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Distance Characteristic
Donald D. Fentie
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
2016 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained
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This paper was presented at the 69th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers.
For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
Presented at the
52nd Annual Minnesota Power Systems Conference
Saint Paul, Minnesota
November 810, 2016
Previously presented at the
69th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, April 2016
Originally presented at the
42nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, October 2015
Relay
ES
ER
(a)
ZS1
mZL1
II. BACKGROUND
A self-polarized mho element for the system shown in
Fig. 1(a) is represented as a circle on the impedance plane in
Fig. 1(b). The diameter of this circle extends from the origin of
the plane to the relay reach setting Zr on the bolted fault locus.
The relay calculates the impedance Z by using the measured
voltage and current phasors at each processing interval. The
mho element restrains until Z plots inside the circle.
ZR1
RF
X
3
Zr
2
(b)
I. INTRODUCTION
Mho distance elements continue to be popular for
transmission protection worldwide. In the past, as relay
technology improved from coils and discs to microprocessors,
improvements were made to algorithms, polarization, and
response times. The fundamental principles of mho distance
elements still apply, and there is continued interest in
understanding this seemingly simple protective element.
This paper discusses the mho element and dynamic
expansion characteristics for positive-sequence polarization
during testing, load flow, and fault conditions. It also discusses
element security during single-pole open and series-capacitor
applications. This paper departs from many other papers that
present mathematical equations governing mho expansion by
instead emphasizing visualization to promote a more intuitive
understanding [1] [7] [9] [10].
(1 m)ZL1
m Zr
Operating
Restraining
R
Fig. 1 Line fault at 50 percent of reach (m = 0.5 p.u.): (a) System one-line
diagram, (b) Mho characteristic.
X
3
Zr
dZ
(a)
dZ
90 < arg < 90
Z
< 90
Z
(3)
R
2
(2)
(4)
X
X
dZ1
dZ2
Zr
dZ
Zr
2
(b)
= 90
dZ3
Z1
3
Z2
Z3
R
2
R
2
dZ
Zr
R
1
Fig. 2 Impedance vectors for faults (a) Inside zone, (b) At reach point,
(c) Outside zone.
dZ
= Zr Z
(5)
Zr Z
I Zr V
dZ
=
=
arg arg
arg
Z
Z
> 90
(c)
Fig. 3
(1)
B. Comparators
A phase comparator determines if the angle difference
between two phasors is within a specified range [1]. In addition
to (5), the angle difference between dZ and Z can be represented
as shown in (6).
arg dZ dZ Z Z * = dZ Z
(6)
dZ Z cos ( dZ Z ) + j sin ( dZ Z )
(7)
Taking the real part of (7) yields the cosine comparator (8),
the result of which is positive if the impedance plots inside the
mho circle.
dZ Z cos ( dZ Z ) > 0
Re dZ Z * =
Zr =
Re ( Z r I V ) V * =
0
Zr =
(8)
Re ( Z r I V ) V * > 0
(10)
40
Re V V *
Re Z Z *
dV
I Zr
Zr
2
dZ
(a)
20
Zmapped
10
R
2
IR
20
Fig. 4
10
10
20
30
Re Z r Zr Z Z =
0
(12)
Re Z r Zr Z * Re Z Z * =
0
(13)
Zr =
Re Z Z *
Re 1 Zr Z *
3
Impedance
mapped to
line angle
dZ
3
Zr
(11)
(b)
Zmapped
Z
R
2
(14)
2
Zr
Zmapped
(18)
Re 1 Zr Z *
Impedance
mapped to
line angle
30
(17)
Re 1 Zr I V *
Z mapped =
50
(16)
(9)
(15)
Re 1 Zr Z *
Re Z Z *
2
Zr
Zmapped
4
50
IX
V
45
TABLE 1
OPERATING AND POLARIZING QUANTITIES
40
Relay
Element
SelfPolarizing
Quantity
Positive-Sequence
Memory Polarizing
Quantity
Loop Current
AG
VA
VA1mem
IA + k0 IRES
20
BG
VB
VB1mem
IB + k0 IRES
15
CG
VC
VC1mem
IC + k0 IRES
10
AB
VAB
VAB1mem
IA IB
BC
VBC
VBC1mem
IB IC
CA
VCA
VCA1mem
IC IA
35
dV
30
(a)
I Zr
25
5
IR
15 10 5
60
40
10
15
20
IX
dV
I Zr
50
(b)
Zr =
30
20
10
IR
30 20 10
10
20
30
40
Re V V1mem*
Re 1 Zr I V1mem*
(19)
X
3
Zr
2
(a)
dZ
TABLE 3
VISUALIZATION SYSTEM PARAMETERS
Zp
R
2
70
IX
60 I Zr
dV
50
Parameter
Value
Unit
ZS1
180
(sec)
Sending-end positive-sequence
source impedance
ZS0
380
(sec)
Sending-end zero-sequence
source impedance
ZL1
380
(sec)
ZL0
980
(sec)
ZR1
180
(sec)
Receiving-end positive-sequence
source impedance
ZR0
380
(sec)
Receiving-end zero-sequence
source impedance
ES
670
V (sec)
ER
670
V (sec)
Z1P
(sec)
k0
0.670
unitless
Zero-sequence compensation
factor
ZFG*
0.5
(sec)
ZFP*
0.6
(sec)
0.43
p.u. of
ZL
40
30
(b)
20
Vp
10
IR
50 40 30 20 10
10
10
20
30
40
50
Polarizing Quantity
Polarizing Equation
VA1mem
ES IPrefault ZS1
VB1mem
a2 VA1mem
VC1mem
a VA1mem
VAB1mem
j a VA1mem
VBC1mem
j VA1mem
VCA1mem
j a VA1mem
3
3
Description
* Where applicable.
3
Zr
Zr
2
dZ
1
Zp
ZS1
dZ
Zp
R
1
VC
40
IC
IB
VA
40
40
VB
Fig. 10
40
IA
40
VA1mem
60 40
VB1mem
40
60
40
60
(20)
X
3
Zr
Zr
2
dZ
Z
Zp
R
2
b(mem)
R
2
1
0.5 ZS1
1
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Z
b = S1
2
bmem = Z S1
VC
IC
40
VB
VA
40
IB
60
40
(21)
40
60
VC1mem
40
VA1mem
40 20
VB1mem
20
40
60
80
40
60
3) Phase-to-Phase-to-Ground Fault
As with other faults we have examined up to this point, the
dynamic mho expansion during a phase-to-phase-to-ground
fault depends on the source impedance ZS1. The dynamic mho
characteristic decays to a value given by (22), as proved by
Calero [3].
Z S0 + m Z L0
b = Z S1
Z S1 + m Z L1 + 2 Z S0 + 2 m Z L0
bmem = Z S1
(22)
4) Phase-to-Ground Fault
The expansion of the phase-to-ground dynamic mho is
influenced by the current compensation factor k0 [6]. The
expansion vectors are shown in (23) [3].
Z S0
1+ Z
S1
b = Z S1
2 + Z L0
Z L1
Z S0
2+ Z
S1
bmem = Z S 1
2 + Z L0
Z L1
X
3
Zr
2
dZ
Z
Zp
R
2
1
0.43 ZS1
1
(23)
X
3
40
VC
Zr
IC
IB
40 20
20
VA
40
60
1
VB
40
2
0.8 ZS1
R
1
60
40
Fig. 19
VA1mem
40 20
VB1mem
Z
Zp
VC1mem
dZ
20
40
60
40
60
Fig. 18 BCG fault relay vectors; dashed lines represent expanded memory
voltage vectors, and solid lines represent steady state.
60
VC
40
VA
60 40 20
20
40
IA
Zr
(a)
40
VB
60
ZL1 + ZR1
Zp
dZ
R
60
VC1mem
40
VA1mem
40 20
20
40
60
3
VB1mem
Zr
40
60
(b)
Zp
5) Reverse Fault
We can simulate a reverse fault by shifting the fault current
phasors by 180 degrees; the voltage change is negligible for a
close-in fault on either side of the current transformers (CTs).
For a close-in reverse fault in Fig. 1(a), the relay measures fault
current supplied by the remote source ER. The relay source
impedance is now in front of the relay, with respect to the fault
location, and equal to ZL1 + ZR1.
The source impedance begins in the first quadrant on the
impedance plane and ends at the origin for an inductive system,
as shown in Fig. 22. This represents the impedance from the
remote source to the relay location. Adding a small amount of
fault resistance separates the vectors and allows them to be seen
more clearly.
dZ
R
2
10
C. Load Flow
In a two-machine lossless system, such as in Fig. 1(a), with
no fault, we can represent the power sent over the transmission
line by the power-flow equation shown in (24).
P1,2 =
ES ER sin S , R
(c)
=
S , R arg ( ES ) arg ( ER )
ES
VA
VA1mem
VA
Re(V)
20
40
60
Zp =
V1mem
I fault
(26)
Z=
VA
I fault
(27)
Im(V)
40
20
(25)
20
40
(24)
X total
where
(a)
Im(V)
dVA
X
3
Zr
dZ
Re(V)
20
40
60
1
Zp
Im(V)
40
ES
(b)
2
ES Ipf ZS1
1
VA1mem
20
Fig. 24 Positive load flow reducing resistive fault coverage by shifting the
dynamic mho to the left.
Re(V)
20
40
60
11
(a)
Zr
X
3
dZ
(b)
Zp
1
(c)
1
2
Zr
TABLE 4
EXAMPLE TEST QUANTITIES
Zp
R
2
dZ
Z
X
3
Zr
R
2
X
3
dZ
(d)
Z
Zp
1
2
1
R
2
B. Testing Considerations
Section III shows that the dynamic circle does not shrink
back to the self-mho circle except in the case of a three-phase
fault. This may be confusing to a relay tester using a common
test procedure because the mho element appears to operate as if
the dynamic circle did not exist.
The dynamic mho element does not usually interfere with
testing because of the test voltages that are typically used.
Table 4 lists several test voltages and currents used to test a
phase-to-ground mho circle by simulating an AG fault.
Zr
dZ
Z
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
VA V (sec)
270
270
2720
2720
VB V (sec)
67120
67120
67120
67120
VC V (sec)
67120
67120
67120
67120
V1 V (sec)
53.670
53.670
53.213.3
53.213.3
IA A (sec)
320
1.660
2.6420
3.1920
Note: IB = IC = 0 A.
Zp
1
Test
Quantity
R
2
Fig. 25 Dynamic mho during fault conditions with varying sending source
angle: (a) 40, (b) 20, (c) 0, (d) 20.
The voltage angles in Tests 1 and 2 for VA, VB, and VC are,
respectively, 0, 120, and 120 degrees. This means that voltage
VA is in phase with V1mem; therefore, the impedance vector Z is
in phase with Zp.
For an AG fault,
Z=
VA
I A + k0 I R
(28)
Zp =
V1mem
I A + k0 I R
(29)
12
(a)
Zr
Zr
dZ
(a)
2
Zp
Zp
Z
X
6
dZ
Zr
Zr
Zp
dZ
(b)
(b)
2
Z
R
4
R
2
dZ
Zp
R
2
Fig. 26 Common test values for an AG fault; the dynamic mho does not
interfere with testing when the angle of VA and V1mem are equal: (a) Test 1,
(b) Test 2.
VBC1mem = j VA1mem 3
VBC is calculated as
Z=
VBC
I B IC
(30)
Zp =
VBC1mem
I B IC
(31)
C. Verification
Often, we can draw the dynamic and static mho elements on
the same graph, but the dynamic mho element determines relay
operation. By performing a steady-state test, we can prove the
existence of the dynamic mho circle. We use the values shown
in Table 5 to test a relay with positive-sequence memory
voltage. Settings are shown in Table 6.
13
V. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
TABLE 5
VERIFICATION TEST QUANTITIES
Test Parameter
Applied Voltage
Unit (Sec)
VA
3540
VB
40100
VC
45160
V1
39.8613.3
TABLE 6
VERIFICATION RELAY SETTINGS
Relay Setting
Value
Unit
Zone 1 reach
6.24
(sec)
Line impedance
7.8
(sec)
Line angle
84
Degrees
| k0 |
0.726
unitless
arg (k0)
3.69
Degrees
| IA | = 4.41 A
Zr
Ztest_locus
| IA | = 4.93 A
ES
R
4
Fig. 28
ER
ZS1
mZL1
(1 m)ZL1
ZR1
ZS2
mZL2
(1 m)ZL2
ZR2
ZS0
mZL0
(1 m)ZL0
ZR0
Fig. 29
By contrast, ground quadrilateral elements provide usersettable resistance blinder thresholds for greater control of fault
resistance coverage; however, these elements often use
negative- or zero-sequence current for polarization and must be
disabled during single-pole open applications [5].
14
R1
ES
ER
Xc
ZS1
ZL1
dZ
(a)
Percent
Expansion
Zr
ZR1
3ph
100%
50%
0%
Zp
Z
1 ZS1
R
1
X
1
Zp
Percent
Expansion
1 ZS1
100%
dZ
(b)
80%
60%
40%
Zr
20%
Zr
0%
0.2
dZ
R
2
Z
Zp
Fig. 31 Impedance diagram for Relay R1 in response to a forward threephase fault on the opposite side of the series capacitor.
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
Fig. 32 Impedance diagram for Relay R2 in response to a reverse threephase fault on the opposite side of the series capacitor: (a) Case I: | Zr | > | Xc |,
(b) Case II: | Zr | < | Xc |.
15
VI. CONCLUSION
VIII. BIOGRAPHY
VII. REFERENCES
[1]