate k ha nates . It was becau se they
re m ained at heart ste ppe wa rrio rs that the y co uld
not fo und a d u ra b le e m p ire . After Kuh lai's deat h
in 12tJ4 , M on go l po w cr we n t into rapid decl ine .
MOBILITY AND
FIREPOWER
The Mongol horsemen typicallywent into battle
spread ou t in a disper sed fo rmatio n. The majority
of them we re tra ined to fight as hit-and- run
skirmishers . Their weapon was the composite bow,
which existed in two versions: a light bow was shot
from horseb ack, wh ile a heavy bow wa s shot by a
dismounte d man . At the start of a battle the archer s
wo uld advan ce to within range of the enemy and
inflict a steady d rain of losses by shooting arrows
into th eir midst . At the same time they wo uld
avoid any efforts by the enemy to join battle,
sw iftly with draw ing in th e face of co unteratt acks.
CUNNING WARRIORS
The Mo ngols delighted in battlefield trickery and
would take pleas ure in luring unwary opponents
into a head lo ng pursu it by simulating flight, only
to tu rn sw iftly and tra p thei r disorganized forces.
When the ene my wa s at length worn down,
frustrated and exhausted by the arrows of the
skirmishers , the Mo ngols would bring in the ir elite
armoure d ho rsemen . Charg ing forwa rd armed
with lance, swo rd, and mace, they wou ld engage
the enemy at close q uart e rs to finish the m off. The
ho rseme n on th e wings of the Mongol line wo uld
by then have advanced at speed to co mplete an
encirclement, leaving the enemy with no avenue
of esca pe whe n the final attack wa s launched .
1150 -
1650
SAMURAI
li E SA MU Il A I WE llE M O U N T ED
In
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be di shon ourable
for " sam u rai to fig ht
so me o ne of lesse r stand ing
th an h im self. This, at least,
W " S t he id eal to which
th e w a rri o rs aspire d . At
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Iron tsub a
This tsub a (metal guard ) for a swo rd is
carved and inlaid w ith a depict ion of a
samurai und er a flowering prunu s tree.
It dat es from the Edo period (1603- 1876).
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costu mes. O ne o f the pri ncipal aims of war fare was the tak ing o f
prison ers for use as slaves or as victims of reli gio us sacri fice. Some
states , no tably the Aztecs and Incas, assem bled substant ial arm ies
wh ich enabled the m to exert pol itical and m ilitary co ntrol ove r
wood and stone. M an y soc ieties had a warrior aristo cra cy that
large areas that had previou sly been ind epend en t chiefdo ms.
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THE MAYA
THE INCAS
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of organizational skill.
On one o cca sio n , fo r
ex am ple. the so u th o f
the e mp ire wa s t h rea te ned
b y th e C a lch nq u i peo ple
fro m nor t hern Ar g clltina
Inca w arrior
Elaborate feathered headdresses
were part of the war costume of
many Americanpeoples, serving
as symbolsof warrior status.
Tomb fight er
This terracotta warrior comes
from a Maya tomb on Jaina
island, off Yucatan.
THE AZTECS
III th e: 15th ce nt u r y the A zt ecs w c-rc th e most
po werful people in M esoamerica. d omin ating
o ver o t her c ity- states in a Lug\.' area a ro u nd their
ca pita l. Tcn o chritl an. Their ar my. o rga n ized
into legi on s 8 ,000 st ro ng . was frequently O il
ca m paign , e ngaged in wars to ex te nd th e: e m pi re
o r su ppress rebellion a lllo ng the tributaries.
When no practi cal J110 tiVl' for w arf ar e
pr esented it self. the A zt ecs arran gl'd .. flowe r
wa rs", A tr ibutar y state was o bliged to pre sent
it s force s for battle at a specifi ed time and pla ce .
to g ive th e A ztecs pr actice ill fighti n g a nd
provid e" fre sh sup ply o f pri so ne rs. Taki n g
Pieces o f obsidia n I
Wood
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LANDSKNECHT
WE TOOK ROME BY STORM, PUT OVER 6,000 MEN TO
THE SWORD, SEIZED ALL THAT WE COULD FIND IN
CHURCHES ... AND BURNED DOWN A GREAT PART
OF THE CITY, TAKING APART AND DESTROYING ALL.
PAUL DOLSTEIN, LANDSKNECHT, ON THE SACK OF ROME, 1527
exc eptiona lly tough foot sold iers in co m bat. O ut of battl e, however , th ey
co u ld be a dan ger to all and sund ry, especially if th eir em ployer failed to
keep th em adequ atel y paid and fed . Qu arrelsome and resistant to author ity,
th e Landsknechts earned a fear some rep ut ati on for plunder and m assacre.
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Batt le of M aren g o
Sw iss and Landsknecht mercenaries c1astfa (;........;"~---M areng o in 1515. A short katz balger swo rd .....
can be seen raised in the for egou nd; it
proved hig hly eff ective at close quarte rs.
--- .....
"
...
ST Y LE AND V IO LENCE
Exactl y how till' l. a nd sk ncc hts dev eloped their
dis ti nct ive sw aggering st yle o f dress
is no t cle ar , alt ho ugh it see ms to
have b een ba sed 0 11 th e cost u me
of the ir g re..'a te..'s t r ival s. th e Swi ss
Con fede ra te s. o n ly g rl'a tl y
e..' xagge..'r;He..'d . As w ell as
fa vou r i ng br oad flat hats
crow ned wi th large fe..'a the..'rs
and j e rk in s spo r t ing
pn ffed sleeves , till'
l.andsku cchrs adopted
hos e w ith till' k'gs
of differ ent co lo u rs
Bu t th e Land sk n cch rs
abso rb ed th e ru omcntum
of the c h a r~ i ll ~ ph al an x
a nd the two force s o f
LATE D EC LIN E
pikcmcn sw aye d
back and forth ill
a d ead ly pushin g
co ntes t. An cvcn t un l Fren ch v ic to ry. after so m e
2H hours o f int ermittent butch er y. d ep ended as
m uch upo n Fr.m coi s' cavalry and ar t illcry as
UpOIl th e fo o t so ld iers . But th e d efe at of th e Sw iss
ine v itably se nt th e Landskn cchr s' stock so aring.
In 1525 . wh en the army of th e new l'm pc ro r.
C h arles V, to ok 0 11 th e Fr en ch at Pav ia, t he
l.a nd sk ucchrs we re at the heart o f the co m bat 011
hoth sides. The imperial p ikc m c n m ad e a vi ta l
co ntributio n to a c rush ing v ic to ry for C harles'
h al f of th e I(,t h ce nt u ry, th e y we re so mc t im cs
di sparag ed even by those w ho e m ployed th em .
they w e re
;lIl Y
Gevierte ordnung
Defensive igel
KEY
ARQUEBUSIER
PIKEMAN
SW ORDSMA N
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Arquebusiers
in third row
VI
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I
fou nde red up on th e fina ncia l and o rga n izat io na l weak nesses of
Yet sim ulta ne o usly Europeans soug ht to lea rn fro m the classica l
m ercenar y, and da ngero usly prone to plu nder and mut iny. Fo rce s
tha t suc ce ssfu lly co mb ine d firea r ms w it h pike for mations simi lar
di sci pli ned infan tr y we re the key to success in batt le, altho ug h
III
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SPANISH TERCIOS
Aft "r th e uni ficati on of Spa in had been co m pleted
wi th th e co nq ues t of Gra na da in 149 2 . th e Spanish
1110113( rh )' create d J statuti ng ar my to pr ot ect its
in ter ests abroa d . T he first infmtry co m pa n ies
( "l'il'II/;"5) were sen t to fi ght in Italy iu 14W.; th ey
were orga nized int o 12- compan y tcrcios in 1534 .
CORSElET
LATE 16THCENTURY
SWORD
(BREASTPLATE)
Corselet attached to /
backplate WIth
leather straps
TA SSETS
MO RIO N
Brim typically
turn ed up to a
poi nt at back
and front of
the helmet
-,
1300 -
.. .
,
"
17 0 0
OTTOMAN SOLDIER
ALL THROUGH THE DAY THE TURKS MADE A GREAT
SLAUGHTER OF CHRISTIANS . BLOOD FLOWED LIKE
RAIN WATER IN THE GUTTERS AFTERA SUDDEN
STORM, AND CORPSES FLOATED OUT TO SEA LIKE
ME LO N S A LO N G A CA N A L.
morale as a result of an unbroken string of victo ries, The most famo us eleme nt
in th e Ottoman army were th e ja n issaries, slave-sold iers train ed from a you ng
age wh o form ed an in fantry elite, but cavalry and arti llery played just as
important a role in the sultan's wars aga inst C hristian and Mu slim powers,
~
VI
o
o
I
GOO D LEARNERS
In iti all y. the Ottoma ns fiHl g ht in t he sty le
of steppe ho rsem en . They were moun ted
archer s using the co mpos ite ho w as thei r
main wca pon and ge nera lly avoid ing
clo se-quarter s co mbat. Swi ft- movi ng ,
mi ssi le - arm ed cavalry wo uld rema in
an impo rtant elem ent of O tto m an
forces throu ghout th e peak Yl'a rs
of th eir em pi re , but th ey co uld
not have ach ieved th e succ e ss
th ey d id w it ho ut develop ing
highl y effective heavy cavalry.
in fa ntry, and arti llery, as
wel l as c reating th e ir o w n
nav y. O ne of th e most
str iki ng aspects of
Ottoman r u le in th e
15th and I(,th cent uries
wa s the vigour wi th
w h ich the y ada pted to
ne w ways o f making war.
CO M ('LEX FORC ES
The forces o f th e m atur e Ottom an Emp ire:
cent red aro und a stalld ing army of hou seh old
sold iers in th e direct pay of th e sulta n. Th ese
pcrm .mcnt forces included th e su ltan's elite
iufantry bod yguard . the j an issa r ies. wh o at
least unti l rh c late 17th cc n ru r y we re slaveso ld ie rs, ;lIId non - slave cavalry, Whcll till.'
su ltan e m barked 011 a military c.uupai gu .
th is relativel y sma ll regular arm y wa s
aug me n te d by pro vin ci al fo rces ra ised
th rou gh the timor sys te m, which w as
ill so n ic wa ys ak in to Europ ean
fl'lHb lism . H o rsemen known as
sipahis we re gi ven the rig ht to
raise rent from all area of land
ill ret u r n t(lr military duti es.
Th ey were requ ired to pr esent
them sel ve s tor serv ice along
w ith a ce rtai n number of
th eir foll o wers, equipped
tor w ar, at the bidding
of th e su ltan .
RAWHIDE CHICHA K
(HELMET ) WITH
(OPPER GILT
Sultan to retreat.
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SLAVE -SO L D I
ens
de velopme nt over t im e o f
th e ja n issa ries' lo yalt y to
th eir o w n co rps, wh ich in
th e en d would n u ke th em
d e vot ed less to till' su ltan
th an to the ir o w n intere sts as
a militar y elite. H o w eve r, in
the ir golde n a ~e b efore sel fin te res t took ho ld , t hey were
tine in fmrr ymcn . di scipli ned,
asce ti c , fea rless , and sk illed in
the use of fire arm s. T he y we re the
tro ops ex pecte d to sto r m t he w a lls of
a be sie ged fort re:ss o r h old t he lin e o n the
battlefi eld in t he f:,ce of c harg m g e ne m y cava lr y.
..
'
..........
.... ....
Ott om an ex pa nsio n
In th e course of 150 years, the Ottoman Turks grew from a
small band of holy wa rrio rs. sett led on land in north w est
Anatotia. int o rul ers of an empire straddling Europe and A sia.
The scale of their expansion. as Illustrated. is extraordmary.
They wo n almost 20 key battles in t he 16th century alone,
but by the end of the 17th century their empire was in decline.
R U S Si A N
E M I IH.E
h 'l O
TIHlI\
, 1574
TUNI'
",
Turnh
a "
1551
Cum
......
un
\
OTTO MAN EMPIRE C.1650
\ EGYI'"]' "\
Ottoman de fea t
Siege
1526
\,
Onoman victory
...
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A rabian
\ pe n ins u la
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OAm 150
Om,!f:os
' 00
150
SOO
FA I R- WE AT H ER FIG HTE RS
If t he Ottom an army h ad a maj or
weakness. it w as t he shee r numbers
of its sold iers and hors es. W ith o n ly
limited logi sti c su ppo rt, this ho st
h ad m o stl y to live 011' rhc co u nt ry
and could not su rv ive a winter o n
Ottoman d ru m s
Janisserles are shown here With the drums
that were used to urge soldiers into battle.
Janissaries lived in their barra cks and served
as policemen and firefighters in peacet ime.
D EC LIN E A N D FALL
Th rou gh th e 17th a nd lSt h cc nrur ies th e
Otroman a rmy g rad ua lly ti:1l in to a decadence
th at refle ct ed p ro b lems ex pe rienced by t he w ho le
0 [ O tto m3 11 soc iety. Th er e was a f ailurc to keep
up with technological adva nces th at were preval e nt
throu gh out We stern Eu ro pea n an d ;1 decl in in g
e.. C0I1OJ 11Y that underm in ed th e resou rces ava ilable
fo r military c.u n pa ig ns . The 1;1111" syste m b egan
to de cay a nd w as eve n tu a lly abandoned .
Espe cia lly sad wa s t he (;lte..' o f the j aui ssar ics.
Du r in g the 17th ce ntury t he y ceased to he slaves
re c r uited b y the ilrvshinnr, iu stc ud hl'in g dra wn
fro m fr ee- bor n Mu slim s eagl'r to join a pri vileged
military set. The j anissa r y corps sw clh-d in
number s, from around 2 0 .()()O at th e rime o f
Sulcyman to well in excess of IOIl, IlIl Il hy th e e nd
o f th e lSt h ce n tury. Thi s hlo ared body ceased to
have a ny ctfecr ivc mil itar y fun ct io n , d q~el1 l' ra ti n g
int o a pamper ed socia l elite an d blocking effo rt s
to re for m a nd mode r n ize t he armed forces. It wa s
fin all y sup presse d , w ith considerable bloodshed,
in 182() - k nown as "The Aus picious Incid en t".
By then O tto man Turkey had declined , now little
more th an a rams hac k le mil itar y power cl inging
p reca rio us ly to th e remains of its empi re ,
.,
..
I500 -
MUGHAL WARRIOR
DURING THE SEVEN OR EIGHT DAYS WE LAY IN PAN IPAT,
OUR MEN WENT CLOSE TO IBRAHIM'S CAMP A FEW AT
A TIME, RAINED ARROWS DOWN ON THE RANKS OF HIS
TROOPS, CUT OFF AND BROUGHT BACK THEIR HEADS.
BABUR, ON THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT. 1526
or
T il EI II PO W Ell 111
th ey co mbined the Cent ral Asian cavalry traditio n of th e M ongols and Tartars
w ith th e use of can non and firea rms. T hei r wea k nesses we re a failure to
apprec iate th e effectiveness of disciplined in fant ry and th e lack of a cohe rent
co m m and struc ture to direct their un w ieldy and mul ti- ethn ic army.
~
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Steel wea po ns
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GUNPOWDER W EA PON S
Althou gh the Mu gh als ca n n o t be
c red ited wit h int rod ucing g unpowder
w ea pon s in to t he Ind ia n subco nrine nt
Fran cisco de A lmeida defeated co m b ined
Arabian a nd Egypti an force s at th e
Bat tle of Diu , in Febru ar y 1509, with
sh ips' ca n no n - the first use of can no n
and fir earm s there ce rta in ly da res from
around th e start of the M ughal period .
Artiller y a nd arq ue buses pla yed a
c r uc ia l part in Babu r's v icto ry at
Pa n ipat in 1526 . In th at early p er io d
the Mugh al s d epe nded heavil y on
fore ig n e xpe rti se in thi s a rea . T hc
Otto m an T u rks and vario us Eu ropea ns,
espe cia lly Po rt u gu ese fro m Goa ,
carr ied o ut the transfer of rec h nolog y,
demonstr atin g ho w to fou n d ca n no n
a nd m a ke fircar ms an d g u npowder.
Ind ia n cra fts m e n we re q ui ck lear ne rs.
Ill' the e nd of the I()th ce nt ur y the ir
m atc hl o ck mu ske ts we re b et te r m ad e
th a n m o st Eu ro pea n firea rm s a nd they
we re rnanu facrurin g ligh t a nd h eav y
can no n o f b rass a nd bron ze . Fo rei g n
ex perts were still e m ploy ed to h elp
with the aim in g and fir ing of art ille r y
pieces. W hen the Mu gh al a rmy wa s o n
ca m pa ig n , its he av y a rt ille ry wa s d rawn
>-
Mu g hals in Indi a
Babur's defeat of Sultan l od i of
Delhi at Panipat in 1526 allowe d
him to establish Mughal rule in
northern India . From th is base,
t he M ugh als expanded and
consolidated territor y to the
south for almost a further 200
years, under successive rulers
including Akba r and Aur enq zeb.
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ljo mbav
ON T HE BATTLEF IELD
1596- 1600
to Brltai"
A rabia n
Sea
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to Po rt ugal
M ad ras
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I N DIAN OC EAN
Okm 200
Omnes
Anim al ar my
Heavily armoured
elephants in battle
we re a fearsom e
sight for the Mughals'
enemies. Furthe rmor e,
mounted w arriors
could exploit the
animal s' heigh t to
direct the battl e,
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to Pon uga l
Bay o f
Bengal
400
200
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A N EW A R MY
In 1(,45 the Eng lish parliament
established the New M odel
Arm y ill o rde r to ce ntrali ze
the o rganiza tio n o f its m ilit ary
forces. w hich had previou sly
be en rai sed and trai ne d lo call y.
I t co ntai ne d a st ron g co re o f
ideolog ica lly com m irrcd
offi ce rs and vete ra ns wh o
saw the m se lves as t he
"army of th e Livin g
Cod". It w as u n iqu e in
titt ill ~ o ut all its infa utr y in
identical uniform s and it w as
also better th an o ther c iv il w ar
forma tion s at pa yin g its tro op s regularl y. But it
co u ld not escape from the ge ne ra l co nd itio ns of
arm ies o f its d ay. As we ll as the d edicat ed core.
the arm y co n ta in ed man y so ld ie rs wh o had
joi ned for th e pay and ad venture, o r be cau se as
co nscripts they had be en g ivl'n no cho ice . All
o ffice r, C o lo nel J oh n Venn , co m pla ined tha t
the lev ies he was se nt w e re " m en ta ken o ut of
prison , tin ke rs, pe dlar s. and vag rants that have
110 dw ell in g ". Suc h men had to be brou g ht to
the arm y und e r arm ed guard and man y of t hem
d ese rted at the ve ry first o ppo rt u n ity . Nor did
th e new arm y alw ays succe ed in paying its
tro o ps o n ti me , and its soldi ers so ug ht th ei r
own fortune s in traditional military f.lsh io n.
MATCHLOCK
MUSKET
Matchlock d rill
In the first of these pictures
from a Dutchillustrated drill
manual, the match in the
musketeer 's left hand is
already lit. In the second,
he poursgunpowder froma
flask from his bandolier. He
then rams down a musket
ball. before preparing to
pourpriming powder into
the pan, keeping the
smouldering match at a
safe distance between the
fIngers of hisleft hand.
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A R M Y LIr E
HE LM ET
Toughleather
provided some
protection eqems t
swordcuts
BUFF LEATHER
COAT
sin ful. If th is d id no t
det er them . there we re
h arsh p unish m e nt s to
New M odel Army cavalry armour
While musketeersusually fought
without armour, the soldiersmost
likely to be struck by musket balls. the
cavalry, wore iron breastplatesand
backplates. New Model Armycavalry
had distinctive "lobster-tail" helmets.
I N FA N T R Y TRA IN IN G
O ut of o fte n u npro m ising m ateri al. the armies
of th e C iv il Wa r n ever th eless succeeded in
c reating t ra ine d foot so ld iers. One of the kno wn
adva ntages of a m us ket w as that any foo l co u ld
fire o ne w ith 3 littl e train ing; learning ho w to
hand le a pike was even simp ler. The in fan trym an
w o u ld belong to a co mpa ny of perhap s 120 m en
at full st re n g th , ge ne ra lly w ith two musket ee rs
to ~ve r y o ne p ikc man , T he so ldier recei ve d
systema t ic training - mu c h of it re cor ded in
co nte m pora ry dri ll books - in t he h a ndling of
hi s we apon (" Po st ure") . and was ta ught h ow
to ope rate in ba t tlefield for mat io n (" Mo tio "'''
a nd "Evolu t ions") . Bo t h m u sket s a nd pikes
were co llect ive weapons that m ade indi vi dual
in itiati ve w o rse tha n useless. Mu ske teers had to
b e d isc iplin ed to fig h t as a body, fir in g vo lleys
as rap id ly as po ssible in t he ge ne ral direc tio n
o f the e n emy. A ll fo ot so ld iers we re d rille d to
m ano e uvre co he re ntly in rank s and files.
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Dutch countermarch
The front rank of musket eers
fires and countermarches
to the rear to reload , as the
secon d ran k ste ps forwa rd
to take the ir place. The
pikemen placed in the centre
can deploy to defend the
musketeers agains t cavalry.
~~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
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PIK EM EN
MUSKETEERS
MUSKETEERS
Swedish salv ee
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~ ~~~~~
FIRST THREE
RANKS
PIK EME N
MUSKETEERS
MUSKETEERS
Cava lry return ed to fash io n afte r its declin e in the 16th ce ntury,
in later decades, stand ing ar mies pred omi nated , altho ug h rul ers
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SWEDISH TROOPS
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co n fr o n rar i o n
PIKEMAN' S POT
BREASTPLATE
AND TASSElS
~ Swivel hook
for fastening
shoulder straps
Tessets
attached
by hasps
to studs on
breastplate
1Il'll1l'- - - - -
FRENCH
MUSK ETEER
In 1622 Fre nc h Kin g Louis XI II equ ipped a
ligh t cavalr y co m pany o f h is ro yal hou se ho ld
with m at ch lock mu skets . Sin ce this represented
th e latest in militar y te ch no lo gy, it h elped g ive
th e mu sket ee r co m pany elit e status . Its proximity
to the kin g g u ara nt ee d th at ge nt lema n so ldiers would see k se rvice in its rank s.
In th e 1(,(,Os two co m pan ies we re
cr eated , kn own as th e Gre y
M u sket eer s and the mack
Mu sket eer s fro m th e co lour
17TH C ENTU RY
o f th eir slee veless su rco ats.
RAPIER
D espit e t heir n am e, th ese
units ge nera lly pr eferred th e sw o rd to
the mu sket , w h ic h , having lost its aur a o f
no velt y, wa s d espised by th e aristo cr acy as
a n arm su itab le on ly for lowl y fo ot so ld ie rs.
T he two co m pan ies remain ed in ex iste n ce
unti l 177(,. T heir reputati on for pan ache
a nd flambo yan ce w as lat er immortal ized
in the no vel s of A le xandre D umas.
by th e state WJS th e IIIISSe";"'< key a r m, th e kol';" J lo ng holl ow woode n lance w it h a stee l t ip.
Wing ed cava lry sq ua d ro n
l oday's Polish cavalry recreates the
astonishing spectacle of 17th-century
hussaria wit h th eir form idable lances and
curio us " wi ngs" attached to the back plates
of the ir armo ur. They were the pride of the
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arm ies were supplied from magazin es (m ilitary sto reho uses)
through an exte nsive supply tr ain . This slowe d th eir movem ent s
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PRUSSIAN INFANTRYMAN
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:Ill Y devotion
rl u msinc
O il
Striking steel
attached to
pan cover
__ Shorter
barrel than
infantry
musket
COSSACK
Aft er the majo r Eu ro pean po w ers had c reated
th ei r str ictly co n tro lled IHth-ce llt llrY ar mi es,
they wer e forced to turn to the un tam ed e thn ic
g ro ups that lived 0 11 the ex treme margin s of
their te rritori e s in search o f men w ho co u ld
act w ith ind iv idual in itiat ive as sco uts and
skirm ishe rs. Au stria's G rc n zcr sharpsho o te rs
fro m C roa tia and Sloven ia we re o ne cx.u u plc:
Ru ssia's C oss ack ho rsem en we re ano the r.
T he Cossack co m m unities of the sout he rn
ste ppe see m mo stly to have be en found ed
by fr eedo m - lo ving Slav s w h o fled t he
rapid ly ex pand ing k in gd o m s o f
Russia an d Pol and -L ithu an ia in th e
15th and 16th ce ntu ries, pr cfcrrin g
a hard but ind ep endent life to se rfdo m ,
O ut of har sh necessity they becam e w arrior
band s, fighting as ligh t horsemen in th e
t radition al wa y o f th e ste p pe . Mu ch o f
th e ti me the y wo u ld fig ht aga in st bo th
Ru ssia and Poland , asse rti ng the ir
in d epe nd en ce . At o the r tim es th ey
acted as sem i- inde pe nde nt frontier
fo rces. raidin g Ot to ma n terri tor ies
in search o f plu nde r, o r fi g hti ng o n
beh al f o f th e T sar s, g ua rd ing It u ssia
fro m att ack b y the T aCHS;1I1d helpin g
to ext e nd th e border s o f th e Ru ssian
Em pire furt her to th e cas t.
.....
.....
VI
AMERICAN RIFLEMAN
musket s wer e th e standard mil itar y firearm , the accura cy o f the Am eri can
fronti er m arksm en's rifle fire in spired fear and awe . Alth ou gh they we re
resistant to form al di sciplin e, these to ugh and indep endent fighters pro ved
impressively effective as sha rp- shoo ting sni pe rs and battl efield sk irurishe rs.
~
.....
.....
VI
LO NG RIFLE MADE
IN PENNSYLVAN IA
IN THE 1750S
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Sni pe rs a nd woodsm en
The incident at the battle of
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CANVAS
BAG
PEWTER MUG
SALT
HO RN
U N FA I R T ACT IC S
Sail handy for
preservmq meet
WOODEN
SPOON
The h. .t-resistem
Y
BO NE HA ND LED
FORK
FRON T I ER I R R EG U LA RS
M organ 's ritlem en were emplo yed as light infan rr y
W ORLDWID E IN FLU EN C E
P ro b ably t he fin e st hour of th e American
rifl em en ca me at Cowpe ns in J anu ar y 17HI,
when a mi xed fo rce of militia and Continen ta l
Arm y tro ops com ma nde d by M organ intl ict cd
a hum il iati ng d efeat o n th e Brit ish u nd er Sir
Ban astre T arleton . TI ll' final Brit ish surre nder
at Yo rkto wn ill O ct ober 17 HI wa s occasioned by
th e co m b ine d action of th e A m erican and Fren ch
a r m ies and th e Fre nch nav y - a reminder that.
whatever th e ir ac h ievemen ts, fro ntier riflem en
co uld not them selves wi n a wa r. But their successes
stim u late d Euro pea n arm ie s to increase the ir use
o f rifl e- armed li ght infantry an d b cgau a sh ift
away from reli a nce o n mcriculou vly dr ill ed
form ati on s a r m ed wi th mu sket and bayonet .
POU CH FOR
DRY TIN D ER
forces fro m Ilessen and o ther G erm an sta tes, failed to impose
a decisive defeat upon th e Am eri can Cont ine nta l Arm y, which
colo nial mil itia and ende d as a m ajor int ernati on al co n flict. The
British ini tia lly hop ed th at Am eri can loyal ists wo u ld carry th e
The dep loy ment of a substa ntia l British army. includin g m ercen ar y
French army and navy tipp ed th e balan ce decisively aga inst Britain .
VI
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KNAPSACK
1
BAYONET
ON BELT
MINUTEMEN
T H E ROL E OF T H E M I LI T I A S
111 all t he rebe l co lo n ies , co lo n ial m ilit ias tu r ned
int o state mi liti as tind e r rebel co n tro l. with a ll
lo ya lists e xpelled . At ti mes state m ilitias co m pe ted
wit h the C o n rinenral Arm y tor resou rces. but
the mi litia , ;)1 s0 pr o vided c.. scu tia l sho rt - te r m
drafrcc-, to hol ster th e a r m y's ranks an d aux iliar y
units to tigh t a lo ngside th e regular s.
Alth ou ~h militia tr uinin g im proved dur in g:
the w ar, the se part-time soldie rs fre sh fro m till'
wo rk . . hop and th e plough rarel y stood up to
Br it ish tr o ops in o pe n battle. Yet in sp ire o f a
rep uta tion for r u nnin g awa y when th e fightin g
w as ho t. t hey perfor m ed in valuable serv ice
as sec u rity fo rces, en su r in g: t he succ ess of th e
reb elli on at lo cal le vel b y m annin g garr iso n s
and supp ressing t he act ivities of lo yal ists.
BRITISH REDCOATS
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Voll ey fire
British tro op s we re trained to fire in volley and deploy on
th e battlefield in for mal line and square formation s. Man y
we re disconcert ed by the Ame rican snipers and tactics.
LOYALISTS
GREEN IS
TROOP S
AN 0 I F PUT ON IN TH E SPRI NG , BY
HESSIANS
Abo ut" third of Bri ti sh force s e ngag ed in t he
war wer e Germa n mc rcc nar ies hired fo r th e
d u ratio n of t he co n flic t. T he se " H essia ns" came
not on ly fro m Hesscn -K assel and Hcsseu -Han nau.
but also from a nu m ber of ot he r pett y G erman
princedoms th at provid ed co n tinge nts of troops
in return for a cash payment. Such me rce nar y
serv ice, co n t racted at govern me nt level . w as
sta nda rd practice in lSth-cenru ry Eu ropean arm ies.
The He ssian s we re not not ably inferior to
British sold iers in battlefield performance o r in
th eir be hav io u r to wa rds civ ilia ns . M o st we re
schooled in th e sta nda rd musker- and-bayoner
sty le of co mba t, but co m pa nies ofji(~cr - light
rifl e- armed troops - m ad e excelle nt sk irm ishe rs.
C lad in g ree n for cam o u flage, th ese Germa n
h u nt e rs on occasio n o utperformed
the Am er ica n riflema n as sn ipe rs
and woodland fig ht er s.
T he American Congress and
states attempted to brib e th e
H essians with offers o f land a nd
live sto ck . M an y did d esert. but
no more th an was normal for a
Eu ropea n army o n ca m paign.
Around 60 per ce nt of th e
30 ,000 Hessian s eve nt ua lly
retu rne d home. Comba t losses
were q ui te low, bu t m any
di ed of di sease. T he rest
p resum abl y m ad e ne w lives
(or th emselves in Am erica.
wnne canvas
b reech es. wo rn
1799 - 181 5
FRENCH CAVALRYMAN
THE FRENCH CAVALRY OUTCLASSED ITS OPPONENTS
SIMPLY BECAUSE, WHEN THE ORDER RANG OUT AND
TRUMPETS CLARIONED ICHARGE !', IT PUT IN ITS
SPURS AND CHARGED ALL OUT, CHARGED HOME!
ARCHDUKE CHARLES , COMMANDER-iN -CHIEF OF THE AU STRIAN ARMY FROM 1806 TO 1809
an d later as
adve rsary in th e field. In h is increasin gly lar ge arm ies, in fa nt ry, arti llery,
and cava lry all had th eir parts to play. Key fun ction s o f th e cava lry incl uded
t he m ountin g of decisive charges at cr ucia l points in t he battle and the
pursuit of a ro uted ene my to co m plete an overwhel m ing victory .
e ffect
CO Il SU I,
0 11 th
e Fren ch a r my a n d ot he r areas of
a n nu a l c o n sc r ip t io n till e d t h e a r my 's
to se r ve a lo ngside vet e ra ns of t h e ar m y of t he
m on a rc h y a n d of t he re vo luti o n ar y
we re
;111 gi ve n
o ne o f Napoleo n's
1110 s t
co m m a n d e rs . For
SO Ill l'
di sti nguished ca va lr y
m en of h u m b le o r igi n .
G LA MO U RA N D HAR DSHIP
adve n t u ro u s yo u n g m en w it h a ra sr c
fo r g la mo u r a nd sty le , Na po leo ni c
ar m as a v ita l c leme n t in hi s
reb uildin g o f th e e n t ire
Fr l'n ch ;l f1ny.
O f th e two ke y
c o m po ne n ts o f ;111
effec t ive ca va lr y forc e
a nd abo ve a ll th e ir
rel en tl e ss wo ma ni z ing ,
Bu t life i ll th e cava lr y
\VJ S 0 11
t he wh ol e far
0 11
c J m p a ig n .
h u m a n c le me n t
ea sie r to d e a l w it h .
From 17<)<). w hen
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m e 0 t e
A group o f hussars gather rou nd a camp fire on
the eve of the battle of Austerlit z, December 1805 .
The lines o f fires blazing on the hi ll beyo nd give
some idea of th e vast size o f Nap ol eon 's army .
H EAVY A ND LI GH T
T he m ost di stinc t ive feature of Napo leo ni c
cava lr y was th e pro m ine nt ro le g ive n to ar mo u red
ho rsem e n : th e c u irassier s. Alon g w it h two
regim en ts of cara bi ni e rs - also eq uipped w it h
ar mo u r fro m lH09 - t he c u irassiers co nst it uted
t he heav y cav alry , Armoured horsemen had
been co ns id e red an a ntiq uated co nce p t. lo o k in g
backward to t he age of the medieva l kni ght. but
Napoleon liked to usc it as a shoc k for ce o n the
;;-
Plume.
usually wo rn
on parade rather
than on
batttet..ld
Dashing hussar
The hussars cultivated an image of reckless courage and
death-defying boldness in action, always trying to outdo
the rest of the French cavalry in featsof horsemanship.
CA RTRI DG E
BOX
Cuirassier uniform
The cuirassier'stunic waslessspectacular than those
worn by the lightcavalry, but it wasusually covered
by hisarmour - cuirass and back plate. He made
up for thisWit h his magnificent plumed helmet.
SA BRE
it s reputation as a batt l e -
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Tn.WarwithRuuia l812
LESSON S OF WAR
In t he last resort. Na po leo n's faith in
cavalry ca n be see n as excessive. T he growt h in
th e size o f ar mies during th e N apol eon ic Wars
mean t th at an ade qua te size cava lry ar m requ ired
a g reater nu m ber of su itable hor ses th an co u ld
readil y be found . and th ose horses need ed an
often impossible quautir y of fodder. On th e
Triump hs a nd disaste rs
From his first victo ries in Italy in 1796. through the glori ou s
campaigns of 1805-1807, and even dunng the desperate
defence of France in 1814, Napoleon's armies w on many
mor e victories than th ey suffe red defeats. In th e end, how ever,
the con tinuou s British naval blockade and th e sheer numb er of
his enemies - prin cipally Britain, Austr ia, Prussia, and Russia combined to bring Napoleon's dream to an end at Waterloo .
of the Frenc h R evolution, w ith its emphasis on the "citize n-so ld ier",
but created a force motivated by du ty, hon our, and the lust for glory,
of French birt h and over 700,000 born in Italy, Poland , and other
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Tricolour (red.
while, and
blue) cockade
The better- off paid substit u tes: o the rs sim ply hid
o r de sert ed afier en ro lme nt. Yet the m or ale of th e
Corporal's
stripes
I..
toose -httmq
trousers worn
for battle over
knee breeches
THE ARTILLERY
-....,..,
'"I
1808 - 1815
BRITISH REDCOAT
li E 1lI1iTISII THOOI'S
GREENPLUM ED LIGHT
INFANTR Y SHA KO
Trotter packs
The inf ant ry kna psack or
" Trott er pack" (right ) was
a deeply resented burden .
One soldier complained ,
"I am convinced th at many
of our infant ry san k and
died und er the wei ght o f
th eir knap sacks". It w as
worn eve n into battle (far
right ), seen here on the
Light Companies of the
VI
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D R I LLA N D DI SCIPLIN E
St rict drill J IH.I draconian puni sh m en ts w ere st ill
see n J S th e ke ys to infa nrry pe rforman r e in th e
Br iti sh ar m y o f th e Na poleo n ic W ars, as they h ad
b een th ro u gh out the lSt h ce nt ur y, T he me o f
th e inac c ura te flintl o ck m usket, Bro wn Bess, as
the m ain infa ntr y wea po n m ad e di sciplined vo lle y
fire csscn tial th e re was n o pla ce for ind ivi d ua l
initi ati ve Oil t he part of t he o rd ina r y so ld ie r. Bu t
th e assum pt io n s of a deci d ed ly u ne q ua l soc ie ty
also di c tat ed the way that m en w er e crea te d . It
Stnkinq
Woode n
ramrod
steel
Heavy brass
butt plate
Feather
spring flicks
pan open as
flint falls
Musk et drill
The Brit ish Redcoat was renowned for his
steadiness in the face of enemy fire - the
prod uct of stric t drilling, discipline. and
long practice of battlefield manoeuvres.
CA M PA IG N I NG ARMY
T he a r m y th at Wel ling to n led o n ca m pa ig n in
the Pe n insula r War wa s a co m plex and in so me
wa ys un w ield y entit y, It w as a mul tin at ion al
for ce , incl uding not o n ly Sco ts a nd Ir ish bu t also
large nu m bers of troops from ou tsid e the United
Kin gd om , notab ly th e King's G erm an Leg io n .
In f aut r y reg im e nt s fou ght alo ngs ide cavalry and
The st or min g of Badajol
An assault party prepares to sto rm the garrison at Badejoz
in Ap ril 1812. Around 3,000 English and Portuguese troo ps
we re killed in the Imel successful assault.
I N T O T HE BR EACH
T he sp ir it of th e R ed co at - .md h is d cfecrs
we re show n at their starkest ill th e siege war fare
th at tor m cd an im porta nt part of th e Pe n in su lar
ca m paig ns. T he fo rtre sses of Ci ud ad R o dr igo ,
Bad ajo z, and Sail Sc hast i.m were a ll r.ik c n by
sto rm afte r le ng t hy preparati on s. A Iicur cuaur
o bse rve d that non e of th l' so ld ie r's o ther du ties
was "so gall in g or so d isag reeable as ;1 siege ".
Fo r wee ks th e m en wo u ld be for ce d [ 0 o ccu py
tren ches under the elll' my walls. a co nsta nt pre )'
to sn iping a nd m o rt ar fire, w h ile g u n ners and
eng inee rs co n tr ived to m a ke a breac h in the
fo rt ificat io ns. a lice a b reach wa s m ad e, the)'
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WATERLOO
Fo r all thei r d raining effect upon Fren ch reso urces
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GRENA DIERS
LIGH T I NFANTRY
EIGHT CEN TRE CO MP ANI ES
LINE I N PROFilE
Companies in square
Descended from the pike formations
that ended the dominance of cavalry
on the late-Medieval batt lefield, the
infantry square formed a four-deep
wall, bayonets pointing outwards to
provide protection from all directions.
The front ranks held position; the rear
ranks fired in volleys.
Companies turn
to lace enemy
Battalion in column
A batta lion was composed of ten companies,
each comprising around 50 soldiers. It deployed
onto the batt lefield in column, then wheeled
into line to face the enemy. The two flanking
companies (light infantry and grenadiers) were
often detached for skirmishing.
Companies in line
Arranged two-deep, soldiers in line
fired in volleys, each loading up to
three times a minute. This presented
some 1,500 rounds per minute, per
batt alion, to the enemy, a barrage tha t
destroyed French columns. The volleys
were followed by a bayonet charge.
U IU N G Il IlITAI
's
18 15, the R oyal Nav y was outstandin gly succ essful, scoring
a series of m ajor victories aga inst equa l or supe rior ene my
forces. Its perform an ces in battle were th e product of a
well- established system for nurturing seama nsh ip and fighti ng skills at all
levels fro m ord ina ry sailor upwards. At the same time, it mu st be ad m itted
that th e sailors, man y of w hom were "p ressed " into serv ice aga inst th ei r
will , led a not oriou sly hard life, subj ect to dracon ian disciplin e.
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'"I
TH E N AV Y AT WA R
In wa r ti me. ho we ver, the n umbe r of sai lo rs
ex pa nded ra pid ly - from -I5,1I1111 me n at the sta n
o f th e French R evolut ion ar y War in 17')3 , for
exa m ple. to 120. 01l1l in 17')'). Suc h num bers cou ld
110t be su p plie d wi tho ut the use o f th e in fa m o us
pre ss gangs. The Impre ss Se rv ice sco ured por ts
for ex perie nced sea me n - to r exa mple, m en
serv ing o n m c rch .mt ships o r river bo ats - and
" pressed" th em int o th e kin g's ser vice , M en
were a lso pre sse d ;11 sea, a wars hi p sto pping a
VOllE Y G UN
Boarding part y
Britishsailors, armed with cutlasses. and
marines, firing muskets, makea hazardous
attempt to boarda French warship.
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TE A M A FLOAT
O nce aboard a wars hi p. vo luntari ly o r not, a
ma n took hi s place as part o f a complex . enclos ed
so c iety o ver w hic h the captain ru led wi th almost
ab solute po we r. The cha racter o f the ca pta in wa s
th e ke y to a hap py or unh ap py sh ip. H e co u ld
m ak e life unbea rable fo r eve ry bo dy on board.
b ut a captai n who ca re d for h is o ffi cers and m en ,
w hi lst m aintainin g good di scip lin e and order,
cou ld fo rm a crew into a hi ghly m otivated team
in w hi c h eac h m an w illing ly played hi s part .
T he sailors were orga nize d into tw o watche s,
alte rn at in g at th eir statio ns to ke ep th e shi p
ma n ne d 24 hours a d ay. As well as a watc h, each
sailo r be longed to a "mess" of eig ht to ten men ,
w ho ate to get he r an d usua lly for me d a bonded
g ro up wit hi n the crew. Sailors were assig ne d
specific tasks de pen d ing on t heir sk ills - for
exam ple, to pmen we re th o se sufficie nt ly nimble
and assured to wo rk hi gh o n th e m asts.
LI V I N G CO N D IT I O N S
A sh ip was a hard piarc to live and work .
O perati ng a sai ling shi p in all weathers ex pos ed
men to the co nstant risk of acc idents, which cost
man y th eir lives. C ra m pe d liv in g co nd itio ns
enco u rage d th e spread o f di sease even o n a ship
ke pt spo tlessly cle a n . Di sease alway s k illed far
more m en tha n co m ba t. espec ially in u nh ealth y
reg io ns suc h as the West Ind ies. Sa ilor s. ho wev er,
we re not bad ly fed by th e stand a rd s of th eir d ay,
wi t h basic ratio ns of salted m eat . pea s. and dr y
biscuits (" ha rd tack " ). plus an am ple supply of
beer a nd wa te re d rum (" g ro g") . T he tack was
un fortun atel y liable to infestati on with weevils
a nd lar ger g rubs kn own as " barge m e n". O n a
we ll- ru n sh ip sailo rs would also have som e fresh
fruit and vegeta bles a nd lem o n j u ice to avo id
sc ur v y. Officers ate better th an th e m en because
they paid for th ei r ow n ex t ras su pplies.
At sea as asho re . co rpo ra l pu ni shment was t he
means by w hic h o rde r w as m aintain ed . In th e
navy t his ra nged fro m "s ta rt ing" - casua l blows
wi th a ro pe or ca ne ad mi nis te red to men th o ug h t
COMBAT STAT IO NS
In the agc o f Nelson. th e qua lit y o f R o yal Nav y
sailo rs w as demon str ated time and ag ain . M any
o peratio ns, suc h as th e blo cka d e o f t he Fre nch
ports, were un showy feats of seam ansh ip, call ing
for th e ma in te na nce o f vessels at sea for lo ng
peri ods in all weat hers . Act ua l battles we re rar e
eve n ts, b ut the y were o ne s for w h ich all cre ws
were well pre pa red . As t wo o ppo sin g warships
vied fo r po sition in rel at io n to th e wind
Broadsides
The classical form of naval engagement throughout
th e 18t h century wa s based on th e line of battle.
The att acking fleet bore down on the enemy to fire
broadsides. Well -t rained gun crew s cou ld tim e the
moment of firin g a broadside, using t he roll ing
motion of t he ship on th e w aves to direct th eir fire
at the enemy hull or upwa rds at it s sails and riggin g .
<::2<Ships exchange
<:
broadsides
Line of battl e
Direction
of wind
French fleet
sailing in line
of battle
..,.:
7-
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_ _ Intended
course of
secon d
British ship
Direction
of wi nd
Raking fire
As a ship cut s throu gh the
~ Leadi ng
ships of
British
column
.;
broadsides as It
- -/..1
Cutting t he lin e
Direction
of wind
SH IP OF THE LINE
~ Fo rema ~t
HMS Vietor), was a "first rate" ship of the line, mounting 104 guns and requi rin g a crew of
aro und 850 men . It was an ex tremely expensive capita l investme nt, costi ng 63,175 to
build - equivalent to perhaps 50 million in tod ay's mon ey. At least 6,000 trees, mostly
oak , were felled for its cons truction. The ship won immortal fame as N elson's flagship
when the R oyal N avy defeated th e Spanish and French at the battle ofTrafalgar in 1805.
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Bowsprit
On the p oop de ck
Re-enacto rs take the roles of
Admi ral Nelson, the captain
of the ship, and some of the
officers standi ng on the poop
deck surveying the action on
the quarte rdeck below .
Stern w indows
Hig h lanterns
Powd er horn
Each gun captain carried
a cow horn fille d with
powder to prime the gun .
Gun po rt
This long gun has been run out of the gun
port but the tampion would have to be
removed from the mu zzle bef ore it could fire.
Rigging
A mass of rigging controlled the
ship's vast expanse of sail- around
16,000 sq m (4 acres) in total.
High climb
The main mast reaches 67m (220ft) above sea
level at its tip . Fatal falls were common as men
climbed on the yard arms to set or furl sails.
Jeer blocks
Under the top (platform) on each mast
the lower yard is held in place by four
huge pieces of wood called jeer blocks .
Victory restored
HMS Victory has been restored to
Its condition before the battle of
Trafalgar and now stands in dry
dock at Port smouth , on the so ut h
coast of England . It is the oldest
ship in the w orld that is still officially
commi ssioned in naval service.
Heavy anchors
It required the effort of 144 men, pushing on the
bars of two linked capstans, to raise the largest
anchors, which weighed more than 4 .5 tons .
Ship's figurehead
The figurehead had two cupids supporting the
royal coat of arms. Fitted in 1803, it was much
simpler than the original figurehead of 1765.
Forecastle
The fore- and mainmasts were controlled from the forecastle . The
ship's bell in the centre of the deck was rung every half hour. On the
left are two carronades, powerful short -barrelled, short-range guns .
M ess kid
This wasa kind of
bucket made by
Bosun's storeroom
Thisstoreroom housed
stores to repair the
rigging . The bosun
wasin charge of the
deck. crew and
responsible for the
cordage and anchors.
Carpenter's storeroom
The upkeep and repair of
the wooden fabric of the
ship was a daily activity
on board. The carpenter's
storeroom was well
forward in the hold.
Sick berth
The sick were moved
Round shot
The ship's cast-iron
cannonballs weighed
up to 14.5kg (32Ib).
Disp ensary
The surgeon had a small dispensary
for w ard on the orlop deck, below the
lower gun deck. . The cockpit, on the same
deck, served as his ope rating theatre .
TH E SH IP'S
COMMAND CENTRE
The quarterd eck , be hi nd th e m ainmast, was th e site of
th e co m ma nd ing o fficers' cabins. w h ich also serve d as
the ir offices. and th e sh ip', wh eel. Alo ng wi t h th e poop
deck, whi ch pro vided a roof for the cabins and a navigation
and o bserva t io n plat form . it co nsrituted th e co m ma nd
centre o f the sh ip w he re sen io r offi cers wer e habituall y
found . Off-dut y crew we re restri ct ed to th e fo recastle at
the oth er end o f th e sh ip. It wa s on the qu art erd eck that
Nel son was sho t by a Fren ch marine sn iper at Trafal gar .
Captain's day ca bin
At the stern of the quarterdeck the admi ral and the captai n
bot h had light and spacious cabins th at provided separate
areas for sleeping, dining, and wo rking.
1861 - 1865
UNION INFANTRYMAN
WE WERE ... ALL HAPPY AND ALL EXPECTED TO COME
HOME AFTER THE WAR WAS OVER ... LITTL E DID WE
CARE FOR WHAT THERE WAS AHEAD OF US. WE WAS
NOW ON THE ROAD SOUTH TO DO OR TO DIE.
JEFFERSON MOS ES WRITING IN HIS DIARY ON JOINING UP, 1862
li E AM EIlI CA N C I V I L WAil ,
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Camp lif e
A Union encampment at Cumberland
landing on'the Pa munkey River in 1862.
Soldiers usually slept undercanvas in
conicalSibley tentsor increasingly. asthe
war dragged on, in smaller wedge tents.
,,
EXP ER I ENC E OF WA R
D ur in g th e fir st two ye a rs o f t he w ar th e U ni on
fo rces su ffe red m a ny defeat s and se tbac ks , bu t in
J u ly IH63 v icto r ies at G ettysburg in th e easte rn
theat re a nd Vick sburg in the w e st sh ifte d the
bala nce decisive ly aga ins t the Confedera te s.
From th e n o n'war d th e So u th co u ld o n ly figl ll
to pro lo ng the co n flic t, rath er tha n to wi n it.
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RA ZOR
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29 Aug 1862
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Ma con
26
1862
Apr
SOAP
Person al effect s
Infant rymen had to carry everythi ng th ey
needed for life in the field on their backs.
A basic wash kit we ighed littl e, but heavier
items were often jettisoned on long marches.
Wilrnin i-"ton
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A TLA N TIC
ge lll' ra lly ad equate, so ld ie rs oft ell
in d u lged ill fo rag in g a nd pi lla ge , Sin ce
th e w ar w as mostly fou g ht 011 Con fede rate
territory, t hi s w as to ler at ed or eve n c nro u r.igcd
hy co nu ua ude rs. mo st not orio usly durin g th e
M ar ch to th e Sea ac ross G eorgi a in IH(}4.
l.ifc in a rlllY c:lIl1 p was a varia n t on agc- o k!
milit ar y tr adi ti on s. So ld iers follo wed a rout in e o f
drill and fat if;lIe' rS'f; lIlats'd by bu gl e ca ll, o r th e
hl,:1ting of th e drum . Punishmcnts for ind iscipl ine
cou ld be cr ude and severe, rang ing fro m han g in g
hy the th u m bs to t he excr uc iat ing " bu ck ing " tyi ng t he ar ms :lIul legs toget her aro und a ri fle .
D isca: was ever-present a nd m o re soldiers
di ed of d iarrhoea a nd dyscntcrv th a n lo st their
lives in co mba t . As th e war wen t 011. im proved
m edi cal services a nd tig hter di scipli ne - lead in g to
be tter clean line ss - cut the d eath rate, When e ve r
wa rfare beca me sta tic , th ou gh, as in th e siegl' s of
Vick sburp; o r Richmond , epide m ic, flar ed lip. TI ll'
worst lot w as to be tak en pri so ner: th ou sand s di ed
ill th e aw fu l co nd itio ns at Ander son vill e. Geo rgia,
and in o the r Co nfederate ca m ps .
OC EA N
l :lIlIp,l
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 18 6 1- 186 5
H .O R ll M
ConfPde ra le fort
Union viaory
ConfPderale victory
Inconr;lusiYf! banle
Union movement
Union fort
' :a:~r
,~
Gulf
of
Mexi c o
.'m
JOO
'50
/ 50
300
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To ba cco
Licensed vendors known as sutlers travelled wi th the
army in th e field. selling everything from w riting paper
to w hisky and toba cco . The pip e bow l show n here is
hand carved - a popu lar pastime fo r bored soldiers.
BATTLI N G T H RO U G H
Yet wh atever thei r chang ing nature - from th e
naive volunteers of Ill61 to the mi x o f harden ed
fighters and poor -qualit y recruits o f the latt er
stages o f the co n flict - th e Union infa ntr y were
the men who ultim atel y won th e war. C avalry
pe rfo rmed a useful fun ct ion as sco uts and raiders.
Art ille ry in flicted a hi gh percentage of co mbat
casualties. Bur battles were decided by t he succ ess
or failu re of wav es of in fantr y
adva ncing in t he face of
w ithering defe nsive fire .
Soldiers on bot h sides
used the Springfield o r
En field rifle -musket, a
muzzle-l oading firearm
WATERPROOF
MATCH CASE
whi ch was fired by usin g
a percussion cap. This was
a step forward from th e
unrifled flintlock musket
of the Na po leo n ic era in
MATCHES
rate of fire. ra n~e , and
accu racy. Since cauno n
we re also sig n ificantly
FIGHTING IN THE
TRENCHES
The intensification of infantry and artillery firepower
as the Civil War went on increasingly led armies to
resort to field fortifi cations. In the static warfare
around Vicksburg in 1863 and around Petersburg
in 1864-65, these developed into extensive trench
systems - at Petersburg the trenches stretched for
some 50km (30 miles). Inevitably in retrospect the
Civil War trenches are seen as pointing forward to
the stalemate on the Western fron t in World War I.
Trench warfare
A re-creation of a Civil War-era trench system, complete with
wooden supports (revetments), of the type used at Spotsylvania
in 1864. The trenches around the "bloody angle of Spotsyfvania "
were the scene of savage close-quarters bayonet fighting .
VI CT ORY OF ATTR IT IO N
ln fant ry- o n-infant ry e nco u nte rs at clo se ra n ge
w ere a terri fyi ng but ex hilarating experience ,
The same co u ld not be said fo r the tr en ch
wa rfa re that pr ed ominated in t he final stage o f
the wa r. Union iu fan tr y disco vered tren ch es at
t he sieg e o f Vick sburg in IR(,3 but this sty le o f
co nflict reached its apogee in fron t of Petersbu rg
in 1864- 65. A d aily att rit io n thro ugh the
ex plos io n o f m ortar shells and th e sn ipi n g of
ene my sharpsho o ters replaced the w ild slaugh ter
o f pitch ed battl e. wh ile so ld iers beca m e as adept
whale-oil candles
Candleswere an important piece of equipment for soldiers
in camp. Candle tins with polished metal surfaces were used
to increase illumination and avoidfires while under canvas.
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'"r
CONFEDERATE INFANTRYMAN
The American C ivil War was an un equ al contest, the Confedera cy
fightin g at a great d isadvant age in ter ms of manp ower and reso urces.
But at least for the first two years of the conflict, despite undergoin g
privat ions and hardsh ip, the Sout he rne rs often o utfo ug ht the
u nsti nti ng in hi s praise of his men 's fight ing qu alities, stat ing:
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CO M M IT TE D R EBELS
G iven its sho rtage of m anpower , the Confe derac y.
in IH()2 , wa s fo rced to re sort to co nscr ipt ion , but
the y suc ceede d in maki ng till' d raft wo rk better
th an th e Union ever did. A ll w h ite m ales age d
.....
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'"I
Triangularsection blade
BRITISH EN FiElD
RIFlE -MUSKET,1853
A MOTLEY-LOOKING CREW,
BUT TH EY FIGHT LI K E DEV I LS.
UNION SOLDIER ON HIS CONf EDERATE ENEMIES
Confed er at e un iform
Infantr ymen fought in a huge
variety of different colours,
including grey, blue, and
" butt ernut ", show n here in this
replica of a uniform of 1862.
1800 -
1870
MAORI WARRIOR
THEN, OH MY CHILDREN BE BRAVE! THEN OH MY
FRIENDS BE STRONG! BE BRAVE THAT YOU MAY NOT
BE ENSLAVED AND THAT YOUR COUNTRY MAY NOT
BECOME THE POSSESSION OF STRANGERS.
DYING SPEEC H OF MAORI CHIEF HONGI HIKA. 1828
C Eo
parties eve ry year to fight th eir neighbours. In the 19th cent ury, co ntac t
with Eu ropeans added mu sket s to th e M aori 's traditi on al wood-a nd-sto ne
weaponry. Equipped w ith firearm s, th e M aori fought a series of costly
wars - th e M usket Wars - aga inst one ano the r, and the Briti sh army.
MUSK ET WARFAR E
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War canoe
Waka taud were the M aori wa rrior 's usual mo de of
transpo rt. They we re as long as 4 0m (130ft) and could
hold up to 70 men. Tw o canoes were sufficie nt to
transpo rt an entire war part y. A bailer (below) was
essential kit in case the boa t took on water.
wi t h th e wide r world
e nco u ra ged th e terr ito rial
ambit io n s o f som e M aor i
leaders, and pro vided
new and im proved
mil itar y techno log y.
From t he 18 10, to
th e I H30, . th e M aori
tr ib es e ngaged in a se ries
of h ig h ly destruct ive
co n flicrs th at h ave b een
called th e M usket Wars .
CA NO E BA ILER
T hese co n flic ts we re fou g h t
in w ays t hat we re bro ad ly sim ilar to tra d itio na l
M ao r i wa rfa re , w ith w ar part ies atta ck in g tr ibcs
aga inst w ho m th e y h ad g rieva nces , thc e nc my
d ead b eing eate n. a nd w ea ke r gr ou ps ta k ing
LAND WA RS
In 18 40 Br itain too k ove r New Zeala nd as a
colo ny, after ag ree ing the T reaty of Waitan gi
wi t h th e M aori. W ithi n five yea rs the first of
a str ing of conflicts had brok en o ut in wh ich
M ao ri tribes co ntested th e rule of th e Briti sh
aut ho rities and resisted land grabs by Euro pea n
settl ers. Alth ou gh th e M aori Kin g M ovem ent
attempte d to uni fy resistan ce fro m 1858. th ere
we re always M aori w ho fou ght o n th e British
side (k no w n as kllpapa), mostly moti vat ed by
tribal r iva lry. Yet despit e their division s. th e
Maori pro ved amo ng: the most effective o ppo nents
the British army faced in its 19 th- cen t ur y co lo n ial
campaig ns . Thi s was despite a lack of numbers for a co mbinatio n of British troo ps, settle r m ilit ias.
and kllpapa co uld usuall y assem ble a larger force
th an M ao ri rebel s co u ld field . M aori we apo n ry
was also inferi or; alt ho ug h th ey obta ined rifle
mu skets. they ofte n had no proper am mu ni t io n.
resortin g to hom e-m ade substitutes.
M aori wa rrio rs pro ved ade pt at g ue rr illa
wa rfare, but th ey we re also surprisingly successfu l
at ada pting the ir fortified stro ng ho lds to the
dem and s of mod ern wa rfa re. They crea te d 1'"
enc ircle d w it h co mplex syste ms of eart hworks
and palisad es. co nst ruc te d to give ent re nche d
defender s effective field s of fire aga inst ene my
in fantr y atte m pting an assau lt. Deep bunkers
wer e d ug insid e th e fort to allo w th e M aori to
surv ive art ille ry fire . T hey inv ite d th e Briti sh to
attack th em in th ese fortified positi o ns. wh ich
they would aban do n o nce they had infli ct ed
maximum casualties o n the attackers. Th e
stre ng t h o f thi s syste m w as dem on strat ed o n
29 April 18(,4 at Ga te Pa. Tauran ga. Less th an
250 M aori in side th e fort faced 1.70 0
so ldiers under G en er al Duncan
Ca mero n eq u ipped
Intricate carvingis
an important part
01 Maori culture
Battle ready
A modern-day Maori in
traditional costume perfoms
the halea. He isarmed with a
raiaha (long staff)used for
stabbing and striking. and a
wahaika (short-range club).
secured inside a war belt.
1800 -
1880
ZULU WARRIOR
th e Z u lu develo ped an
agg ressive wa rr ior spirit and d iscipl ined fighti ng skills that
m ad e th em a dominant m ilitary power in their region of
southern Africa . D espite th eir low level o f tech no logy,
FO RM ING A WA R R IOR
As yo u ng bo ys, fut ure Z ulu warrio rs picked up
info rm al fig h ti ng ski lls by bat rling one another
with stic ks. The y also learned to be hard y and
self-relia nt in the ir harsh natu ral env iro nment .
accom pany ing their el de rs as bear er s o n lo ng
c ross-co u ntry jou rneys and hunt in g sma ll ga nll',
Induct io n into the w arrio r class came bet w een
t he "ges of 18 a nd 20 . M e n of the same age
group wen ' asse mbled to form a regimen t and set
up a barrack s. T he wa rrio rs wo uld re main wi th
the same regiment - identi fied by the ado ption
o f" par ticul ar co lou r shield and other de rai ls of
dress - for th e next two dec"des . Obviously.
thi s regimen tal system enco uraged bonding
an d gro up id ent ity.
Althou gh in t he time of Shaka's
ru le wa rrio rs were, accord ing to
rep o rts. train ed ill forced m arch es
and m ilitary m an o eu v res, the re
seems ve ry little ev ide nce at any
late r peri od for a tou g h trainin g
routin e in the sty le of Western
armi es. In fact, the wa rriors'
eq u iva len t of parade-gro u ud
dr ill an d weapons trai ning
" ppe Jrs to ' lJ \'C largely
co nsist ,..-d of performing
co mplex rh ythm ic da nces
wit h sh ields, sticks, o r spears.
COWHIDE SHielD
AND STABBING SPEA R
Zulu wa r dance
Zulu w arriors in full battle
dress, armed w ith cow hide
shields, stab bmq spears,
and kncbkemes, perform
a war dance (umghubha).
Ceremonial dancing and
singing, performed before
and after batt le, was of
great religious significanc e
to the Zulu. Note the plum es
of dust in the photograph,
caused by th e vigorous
sta mping of unshod feet.
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FI GH TIN G M ETH OD
Co w hi de shield
Shields needed to
be both stro ng and
fiqht w erqht . The
distinct ive colouring
of t he shield showed
the- re-giment to
w hich t he w arrior
be-longed, and his
status WIthin it.
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1860 - 1890
SIOUX WARRIOR
I WAS HOSTILE TO THE WHITE MAN ... WE PREFERRED
HUNTING TO A LIFE OF IDLENESS ON OUR RESERVATIONS.
AT TIMES WE DID NOT GET ENOUGH TO EAT AND WE
WERE NOT ALLOWED TO HUNT. ALL WE WANTED WAS
PEACE AND TO BE LET ALONE.
CRAZY HORSE OGLA LA SIOUX (1842 - 1877)
enc roac h ment o n th ei r huntin g gro u nds. They evolved a form of wa r fare
based o n th eir sk ills as horsemen , hunters, and raid er s. Although th ey had
no cha nce o f ul tim at e success, given th e willpower and resources of the ir
o ppo ne nts , th ey pro ved supe r ior in com ba t o n th eir ow n term s.
TRADE KNIFE
AND SHEATH
th e path o r
T he Ind ians' trad itio na l key wea po n was the
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The di scipline wa s
WA R R IO R SOC I ETI ES
M ade up of men w ho had pro ved
th eir co urage and ability, th ese
in cursion s
th e U S A rm y wit h raid s
again st iso lated outposts and
settlements. usin g the hi t- and-run
tact ics fam iliar from int ert ribal warfare .
Transport and com mun icntion links
we re di srup ted . w ith stagecoac hes and
sup ply trains ambushed a nd telegra ph w ires
rip ped down . Travellin g faste r and lig ht er than
US tr o op s, Sio ux warrio rs co uld easily eva de
army co lu m ns se n t to e ngage them .
T H E BOZE MA N T RA IL
The most successfu l exe rc ise in Ind ian g ue r rill a
LI T TL E BI GH ORN
T here were p ro babl y more th an I,n n n w arrio rs
in vol ved in the f.11l10 11S v ic to ry ov e r so ld iers led
by Geo rge C uster at th e Littl e Big ho r n Ri ver in
Ju ne IH76 , Although no trul y reli able acco u nt
of th is battle ex ists, it ap pe ars that th e Ind ian s
rapidl y fired a lar ge vo lu me o f u naimcd arro ws
in a h i ~h traj ector y to foil in a dense sho we r
up on the U S t ro ops. The y probab ly atta ck ed o n
foot , cree ping forward wit h m aximum lise of allY
pr otection affo rded by the terrain and vegetat ion .
But eve n at Little High o rn , t he In di an
wa r rio rs co u ld not ho ld the field , bein g for cs'd
to n..-rreat behind a g rass fire smokes c ree n th e
follo win g day to avoid enco untering more U S
so ld ie rs. On ce th e U S wa s read y to devote
resource s ruthle ssly to th e Plains Ind ian Wars.
th e Ind ians had no answer to the destru cti on of
Raiding party in battle dress
Sioux warfare typically consisted
of raidsandambushesmounted by
stealth involvmq 30-40 warriors.
CAN A D A
Battl egrounds and terr itori es
As European settlerspushed
westward. it was inevitable
there would be conflict with
PlainsIndians. Many of the major
battlesand incidentsin the
American West between 1850
and 1880 involved the Sioux.
cteerweter
1877
>ok.
BI~ Hole
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Big Moun
U N IT E D
S IIOSIlO""
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S TAT E S
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Bear Paw
Moun tain, 1877
Little
.
Bighorn ~ " ~mder Rlvef
1816 ~mbud
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inu
x.il 'I1JO OF
PAC I FI C
OC EAN
.i l~iC:IfE
UTE;
Hem.land, of major
Native American tribes
Battle involving Sioux
Othe r battle be tween
US and native tribes
AM ERI CA
..k. Palo Duro Canyon
"V 1874
LI~
MIC .
of the 19th century brou ght white settlers into co nflict w ith Native
America n peoples. who defended their territo ries by car ry ing out
Am eri cans fou ght with no real hope of victo ry but great skill and
co urage . By 1890 th eir resistance had been pitil essly crus hed.
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APACHE
In th e l'.Ith ce nt ury, th e six A pa che t ribes
li ved ill th e mo uu tuin s and de sert s of
prese nt- day w este r n Te xas, N ew M exi co ,
A rizo na, and north ern M ex ico . U nt il
the I H40 s t heir great en e m ies w e re t he
M ex ican s and the y we lconn..'d the takeover
o f th e so ut hwest by the U n ited Sta tes in
Decorated cap
Apache warriorswore
buckskin caps that were
decorated with feathers
and with colourful
beadwork In elaborate
individual designs.
NEZ PERCE
Th e N e e M e Po n, nam ed
Nez Pl' rce by Fren ch C ana d ia u t rappe rs, lived
by fish ing a nd h untin g
o n th e Colu m bia Platea u
in the no rthwest U nited
States. The y h ad gener a lly
good rel at ion s wi th th e
w h ite s until th e 18(,Os,
Ne z Perce
CarrYing strap
BRITISH INFANTRYMAN
WE WERE NEVER HIT, BYTHE GRACE OF GOD, FOR
THE DEEP MUD WAS OUR SALVATION, THAT MUD
WHICH WE CURSED AND IN WHICH WE STUCK AND
STAGGERED, SLIPPED AND SLID, TUGGING OUR BOOTS
OUT OF IT EACH TIME WE MADE A FRESH STEP.
GUNNER LIEUTENANT RG DIXON ON THE BATTLE OF PASSCHENDAELE
TO T HE FRON T
A lt houg h ma ny ea rly vo lu u rec rs w ere rej ected
as m edically unfi t to r serv ice, t hose acce pted at
ti rst far excee de d th e number s th at co u ld be
tr a ined a nd eq u ippe d, Th ey were shu nte d off
to m ak csh ifr te nte d ca m ps, lIlan y k itt cd o ur
w ith UK itc h cnc r blu e" uuiforru s for lack of
k h ak i m atcri nl. and , ill th e co m p lete abse nce
ofweaponry. dr illed wit h broom st ick s under
t he or ders of hi deb o un d reg ul ar NCO s too old
to be sen t to the front . It WJS o n ly grad ua lly
throu gh It) 15 th at th e m en rece ived prop e r
un iform s and e qu ip me n t, c irizc u-, began to tu r n
into so ldie rs . a nd the cw A rm y too k sha pe .
Tough en ed up by route m ar ch es an d bo nded with
their co m rad es . th e mcn 's m o rale was genera lly
high by th e time the y e m barked t'()r France.
LEWIS GUN
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TRE NC H LIFE
Newco mers to the fro nt- line tr ench e s
we re in e vitabl y horr ified b y th e
extraord ina ry spectacle they presented .
W in sto n C hu rc h ill. a r riv ing to ser ve at
the [rour ill No ve m ber Jl) 15. d esc r ib ed
the srvnc in ;l lcu er to h is wi tl-;
"Filt h an d ru bbi sh everywhe re ,
graves bu ilt int o the d"..fl'J)n:s .. .
tt.-'l't and c lot h ing br eaking
t hro ug h t he soil. wa ter a nd m uc k O J)
all sid l'S: an d abo u t th is sce ne ill th e
da zzl in g mo o n lig h r troo ps of e no r m o us
rat s c rl'l'p and g Iidt:'." Yet in th is st ran ge
wo rld m en m ad e th e m sel ves at ho rne.
Ob servi ng t he ene my
Periscopeswere essential fo r observing activity
in the German trenches and no man's land
Some were simple met al tubes with a mirror at
eithe r end. others we re more sophist icated.
T he li fe of a so ld ie r at th e We ste rn Front wa s
go ve rn ed b y a d ail y ro ut ine a nd by th e longerterm rhythm of rot ati o n bet ween ser vice ill t he
fro nt lin e a nd spe ll, in rese r ve a nd at rest. T he
d ay in the fro nt line hin ged aro u nd th e fixed
po ints o f sra nd- ro at d awn - u su all y with a tot o f
rum - and sta nd- do w n at d u sk . T im e w as filled
w ith a bu sy ro uti n e o f c hores , fro m
main ta ini ng and im provin g t he fabr ic
o f th e trench es to ke e pi n g ri fles clea n
and in per fec t orde r, plu s spec ia l tasks
suc h as o bser vat io n d u ties. of obv io us
im porta nce since th e e ne m y w as o n ly
a few hund red m et res aw ay. R ati o ",
we re adeq u ate if unexciting . C igarett e
sm o k ing w as more o r less un iver sal.
T he re wa s a co ns ta nt st r ugg le aga inst
lice infe stat ion and agai u st th e rats th at
th rived a mo ng t he unburi ed bodies a nd
di sca rded fo od . T he so ld ie rs' m o rale
d e pended in co ns ide rab le m easu re
up o n th e physica l q ua lit y o f their
tren ch es, w h ich va ried g rt:'a tly. A
good , dr y d ugout w as a go dse nd .
W h er e th e g ro u nd be ca me
w at erl o gged . as in Fland er s.
sod den tren ch es su rr o u nded by
a shel l-chu rned sea of mud ma d e
da ily life alm o st unbea rab le.
T h e le vel o f d an ger a so ld ier
faced d ep ended o n ho w ac tive
a sec to r he w as in. In so me parts
o f th e fro nt a n u nsp ok en truce
pr eva iled . In o the r parts tr en ch
m ortar fire , she ll ing, and sn iping
ca used a stea dy att ritio n of m en.
Messag e pad
M essage s w ere
all numbered
and timed and
had to be signed
fo r on receipt
Officers at th e front
were bombarded by
messages. each of
wh ich demanded
some act ion or reply.
BIU T A I N
N orth Se a
-+-
man y of th em st ill
man aged to co n tract
vene real di seases. As
wel l as dr unkenness,
co m m o n for m s of
Eng li sh
Eurk~
Cha nnel
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OV ER T HE TO P
So me inf antr ymen n ever ex pe r ie nced a maj or
o ffe ns ive and m o st o n ly parric ip.ircd o nce o r
twi ce ill fu ll- sca le opera tio ns, It wa s po ssib le to
sp end ye ars ill the trenche s wi t ho ut go i ng "over
th e top" at all. Bur wh en au o tlC: t1S i\'l' did happen ,
it was ce rtain ly a ll ex per ience th at no su r v ivi ng
pa rt ic ip ant ever to rgor . At t he start o f th e batt le
of the So m mc , 0 11 1 Jul y I<J 16 , i ucxpcricnced
so ld iers m ar ch ed fo rwa rd w ith fu ll packs st ra ig h t
in to m uchin c - gun fir e and un cut Germ an wi re ,
a nd 5 H,OOO m en were ki lle d or wounded i n ;1
d.l y, lIu t suc h futile b ut che ry wa s e xce ptio na l.
U su all y a so ld ie r had a se nse o f taking pa rt in
a fie rce b.urlc . rat her th an be in g herded to
Jo ining a n offensive
Bntish infantrymen thread their way along a
sap - a narrow trench extend ing forwa rd from
the front hne - and then out thr ough the barbed
w ire befo re advancing across no man 's land.
W ;l Y
fi eld t el epho n e
Commu nicat ion betw een th e art illery and
th e infantry was crucial to th e successof an
offens ive. In the absence of radio s, the infan try
had to rely on the portable field telephone .
/
/
Cable had to be
played out behind
telephone op erator
as troops advanced
EX PER I ENCE OF WA R
M o rale was o ft en lo w in t he later stages of t he
war. The idea lism and patrioti sm so plen tiful ill
th e ea rly days came to he ill short supply. Sold iers
cu rsed staff office rs for their bluud ers and we re
ho rrified by th e losses su ffered. T he exper ience
o f sit ting passively under pro longed ar tillery
bombard ment shook men to the co re . Gas att ack
BR EAKTHROUGH TACTICS
Frustrated by static trench warfare, the British army
repeatedly sought a decisive breakthrough, to be
achieved by punching a hole in the German line and
pouring troops through it. By 1917 breakthrough
tactics were well thought-out. A brief but ferocious
preparatory bombardment was followed by the
advance of infantry behind a creeping barrage. This
German s sheltering
in concrete bun kers
German support trench
Commun ication
tren ch
Barrage moves on to
prevent Germans
from sending
reinfor cements
Shrapnel
Shrapnel
Shrapnel shells explode
above German trenche s
Germans take
shelter in bunker s
>,
ti i~ ~.xpl~ive ~hel~
...
Troops advance
behind barrag)
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Barbed wi re
NO MAN'S LAND
........... ......
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Troop s hidde; by
......
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smoke and
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~econd wave
Daw n a tta ck
The first wave of infantry climb out of their trenches
under cover of darkness and lie on th e ground ready
to attac k at dawn. At a prearranged tim e, th e infant ry
begin to advance across no man' s land, w hile th e
artillery lays down a creeping barrag e ahead of th em.
Creepi ng barra ge
The barrage forces German tr oop s to shelter in bunkers,
allowing the Briti sh infantry to approa ch th eir tr ench
largely unscath ed. By th e tim e the barrage passes on
and th e German defend ers emerge to take up their
posit ions. th e first wave of Briti sh infantry is upon th em,
Advanci ng in depth
After close-quart ers combat the first w ave secures th e
German front-line trench. The arti llery now moves on to
the second line of tren ches, att empting to prepare th e
w'ay for th e second w ave inf antry , w ho wi ll pass thr ough
the fir st wave and cont inue the advance.
GERMAN STORMTROOPER
WE ARE GOING LIKE HELL, ON AND ON ... WE ARE
GLAD IF RATION CARTS AND FI ELD KITCHENS CAN
GET UP TO US AT NIGHT. NOW WE GO FORWARD,
PAST CRATERS AND TRENCHES , CAPTURED GUN
POSITIONS, RATION DUMPS AND CLOTHING DEPOTS.
DIARY OF RUDOLF BINDING , CAPTAIN IN THE GERMAN ARMY, DESCRIBING THE KAISERSCHLACHT OF MARCH 1918
in World War I, th e
warfare on the Western Front, German sold iers showe d not only co urage
and resolution but also skill in the adoption of fl exibl e battlefield tactics. This
was espec ially true of th e elite sto rmtroopers, wh o spea rheaded th e mi ghty
German offen sive of M arch 1918, th e "Kaiserschla cht" (Kaiser's battl e).
ST O RM ING FORWARD
H u nd red s of thousand s of Cerma n s d ied in the
g rea t blood-letti ngs of Vcrdu n and th e So m mc
in 1916, and in the Al lied offe n sives of 1917.
As t he wa r we nt o n , 3 g u lf opened lip ill t he:
Ge rma n ranks bet w een bat tle- ha rde ne d tr oops
w ho had su rv ive d t hi s car nage and the ag e ing
reser vists Of fresh yOll ng co nsc ripts w ho
we re req uired to m ake up t he n umber s at
t he fron t. T he best so ld iers we re g ro upe d into
elite for ma t io n s of "s tor un roo pc rs" a nd u sed
to sp ear head co u n te ratt ac ks and offen sives. T he
sto r m t ro o pe r co nce pt was tra ceable to an assau lt
unit c reated in Marc h 1915 b y Ca ptain W ill y
R o h r of t he Pru ssiau G U3nh R ifles. T hro ugh
1916 and 1<J1 7 sto rm batta lio ns be ca m e C0 l11 1110 n ,
310ng with sm alle r sto r rn t ro o pc r detac hme nts in
sta nd ard infantry regi me nt s. T hey were c reated
e ithe r by t he co nve rsio n of un its of rifl em en
(jagc r) o r by h and-pic k in g t he
b est so ld iers fro m co nve n tio n a l
infantr y. Sto r m t ro o pc rs rece ived
inte nsive t rain in g and th ey we re
e ncou raged to regard
th em sel ves 3S th e
Trench axe
Alth ough used primari ly as a general
purpose to ol in the tr enches, th e axe
was useful for close-quarters fight ing
dur ing trench-ra iding mission s.
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Ov er the top
German stormtroopers laden with equi pment
advance over open but broken ground during the
spring offensive of 1918 . The enemy know of
the ir approach because of a preliminary barrage.
BITTER D EF EAT
As a re sult of t he co nscriptio n of far m workers
and far m ho rses. Ger ma ny was despe rately short
o f fo od by 191 H, and Ge r m a n so ld iers co u ld
not be insulated from th ese sho rtages. At Easter,
o ne so ld ier co mplained that his day's ration s
had co nsiste d o f ha if a lo af of br ead a nd a c hu nk
of roasted ho rsern c at . T he M arch o ffensive wa s
Gas mas k
The German army'smeans of protection from
gas attacks wasmore sophisticated than the
Allies' goggles and cotton wadding. This mask
features a cylindrica l screw- fitt ed air filter.
INFILTRATION TACTICS
The Germans sought to end th e dominance of
defence on the Worl d War I batt lefield by tact ics
designed to penetrate enemy lines rapidly and in
depth . First used to full effect by General von Hutier at
Riga in Septembe r 1917, infiltration t act ics dispensed
with a prolonged preliminary bombardment of
enemy trenches. Instead, a "h urricane" artillery
barrage of great intensity, but short duration,
was followed by th e advance of heavily-armed
stormt roopers. Bypassing strongpoin ts, t hese elite
troops wou ld overrun weaker points in front- line
trenches w ith the force of their shock attac k. They
then pressed on swiftly through second- and
thi rd-line trenches to threaten enemy artille ry
and communications . Assault infant ry would
GERMAN TRENCH
Throu gh most of World War I, a line of field fortifi cations stret ched for more than 700k m
(450 m iles) alo ng the We stern Front fro m N ieuport in Belgium to the Sw iss bord er. T he
first tr en ches, improvised in the aut u m n of 1914 , we re in tend ed as temp orary struc tur es,
but th ese hastily-d ug dit ches gradually evo lved into perm anent in -dep th defe nsive syste ms
incorporating co ncrete bu n kers and stro ngpo ints, prot ected by dense belts of barb ed w ire.
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w ire
Gren ad e launcher
W inding line
Firest ep
Precast concrete
Two-room bunker
and to whi chever front they were posted , soldiers had to end ure
wel l w ith the dem and s of mod ern warfare at its most destructive
artillery bo mba rdment and gas atta ck, adva nce in th e face of
machine- gun fire, and fight the squalid dai ly stru ggle in th e
them not o nly endured, but developed from poorl y trai ned
trenches agai nst rats, lice, and mud. Cas ualties in offen sives
FRENCH POI LU S
The Fre nch "po ilu" - the in fm tr y co nsc ript -
W JS
Desperate measures
French troops use rocks aswell asrifles
to dislodge Germansoldiers from
hillsidetrenches in eastern France.
US IN FAN TR Y
When t he United Sta tes e nte red Worl d Wa r J in
Ap ril 19 17 it wa s in th e p ro cess o f ex pa nd ing its
regu lar a rmy to 140,000 me n and c re at ing a
vo lu ntee r reserve of 400.000 , in cor poratin g the
Na t io na l G u ard . T hese numbers w er e. howe ver .
w ho lly iusufficicnr for t he m ass a r my need ed for
th e Eu ro pean w a r. T h e go ve rn m ent d eci d ed to
c reate a new " n at io n al ar my " ra ised e nt ire ly by
co nsc rip tio n. D espi te t rad iti o nal host ilit y to th e
draft . co nsc riptio n we nt ahea d sm o o th ly, bu t it
w as a slow pro cess asse m b ling and rran spo rr in g
tro op s to Eu ro pe. T he Amer ican Ex pedi tio na ry
Force nu m bered ove r 500 ,000 by June 1918 ,
w he n it fi rst e nte red co m bat 0 11 th e We ster
Front. N ick na med " do u gh bo ys', the co nsc ripts
im pre ssed j ad ed Euro pe a ns as ph ysicall y fit,
m enta lly fresh yo u n g m en, their o pt im ism
co nt rasting sha r ply w ith th e cy n ic ism of th e
w a r- weary Brit ish a nd Fre n ch.
T he U S tro op s in exper ie nce. a nd th at
o f th eir o fficers , co st the m dearl y in early
e ng agem e nts . The ir su pply syste m wa s o fte n
po o rly o rgan ize d an d tro ops at times w e nt
US equip me n t
The Ameri cans added a
few new touches to th e
weaponry of the war,
such as shotguns used to
clear enemy tren ches.
VI
Americans on th e
W est ern Fro n t
M en of the 23 rd Infantr y
Regiment fi re a 37-mm gun at
a German posit ion during the
successful St Mihiel offe nsive of
September 19 18, th e first major
US operatio n of the war.
CANADIAN INFAN TR Y
Ca na da h ad o n ly a few t ho usand m en in its
reg u lar a rm y when t he w a r be gan . U n hesitati n g
in its su ppo rt for Britain , t he do m in io n in vit ed
vo lu n te e rs to c reate a Ca na d ia n Ex pe ditio na r y
Force. So me (,00,0 00 C an ad ia ns e n liste d, o f
w ho m 4 IH.OOO served o verseas. O rga n izi ng a n
army alm os t fro m scratc h wa s a fo rmidable task .
but a body of hastil y trained Ca n ad ia n civ ilia nsin -uni fo rm w as read y to tak e its place in th e
fro nt line at Ypres in Ap ri l 19 15 - j ust in time to
t:.ce the first ch lo rine gas att ac ks on the Western
Pron t oAs C an ad ia n nu m be rs gr ew, so did their
ex po su re to th e wo rst the w ar co u ld show.
Ca n ad ians su ffe re d heav y casu alt ies at th e
So m me in su m m er 19 16 and in th e mud o f
Passch end aele th e foll owing yea r. T h eir
exc e pt io n al fightin g qu alities we re uni ve rsall y
recogni zed. T he C ana d ia n ca pt u re of h eavi ly
d efended Vi my R idge o n 9 Apr il 1917, ch arg in g
up a stet'p bare slo pe in sleet a nd snow, w as o ne
o f th e g reat feats o f a r m s in th e wa r. M ore th an
56, 000 Ca na d ian so ld iers d ied in co m bat.
..
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THE ANZACS
O n th e o ut b rea k o f war, yo u ng m e n in Austr ali
and New Z ea la nd respon d ed ea ge rly to th e ir
gove r n me nts' ca ll fo r vo lu ntee rs to ti ght in
su ppo rt o f Britai n - abo ut o ne in fi ve m alt' New
Zea landers eve nt ua lly joined up . Gro up ed
to get her as A N ZAC s, Au str al ia n an d N ew
Zealand tr o op s we n ' ini t ially stat io ned ill Eg yp t
for t rain in g . T he Australia ns ill particula r so o n
gainl'd a re putation as to ug h char.rctcrs. T he ir
indiffer en ce to m ili tar y et iqu ette o utraged
Brit ish o fficer s a nd t he ir o tr -d ut ), bc ha vio ur
appa lled t he Eg yp riau s. O nce in batt le, ho we ve r.
AN ZAC tro op s pr o ved thl' m o st tl>;lrso lllc and
effec tive fi g h ters o n th e Al lied side in till' w a r.
Thei r bapt ism o f fire in t he not o riou s Gallip oli
ca m paig n w o u ld h ave d em o ralized a less reso lut e
b o d y o f so ld iers, but th ey w e nt 011 to ti ght at the
Son un e a nd l'assch cnd ac lc . By su m mer 19tH
th e Au st ralians had th eir OWI1 co r ps, wh ic h
spea rheaded till' o ffe nsives th at ro lled back till'
Ge rm a n Ar m y, Pro po r t iona lly, th e Au str alian s
su ffe red t he h ig hest casua lty rare o f an y n at io n al
a rm y in th e w ar , w it h 60,0110 ki lled and 220,Olli l
w ounded o ut of aro und 320 ,000 sent fill
oversea s serv ice . cw Zea la nd su ffere d
58,000 casu alt ies, incl udi n g 17,(JOO dead .
RUSSIAN TROO PS
Peasant co nsc r ipts torm cd th e m ajorir y of t he
R u ssian ar my. w ith a ll ad m ixt ure o f w orkers
fr om t he m ajor ci t ies. M obili zati o n we nt vc ry
smoo th ly, bur badl y- led Ru ssia n for ce' , u lTered
a catastro ph ic de feat at T auu cnbcrg ill btl.' Aug u st
1')14 . From th e n O il t he R ussia ns we re be ate n
wh enever they fi:H1 ght t he G er mans, altho ug h
th ey so m et im es inflict ed til-feats O il the Au str ian s
a nd the T u rk s. I ) iscoll{en t g rcw as li ves w e re
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PAPAKHA
SHEEPSKIN HAT
Badge In
Ro manov
colours
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Russian un iform
The khaki t unic. introd uced in 1907,
w as wo rn w it h more tradit ion al items of
clot hing. such as the Cossack papakha.
ITALIAN TROO PS
Ital y's bel ated d eclarat io n o f w ar on Au str ia1'l lI n ~a r y in M ay 1')1 5, m oti va ted b y rc r r itor ial
a m b itio u s, was u np opu la r with much of til l'
popularion . H aving been u n ified o n ly hal f a
Bersaglieri hat
The Bersaglieri, a
crack rifle corps, wo re
distinct ive plumed
hats on parade.
Mountain trenches
Repeated Ital ian att empts to
break th rough the Austrian
lines failed despite heavy
bom bardm ents and vicious
sk ills fo r co ping w ith m ountain warfa re . Frontline t ro o ps o fte n we nt sho rt o f foo d, clo thin g,
and medi cal servi ces. So ldie rs we re routinely
mi streat ed by th eir o ffi ce rs.
Th e savi ng g ra ce fo r the Itali ans w as th at th e
Au stro - Hunga ri an s we re ge nc ra lly in a sim ilar
p lig ht to th em selves. The t ransfer of G erm an
fo rces to th e Ita lia n fro nt pr ecipitat ed di saster t( )r
Ita ly at C apo rerto in O ct ober 1')17. De m o ral ized ,
r id d led w ith pac ifist and d efeat ist se nt ime n t.
in flu c ucc d by left - wing revo lut io na r y ide as, a nd
ex h auste d by roo m a ny cos tly o ffen sive s. Ital ian
so ld ie rs q ui t th e batt le field almost a, so o n a'
t he ti ~ h ti n ~ beg an a nd tied as f." . and f;lS t a'
th ey co u ld , A de fen sive lin e wa s stab ilized
o n till' P iave R ive r in win ter 1917, A ft er a
pe ri od cau tio u sly d e voted to th e re sto rat ion
of m orale , th e Ita lia ns e nd ed th e w ar o n th e
offe nsive. led by ne w assa u lt t ro ops, till' A rd it i.
But overa ll th e Ita lia n so ld ie r', ex pe rien ce o f t he
w ar w as di sillusioning in th e ex t re me . A lmo st
h alf a mi lli on Ita lia ns di ed in th e co n flic t .
..'"
~
TURKISH TROOPS
INFANTRY
TUN IC
FRAGMENTATION
GRENAD E
-- ----
-III
__
Nation alists were ultim ately victo rious in a con flict th at cost
sma ller scale from Soviet R ussia and from voluntee r Intern ational
252
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NATIONALISTS
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recru its from Po rtu gal an d else whe re. The Arm y
ofAfri c;l also in cluded lar ge numbers of to u g h
Moroccan Rifft ri bl'Sllll'11 se rvi ng under Spa n ish
offi cers , Un li ke th e troops 0 11 the m ain land . w ho
were m o stl y ill-trained co nsc r ipts. th e Legi on and
M oroccan so ld iers were hardened profession als.
After th e Army o f Afri ca , the most effect ive
troops o n the Nationalist sid e we re th e Cat holic
ro yali st mili tia s known as t he "rcqucres". C h iefly
hill farmers from the Nava rre regio n. these so ld iers
fought in ;1 c r us ad in g sp ir it , "one h and holdin g
The siege of Madr id
Nationalist soldiers attac k an enemy
posit io n on th e Madr id front. Aft er
thr ee years of fighting. the city finally
fell to Franco's forces In March 1939.
CONDOR LEGION
"Vo lu n teers" fro m the armed to rccs of Ccr mnn y
3'HI 1t31y supported t he ario na lists th rou ghout
th e c iv il wa r, T he Ital ian s were m o re IlUl1ll'nHI S,
hut the G e r ma ns w er e m ore c: tli..c tivc:. Organ ized
int o the Co ndo r L q~ i o ll from Novem be r ! tJ] (l.
the Ge r ma n int ervention fo rce co ns isted pr im aril y
of I.uft w a ffc ai rc raft a nd pilots. Ther e W3' 31, 0 3
co nt inge nt of lig ht ra nks a nd of 88m m a r tille ry
u sed in an ant i- aircraft and a nt ita n k rol e .
N az i leaders saw t he war as a testin g
g ro u nd fin I R ' W equi pme nt and tact ics.
T he Jun kers J u 8 7 Stu b d ive -bo mber
3 n~
INTERNATIONA L
BRI GA DES
From late )t) J (, the Sov iet U n io n o rga ni ze d
LOYAL ISTS
At th e start of the c iv il wa r the govcr nmc ur had
the suppo rt o f lo yal un its of th e regular 3r m y a nd
o f th e m ajo rity of the para mi litar y Assau lt G U3rd ,.
Bu t the R epublic's su r vi val de pended up on the
creat io n of people's m ilit ia' by a va r ie ty of le ftwi ng g ro ups, ch ief among th em th e anarch ist and
soc ialist trad e union m o vemen ts. Sl'izing we apo ns
fro III ar lllY de po ts, they sec u red maj or c it ies and
m ou nt ed a d efe nce against th e N ati onali st fo rces ,
while sim u lta ne o us ly
tr ying to carry th rou g h
a soc ial re vo lut io n. T he
Opucalvqb t
194 0
1945
N T H E SU M ME n 0 1' 19 4 0 ,
Befo re the
W Jr.
th e R A F att rac te d a st re am o f
OV ERSEAS PI LOTS
Ab out 20 per cent o f Fighter Com ma nd 's pilots
in th e Batt le o f Britai n were non - Briti sh. On e in
ten wer e prov ided by Com mo nwealth co u ntries ,
w ith New Zea lande rs the most nu me ro us single
g ro up. C o m mo nw calth pi lot s we re o ften better
sho ts t han th e Brit ish , w ho se trai nin g put less
em pha sis on m ark sm anship, O the r Fig hte r
Com ma nd pilo ts were refugee s fro m
O cc upied Europe, includi ng Poles,
Czech" French. a nd Belg ian s.
T he Pol e' co m p rised the largest
Europea n co ntinge nt, and the
m os t mo t ivated ; beaten by t he
Luft w affe during the invasion
of Po lan d in Se pte mbe r
1939, t he y were hot for
revenge . Whatev er their
o rigins, all fighter pilot,
were yo ung - in
principle no on e o ver
BATTL E C O M MEN CE S
In th e spring of PHO . Fightl'r Com ma nd to ok
o n the Luftwaffe in th e battle for Fran ce a nd
dur in g the e vac uatio n of th e British army from
Dunki rk . These earl y e ncou n ters showed th at
the Gc rma ns were better at air fig htin g than t hc
R A F, w ith mo re e x pe rienced pi lo ts and su pe rio r
tac tics. A fter clashes ov er the C han nel thro ugh
Ju ly, the Ger man aerial on slaught o n so uthern
Eng land be gan in earliest in the second w eek
o f Au gmt . with fleet s o f bombe rs. esco rte d by
M esser schmirt fightcr, atrnck ing in d aylight
whenever the we ather permitted . T he aim of
the Luft waffe ca m pa ign was to csrahlish air
suprc macy, thus o pen ing the w ay for a seabo rne
invasio n of Britain . Fig hter C o m m and ch ief
H ug h Do wd in g intended to keep hi , tig ht er
pilot s and aircraft in ex iste nce as ;1 vi ahie
defen sive force , and hu sbanded re source s to
that end . The RAF squad ro n, ba sed at air fie lds
ill so uthe rn England found t he m selves in th e
front line o f th e fightin g, a, th e vast maj orit y
of Luft waffe raid, w e re laun ched ac ross th e
C han nel from ba ses in no rthern Fra nce .
III
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GETT I NG AIRBO RN E
Silk map
This light. silk map was
stitc hed into the pilot 's
jacket. It was needed if he
was fo rced to bail out - in
this case, over th e Pyrenees.
q ua lit ies. In t he
-....., . . .
_~
pre-compute r age,
j ust co nt ro lli n g th e
ai rc raft was a re fi ne d
sk ill, eve n w ith out
the need to man oeuvre
ill a cro wded air spacc
and lo cate a nd fire O il a tar get . It ha s b een
est im ate d th at 110 m o re d un o ne in 20 Bart le
of Br ita in p ilot s had th e co m bin atio n of flying
sk ills, superb eyes ig ht, instant rea ction s, situ atio na l
awa re ness , and killer insti nct to make a real ly
e ffec tive fighter pi lot . A sm all nu mbe r o f ace s
acco unted for a lar ge pr opo r t ion o f e ne my a irc ra ft
sho t do w n - m en suc h as Sout h Afri ca n Ado lph
" Sailo r" M a lan , Czech p ilo t j o se f Fr.mn sck. a nd
Briti sh Scrgcanr "Gin ger" l.ar cy. At the o t he r
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WA R OF AT T R IT I O N
T he R AP wa s aide d by the fact th at the Luft wa ffe's
cam paig n su ffere d fro m a certa in lack of clarit y.
R adar stat io ns a nd airc ra ft factories sho u ld h ave
bee n top of t he Germa n ta rge t list. yet they we re
Ce lebra t ing victory
Pilots from a Spitfi re squadron celebrate With
bottles of wine afte r fighting over France in
194 4 . Some Battle of Brita in fighter pilot s
saw action t hrough to the end of the w ar.
--1t==~~=::::~~
Navigational computer
For navigati on, a pilot had a map
and a computer st rapped to his
left and right leg respect ively.
Red 1 (leader)
Red 2 (wmgm,n)
The Blitz
Dornier Do 172 bombersof the Luftwaffe bomb London during
the Battle of Britain, 1940. The Germans' decision to strike
civi lian targets relieved the airfields that had been taking the
brunt of the offensive, and allowed the RAF to recover.
RedJ (wongm, n)
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MORAL V ICTORY
W h at kept th e pi lot s goi ng wa s par tl y the sheer
j o y in flyin g a nd fig h ti ng. t he m o st exc it ing
ex pe r ie nce th ey w o u ld ever kn o w . M an y Brit ish
fliers also bore w itness to a mot ivating patriot ism the determination to defen d their co u ntry again st
in vad ers. P ilo t D ou gla s Bad er ex press e d the
indign ati on o f ma ny o f hi s colleag ues w he n h e
w ro te : " W ho th e hell d o th ese H uns th ink th ey
Yellow 2"
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Blue 2
Blue J
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BLUE SECTION
Green2 ~T
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LINE ABREAST
GREEN SECTION
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Fly,ng"ne,b,east
maximized a
section's firepower
ECHElON
Battle of Britain
The Battle of Britain saw an
end to th e prewar tactics
practised by the RAF. When
German bom bers appea red
esco rted by Messe rchmitt
fighte r planes , the RAF
Spitfires an d Hurricanes were
forced to break formation
and engage the ene my
one-on-o ne . This often
resulted in "dogfights ",
with enemy fighters trying
to ou t-turn ea ch other.
Gr~nJ~
Section formations
Othe r th an the "vic", figh ters learned "line abreast".
"line astern ", an d "echelon" flying. Abreast and
aste rn we re offensive and defe nsive formatio ns,
w hile echelon cou ld deploy either way.
Green 1
LINEASTERN
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GERMAN BOMBERSTREAM
RAF SPITFIRES
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/
wasoften the onlyoption
available
fighters from
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southern airfields who
were still gaining altitude
~
as the bombers a rrived ~;.Y RAFSPITFIRES
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and 1943, Ge rma ny's U i-boars came close to cutt ing Britain's
ind epend ent, bu ccan ccrin g spirit, th cy hunted across vast expanscs
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ON PATRO L
The ro uti nes of a patrol in th e Atl antic were
to ug h and dcmanding. The U -boat travelled
0 11 th e su r fac e - sub m e rg ing wa s an c tlle..' rgc llc y
Returning to base
A German U-boat arnves at its base
In Kielin November 1939. Most of
the crew are on deck. wearmg their
leatherweather-protection gear.
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ATTACK AN D DEFEN C E
In the early year s of the war, U -boats
att ac ked m e rch an t co n vo ys 011 the su r face
at night. exploiti ng th e ir good su rface
speed and low profil e to slip th ro ugh th e: scree n
of e sco r t wa rships and str ike at the heart o f t he
co nvo y. T Ill' w atc h o fficer o n d eck rela yed
ta rge ti ng inst r uc tio ns to t he to rpedo c re w
thro ugh a vo ice tube. Later ill th e wa r, as
the ene m y's rad ar im pr oved . l.J-boats we re
in creasingly for ced to attac k submerged .
Na tu rall y. co m in g u nder atta ck the m selve s w as
the most nerve-ra cki ng experience for a U -boat
crew. If spo tt ed by an enemy warship. their be st
ch ance w as to c rash-d ive. wh ich took aro und
30 seco nd s. T he y would then ho pe to avoi d
detect ion by so nar o r h yd ro p ho nes. m ain ta in in g
st rict sile nce as thei r own hydrophon es p icke d
lip th e so u nd of a ll esco rt vessel d rawi n g clo se.
Bein g depth - ch ar ged wa s a severe rest of till'
ner ves. Eve n a ncar mi ss co u ld cau se lea ks a nd
o the r d a m agc rl'l]uir ing all ha nd s to th e pum ps.
C o we ring u nd er th e sea was suc h a d e mo ralizing
e xp erie nce t ha t. if atta cke d b y aircraft, Ll-bo at
capta in s ofrc p refe rre d to take t heir cha nce 0 11
figh ting back ra ther th an diving.
Up to 1943. U -boat lo sses were lo w and
sin k ings of m erch an t sh ips WCTl' co m mon . But
ti mes cha ng ed , As A llie d ant i- sub m ar ine warfare
tech niq ue s im proved rad ica lly, life becam e he ll
for the U - bo at men . As lo sses m o u nted t he elite
vet eran s were k illcd o ff a nd new U - b oats were
r ushe d into serv ice w ith h ast ily t rain ed crews.
Late in th e war, th e introd ucr io n o f the T yp e
XX I U -bo at at last gavc the G er m an s a gen ui ne
sub m a rine - a ves se l tha t co u ld pat ro l at good
speed tinde r wa ter for lo n g pe rio ds. But it
arrived to o late a nd ill to o sm a ll n umbers to
affect th e co urse o f the w ar.
Engine room
A U-boat 's engine room w as a narrow passageway
runn ing betw een tw o diesel engines. The latt er prop elled
the boat w hen it was on th e surf ace; w hen it was
under w ater, it relied on relatively wea k electric moto rs.
194 1 - 1945
hi story of wa rfare; over eig ht m illion Soviet soldiers were killed. That thi s
struggle sho uld have ended in victory for the Soviet Union was in lar ge
part due to the performance of its tan k crews, w ho se T-34s took on and
eve nt ua lly beat the for midable German pa n zers .
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LEARN IN G C U RVE
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SHOWDOWN AT KUR SK
T he largest tan k bat tle of Wo rld War II took place
at Kur sk in ju ly 1'i-l3 . T h e G erm an s assembled
Soviet victory
aro und tw o -t h irds o f the ir e n tire Easte r n Fro nt
Membersof a Soviet tank
arm o ured forces to the no rth a nd so uth o f a bul ge .
battalion are greeted by
o r salie n t, in the fro nt . T h ey inte nded to c ut the
people in t odz, Poland. after
the Germanwithdrawal in
n eck of the salie nt , t rapping the R ed A r m y forces
194 4 . A T-34 tank stands
in sid e. Aw a re of th e Ge r m an plan . t he Sov iets
in the background.
t urn ed t he salic n r int o a fo r t re ss defen d ed by
m iu cficld s, tre nch es. a rti lle r y, and m assed
ar mo ured form atio n s. T he Ge rma n s lau nched
th eir o ffensive o n 5 ju ly. In the no rt h th e pan ZL'rs
we re foo ght to a sta ndstill by So viet antita n k gu ns
and tanks in fixed c niplnccmc urs. Bur in the so uth
31l ar m o ur ed thr ust spearhe ade d by 55 Panzcr
di vi sion s pen et rat ed to Pro kh o rovka. 30k m
(20 mi les) behind the Sov iet defensive li ne.
On 7 jul y R ormisrro v's 5th G u ard s Ta n k
A rm y, in reser ve m o re th an 350 k m (2 17 miles)
from th e fight ing. W 3 S o rde red to ad van ce to
Pr okh o ro vka a nd co u n rerarrack.
Trave llin g by d ay a nd n ight in
un bea rabl e heat. the ma ssive
arm oured co lu m n thre w tip a
clo ud o f g rey du st that coa te d
the c rews ' sweat- so aked skin
OPY'f, HII. \{lbll)l{IIUII.
and cho ked the ir par ched
th roa ts. In 3 feat o f e nd u ra n ce
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6O.5cm ( 23 ~ l n )
bar rel
Adju".bl. stock
7
0T machtne-qu n
The T-34 tank was fitt ed wi th tw o
7.620T machine-guns. One, w hich
was stat ic, used tracer rounds to
guide the main turret gun.
062
Canvas bag fo r
catchi ng spe nt
cart ridge cases
7.62MM
CARTRIDGES
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COSTLY V ICTO RY
T he lon g advanc e o f the R ed Army fro m Kur sk in
J ul y 1943 to th e streets of Berl in in Ap ril 194 5 was
nev er easy and co st heavy casualties, thou gh f ar
fewer tha n in th e battl es of 194 1- 42 . The readiness
Tank column
A column of T-34 tanks moves west during the
long offensive that began at Stalingrad. in th e
Caucasus. and ended in Berlin .
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VI
T-34 TANK
The Sov iet T-34 is co nsidered by many expe rt s to be th e best-design ed tank of World
War II. Although by the end of the war ther e were German tanks that o utclassed it
in firepower and ar mo u r, they were heavy, sophisticated machines that co uld no t be
produ ced in such qu antities as th e relatively straig htforwa rd T-3 4, and never achieved
the same ease of operatio n. Almost 40,000 T-34s we re built in the co u rse of the war.
...
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Hull gun
The low er machine- gu n w as mounted on a
pintle that gave it a t raverse denied to th e
static, coaxial gun above it. The gunn er
sighted thr ough a ho le above the barrel.
Repair kit
A very basic set of tools
was kept inside the tan k
to meet th e need for
runnmg repairs.
Ste el wheel
Gun sig ht
While aiming the main
gun (left) the gunner
pressed his headon the
rubber guard above th e
optical sight . He could
fire the gun by pulling
the red wooden to ggle
on the right.
Driving seat
The driversatwith the hullgunnersqueezed
in to his right. The interior of the tank was
cramped and made no concessionsto the
crewmembers' comfort.
Ammo drums
Troop carr ier
Cleaning can
A cancontaining
cleaning fluidfor
th e gun w as kept
loader's seat
The loader sat on a detachable sea t
that wassuspended from the inside
of the turret and the gun. It was
a precariousperch, sincethe seat
would twist as the gun traversed.
Back view
At the back of the tank , a hatch between the
exhaust pipesgave access to the startermotor,
Extra f uel
Spare track
victo ries to be won by sho ck effect and rapid m ano eu vre. But by
weld ing the latest techn ology to an agg ressive warrior eth ic. Yet
the reality was o fte n closer to the iro nic British view of tank
armo ur, while massed tank s fou ght o ne ano ther in vast slogging
crews who "c hee rfully went to war in tin cans, closely sur ro u nded
match es. M ass produ ct ion , rath er th an dash and flair , becam e the
by a leth al mixture of pet rol and am m uni tion". Early in the war,
....
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US TANK CREWS
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national emblem
FiElD CAP
w affen 55
deeth's head
emblem
NATIONAL
EMBLEM
PANZER
JACKET
BELT
Dtvislonal cuff
'0( tebstanderte
55 Adolf HlUpr
BOOTS
TRO USERS
Ankle slit
and edging
194 2
1945
US BOMBER CREWMAN
AS YOU GET CLOSER TO THE TARGET YOUR HEART
BEATS FASTERAND FASTER. YOU BREATHE HARDER
AND HARDER ... YOU'RE SO NERVOUS AND SCARED
THAT EVERY TIME THERE'S A BURST OF FLAK OR THE
PLANE JUMPS A LITTLE YOU THINK: THIS IS THE END.
JOHN J BRIOl, BALLTURRET GUNNER, WRITING IN HIS DIA RY
lI E US 1I0MIIEIl C HE W S
m ISSIOns, ini tially witho ut fight er escorts, they w ere vu lne rable to ant iaircraft fire and to attack fro m G erman fight er aircr aft. In o rde r to h it
th ei r assig ned target s deep inside hostile te rrito ry, th e bomber for ma tio ns
had to "shoo t th eir way in and shoo t th eir way ou t agai n".
..'"
~
STRATEG IC [I O M BI N G
T he U SA AF mo u nted its
strate gi c bombing ca m paig n
from bases in England. N orth
Africa. and , later , Italy. Air
force com ma nde rs believed
th at their [ 1St, h eavi ly armed
b omber s co u ld car ry o ut
pre c isio n raids o n targe ts
such as factories or so urce s
of fuel supplies. The
b ombers wou ld att ack
in da ylight. flying at
high altitud e in
m ass forma tion .
T H EORY A N D PRACTI C E
But co mbat did not wo rk o ut as planned . Accurate
bombin g prov ed a n elu sive ideal , T he wea t her
ill Europe w as co m plet ely dificr cm to th e clear
b lue sk ies of t he so ut her n o r we stern United
States w he re t he bo mb er cr e ws had trai ned .
T ar ge ts w e rt.' liable to be ob scu red by clo ud ,
and , in any case, under co mbat co nd it io ns fe w
bombardi er s were capable of ()pt.'ratin g th ei r
co m plex bombsight s successfully. The Am crir.ms
soon o pte d fin a syste m in w hich on ly th e lead
bomber in t he fo r m atio n used th e bomb sig ht;
t he rest dro pped t heir bombs wh en th e
leade r di d . Worse than thc' lack o f
acc u rac y wa s tht.' prob lem of
survi val. LOSSl'S ill tilt.' first phase
of the bombin g cam p;lig n in
194J we re staggt.'ring , When
37(, 11 -17s raid ed t;K toric's at
US A RM Y A IR
FORCE LIFE JA CKET
'"
squadron above and to its right , and a " low " squadron
below and to its left. All the aircraft were at different
Top view
The box was spread out
horizontally in such a way
that no plane was flyingin
the path of another plane's
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lead SQuadron
Seven bombers in
highsquadron
..
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Seven bombers in
"Tail-end Charlie:" ----E~~~:::;,
- --
low squadron
C~4~~::l.
HIGH SQUADRON
-----
__
HIGH SQUADRO N
LEAD SQUADRON
<>.-
LOW SQUADRON
Front view
The box wasspread laterally
in such a way that no plane
obscured another plane's
front or rearguns.
L.
posuon called
"Purple Heartcorner"
B-1? BOMBER
Wh en th e Hoein g 11-1 7 bomber first flew as th e Modd 299 prototype o n 28 J ul y 1935,
it was immediatel y dubbed " the Flyi ng Fort ress" by j ourn al ists, a ni cknam e th at stuck.
The 11 -17 belo nged to a new ge nera tio n of all-me tal mon op lan e aircraft w ith enclosed
cock pits. Large and
f.~s t
by the sta nda rds of its time, th e four- cn gin ed bomber becam e
III
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Bomber profile
The B-17 had a wingspan
of 3 1.62m (103ft 9in) and
measured 22 .78m (74ft 9in)
Flying boots
Aircraft nose
The Plexiglass nose of th e B-17
Chin gun
This isone of the remote-controlled chin
gunsoperated by the bombardier. Theywere
introduced to counter head-on attacks.
Lifejacket
A "Mae West "
inflatable jacket was
amongthe array of
life- savinq equipment
provided for aircrew.
Wing root
Radial engine
Each of the B-I 7' s fou r engine s gene rated 1.200hp. The B-17 was mass produced and so construction
Top turret
Operated by the flight engineer, th e
hydraulically powere d top gun turr et
cou ld sweep the sky in a fu ll circle.
Machinegun
The 8-17 was equipped w ith O.Sin Brownin g machineguns, a ubiqu ito us American wea pon of Wo rld War 11.
Here it is mounted in the waist w indow.
Cheek gun
This O.Sin Brown ing is one of the flexible cheek gun s
t hat we re someti mes mo unted on each side of the
Plexiglass nose. It was operated by the navigator.
Constant manufactu re
A B-17 flies over Europe in 1945. For
everyone of the aircraft shot down
by t he Germans during the wa r, two
mo re were prod uced by US factories .
For this reason there we re mo re B-17s
in service dunn q the last mon ths of
the war than at any tim e previously.
Strong wh e els
Aluminium skin
The fuselage was made of aluminium alloy ring s
fastened with longitudinal aluminium st rips and
covered with an aluminium skin.
To p gu n s
The gun positions on the
top of the B-l7's fuselage
were mannedin combatby
the radiooperatorand the
flightengineer.
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Norden bo mb -sig ht
The Nordenbomb-sight wasinstalled
behindthe Plexiglass nose of the aircraft,
in front of the bombardier's seat.Topsecret devices. the bomb-sights were
removed from the aircraft between
missionsand kept under guard.
Parachut e log
This logwasused
for recording each
time the parachute
f l\Rl\tBUTt
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BttllBU
Ball t urre t
Bomb bay
The bomb bay. Immediately behind the flight deck. had a walkway only
some 20 cm (B in) wide . The bombers typically earned some 2.700 kg
(6.000 Ib) of bombs. a mixof high explosive and incendiary munitions.
Oxygen regulator
Eachcrew member
had an oxygen hose
at his position . If
he needed to move
around in the aircraft,
he grabbed a walkaround oxygen bottle.
-'.-".
I
W ai st gu n
The waist gun ners, between th e radio operato r's
posit ion and th e tail gun, fired out of each side of th e
aircraft, exposed to th e f reezing air. Spent shell cases
covered the floo r of the aircraft once the gun was in use.
Tail turret
The rear gunner knelt in his posit ion on padded kneeholds. Since attack from behind was the obv ious tactic
for fighter aircraft, these hydraulically-controlled twin
guns we re crucial to the bo mber's defence .
Ele va t o r w ir es
Contro l cables ran along
th e ceiling from the cockpit
to the tail and w ings of th e
aircraft to manipulate th e
rudd er and w ing fla ps.
Fusel ag e int er io r
This is th e view for wa rd alon g th e fu selage towards
the radio operato r's posit ion, and, beyond th at, the
bo mb bay. The alumi nium rings of w hich the fuselage
str uctu re was made are visible. The black column
suppo rts the ball tu rret beneat h the fuselage .
top five per cent of pilot s were responsibl e for 40 per cent of kills.
Young men in all combata nt cou ntr ies competed for a chance to
fly the most advan ced fighter aircraft in the wo rld. T hose few
...
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P51 Mustang
The Mustang iswidely
regarded asthe supreme
fighter aircraft of World
War U. It combined an
American airframe with
a British Rolls Royce
Merlin engine.
escort in Mu stangs,
incl uding fut ure
sound- barr ier breaker
C huck Yeager, who sho t
down five Germa n aircraft
in a single day in O ctob er
1944 . Like th e bo mbe rs, th e
fighter gro ups flew mostly fro m
bases in Engla nd and Italy. T here was
compe tition bet ween d ifferent gro ups to be th e
safest for bombers to fly wi th. Especially kee n
was 332nd Fight er Gro up, all of whose pilot s
we re black. T hese " Tuskegee airmen" had
str ugg led lon g and hard against racial prejudice
for th e right to fly fighters in com bat
and th ey had plent y to prove.
Keep us Iqing!
Three-blade
metal propeller
M esserschmitt 8f1090
The 81109 was th e l uft w aff e', key
fighter aircraft in the early years of
th e war. However, it wa s t ricky to
handle in landing and take-off, a
defect that kill ed many pilot s.
Febnc-covered
rudder
o n th e Ph il ipp ine s,
ini tiated su ic id e tactics.
Ka mika ze (" D iv ille
W ind " ) pilot sv as the
A m e r ica ns ca lled th em , pack ed
their airc ra ft w ith ex plos ives and
tr ied to crash o n t he d eck s of U S wa rships.
They donned a hllchill/llk; headband o nce wo rn
by th e sa m u ra i, a sig n o f th ei r su ppo sed
sta tu s as eli te w a r rio rs. But since t he lives
o f ex pe r ie nce d pi lot s were precious, th e
ka m ika ze ro le so o n ill pr act ice d evolve d
to ba re ly train ed yo u ngste rs. By Apr il
I'J-\5, " ma ss "s pe c ial att ac k " fo rce
o f over 2 ,0 0 0 aircraft dedicated to
sui cide at tac ks had be en fo rm ed .
In total. kamika ze raids san k
3 -\ warsh ips a nd d am aged 288
by th e w a r's en d .
Kamikaz e attack
A Japanese Zero fighter crashes
ont o th e deck 01 the USS
M issour i during the wave of
suicide att acks launched
against th e Allied fleet
in 1944 -4 5.
194 0
1945
SOE AGENT
A NEW ORGANIZATION TO COORDINATE , INSPIRE ,
CONTROL, AND ASSIST THE NATIONALS OF THE
OPPRESSED COUNTRIES ... WE NEED ABSOLUTE
SECRECY, A CERTAIN FANATICAL ENTHUSIASM ...
COMPLETE POLITICAL RELIABILITY.
HUGH DALTON . MINISTER Of ECONOMI C WARFARE. JULY 1940
Operations Exe cutive (SO E) sent sec re t agents int o N aziocc upied Europe to suppo rt and o rga n ize resistan ce grou ps,
gather intelligen ce, and carry o ut sabo tage and assassination
nussion s. It wa s despe rately dan gerous work and m an y agents fell int o the
R ECR UI TM EN T A ND T RA IN I NG
SOE se n io r sta ff we re recruited ill t ypi call y
Briti sh f.,sh io ll v i" personal co ntacts - the "Old
Bo y" net wo rk of fo r me r pupils of th e to p public
sc ho o ls "li d g rad uates of O xford "lid C am b r id ge
Universities . T his do es no t me an that th ey were
u n su itable or in compete nt , a lt houg h the y were
so m e tim es c ri t icized by the m ore e sta b lishe d
intelligence service s. Colo ne l C o li n G u bb ins ,
for instance, put in cha rge ofSOE traini ng JIH.i
o perat ions. w as an e ne rge tic ma n w ho had
th ough t ill d ep th about the ta ctics and st ra teg y
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CARTE O'IDENTlT
M~,,!
SOE FILE CA RD
I N T O OCC U PIE D EU RO PE
S( )E 's o rigi n al pr eferred method o f in sertin g
age.'llt . . int o O ccupi ed Europe: wa s by sea, e ithe r
u sin g fishi n g boats or fast mo tor patrol boats to
la nd O il iso lat ed stre tc hes o f co ast, The rel ucta nce
U ND ERCOV ER
SO E ag en ts wer e assig ne d a va rie ty of rol es. The
m o st responsible we re o rga nize rs, en t r uste d w ith
setti ng lip and d evel oping resistan ce n et works.
Like rad io o pe ra to rs a nd sabotage spec ia lists.
th ese we re a lmost alw ays men . Women agents
w er e ge:ne.'rally e m ploye d as co u r iers, partly
becau se it was telt th ey wer e less likel y to attract
sus pic io n w he n tra velli n g aro und , Livin g under
t he co ve r of a fal se ident ity ill host ile. heavily
pol iced territory, age nts had to co pc w ith. i ll
G ubbin s' words, " a co nt in u al a nx ie ty all da y and
Wom en at war
The SOEdeployed many female agents In
the war. Som e were tasked with sabotage
or radio operating duties (left) , but most
were successfully used ascouriers.
Covert communication
The Type 3 MK II SUitcase radio was used
bySOEagentsin the field to communciate
with HQ. Coded transmissionsconstantly
evolved to avoid detection by the Nazis.
LARGE-SCAL E R ESISTAN C E
By )lJ-I-I SO E w as p ro v id ing support an d su pplies
fo r substantial re sist an ce m o vements co nd uc ti ng
rural g uc r r illa warfare ill Yugo slavia. Gree ce,
and till' "m aq u is" o fsou thern Fra nrc . A lt hou g h
the Sl1E had not c re ated th e se movement s. the
pre..StllCe of S()E age..llts clearly raised m orale, and
SOE w eaponry
SOE's laboratory in Hen tordshire, in the UK. desiqned
a variety of concealed weapons, ranging from gas
pens to cigarette pistols. However, manyagents
were equippedonlyWith conventional pistols.
US PARATROOPER
LIKE THE ... AMERICAN PIONEERS WHOSE COURAGE
WAS THE FOUNDATION OF THIS NATION, WE HAVE
BROKEN WITH THE PAST AND ITS TRADITIONS IN
ORDER TO ESTABLISH OUR CLAIM TO THE FUTURE.
GENERAL ORDER SIX, FOUNDING 101ST AIRBORNE. AUGUST 1942
UlUNG WO HLD WA H I I
d ivision s that wer e elite format ion s of o utsta ndi ng fig htin g
effective ness. T hey we re m en no t ultim atel y defin ed by usc
of a parachute or land ing in a glider, but by their exce ptio na lly
hi gh stand ard of fitn ess, train in g, initiativ e, fighting sk ills, and agg ressio n.
T he 82 nd A irbo rn e "All American " Div ision and the lOls t A irb o rn e
" Screa m ing Eag les" played a promin ent part in some of th e tou gh est
fig hting in Europe , includin g thc D-Day land ings in N orm and y.
M1 CARBINE
WIT H FOLDING
Bun STOCK
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PO STE D OV ERSEAS
Op erat io n M ar k et Gard en
US paratro opers jump from troop
transport planes to land in a Dut ch
field during Operation Market Garden,
1944. Allied glider troops have already
assembled in the foreground .
Invasion of France
Paratroopers of the 439th
Troop Carrier Group aboard
a DouglasC47 just before
takingoff from an airbase
in England . Secondary
parachu tesand life vests
were worn in case of
emergencies (far left).
WA R TO T HE END
A fter Nor ma nd y, the (;lit h of A ll ied co n u u.m d c rs
in airbo rne op eration s wa s at its peak . This led to
the immense ga m ble o n Operation M arket G ard en
in September 1944 , So me 33,970 U S, Brit ish .
and Po lish airbo rne tro op s, formed into First
Airborne Al lied Arm y, w ere to seize a series of
bridges over the M aas, W aal, and Rh in e rivers in
.-'".
.'"
Washing equipment
Standard-issue washing equipment
included a safety razor and blades,
ari d-neu nahzinq tooth powder and
brushlessshaving soap.
VI
SAFETY
RAZOR
AND BLADES
TOOTH
POWDER
SHAVING
SOAP
,
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1945 -
PR E S E N T
FOREIGN LEGIONNAIRE
EVERY OTHER LEGIONNAIRE IS YOUR BROTHER. IN
COMBAT YOU ACT WITHOUT PASSION OR HATE BUT
WITH RESPECT FOR YOUR VANQlJISHED ENEMY. YOU
H E FRE
of Fran ce's lo sin g str uggle to m aintain a co lon ial empire. Its heroi c defeat
at Di en Bien Phu in 1954 is th e stuff of militar y legend . N evertheless, th e
Legion has outlived the Frenc h Em pire to go forward into th e 2 1st ce nt ury
as o ne o f the world 's most resp ected elite mi litary formation s.
..
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MAT 4 9
SUBMACH INE GUN
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Training a nd tradition
l egionnaires head up t he
Approuague River to a
training centr e deep in th e
jungle of French Guiana
(right). Their FAMA S assault
rifl es have a "bullpup"
configuration; the barr el
beg ins in the butt stoc k,
wh ich shortens the gun ,
and the magazine is placed
behind th e trigger. When
standing at atten tion (far
right), the rif le is worn
hanging across the chest.
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Rear Sight
--;
Tf1gger guard
MAS 49 /S6
Ad opt ed by the Legion in 19S9, and
chambered for the 7.5mm x 54 French
round, the MAS 49/56 saw service until
1980, when it wa s replaced by t he FAMA S
assault rifle . This version has a grenad e
laun cher sight and a nigh t sight accessory .
of Al g ie rs in 1957, a r ut h le ssly
effe ctive crac kdo w n on FLN
terrorists o perating in the city's
casbah q uar ter , w h ich wa s
BATTLE OF DIEN
BIEN PHU
In the winter of 1953-54, Fra nce flew in some
16,000 troops to construct an d occu py a se ries
of stronqpoints around an airst rip at Dien Bien
Phu, in a rem ote valley near the bord e r bet ween
Vietnam and Laos. The Foreign Leg ion provide d
the majo rity of the so ldie rs, sett ling into thei r
fortified pos itions with suppo rt facilities th at
included a we ll-sta ffed brot hel. By March 1954,
Viet Minh co mmande r Genera l Vo Nguye n Giap
had encircled Dien Bien Phu with some 50,000 men,
installing heavy artillery on the surrounding hills.
Defeat o f the Fren ch
The French believed th at the y co uld keep their
men supplied by air and that th eir firep owe r wo uld
destroy the Viet Minh. But Giap's artillery quickly
put th e airstrip ou t of action, and resuppl y by
parad rop was mad e hazardou s by anti-aircraft fire.
Two outl ying stro ng points, Beatr ice and Isab e lle,
were overru n on 13- 14 March, but then the defence
stiffe ned. Legion voluntee rs we re paradro ppe d in
as reinfo rcem ents, some ma king th eir first eve r
parachute jump to come to the ir co mrades' aid.
Their co urage was was ted, however. On 7-B May
th e final Fre nch position s we re overwhelme d.
Almost half of the 4,000 def enders killed at Die n
Bien Phu were Fre nch leg ionna ires.
.-'"
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US MARINE
deployed in offensive
com bat operations agai nst the Viet C ong and the North
Vietna me se Ar my (N VA) were the US Marin es who
ca me asho re at Da N an g on th e coas t of South Vietnam
.
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Canteen
ThIS standard-issue
canteen, still in use
today. hold s 95ml
(1 U5 quart ) of w ater.
M arine soldie r. Am id th e
villages a nd rice-paddies of th e
plain he w as surro u nde d by a
popul ati on w ith a cu lt ur e and
lan g u age h e did not understand , and
i ll w h ich active sup po rte rs of t he V iet C o ng
g ue r rillas we n.' indistiuguishablc from gc nuinc
non combat ants. In the H igh la nd s h e had to sec k
o ut an el usive cncmy amo ng j agged rid g t's and
ravines w rea the d in mi st, c utti ng a path thr ough
th e tangled vi nes o f triple- can op y fo rest with a
ma ch et e, pla gu ed by insec ts and battl in g wi t h
heat and humidit y, Even o n ro u t ine patrols in
areas t he o reti ca lly u nder the co nt ro l of th e So uth
Viet namese govcr umcnt , there wa s a steady drain
o f casu alt ies from mines and booby traps (w h ich
th e Viet Cong exc el led at m aking), o r sn ipe r fire ,
Foid-down If>af
SIght. graduated
to 350m ( l , 150ft)
,.",
/
Rifledbarrel
rotates grenade \
Rear sling
attachment
M 79 40MM GRENADE
UNDE R SIEGE
T he M ar ines in creasingly fou nd the mselves o n
t he de fensive as th eir firebases and o ut pos ts just
so ut h of th e DM Z came under attac k from NVA
fo rces. T he hill -top base at C o n T hien was th e
object o f a det ermi ned N VA in fantr y assau lt
in September 1967. T h is was beaten off by th e
M arin e ga rr ison, bu t the y th en CJ I B e under
sustained arti llery bo mba rd me nt fro m NVA
IJOm m and 152mm gu ns sited inside th e DM Z .
M arin e art illery and air craft hit back at th e
artillery and at th e NVA sold iers aro u nd the base.
For th e M arin es sheltering in bunker s at Con
T hi en, the ex perience was reminiscent of World
W;u I tr en ch w arfare, O nce th e mon so on rain s
star te-d. th e: base becam e a qu agm ire of red mud
in whi ch men sank kn ee-deep. Arou nd the
WATER
PURIFYING
TABLETS
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'
SOLID FUEL
TABLETS
FOOT
POWDER
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POWDER
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VI
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Sea Knight
A CH-46 Sea Knight helicopter arrives at the
Marine base of Khe Sanh. The helicopter
provided all-wea ther, day/night transport
for troops, equipment, and supplies.
SEARCH AND
DESTROY TACTICS
US ground forces took the offensive in Sout h
Vietnam. aiming to "find. fix . and destroy " the
enemy. Typically. a com pany w ould be airlifted
by helicopter into a part of the jungle w here
communist t roops were known to be operating .
The area around the designated land ing zone
(Ll) would be "prepped " by air st rikes or by
art illery fir e from th e nearest f irebase before th e
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On patrol
Captain Charles Robb leads a group of M arines
on patrol south of Da Nang in May 1968.
Patrols wer e usually made in platoon (20- man)
or company (lOO-man) str ength.
'II
US Ar m y no t e pad
During th e Vietnam War much of
a Marine's equipment. despite
rivalr y, was US Arm y-issue,
CR ISIS OF MORALE
At Khe Sanh a nd at H ue th e g ru nts had shown
all th e q ua liti es ex pecte d of US M arines. M a ny
men h ad been drive n to the lim its of enduran ce ;
wa r co rr espo nde nt s d escri bed the " thousa nd - yard
sta re" of th e so ld ie r red uced to m ental a nd
e mo t io nal bl an kn ess by t he st re ss o f sustaine d
Coo king eq ui pme nt
Most of a Marin e's food
came in cans. After
eati ng, cutlery was
slid o nto the pan
handle through
holes at their ends
to keep them
tog eth er wh ile
being w ashed.
( UTlE RY
THE STRENGTH OF
THE PACK IS TH E WOLF,
T H E STRENGTH OF THE
WOLF IS THE PACK.
M OTTO. 3RD LIGHT ARMORED RE CONNAISSANCEBATTALION
AFT ER V I ETNAM
It was w ith relief rh at th e M arines withdrew from
Vietn am in 1971 , leaving th e wa r to be foug h t by
th e army alo ne . By th en , th ey had lo n g cea sed to
car r y o ut o ffens ive o pera tions. Around SOO,OOO
Mari ne s had serve d in t he wa r. Of th ese, 13,0 9 1
had been ki lled a nd 5 1,392 wo u nd ed in act io n.
O ver all , M ari nes acco unted fo r about a qu arter
of all U S co m bat d eat hs in Vietnam . R ebu ild in g
t he im age and mo rale of
t he Corps w as a task tha t
took a de cad e, but t he
M arin e s hav e su rv ived
to play a prom in ent ro le
in su bse q ue nt conflicts.
in cluding th e in vasion a nd
o cc upa tio n of Afgh an istan
and Iraq in th e 21st ce lll u ry.
Purple Heart
The Purpl e Heart. o r Badge of
kn own to
Like th e N orth Vietna mese Army (N VA) in fantry who foug ht with them ,
th e Viet Cong gue rr illas we re skilfu l and ded icated fighters . In co mbat they
almos t always suffered far heavier losses th an thei r o ppo ne nts, but they
were sustained by co mra desh ip and a clear sense of pu rp ose.
-.
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DEGTYAREV LIGHT
MACHINEGUN
GU ERRILLA ARMY
Whereve r th e cad res fou nd suppo rt amo ng
th e lo cal population . th e y recr ui te d g ue r r ill a
so ld ie rs. The mo st promisin g yo ung men we re
e ncou raged to leave the ir vi llage and become
full -time gue rrillas: women we re also take n to
serve in suppo rt rol es. Th e re w ere plent y of
willing volunteer s. altho ugh va rio us kinds o f
pressure we re applied, and in so me cases recrui ts
were co nsc ripted at g u npoi nt. The full -time
gu errill as w ere subd ivi ded into regi o nal forces,
w h ich ca r ried o u t low-l e vel o pe ratio ns arou nd
the g uerrillas' hom e area, and m ain force so ld ie rs.
wh o rece ived thorou gh infanrr y trainin g at bases
in sparsely in habited co untry and w ere readied
for fu ll-scale co m bat in large mi litary format ion s.
T he peasants w ho remained ill the vi llages we re
organ ized into a part-time g ue rrilla mi litia .
The y h ad o n ly t he m o st basic m ili tary trai nin g
VI
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Chinese compass
Mu ch of t he equipment used by
the Viet Cong wasprovided by
communist China. Compasses
such asthis were essential for
orientation in the jungle.
FAR FROM HO M E
The g ue rrilla's ex pe rience o f wa r w as cha racte rized
b y fear. hardship, homesickness. a nd bor ed om .
The j u ng le wa s no m or e a fami lia r habitat to
peasants from th e rice paddies th an it w as to th e
Ame rican s. T o th e Vietn am ese. th e j u ng le-clad
m ountain s we re a place to be fear ed , inhabit ed as
th ey w er e by g hos ts and fearsome wild a n ima ls.
They suffe re d te rribl y fro m m alaria and from
snakebi tes - the gue rr illas' famous rubber sanda ls
offe red ve ry poor prot ect ion agai nst poi son ou s
reptiles. Sur vivin g mainl y o n Sl113 11 qu ant itie s
of rice. salt. a nd dri ed fish o r meat . the g ue rrillas
w ere often in a state o f sem i-s tarvatio n . The y
aug me nte d t he ir ration s by ea ring juugle faun a.
includin g mo nke ys, elep hant s. and large moth s
Transport ,outes
Enemybases
~aps
~hi n ese-suPPl i ed
an d ma p case
map cases
were used by the Viet Cong
guerrillas. This map has marked
on it detailed information about
the location of enemy bases.
C H I N A
Gulf
of
NORT H Tongking
VI ET N AM
-
Hainan
Aug 1964:
North VtelrwllWW all.Kh
report ed on US ~lrO)len
.n.. .
CU ll Thien
M. r 1%5: Fir\1US
ground forces
1~_-I~~~1~),':1 ~1~~:1~ Tn
Hue'
Viet n am Wa r
The Vietnam War was a conflict betw een
communist North Vietnam (backed by
China and Russia) and th e US-backed
South Vietnamese government. It also
spilled over into laos and Cambodia .
. . '1e'lku
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Sou th
I'hl1o lll l'('lIh O
Chin a
Se a
Knlllrlllll,;O
Sum
Gulf of
Thailand
uM.lU
Okm
,sss-ee
150
125
11'
T ET AND A FT ER
l n j anu ar v-Peb ru ary 1968 . th e Viet C o ng
to ok adv an tage of t he new yea r, or Tet ,
celebratio ns, when man y South Viema mese
sold iers wou ld be on leave, and occ upied cities
150
1967-69
Kompong
T horn
No rth Vietnam
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~
Sop
M. r 1968
Noton ous m. n . cre
of 300400 South
Vietn. mese dviU.ns
by USsoldie'" in
. ._ _ MyLii
Th;lI1 ~ I'hon ~
III
/'
T HA ILA ND
rh at th ey barbecu ed in 3 flam e. G ue rr illas w ere
paid 60 piaster s (abo u t 2 ) 3 m onth . w hich the y
used to o rder lu xu ries such as suga r, soap. and
tob acco tha r su pply o ffice rs wo u ld pu rchase in
Ca mbodian markets. Amusements were rare.
T he guerri llas t rained en dl essly or S3t th rough
classes in w h ich th e y were tau ght re volution ar y
slogans or upd ated on wo rld new s. An occas iona l
visiting entert ain me nt unit wo u ld be welcom e
despite its ge ne rally repetitiou s programmcs o f
uplifting pa trio tic films a nd so n gs. To cou nter
homesickn ess, gue rri llas we re occasio nally given
leave , alt hough tr avell in g through 3 war zo ne to
visit the ir fami lies was hazardous.
Attack by 3 U S sca rch-a nd-dcsrroy sweep or
by ac rial bo m ba rd me nt in stantl y rep laced 3ny
bored om w ith fear . The m en mi g ht have to Ace
at a mom ent's noti ce and then move thr ou gh the
for est for d ays o n end. hi din g d esperat ely fro m
th e ene my by d3Ya nd slee pi ng in 3 hammo ck
slu ng be tw een two trees at n ight. By general
agreeme nt. most terrifyi ng of all was a U-52
bo mbe r st rike. in w hi ch 3 who le area o f fores t
wo u ld erupt w ith a roar that tore eard rums and
shoo k ner ves to the co re. Shelt ering in tunnels,
m 3ny of w h ich co ntained k itc he ns. sleeping
roo ms . a nd m ake shift ho spita ls, offered so me
In
~~~:,m~li~::.Slbly to
-<
o f rural-ba sed gue rrilla war as the path to co m mu nist revolut ion .
Yet fro m the late 1970s America itself backed gue rrilla forces in
wars aga inst left-wing gove rn me nt s in Afgh ani stan , An gola, and
Ni caragu a. 13y th e 2 1st century, gue rrilla activ ity had in some
victo ry for Fidel C astro 's armed ban d in C uba in 1959. 13y th e
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RPG7
This Russian-made rocket launcher
was regularly used against Soviet
forces in Afghanistan.
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Popular support
Sandinista rebels in a village
unde r Sandmista contro l near
the Honduras border, July 1983 .
A REVOLUTION IS A
STRUGGLE TO THE DEATH
BETWEEN TH E FUTU RE
AND THE PAST.
fIDEl CASTRO. SPEAKING IN HAVANA. 1 JAN 19 61
FARC
Th e FA RC ( Pu er zns Arm ada s R c voluci onar ias
d e Colo m b ia - R ev olut ionar y Armed Forces
ofColo m b ia) was se t up in t he llIid - I'HlOs b y
M ar xi st s ch imi ng to be fig hti ng 011 b eh al f of
th e Colom bian pe opl e . From till' 1<)8 0s, under
th e in fluence of' jacobo A re n as, it d e veloped
into a self-s ty led "a r my of th e peopl e" wit h a
plan fo r m ounting J mil ita r y cam pa ig n to seill'
power in the co u ntry . Colo mbia's re mo te j u ng le
and m o u ntai n regions provided SJfl' haven s th at
the g uc r r illas co u ld co ntro l, w hi le th e co u ntry's
coc a c ro p offered a potcntia l so u rce o f rev enue
to bu y so ph ist icate d ar ms. A lthou gh th e FA R e
ca rr ied o ut a number o f notable m il itar y
o pe ra t io ns in th e 1<)<)l)s, it has ex h ibi te d a
tenden c y to degen erate into a sim ple c rimi na l
o rga n iza tion , It barrl es wi th Colom bia's powerful
ri ght- w in g param ilitar y gro ups for contro l of
th e dru gs trad e a nd ra ises furth er fina nce by
kidn appin g, ex to r t io n . a nd protect io n racket s.
H o w eve r, in sp ite o f th e ri sk s invo lve d. joining
th e FARC mi ght w el l see m a sens ib le career
c ho ice a m id th e po vert y and in se curit y of
r u ra l C o lo m b ia , sinc e a m ember o f thc g ro up
is proba bly pa id f.,r h igh er th an a per so n
wo rkin g ill leg it im ate e m plo y me nt.
1941 -
PH E SE N T
SAS SOLDIER
N ELI TE I N I'A
THY FO llMAT IO
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D ese rt W ar . it wa s di sband ed at th e
;1
stand ard
O il
tha t w as likely to
SCI,.' a
lo t o f ac tive
SAS insign ia
A winged Sword of Damocles
isshown with the SAS motto:
"Who Dares Wins".
OW 11
.i t
least
H& K MP 5K
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CO UN TE R- REVO LUT IO N A RY
WAR FAR E TACTI C S
SAS t radition stre sses sec re cy an d
ano ny m ity - pr ati ng in public abo ut
th e reg ime nt's acti vities is to ta lly
d iscou raged . It wa s the Iran ia n
Em bassy siege th at t ran sfo rm ed
t he reg im en t's public pro fi le. In
th e late 1<)(,Os and 1')70 s, a spate
ENTRY TACTICS
leader covers right
Deploying fla,hbang
Stack ing up
M O VI N G O N
N COs an d troop e rs ge ne ra ll y o n ly leave th e
SAS w he n it is tim e to re tu rn to c iv ilian life.
A ce rtain per cen tage fi nd o cc upatio ns that
e m ploy th e sk ills they have lea rn ed , suc h as bein g
bod yg uards, carryi ng o ut ind ust ria l espio n age.
o r even being m er ce naries. O ffi ce rs o n ly join till'
SAS o n scc o nd mc n r fro m th eir paren t rcg itu c nt s
and o fte n ret urn to more co nve nt io na l du n es
after a time . So me have risen to ve ry senio r
po sitio ns in the Briti sh A rmy. re flec ti ng the
h igh este e m in w hi ch the SA S is hel d .
SAS "Pink Panth er "
Named after itsdesert camouflage, this
modified Land Rover, in usefrom the 1960s
to the 1980s, had fuel tanks th at gave it a
range of 2,400km (1,500 miles).
Clearing th e room
As Red 1 moves to the far right corner,
pointing his weapon at the opposi te corner,
Red 2 moves to the near left corner, pointing
hisweapon at the opposi te wall.
Securing th e roo m
Red 2 clears the near left corner while Red 1
cove rsthe far left. Blue 1 enters and holdsthe
near right corner. followed by Blue 2 who
covers the door. Finally the leader enters.
.'"
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and surv ival under di fficult co nd itio ns. In reaction to the mass
the 1970s, co unter- terro rist wa rfare has been a centraI co ncern
of spec ial forces, and tec hniques for dealin g w ith hostage-
upon ind ividual ini tia tive, ment al streng th, co nt ro lled agg ression,
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Rear Sight
_
Muule compensator
MagaZine catch
35-round detachable
./
box maqazme . /
GSG-9
Gc n na ny 's lack of an adeq uate cou nte r- terrorist
force was revealed by a bungl ed response to
ho stage -takin g: by Pale stinian terrorists at the
I'l n Munich O lympics. GSG -'I (G rc nzsc hu rzg ru ppe-'I, or "Border G ua rds , G roup 'I ")
terrorists led by
Zohair Ak ach c. a
Pa lestinian . hij acked
" l.ufrh an sa ai rlin er
with H() passcn gt'rs o n
boa rd . T hey d e m anded
th e release o f Red Arm y
Fact io n priso ners in G erma ny
GSG-9 INSIGNIA
in return for the passen gers'
safe release . Art e r rhe cap tain of th e ai rc raft
had been murder ed b y th e ter ro rists, GS G - 9
o peratives suppo rted by tw o SA S m en sto rme d
th e hij acked airliner at M o gadishu airport,
Somali a. Three of th e four ter rorists were kill ed
in an exc hange of firc, while o n ly o ne ho stage
w as injured . T he Mogadishu o pe ratio n m ad e
GSG - Y's reputati on - OIl C w hi ch has bee n
co n fir me d by subse q ue nt o pe ratio ns.
/ Muu le compensator
Over th e half ce nt ur y since
the US Arm y Spec ial For ces,
po pu larl y k now n as t he G ree n
Berets, we re te nta tively fou nded
in 1952. un its devoted to u nconve ntional
warfare. co unter-i nsu rge ncy . and co u nterterrorism have prolifera ted in th e US ar med
Weapon s
forces . Since 1987 all have been gro uped together
Special forces throughout the world use army-issue
under US Spe cial O pe rat io ns Com ma nd in
weapons. In the US, favou rites include the M 16
assault rifle and the MP7 submachine-gun.
Tampa, Florida . 13y the early 2 1st centu ry th er e
were est imated to be aro u nd 50 ,0 0 0 me n in
partl y becau se th e hi ghl y publici zed failu re
t he US militar y d evot ed to spec ial o pe rat io ns.
of its attem pt to free Am e rican ho stages held
T he G ree n Ber ets, pr im aril y based at Fo rt
in Iran in l <JHO was such an embarrassment.
13 ra ~~, No rth Carolina, becam e a hi gh -p rofi le
format io n after winn in g the patro nage of U S
US special o pera t ions for ce s have played
a prom ine n t role in recen t co n flicts,
Presid ent j o h n F Ken ned y in hi s dr ive to de velop
a co u nrcr- insu rgc ncy capac ity in the ea rly 19(,Os.
not ably th e invasio ns of Iraq and
The Ber et s' reputati on was co n firme d by th eir
Af~ha ni st an , and the prolon ged
de te rm ined effo rts to o rganize m ountain
co un rer- iusu rgeu cy campaigns
in both th o se co u nt ries. The
tribe sme n as auri-com m u n ist forces du rin g the
Viet nam WJf. Vietn am also saw the rc-form arion
U S Defen se Dep artment
env isages th at th e y w ill have
of t he U S Arm y R an ger s as a lo ng - ra nge pat ro l
fo rce . Ano ther p ro du ct of th at pe riod 's int er est
a cru cial fut ure ro le in
co un te ri ng the th reat of
in co untering g ue rrilla wa rfare was the US N avy
SEAL (Sea- Air- La nd) tea ms , foun de d in 196 2
globa l terro rism netwo rks.
and first se nt into co m ba t in Vietnam in 1966 ,
spe cia lizi ng in rive rine o pe ratio ns. T he 19 70 s
brought a diffe re nt empha sis, wi th th e rise of
inte rn atio na l terrorism . T he US Ar my's C o m bat
Applications Gro up , po pularl y know n as Delt a
Force , was set up by Colonel C harles Beck w it h
in 1977 prim a rily as a counter-terrorist warfare
US NAVY SEAL CODE OF HONOUR EXCERPT
u n it. It has remained o ne o f th e most sec re tive
of unco nve ntiona l w arfare organizations . perhaps
Small Bo at Un it
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VI
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Flash hider
Treaty O rga niza tion (N ATO) states mi ght find th em selves without
these co n flicts were well tr ained and enj oyed a supe rb level of
provoked the US and its allies to fight th e G u lf War aga inst Iraq
in 1991. Islam ic terro ris m and Iraqi intransige nce furth er led to
VI
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US INFANTRYMAN
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BRITISH IN FANTRYMAN
Br irain has 3 lon g h isto r y of e m plo y in g 3 sm all
professional arm y to tight varic rics o f limited
war ov erseas, :1 traditi on that w as o n ly temporaril y
int errupted in th e 20 t h ce n t u ry by th e drafrin g
o f a mass o f co nscripts in tw o world wars. The
ret urn to an all -volunteer regular arm y since
t he start of the 1l)(,Os ha s th u s bee n in line w ith
Bri t ish tr ad ition . In o ther W3yS, battle h as b een
joi ned aga inst the arm y's tradi tion s. wit h
successive reform s of a regimental sys te m
w id ely regarded 3< o utd ate d . yet stubbornly
defended by its adher ents.
Up to th e 19l)Os, th e post-World W3t II
Briti sh Army "'3< ch iefly dep lo yed 3< part
of NATO to fight 3 defe n sive war ag ainst
a Soviet inv asion nfWest German y that
I H,' V l' r h app e ned . and i ll a CO li nt er in surgency ro le in vario us British- ruled
territories, latterl y in Northern irel and .
The end o f th e Cold War, follo we d by
th e cess at ion of th e IR A in surgen c y.
naturally led cos t-c o nscio us poliricians
to c n t back o n in fantry
nu m be rs ill the 19 <)Os.
T here wa s a lso a sh ift
to w ards hi gh er investment
ill advanced technology and
training for a war of rapid
deploymcur and man oe uvre,
in line with Ameri can
military doctrine.
T he Bri tish Arm y
cont ributed the se co ndlar gest co ntinge nt to
th e U N for ces t ha t
d rove the Iraqi s o ut of
Kuwait in th e Gulf War o f
1991 - the larg est. o f course , was
supplied by the US . in the earl y 2 1st ce ntury.
t he Brit ish agai n su ppo r ted the US in the
in vasio ns of Afg han ista n (2 00 !) and Iraq
(200J ). and th e su bseq ue n t co u n te r- in su rgency
ca m pa ig ns conducted by th e o cc upy ing fo rces.
The demand s o f prolonged wa rfa re on thi s sca le
sever ely rested morale and revea led defi cienc ies
in th e army's equipment and lo gi sti cs.
In 200 7. the British Arm y co nsisted of o ver
100.000 fu ll-time so ld iers. ba cked up b y around
-10.000 pa rt -ti m e Tcrritoria ls. Partl y as a resu lt
of low un emplo yment in Britain , th ere we re
shortfa lls in d omesti c recruitmen t. so th at an
in cr easin g pe rce ntage o f so ld ie rs ca me fro m
abroad . m o stly from the Bri tish C o m m o nw ealth.
W hether o n patrol in Iraq o r fighting th e Ta liba n
in Afghani stan 's H elm and Pro vince. th e Brit ish
infant r yman showed h im self rime and again to
be a thorough-goi ng professional.
MK 6 KEVLAR
INFANTRY HElMET
HYDRATION SACK
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CAMOUFLAGE
TROUSERS
\,
INDEX
P.l ~l nu mbers in b o ld indi cate
referen ces
IIU i l1
A
Ah b,l.. id C alipha te
I)()
..Aoriugro 1',11s" 22 1)
Acn- 7X. 7 1)
Ad.n u s. Pre...idcn r Jo h n 1-17
Af~lul1i\t 'lI1 4(1, 127
Fn'IKh Pon-ign Legion in 3 15
invasion of (2IHII) 3.23. 3-1 X
Mujahidccu 33X
Talibau 3 -13
US spec ial opcr.rnon s
for ce s ill .\-1 7
Afr ic;lll-A m c ri r.m se rvi ce me n
Amer -ica n C ivil War \1)2
bul I llo so ld ie rs 222
T uskegee air men 2XX
US Mar in es .\ t 9- 2(1, J2.1
Worl d War I 2-17
Afrika Korp . . 27-1. 275
Alrik:lIIl'r , 212
Agin l"tHirt. Hutlc of (IX. XI . 83
A~riL'ol.l . Sextus C alp ur n ius 3X
Ai n j.ilut, Battle 0 1'79
.ur co m bat
Condor Legio n 253
Gcrtuan fighter p ilo ts 2X9
ja p.mcsc naval pilo ts 2X9
R A F f ightvr pilo t 25 -1-63
U S bom be r crewman 276-X7
US esco rt fighter pilots 2XX
Vil'tn.1II1War 332, 3 33
\Vorl d W;lr II 2 27
airborn e d ivisiou s sec
paratroopers
.lira.lli:
B- 17 H ying Fo rtrl'S\ 276-X I,
2H2-5 , 2HH
B- 2-1 Lib n ;lw r 277. 2XH
B- 52 bo m ber 3 ,\.\
I )ornil' r bOlllbl'r 257 . 25 9
I'(K kc- \Vulf 27X
I i l'in kd bOlllb l' r 257
I hlfri call l' 22 7 . 255, 256.
25 7 ,25lJ
junh'r 253 , 257
l.i ~IHnill g 2XX
LY\;lIIdc r 29 2
M t.\\t.'r ...dll niu 25.1. 255. 256,
257, 259,27H. 2XX, 2X9
M it\ubishi R l'iw n Z t.'ro"
fight l'r 21'W
M U\un g 27'), 2XX
rlIIH)tt.'-l"lHitro llt.d J 1I)
Il l'pu blir 1)- -1 7 T huIH!C'rbolt
2XX
Spit tirc 22 7 , 255. 256. 258.
251),2XX
Stuka diw-bombl'r 227 . 253
,lira,lti: guiding ligh ts 2 1)5
,Iirlinl' hijarking .1-12
"ki"ji 120
At l;II;llllli 43
Alhm"r:l. lb ttle of 17-1
Aku in -It), 5X
Alt... i;l. \iCgl' of J I
Ah.'x.mdt."r tht.' Crt.'.n 9 , IS , 17,
20,21
2-1 1)
Alva. D uke of 113
American C ivil War 11, 1-1 5.
190-203. 222
Am er ican Exp edi tiona ry Force
247
Ame r ican R evolu tio nar y \Var
W l'JpOIIS
61
52.53
wa rriors 60- 1
3 11.34(,
Ar'lb ian pl'nimlila 3 -1 1
Arap ah o \\;arr iors 217,2 19
ArbeiJ R o m,1I1 fo rt 38-4 1
;lrdu'rs
Anglo -Saxon 60
Engli'iih longbowlllall HO-5
Ge noe'iie cmssbowlllan H7
M on gol hor'iiclII:ln -16 , 88-93
Mu gh al 12(,,1 27
P;lrdl bn 32
Sio ux wa rr io r 2 18, 220- 1
Vik in g 5(1
Ardi ti 24K
Arl'n J \,jacopo 33')
Argcm ina, Falkla nd s War 3-13
ar llllC'ii
age of Em pi re 1-1-1- 5
ancielH 1-1- I 5
early Illo dl' rn 108-9.1-10- 1
med ie\al -16--7
po stw ar 3 10- I I
wo rld wa rs 226-7
SIT II/SO ar mi es by Ilam e ;
co u mr ics by nJIlle:
Ar lllini m 32
an no ur
An cielH Greek 17 . 22-3
Anglo -Saxon 61
Cart hag iniall -12
Ct.,hie -1 3
con do n ic r i 79
I Jutch fo o t soldier I.1X
Land...kn echt 11-1 -1 5
lon gbowman X3
med ieval kn igh t 67. 6 8.71,
Viking 5 1. 56-7
.,~.,"S
120 , 121
Azte cs 10. 10 5. 109
72-3, 76
M o ngol ho rseman t)O . 9 2-3
Mugha l 12X- 9
New MOth..1 Army cavalry 132
Ottoma n 120 , 12 2-3
R o m an .14-5
Sam ur ai 96 , 98-9
Spani.. h trrdos I t 7
Vikin g 5-1-5
ar moured vests, US Marines 324
A r my of Afri ca {Spanis h) 252
A r m y R angers. US 3-17
A r n hcm 22 7
A rn old , General Ben edi ct I -IX
arq uebuses
Landsknccht 112.1 13, 11-1- 15
Mu ghal 12(1
ar row s
lo ngh ow man XI, X-I-5
Sio ux 220- 1
Vik in g 56
art illery
Am erican ta nk crew s 27-1
German "h urricane " artillery
ba r rages 24 I
German pa nzer crews 275
Mu gbal 125.126-7
N apoleo n ic 167
O UOI1l:lII 119 , 12 1
R oman 32
R OY'll Ta nk R egime n t 27 -1
Soviet tan k crewman 266-73
Unionist for ce s 195
US, in Vie tnam 322
\Vorl J War II 227
Ascalon 70
ilS /II:~I'", l)(~7
'lSl'is (shield) 23
Jss;l\\inatio n 29 1, 293 , 3 -16
as"auh fu ck , "w rI1u roo pe r 242
J"saliit su it, SAS 3-14-5
d5:;t:~" is (spt.'J r) 2 11
As"yri JI1 Em pire 1-1
Athem 17 , IH. 19
At lant ic co m'oy" 26 -1.265
atom bomb 227
att ri tio nal wa rfare 226, 23 1,
233,258
All er st.ldt, ll.ltde of 157
AU G ritl es 3 -19
AUb"ll.. tus , Empero r 27
Auren gzeb. Emperor 127
" T he Aus pi cious In cidem " 12 1
A ustt.rlit z, Battle of 157 , ISH, 160
A mtrJlia, An zJcs 2-1 7
Aus tr ia
Aust ro -Hun gar ian ar my
24H. 249
G rt. llzc r "ha rp.,)lOoter s 1-1 I
N ap o h..o ni c \Vars 160 , 16 1, 166
Au xiliar y Air Forc e 255
,l ux iliJ ry tro o ps
G rC'C' k 20
R o m'lII 15 , 27. 31
Avar s (II
Jxe:S
Alll l' r ic;ln riflelll al1 150
Anglo - S;lXOIl 60
Br itjl', h sailor boanting aXl'
184-5
Greek ho pli te 23
M aor i 208-9
B
B- 17 Flying Fortress 27h-H I,
2H2-5. 2HH
B- 2-1 Liberato rs 277, 2HK
B- 52 bombers 333
Babu r 109, 12-1 . 125 ,126
B,llb j o z. l', iege o f 173 ,1 7-1
Bad er. D o uglas 255, 251)
Baghdad massacre 90
lu ll-t urret gu nne rs 278 , 28 -1
ballista .1I, 32, 76, I) I
ban ds of bro th er s X- 9
Bann ock burn . Battle o f7 1, XCI
barb.n-iaus
;1" e nemies o f R o me 15,33.
42. 43
as R oman aux iliarie s 27 .
3 1. 32
Harbarossa. Operation 2511.26 7
ba r rac ks. Roma n 40-- 1
baseball grcnJdcl', 327
B,l l', il II . Em peror (12
bas ine t hel met (17, ilX
Ih srogue 30 t
Batavia 3 1
Batista, Pul gen cio 33 9
battl e wagons. H ussite K6
Bayhars 79
Hayeux Tapestry (10
Hayczid, Su ltan 120 . 121
bayo nets
Br itish infa ntry ( 19 14- 18)
235,236
Bri tish R ed co Jt 17 X
Ca lu dia n R m s 2-1 7
Con fl,de rJte inf.l l1try man 20 1
l. t. nll'\I1 sw r l1ltro o pc r 2-13
M I bJyonet k nu rk k' d ustL'r
307
Na po leo nic inf:lIltry m:m I CJ(I
SAHli 349
T u rk ish , Worl d Wa r 1 2-19
Union infamrYIll.111 197 ,
198- 9
ViC't Cong 336
BC'ar PJW lllollmJi llS 223
Ueau jeu , WiIIi J111 of 7X
Bt.JlIvo ir d e: Lyle. G el1l'ral 247
lk ckw it h , Colo nel C h arles 3 47
Ill'd Ollkoh c Apach e 223
lkij illg 90 , 9 1
Bd g rJde, siegl' of 120
Bell H u ey tro o p t.arrit.'rs 3-16
be lt p il', toll', 296
BC'rgalll lln M P 18 l', ub m Jc h ineb"lJll 239
Berlin 267 , 269.288
Bers,lglier i h,lt 2-18
bcse rke rs 52-3
Bieo cea, Uau le of 116
h ill Lad l'n , O sallla 3 1 t , 338
Bir I b h illl . Bau k, of 3 1-1
" blitzkr ieg " 226, 2(17 , 2(IH, 275
Wo o d R ivcr, BJ ttle 0(2 12
B1m l,'pip e ami -aircraft m issiles
338
bluif.J/mm u ni ts 112
Bo d iam C al', t1e 224-5
Bo er War 2.l-t
Bo ers 2 12
Bohemia 86
Hoh em on d 62
Hokhar a 90
holt. crossbow X7
bomber crew ma n, US 276-8 1
bombi ng
Allied, Wo rld War II 227 ,
277- 1)
G ucr u ica 253
Vietn am War 332, 333
bo mbs
o n B- 17 bo mbe r 28-1
gunpowder 9 1
Norden 277
Bonap ar te, Napoleo n see
Na poleon I, Empero r
booby traps, Viet Cong 320, 333
boots
desert .1-1 9
escape 2(d
flying 2HI. 2M2
j u m p .1OJ
Sdl'l~~ i 27 1
tro p ical com bat 325
Born. Bertran d de 8
Bo rn eo 3-11
22ll-37
Br itish inf.llHr yman (mo d ern)
349
Br itish R e(!co at 7. 14 4, 154 .
16H- 9. 170-9
Ilr iti,h ,ailor (179}- IHI5)
180-9
t.o lo n ialislll 14 5, 207 , 23-1
for ces in Afgh anistan .l-t 9
forces in Ir;lq 3-1 9
Nt'w M od el Ar m y 131 - 3
228-37
discip linc and pu n ishlll l'nt
231-2
going m C'r the top 232-3
recrui tlllL'lH Jnd train in g
229-30
c
C al'sar. j ulius 27. 3 1, 43
C alchaq ui pcopk' 104
C all'd o n i.ln Voluntcer s 15 5
Cam bo d ia .'33
Call1l'ron. G cn l'r al D u ncan 207
C all1l'ro ne . B.lttl e of 3 14
t'alllOu tlage
Bo er W.lf 23 -1
Briti"h dl...ert (om b.lt uni form
349
QU l'l'n 's R an ger.. 155
US M ar in l' 326
Viet C o ng .B 4 , 335
Wo rld War I 234. 24 2 .
2 47 .302
C anada
Am er ican War o f
Ind l'p l'nd l'llcl' 155
Wo rld War I 247
can nih ali,;t)l. M :lOr i 20 5
C aJlII<1l,.", Battl e o f 4 2
t'alllio ns
Mugh al 12()-7
N ap ol eo nic lll7
Ottoman 119 . 121
HM S I "ictl'ry IHH-tJ
cano e... M .lOri w ar 205. 20 6
Ca pe lb t.m g:m 32H
C ape St Vin cellt . B.utl e o f IH6
C aporeuo. B aul ~ o f 24H
carb in e ritl es 164-5
C arle to n , Colo nel J.unes 22 3
Carl ist " rl,.l)Ul,.tlS" 252
Carr hae , Baul e o f 32
c n ro n.a ks IH7
C an hagin ial1S 14 , 27.4 2
castles, Illed ieval 7()-7
C; l..tro. Fidel .B N. 33 9
c.uaphract v 15. 4(.
C;IU pUIt.. 9 1
cavalrv
l),Jrk nian 15
(I
Mughal 125- 1)
M uslim wa rr ior s 7 1)
New M odd Army 132
Ott oman 119- 23
civil wa rs
Am eri can I t. 1-1 5. 19 0- 203 .
222
C h inevc 3 1n..'U S
English 130--5
Spani..h 252- 3
C ivi r.n e. Banl c o f (12
C lem en t V. Po pe 7 H
C lo wn . Baro n von 15.1
d ubs
Apa che 22 3
Aztec 1115
Ma o r i 21)7 . 2(IX_I)
Sio ux 22 11- I
trench 23 7
C n u t, Ki ng 53
Cochise. C h ief 223
code of hono ur
bu shido 6 . 47 . 9 5. 1)7
Fre nch For eign Leg io n .112.
., 14
R ajp ut 125
Sparta n (,
US Navy SEA L 347
sec .JlSII chivalry
Codex C'ptldj/i51l1 lIX
co h o rt ... R o ma n .1I. 32 .),.>
C o ld War 3 10. 3 11..'3H . .14H
collabor ator s, Na zi J 14
C olombia. I:AR C JJt)
coloniali..m J il l
CO IUIlIII foruuu ion 17 5
Coma nc he warrior.. 2 1t)
Com bat Ap phcat io us Force .1--17
co mba t box fo rmation 279
t"Ollllllis'iio llS. h uyi ng 17 1- 2
n ll1IIlIUni, t..
Cold W;u 3 .>X
Ind ot.'h in.l 3 I 4
Spa n ish C ivil W:lr 253
View.lIn W.lf 321I. .12I. 32 2.
33 1..>.\3
C(m lp uter.., IUVig.ltiOlul 25 X
C o n Thi t'li . Sil'gl' of .121
co nCl'alllll'n t Wl';lpOIl" 2 1) ( )
C<lIlc<" ntra tio n cam p.. 29 ,>
CO I1 (ord 153
Co nd or Leg ion 252. 253. 25(,.
2H9
n m do u it'r i 7 1)
Con ll:dl' ratl' for n " , AIIIl,.'r it'all
C ivil Wa r I ') 1- 5 .
20 0--1. 222
C o n fedl' r:ltl' in falltry lll.l11 21MI-I
co nscr ip tio n 51'1' renui tllll,. nt
CO ll'i.u llt ino pll 47 ,49, I IH. 119
C OTl tilllllt.l l Ar m \' 144 . I -n - 9.
15 2- 3
.
Com r;I... N ic:uagu :1 3.W
(llf1t" lwrl/i., -to . 4 1
co o k ing _~ n' fo od ;lIId dr ink
C o r int h 20
co rporal pu n ish llll'l1t 145. 172.
I H2 . 2.'1
Cort ez , H l'rn ;i n 105 . lO e)
Cor ulln a 17.l
Cms;ll'ks IOl). 141. H'Il. 2-1 H
Cou n te r R e"olu tiOlury Warf.lre
(SAS) .140 . 3 42- 3 . 34 4
co u n ter im ur gl,.IKY warfare .>20 .
33 H-9. 3 46 . 347 . 349
l,.' o Ulltert lr m r i, t o pl'r:Hio m 3--11 13 . .1411. .147
Cour trai. Ib u k' o f 7 1. X(,
co u rt l11J.ni;11 131
Cowpem. Baul l' o f t 49
C razy H Or"ie 2 16,2 19 .222
Crtt"y. B.ltt k o f 47 . ()7 . HO, HI.
H3 .H7
crl'l'p ing b.lrr ;lgl 233
Cresap, Midu d 147
Cr i lll~:l 3 1-1
C r im l"an \Var 145
C ro m w d l tan ks 27 4
SO E
agcnr ~l)()-7
:rw
1).1 Na nu 3 I I)
d .rggcr s
E
E;l~ll'
Edward L
Kill ~
of En gland XI
El--loVt
Mn uclukc 7H. 7 1) , 1)1 1- 1, 119 .
120 .1 2 1
N l'W Kin gdom I) . 14
Eig h ty Year.. W;lr 1.)(1, I.>S
EI Al.uncin . Hu rlv of 20 7
elephant.. 42 . 125 . 12(1. t 27
em pires. brea kup o f J i l l
Enfield revolve rs 25 5 . 2(13
Enfield ritlc- tuuckct 11) -1 . 211 1
cng juc cr v,Amcric.m C ivil \V:u
(I)'"
England
Ci vil W" r IllS . 130-5
lougbowm.m 80 -5
Nor m.in co nq ll\..vt 47 . 5.>.
(,II . (12
Engli..h m usket eer 130-5
.m uv !iti: 1.12
rl'n ~l i t lll l' l lt I .l I
rr.unin u I .l2 -.l
un it( lr;lI .urd \ W ,l pOm 1.l-l - 5
Eni guu enc o d ing m .u-lu nc 2(,4
Ent vbbc airp ort .l4(1
cntrcm-luucn t sa tren ch wa rfa re
l'ntr)' t;ICtit'" SAS .>42-.1
Ep.uuiuoud.ts 2 1
vquiptn cnr
Auu-rir.tn ritlcm.m 1511- 1
llr iti, h infm tr vm.m ( I t) 14- 1H)
~ .\4 -5
dl.l""lur I lI-I- 5
C Olltld lr,ttl illl;lIItr\,lII.lIl ~ ll I
En gli'i.h Il1USklt llr 1'.l-l - 5
G lr lll.lll ..torm trn o p er
( 1'J 14- IH) 242-3
R AF tight l'r pilot 2(12-.\
R OIl1;1II lq.d Olu ry .>(1
SAS , o ld il' r .144-5
S( ) E agl!It ~1>4 -5
U ll io n int;lIltr ylll ,1I 1 Ji) .\. 1'>4.
1t)5 , JI)X_I)
US hOIllIll' r rfl'\\'IlW I 2XO- l
US c lVa!r" 222
US M ,lril;t'" J2()-7
US p,lr.m o opl'r .\() 1. 30 4-5
Vilt C on g glll' rr ill.1 .l.l 4- 5
Erlll lIH.lrill'i 5 1
esnnt ti ~ ht t' r pilo ts. U S 2XH
F
r:airb ur n , W E 2 1) I
Ell.lllV;i..t 1II0\'l"ml'lH 252
Falkirk. H,ltt k' o f XI
Falkb nd.. W:lr J -1J
FAl\\ AS ,1".llIh ril ll" 3 13,
3 1~ .
.' 41)
FA R e (FlIlT7.1.. Arm.ub..
R l'vol lKi(HUr i:ls d l'
C o lo m bi'l) .B 9
fa'i.ci..m 227 . 2 52 . 25.>
t;tt i!-.'l.ll's
Frend' hlfl'i ~n Ll'g io n
3 11>- 17
US l\1.lrin c j un gk' .124-5
I:l,.rgm oll. C o!o l1 d P.ltr ick 14 1)
Fl,tt l'rnu ll. C o lo n d Will bm J 2 1S
ft.'u d al sy, rl"1Il 6 2. (IH
Figh tt'r CO lllIll;lIHI. Il A F 255 .
257 . 259
m
X
G eruuu 24 1
M OIl ~oI 91
tlarcs
..
x
w
C
Z
tlarc pistols 2m
ma gnesi um 2-tO
pa rachut e 32()
tlachb.m g g rena de s .142
fl em ish foo r soldi er Nfl
tliutlo ck m uskct v 10K. lOt),
125 .1 4 1, 17 2. 2116
flint lock pi sto l.. Ih-l . 172
FL tcrrori stv ,, 15
Floren ce 79
fl ying tonn.ruons (R Ail 25 1)
Flying Fortress Jf f
B- 17 hom her flying j ac ket
R A F (Irvin) 2110-1
US 27X. 2 X ( ~ I
Fockc- Wulf fighter.. 27M
food and d r ink
230.235
Briti..h sailo r (17 1).l,- IH15) 1X2
Ger man ..hoTtagl''',
Wo rld \VaT I 241
Greek hoplitc IH. 2.\
HM S Vi((M") ' HIM
Mongol hO r \I,'111.111 Xl)
R o m .11I 4 1
Ullio!l int:lnt rYllull I t)H
US f\.hrint. 3 20 . 322
US p.ua (roopt.r 30 4- 5
Vit.( Con~ ~u t.'rr ill.1 33 2-3 .
.'.1 4. 33 5
Fort. i~ll Lq!;ioll llain', Frt.IKh
3 12- 17
AI ~t.ri ;lII W;lr 3 I S. 3 I (I
Indo c h ina War 3 14 - 15
n cru i(Illt.1I( and trai n in g
3U- 14
u ni for l11 and \wapo n.. 3 16..... 17
tl>r~e.r y of do c ulll e.' m.. 292
Forlorn I lope.' 17 4
Fort Kt.;1fI1Y 2 1H
r:on SUnHl"f 191
fi)f. R Ollun 30. 3X-4 1
ff<lgl1le.nta(ion l!;nl1.1de." 249
r:r.llu..-t.'
colo n ial t. l1lp ire. 31 3- J 5
1>-1>.1)' 11. 293 . 2 1)') .
31MI,301
("5l' ril d("CtIrl' s 7
fi> re.ign Iq!;io llllai re. 3 12- 17
Fre.' !lch cavalrYlll.lll 156-63
Fre.'IH:h Illus kc.te.t.'r 1( 1). 138
(m p e. r ial Cllard (), 1(17
libe ratio n o f ( 11)44) 3 1...
N apo le.'o llic ani lle. ry 1(17
Napolc.olli c in (;lI1try 1(1(.-7
Poil us 24(1
re...iq ;lIKt.' 11l0\e.'111e.'1lt 293
use.' o f 1lle. rnlIarit.'s III , 11()
SCC disil hattie.. a nd wa rs by
n.1111 e.
halKo. ( ;e.IIe.ral Fran (i ..e.o 252
FU lll;oi.. I. King: of Frall ce 113
h ;lI1ks 43. "'6- 7. 49 . 50. 51. 52
\\ 'arriors 6 t
frami..e k . j ose.f 25 7
fraser. G t.'IIe.ral Simoll I...H
Frt.daic.-k II . Kinl-!; of Pru ....ia 109 .
140 . 14 1
Frt.'d l'ri ( k Wi llialll I. King of
Prus ..i;l 1...1
Frl'd l'r ic ksburg. ll.1tt lc.. of
11) 5. 20 2
fyrd (,0
"'fI.
g r.rves. Viking 53
Crear Patriotic Wolr 270
g reaves (Ie.g .m uo ur)
Greek hoplitc 23
medi eval kni gh t 73
Samurai 9H
Greece
naval warfa re I H
resistance movem e nt 293
C reek hopli rc 7. 10,
14- 15. 16--23
a r m o ur 22 -.l
tac tics 17, 2 1
traini ng 17-1 H
wca pom 14-1 5. 22 - 3
Green Berets .l 47
grenade 1,IUIK hc.rs
Ge rman . Wo rld War I 244
M 79 "Blooper" 3211
M 20'\ 327. 34 7. 35(H
SAS 3 45
Vit.'t C ong .\.\ (.-7
grenades
an tita n k 33t.
b.r..d u ll .l2 7
CS ga.. 3...2
d iscu s 23')
11.Ishhan ~ .H 2
fragm en tat ion 2"'9 .33(.-7
han d I'N . 2.1(1 , .\.\ 5 , 33 ()
Mi ll.. bombs 2.\(1
M KI I ,\0 5
ri fle 2.'t.
H
I Iab..burg dyn.w y 121 . I ., H
1Iadri.m, Emperor J X
1bdriJIl 's \V;lll 29 ,.\')
I,.d...., (wa r d.mce) 20 5 . 207 . 20X
halb erd s
I Jurch foo t ..o ldicr 1JX
l.and sk uc rh t I 1J. 11"'- 15
Sw iss 11(,
l lalido n H ill. B,m lc of HI
hand g re na de .. 11)1). 23(1 , 3J5- (1
I i.nuu bal 1.... 42
" <lr.l-kiri WI
I Iarald Hardrad.r. King 5J. (.0
H arol d II. King of England
53 .1>4
Ha r ri s, R itle. II1J l1 172 . 17.\
I [nr trn an n , Erich
2~W
"'7. 53.
..ubma chinc-gun .H I.
21) I. 21)2-3
(;ud e.'r ian , G t.'Ile.ral I k inz
275
G ue.'fIl iCI 253
h'lIc.r r ilLi w.1ff;lre. 3 10- 11
AIl-.!;c.r b .l I S
Ap .ld ll,. 22 .l
C uhan n bd army 339
FARe .\.W
In do d lilu War 3 14-15 , .\.\ 1
Israd 3...e.
M ;w r i 2117
M Uj ;lh idc. e. Jl .\.\K
S.lndinista rc.hcl.. 339
Sioux 217-19
Vict Conl-.!; ~ue.' rr i lla 330-7
Wo rld W.lr II 293
G uc...elin . lk rtralld d u (.H
C lIc. var a. Emc.sto " C he " J39
gllidc.'d llIi....i1 e... 3 10
Gu i..c m i , It ob e. rt ()2
G u lf War .H.l, .H X. 349
G lInnc.rside., O pe.ratioll 29 t
h'llnpowdc.r \w apo m "'7 . 71 ,
~ 1. lOX. 12 1. 126-7
h"llllS
ami -.lirnati: 27K
ant itank 274
B- 17 homhe.r 2H2-5
c he l"k 2H3
c.' hi ll 27 1), 2H2
T-34 tank 27 2-3
wai ..t 2X5. 2X(.-7
.\ 1'1' .,lsl)..pc.
c ilic ty pc .. o f l-.!;1I1l
Cmt;lv Adolf, Kin g
o fSwe.de.1I 1119 ,
1.13. I3 X
G lith ru m 52
344. .145
I lcin kd hOl1lhe."fs 25 7
hdinlptc.r..
Bd l H ul,.Y tmop (a r r il'rs 3...6
in Kor c. Jl1 W.lf 3 III
in Vil,.ul.lm 3 10. 320. 32 1
hdlllCt..
Br itish in l;lIltrylll.l1l
( I'J I 4- I X) 2.14
B r i ti ~h in l;lI HrVIll.lIl
(m m lc.' m) 349
C d tic 4.\
C hak id ian 20
C orint h ian 22
C rm ;ld e.'r 7 M
cllira....i e. r 15 1)
I )ut(h pi kc.man I .' X
(;e.rl1l.l11 ..tnr illtroope.r
( 1 ~ 1 4- 1 X ) 242
Gne.k hopli tc. 20 . 22
It.lli;lll ho u ll..k ul l" h.ISille.t 6 7.
6X
It.lliall ..alle.t 79
jOU'itinl!; hdm 69
Lall d ..kncdlt 113 . 114
ll1l'dil'va l knight 68 . 72
M OI1 l-.!;o l K9. 1)2
M u gl1.11 125 . 12K
Ncow M od d Army c lYalry 132
Nor ma n 62
O u om,lIl I )I) , 12.\
it A F pilo t 2(lO, 2(12
Roman c;lv.llry 3 I
R o m an ce.n turio ll 2M
R o m an 1c. l-.!;i Olu ry 34
S;lI111lrai 95 . 9H
SOE al-!;e.lH 294
Sovict tank n c. wnW1 270
Sp .1Ilish (CrnlIS 117
US hOl11blT crc.wnWl 2KO
US 1M 27X. 2X5
US infantry. World War J 24 7
US M ar ine 32 4
US p aT;1(roope.'r 30 2
Vikill g 54
h d ot .. I H
~knry III . H ol y R Ollun
Elllpt.'ror 62
11c. Ilf), V. Kin l-.!; o f Eng lan d 6M
H c. Ilf Y r itk 222
hc raldr y 67, (IH, 7(,
I Icrodo tu v 14.20
H l..... iaus 152 . 155
f Icyd rich , R ei n hard 29 3
H i-Sta nda rd .22 silenc ed pi..tol
2 1U
H idcyoshi . Toyo tomi 1)7
hijacking , ai rlin e 311 . 3"'2 , .H (,
H ind cnb urg. G eneral 239
H iroshima 22 7
H itle r. Ad olf 26 7 .275.29 1
H o C hi M inh (ra il 33 (1
l Io h c n fr icd bvrg. Hartle of 1...0
H o ly l .and "'7. (12 , ()7. (IX. h9 .
70. 7 X. X7 . ~ 0. 120. 12 1
H Olli e.' Rul e. Ir ish 173 . 229
110 111t.'r 17
Hongi Hi b , C hief 20 "'. 21)6
hoplites. Greek 7. 10. 1"'-15.
16-23
horses
An glo-S ;lxon (,II
int ro d uct io n of I.... I S
m edie val hor..r- .ir ru o ur (.H
M o ngol h or..em an 46 . 88-93
M u glu l I2()
Sio ux 2 17
su pcriori ty of m ou nt ed
war r-ior.. 9 -10
Vik ing 5 1, 52
sec ,,1St' cavalry
H ospi tallc r.., Kn ig ht s "'7, (,X
hO\tJl-!;e.-t ak in g 3 11. .\"'2- 3 . J 44,
341>.347
H o rch ki.... ma chine-gun s 253
homccarls (,0
H u l" 3 22. 323
H lI l c h"l1 9( ~ 1
hl/ss."i 13')
hu ..sar... Napolc olli c 157 . 159
I-Im ..ein , S.llld.lI11 3 11
HlI s..itc. so ld ic. rs K6
H utic r. Ge.I1e.r;11 vo n 24 1
hyd rat ion sack 3 49
I
Ih e.r iallS 43
In ni 32.43
ikillu (..pcar) 2 14-15
Im pc r i.l l G ua rd . N .lpo leo n ic 6 .
167
imp rl's"I1lt.'1lt 1H1
h K ;l ~ 10. to4
in d e.p e. nd e.lll' t Illo vcnl e.nt .. 3 1()
Ind ia
Br iti..h troop" in 145 . 234
Mu ghal w arrio r 109 . 12 4-9
Indi all Mut iny 179
In do c h ina War 3 14- 15 . \3 1, 33H
inf~1I1 t ry
cu/,,:\? ,m 9(.-7
Am tro -I-Iun gar ian .
World War I 249
Br itish inf.lntrymall (19 14- 1M)
22X-37
Brit ish in f:lI1t r ylllJ.n (m o dc:rn)
3 49
Br itish R cd co at 16 8- 9 . 170-9
Calladia n , Wo rld War I 2...7
,=
166- 7
Ottoman 119-21
Pru ssian infantrym an 1119.
140-1
R oman legio nary 7. 10,
15. 26--37
R ussian . World War 1 24 M
SAS sold ier 3411- 5
M on gol attacks o n 9 1
nava l pilots 2H9
S.ulIuu i 47, 9 4- 103, (01)
World War II 22(. , 227 ,
2XI),J I9
javelins, R o man 3(.-7
j cna. Battl e o f 157
j eru salem 2 1) .62, 78 . 7Y, 87
iihad 71)
J oseph . C hid 22 3
j oseph us. Flavius 28, 3(.
joustin g (,I)
j um p jackets (U S paratrooper]
J 02
j um psuit (SO E agent ] 294-5
jungle fatigu es (U S M arin e)
,' 24-5
jungle ti N -aid kit (U S M ar inl')
.127
ju ng le sur vival kit (U S Ma rine}
.121
junkers aircraft 25 3.257
j urchcn 4(.
Swi ss 11 1
J Kkson , H oward 27 H
ja de 205. 208 , 209
j agl'r (rill l'Illt,.n) 155, 240
janisari cs 6, 109. 11'). t2 U. 121
J lpa n
mili tarislll 22 7
K
Kabul 125
Kniscr whlaclu (Kaiser's Battl l')
2.1H. 2.1'). 240- 1
Knl.rsluuk o v ri fles sec AK4 7
k" fk.m (shid d) 123
Kam ikaze pilo ts 2H9
k,m/ 127
k.,,,,,,,, (swor d) 47, 96. 100- 1
k.u zhalgcr (swo rd ) 112, 113
Kd lt.' TI1W I, G eneral Francoi s
Etien ne 160
Kenned y, President j oh n F J47
kCl'i blanc 3 16
khaki 234 . 247. 249
kha nates, M on gol 9 I
kI",,, d,, (broa dswo rd] 12 1)
J..'h"'!i'lf (daggl'r) 122
Khe S;lIIh, Sil'gl' of 32 1-2
Kid 2(.4
Kit'V 5 I. t)O
ki/ii (swo rd) 122- 3
Ki;lg. M art in Lllth t,.'r 323
Kin l-,rs M ount;lin. lb ttk' of 147.
141)
King's R ora l R egim lnt 155
th l' King's Shilling 171
Kipling. Rud yard 6
Kih:hl'n er, Lord 22 9.231)
Klushillo, Bau k' of 139
kni g ht , lIled ieval 9. 46 . 47. 66-79.
H2. 12 1
.Ul1lo ur and \W.1POns 7 I,
72- 3
chivalry and glory 47. 68
l'vo!luio n of 68
Im,dieval l':Istie 76-7
piKh t,.d batt le tactics 70. 7 I
sil'gt,.' wart;lre 70
Knig ht s I lospit'lllers 47. (.H
Kni ght s Tl"m plar 47. 6H. 78
kn i\'l's
C l'mu n tlg hti ng 243
C rl'l"k ho plit l' 17. 22
Sio ux 2 17,221
SO E 293 , 296
trench J03
U S in fJntrym an 247
US Mari lle 326
US Jurat roo per 304-5
Vilt C o ng l1Iad ll'te 33 (.
k nob h-rril' (fighting stick) 2 12.
2 14-15
klluck lt.. -d ustl'rs 24 7. 30 7
k'll'is ("c ho ppe r") 17. 22
Kor l;\. M o ngo l ru ll" 9 1
Ko rl';l11 War 3 10 . 3 19
Kubiv.jan 293
Kuhl ai Khan 4(. 91. 96
I.fllllel f
L
LI A I nfl e J J9
Lacey, Ser geant " G inger"
25 7,25X
lancer s
N apo leonic 15 t) -(,o
Po lish J(,O
lances
M o ngol 9 2
Nez Pl'rn:' 223
Po lish wi nge d cavalry 139
Landskucc ht IOH. 110-1 5. I 1(.
.ITl110 Ur and weapo ns 114- 15
decline of I 13
recru itm ent and train in g
111-1 .,
regim ent s I 12- 13
style o f dr ew 112
violen t behaviour o f I 12
Laos 3 15, .H3
Lebel ri tlcs 24()
Lee. Gen eral R o bert E 200
Lee En field rifles 2." .-7
l.ee tanks 274
Legion d ' Honn cur 246
Levellers JJO
Lew is h'\ lI1S 229
Lexin gton . Battl e o f 153
Lcyt c Gu lf, Hattle of 289
Lihya 42. 274
I.il'gn itz. Ban k, o f 46. I) ()
life wsts
R AF tight er pilo t 262 -3
U S Army Air For l"e 277, 2H2
U S p;uatroop er J OI. 30(.-7
Lighming ti ght l'rs 288
li gny, Batd t,. o f 174
LilKoln . Pn'sid t,.' nt Ahralulll 191
Lindi sf.u m' 49 . 50 . 58
lint.' forma tion 175
linot hor ax 22- 3
Lith u.1Ilia 7H
Litt le: lli gh orn, B.ml e: of2 17 .
21 9 . 222
LOth . Sultan 125
Lod z 26H
Lo ndo n. blitz 259
lo ngbo wll 1a1l K (~5
in hatti e H3
t'all to arm s H2-3
d ot hi llg and wl'apo ns H4-5
lk'di ne of 83
lo n brships. Viking 49. 50. 5 1. 58-9
Lo uis XI, Kin g o f Fr;uKl' 70
Louis X IlJ. King o f Fr;mce 138
Loyalists. Am eri can War o f
Ind e:pl' lllil"nl"e 152. 155
Loyalists. Sp.1Ili"h C ivil War 252 .
253
Lufi:ham a. hij .1Ck 346
Luftw alfe
Battl e o f Br it.l in 255-9. 289
on Eastl' rn r:ront 289
Gl'rl1lan fighter pilo ts 9, 28 9
Spanish C ivil War 25 3
;lnd US hOlllbin g m issio ns
27H. 2HH
Lut ZCll, Ib tt!e of 10<)
Lysander aircraft 292
M
M I bayonet knu ckl e d uster 31)7
M I Ga rand tit l e 299. 30 4- 5
MH. assaul t rifle 326-7. 34 7 .
.14H. 351f- 1
M(.11 machin e-gun 3 19
M 7<) " Bloo pe r" g rcuad v launch er
J20
M - 113 Ar mo ured Personn el
C arr ier 32 0
M 20 3 g renade launch er 327. 3 47.
J51f-!
M ;u s. R iver 30 1
Ma ced o nia t). 15, 20, 2 1
maces
m edieval knig ht 72--'
M on gol 9 2-~'
M ughal 12H- 9
Ottoman 120
mach etes, Vict Cong 336
mach ine -gun s
7-6 21>T 2()7, 2(.9
Browning 283
Degr yarev light 33 I
Gor YUlHW33 2
Ho tch kiss 253
Lewi s gUll 22<)
M (.O 3 19
RI'IJ 3J(~7
Schwarzlose 249
Madagascar 3 14
Madr id . siege o f 252 . 25 3
Ma gent a. Battl e o f 3 I4
magn esium fl ares 240
M al-,')"1Ts 4()
M alau. Adol phe "Sail or " 255 . 257
Malava J 4 1
M .m ;d ukt.,s 78, 79. 91~ 1 .
119. 120. 12 1
M an ch u d ynasty 1( 1)
M allgas C ol o radas 22 3
Man riuca. First Ib ttll' of 19
Mallzikert , lb tt lt.' of 4(,. 62
Mao Ze do ng 29 1, 3 \0 , .H H
M aor i King M OWJl1l'nt 207
M ;lOri Pion l't,.' r batt alion 207
M ;lo ri warr ior 20 4- 9
t,.' llliur ing traditi o n 20 7
mmket warf.1Tt.' 20(.-7
resists British 145, 2117
ri tua l .m d Jl1<ls"acre 2115
\\'l'apollS 205 . 208-9
nups
hand kt.'rr hid 295
silk 257
" maq uis" 2 1)3
M arath as 127
M arat hon. Bau lc o f 19
M .1n.h to thl' Sea 193
M,1Tl' ngo, Batt le of (15 15)
112. 113
M.lrl'n go. Battle of ( IXIlO) HIO
M ;lrinl' C o rps J CI' US M arillt,.'
M ari o ll. rra lll"is 14<)
M .lrj Ihb ik. ll Jttlt.' of 12 I
M ;lrkL- t Gank'J1 . Opt,.'ratio l1 300
M aTl1l\ Battle of tht,.' 2 46
l1J;lrria gl' 120. 2 I2, 3 IJ
M .lrxists 33X, 331)
MA S 49156 ritl e 3 14. 31i~ 1 7
M as.1d<l , siegt' o f 3 I
M .1Ss.1chus ltts 153
MAT 49 su bm achilll'- gun 3 13
M .u ;lwh l'ro 21)]
m .ltd l!ork musk ets 12(. I.' I, 132,
133.1.14- 5
M atild.l tank 274
.\ Itlll N." k'lII (1ll.1 rt ial art) 2(1 1)
Ma ur il"l' o f Na ssau . Pri nce
109. I.B . I3 H
M auser carbine ritll' 242.243.
24').252
Ma ximilian I. Em peror I I I
M.ly.lI1 civiliz.ni o n 10, 104
M ch uu-d the Conq ueror.
SUIt.1II 119. 12Cl
Mcllenrhiu. Friedri ch von 272
n u-rccnarics 14. lOX- I)
an d Byz.mtinc Em pire 6 2
co ndon ieri 71}
French Fo reign Legion 3 13
G reek hoplitc 17
H cssi.ms 152. 155
l.nudsk uc rh t Illli. 11( ~t 5 .
I 12- 13. I ii.
medieval k night (19
Swi w pikcm.m 1(18. I 12. I I()
Vik ing 53
M erri a 5 1
m ete (d ub) 209
M eso po tam ia 14
M csser schmitt ti glHl'rs 253 . 255 .
256 , 257 ,259. 27li, 2XX , 2X9
M exico 104. (09, 22 3. 314
" !(lYdll l' (" n ushing" ) 211
M ilan 79, I tJ
Mill s bombs 2." .
Mi nam o to fam ily 95. 96
1I111ll'S
antiper so nn el 327
Vil'[ C Ollg , -,-,
mi ning
Auu-rir.m C ivil W;u PH
med ieval sil'gl' W;Uf.Ul' 70
M ugha l ~ i l'gl' wa rfare 127
Wo rld W;lr I 245
Minutemen 153
Mi q ueler ritl c t 211
missiles
.m ti- aircraf 338
gui ded 3 10
Scu d 3 4.'
Mi rsubish i R eisen " Z ero " f ighter
289
M KII g renade .lOS
M og.tdivhu J 46
Mohan . Hutlv of lOt) . 119.1 2 1
M ohi . Ib u lt. o f 1)0
MOlay.j,KtJlll'S d t' 7H
M on gol Em pin' 4(,. 88-93. t}(.
M Ollgo l hor selll;11l 46. 88 - 93
arJl10ur .1I1d wl'apo ns 92 - J
tal"ties 9 1
[ermr ;m d de\ tr llrt ioJl 90
train ing Nt)
M o nt ,lI);) 223
M Ollte Cass ino. IJ,lttie of 2()7
M Olltgo llll'ry, (;l' ner al '274
M or g,U1 . I).m id 14H- I), ISO
M o ro cco 101).252
J1JOn.1T bomhs 2"(.-7
M ost,."{m 1J1l, 1h 1, 2(,7
M osin - N agant ritl l' 2 47
J110u lltain wa rf;lre 24H
M o zambiq ue J I I
M P5A5 sulJ1ll.l chin e-gli ll 345
M P7 s u lml a c h i n l' -~u n 3 47
Mu gha l Em pir e 10 1). 124- 7
M uglu l \v;lrr ior lilt). 12 4- 9
ar Jllo ur ;lIld wl'apo m 128- 9
0 11 till" b<lu lt,., tidd 127
l'a\';llry and inf.lIltry 126
gllllr( )Wdl'r weapons 12(.-7
M uj ahidl"l" 11 33X
M lIUidl 27 4. " 4"
M lIrat ,j o.K hilll 157. 1611
Mu rphy,Tim 148
Murtl'n. ll.ml t' o f I II, 116
M uskt.t Waf' 206- 7
IllUskt.'t l'l'f'
Illl teh 133. I3H
EII ~h ,h 131f- 5
FTl'IlCh 109. U K
Swe d ish 133. U 8
muskets
Brow n lk ss 154 . 172 , 178- 9
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sac k of (410) .12. 4.1
sack of (1527) 110. 112
R omm el. Field M arshal Erwi n
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Roskild v 5X
Ros s snip er rifle s 2ol7
R onuistro v, G CII ~'r;11 P.m.'1 2(IH
R o\,.11 Air Force 51'(' RAF
Ro;';!1 Nav y lXI , 21J.:!
Briti sh ..ail or (17 tH- IHI5)
IHIl- t)
IIM S I ?;cttlr}' I H(.-I)
ROY,ll 'bll k R cg itu vn t 270l
R oyalists (English Civi l War)
1.1 1-.1
R !' I> m.rchin e-guns .' 3h-7
Il l)C -7 rock er-la uncher .B H
RUIlI}";lIlt7t.'\', M.m ll.ll 141
Rlh..i.i
COSs.Kk'O 141, 1()11
Mongol.. in t)lI, tJl
Napoleoni c WJr.. 1(,1 1-1. 1(1(1
R uwi.m imperial arlll Y I ol I
World \Var I 22(1,2ol0 , 248,
2ol ')
SfC ,,151' Soviet U nion
R ussian R evol utio n 20lH
.n.'
Sco tl.IUd
lon ghowlUt.'1l ddl'.lt HI
..l'llihfOn Me.
..h.rko
Uriti..h Rcdco.u 171 , 17()
French ch.i....cur 157, 162
Sharon. Arid .' -th
.(11".(11 1..'1 1 (swo rd) 141
"\hl'll shock" 23J
..hclk. t.mk 2(17
Shcruun . General Wi lli;un 2 1X,
223
Sh erman tank.. 27'" 275
~ hi d d\
An ~l o-S.l xon ()I
Aztlt." 105
C elt ic 4J
cr usader (12
Gre ek ho plitc 2 1, 2J
M ughaI 12()
Ottoman 12.'
p.tviw M7
ROllUII J I , J2 . .'7
Siou x 2 1X
Viking 57. 5H, 51)
Z ul u 211.. 2 12, 2 14- 15
Sh iloh , Battl e o f 195
Shipp,John 171
\ hi p ~
2W)
,,/w Ru "i.1
Sp.lin
n lIHIUl'\(\ in South Al1ll'ri t'a
1114- 5 . I II')
rV1uslil1l" ill -t7
1\ 'llim uLl r War 1611, 171, 172 ,
17.1. 174
Il'fC;cJS lOX, 117. 13(.-7, UX
Sp.lllish Civil War 22(., 252-3 ,
256 .2X')
Sp.lIli,h Fortign l lgion 252
SpJni "h-AlIIl'r iclI1 W.tr J II)
Sp;lrt;t 6, 17, IX, II)
\Pl';)"'"
Fkl1l ish "gm'dl' ntbg" Hh
Crl'lk ho plitl' 14,2 1, 22- J
L lIldkllldu 112
M;ln dtm ian 211
M ao ri 2115
S;llIIur.li I I U ~ I
Vikin g 51,52, 5()
Z ulu 211. 2 14-15
Sp~' ci .t1 Air S~ r \' ict.\ 3U)-5
"pl.'ci.ll forn..... ,' I I
GSG -'! .14(,
Isradi "pt.'c i.11 1()n-l'S 34(,
SAS \oldit:r .H (~ 5
US "pl'cial op l'r;ttiom fo rn'..
.147
Spl'cia l ( )pl'ratilll1\ EXl'(utlw
2 1)(1- 7
Spi ttirl's 227. 255. 25(. 25X. 2HM ,
255 t)
Spithl';ld mutiny IX2
Springtid d rith.'s 191. 19-t, 19X-9
"qlu rl' 1()fIII.llioll 113, U (.-7,
15t ) . H1O, 161. 16H-I) , 174,
175
S5 29 1. .\ 1.>
St'llingrad 227. 2hl)
Stalllilmi Br i d ~l', B,Htll' of 5J
..tar ~ hd l .. 2-ttI
Stl'ulwll, It noll hi l'dri (h
\Vilhd m von 15J
..tick grl'll.ld t ~ 2J(). 241.. 2-t.'
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stirrups, Siou x 21 X. 211)
Swkl'\ mort.lr bombs 2.'(.-7
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stor llltf(l()pl'r, C l'rnun (11)14- 1X)
11. 238-15
concept of 2-tll
kit 2-t2- .'
Nazi myth of 2-t I
rccrui rmvnt and trainin g 2JI),
2-t1l
trench warfare 2Jt) . 244- 5
<,(rat l~i t. bombing 277, 27X, 27()
-tri kc 2 1) I
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stu n gren ades J -t-t
vnln u.u-hi nc-gu ns
Bcrgtu.nut M P IH 2.")
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M 1'7 .H 7
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cub m.u-iues. U -bons 2()4-5
Subot.u. C lIlt.r.ll tJO
Sud .1II 145
su icide 1)6 . 125, 2M')
S u l ~)' I1 1.1 11 th e fvb gniti n I1t, Sultan
11').1 21
Sumeria l-t
SlIll ~ dyn.tcry -th, 1)11, 91
Sweden
l Zt h- ccn tury Swedish troops
I.>H
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1 16
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114- 15
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J\1ugh.ll 126:12M- 9
OUOIl1,IIl 122- J
R OIII,lIl 15, 27. 3"'- 7
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S,ll1lULli -t7, 1)S, WI. 100-1
Sp,lIIish IUC;IIS 11 7
V ikill~ -tt), 5 1, 52, 5(.-7
Sykts, E A 2 1) 1, 292
Syr i;1 J I, lJO, 121, ,' I-t
Szabo, Vinllu t. 2() I
T
T..J ol t.mk 226 . 267- 9, 272- 3
T;Kitm H. olJ
t;Klin
Ap.ldll' 22J
B- 17 (o l1lha t hox Ilml u tioll
27 1)
"blitzk ril'g " 275
brt',lkt hro ugh (trl' nc h) 2.n
c1u rgl' ,md co untl' r- d l.lrgt' 71I
nlira ~ ..il'r 159
( ;l'fIlun inti ltratio ll,
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Gn..'l'k hop litt. 17. 2 1
ht".lvy (;I\'"alry 159
I,andsklll'( ht t;Kticll
fim u;ltioll\ I I.'
11)llghtIWI1 Il11 01 1 thl' battld i l'ld
HJ
M arilll' \l';lrdl ;m d dl'S1 fOV 322
IlIldil\'al pitdll'd h,lttll' 7;I
Mo ngn ltJl
Mu ~It.l1 127
mu \h,t ;m d pih' U J
11.I\'al tacti n in th l' ;Igt.' of
Nd\on tH3
N o Pt.fl'C: 22.'
R AF fight er 25(), 259
R cd co .n r.rcuc.r l to r m .ui o u
17 5
R om.m bank-field .B
R o ru.m ..icg c ,' I
SAS entry J -t2-J
Siou x 217 , 2 1H
SOE irr egul.n wa rfare 2t) I- J
\(Iu.lrl' fo rmation 109. 113 ,
1,l(.-7, 159. Ihll, u. t, HIX_I),
174 . 17 5
to rto ise form.uion (t("stl/all)
J I- 2
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Vikin g 52
volley fi re 1(1), 154
Z ulli 2 12
'Lldlk.1 Kat su voti 1)(.....7
t,';,'/'" (~t;t ll) 2i l7
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T,llih.lII 3 15, J -t." J -tt)
t" /u'clf (swo rd) 12(1, 12H-9
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t.mku u-n
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lt ruish tan k n-gimcut 27-t
G l'fl1 WI p.1l11l'r cr ews 275
So viet tank rrcwm.m 26(,-7.l
r.mks
Crom well 27-t
C rnvadv r 274
(; r,IIH 27 4
Lt.'t' 27 4
M .ltild a 270l
1'.lIlt hcr 2h9 , 275
p,11l7l'r 2()7, 2h H. 275
mit' in \Vorld War II 22(1 , 274
Slll'mu ll 27-t, 27 5
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'1:Ir.l"c;lII.. 105
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'Ii.: R aup .lr;tlu 20(1
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tlrr ori ..1lI
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311. 3 411-3
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3 42-3
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publ isher would like to
ABBREVIATIONS KEY :
Key: a = above , b = below,
c = centre, I=-Ieft , r= -righ t,
te -top. f=-far, S =-sidebar
:l-
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orga niza t io ns, a n d indi vidu al s
fi l r th l' m od ('lIing n n d o;u P ll ly
of kit . as WI.' ll a!i I hci r allvice
a n d inforl l1alion :
471h R egiment of Fo ol
(Ih'dnu" o f AIlIt'f ican
R t...t)!ut io ll.lry W;lr rt'- t'IlJ l"tllwnl ),
lI.ml P.m im u ll. Ni ~d I l.lOt ln l'
33 rd Re-l'n acll11el1l
(Rt doJ.lIs of NJ po lt"ol1ir lOU
n' ~ tIl.lClllltnt ) , K,ltl' M .KbrlJlll"
Oq~lIni z"lion s
,n u l p r iva l l'
c o ll ccl o r s:
G rl'l' k ftopli le Soci l' l) '
(Allcu' nt ( ;rnk rt'- t"ll.IClmt"nt).
(; t'llrgl' e t'n r~ i t l\l
w\\'w,4 hop lites "co m
(Andl'nt ( ;rttk kit ).
El.lim .md Antl y Cmppl'r
E r m int" SUCl't G uard
(R UIII.1Il rt."-tIl.KIIlIt..'Ilt. kil),
( :Ilri .. H .aillt"
"l )"lIe & Wear Museu m ",.
Di sco\"l'r) " M Uo;I' UII1
New("lIstll' n p on 1 y lll'
(R (II11 .1Il PtJrl).A ll' X Cn)(l111
Vikil1~ " !
En ~l ish
( ;rt." i~
UMS t'7C1ory
(Sh ip of th l" lim' tour)
I'l'tt'r (;oodwin . Kl'l"pl'r ;lnd l.ur;lIo r
SOllt h l' r n Skirl11ir.h Associ at ion
(AItll"rir ,)1I Civil \I,'dr
n -l"Il.al' Ulll"11I - U nio n kit.
Con fedl' rAIl" kll). It oy I l.aint....
AIll!rl"w R m t' .1Ild Srl'\'(' Boul toll
Sou l h Sialltmh hi rl' R l'g ill1t'nl
M USl'lII11, W hill i n~to n Barrac k s.
Lkhfic ld , St am
(W W I alld WWI I u hjt'c ls).
Erik II1.Jkd y .and W illy TUTlwr
Y ik i ll ~
lJirll1in~halU Pills
(W W I Brirish InfJllIrym .1Il kit ).
R ll'h .mf Slw.ml. Etlwill H l"ld,
St.1Il h ';uhl'r \l tJlll" ;lIld
M,lknlll Conk