Chap 2

CHAPTER
2.1
FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT
Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. Tf the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by
the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dF is the force
acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Then the ratio of dF is known as the intensity of
dA
pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is repres,ented by p. Hence mathematically the pressure at a
point in a fluid at rest is
p =
dF
dA
If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by
Force
F
=
p =
Area
A
Force or pressure force, F= p x A.
The units of pressure arc : (i) kgf/m 2 and kgf/cm 2 in MKS units, (ii) Newton/m 2 or N/m 2 and
N/mm 2 in ST units. N/m 2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used units of
pressure are
kPa = kilo pascal = 1000 N/m 2
bar= 100 kPa = 10 5 N/m 2
2.2 PASCAL'S LAW

B
lt states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point
in a static fluid is equal in all directions. This is proved as
Px dy 1 e
The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy
dy
and ds.
A
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a

fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let the width of the
element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and Px,
<? .
dx
O'.s,
)-x
z
Py il.X 1
Fig. 2.1
Forces on a fluid element.
35
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L
136 Fl11id Mechartics
P y and J'z are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let
LABC= 0. Then the forces acting on the ele1uent are
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, a11d
2. Weight of ele1nent in the ve1tical direction.
The forces on the faces are
= Px xArea of face AB
Force on the face AB
=Px X dy X 1
Si1nilarly force on the face AC= Py x dxx 1
Force on the face BC
= p. x els x l
Weight of ele1nent
=(NI ass of ele1nent) x g
AB x AC
=(Volu,nexp)xg= (
xl xpxg,
2
,vhere p = density of fluid.
Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have
P x X dy X I - p (ds X l) sin (90 - 0) =0

or
P x x dy x1 - Pz ds x 1 cos 0 = o.
But frotn Fig. 2.1,
ds cos 0 =AB= dy
P.r X dy X 1 - Pz X dy X 1 =0
or
... (2.1)
Px == P,
Si1nilarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, \Ve get
Py
dx X 1 - Pz X ds X I cos (90 - 0) -
dxxdy
xl X p X g= 0
dxdy
dx
ds
sin
0
x
-- x p xg = 0.
Pz
P.v
2
But ds sin 0 == dx and also the ele1nent is very sn1all and hence 1,veight is negligible.
:.
Pydx - JJ, X dx == 0
... (2.2)
or
Py =Pz
Fro1n equations (2.1) and (2.2), ,ve have
(2. 3)
P x ==Py ==Pz
The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
Since the choice of fluid ele1nent was completely arbitrary, vvbich 111eans the pressure at any point is
the sarne in aU directions .
or
...
.... 2.3
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro

FREE SURFACE OF FLUID
static Lavv which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a verti
cally do,vnward direction 1nust be equal to the specific weight of the
-------------pxt,.A.-Z
- -_-_-_-z---_-.
-------- .
fluid at that point. This is proved as :
-----------A- s f -------
----------- .
Consider a sn1all fluid elernent as shown in Fig. 2.2
. 11z------------
Let M= Cross-sectional area of elen1ent
C --------
---------l:lZ= Height of fluid ele1nent
--- --(p+-.
t:.Z a.A----p = Pressure ou face AB
-----
-----
---------.
i.lp
)-------- -_-_-_-_-_.
"z
V
-----------------------
Z = Distance of fluid ele1nent from free surface.
Fig. 2.2 Forces on a fluid element.
The forces acti11g on the fluid element are :
--------I-
- t-------
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L
Pressure and its Measurement 371
l. Pressure force on AB = p x M and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downv,rard direction.
2.
Pressure force on CD
= ( ! LlZ) x
p+
M, acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward
direction.
3. Weight of fluid element= Density x g x Volume= p x g x (M x t..Z).
4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equihbriu1u of fluid
eleu1ent, ,ve have
pM -
(p !
+
t..Z) M + p X g X (M X t..Z) = 0
or
pM - pM - : LlZLlfl + p X g X Llfl X 2 = 0
or
- op L\.ZM + p x g x Mt..2 = 0
oz
OJ)
or
az
t..ZM = p X 8 X Mt..2 or
..
oJJ
az
= P x s=
p = p x g [cancelling Mt..Z on both sides]

aZ
(: p xg= 111)
\11
...(2.4)
where 111 = Weight density of fluid.

Equation (2.4) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to vveight
density of the fluid at that point. 'fhis is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above equation (2.4) for liquids, we get
J dp = J pgdZ
or
... (2.5)
p = pgZ
where
the height of the point from free
p is the pressure above atrnospheric pressure and Z is
surfaces.
Fron1 equation (2.5), vve have
Z=
... (2.6)
P
pxg
Here Z is called 1>ressure head.

Problem 2.1 A hydraulic press has a ra,n of 30 crn dia,neter and a plunger o_f 4.5 cni dicuneter. I;ind
the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the .force applied at the plunger is 500 N .
Solution. Given
Dia. of rarn,
D = 30 c1n = 0.3 IU
Dia. of plunger,
ll = 4.5 cm = 0.045 111
Force on plunger,
F = 500 N
=W
Find ,veight lifted
n
D2 = n (0.3) 2 = 0.07068 m2
Area of ram,
;\ =
Area of plunger,
a= n d2 = n (0.045)2 = .00159 1112

4
4
L
F
Pressure intensity due to plunger

on plunger
F
500
=-Force
- --"---- = - =- -- N/m 2 .
Area of plunger
a
.00159
w
PLUNGER
Due to Pascal's la\,v, the intensity of pressure 'Nill be

-------- _!-,_- - --------------_equally transn1itted in aLI directions. Hence the pressure
- -------=' - ------------------intensity at the ram
Fig. 2.3
500
= 314465.4 N/Jn2
.00159
,,v N/m'
Weioht
w= But pressure intensity at rain
= - - - =
A
Area of rain
.07068
lV
= 314465.4
.07068
= 314465.4 x.07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 kN. Ans.
:. Weight
Problem 2.2 A hydraulic press has a rain of 20 c,n dia1neter and a plunger of 3 c,n dia,neter. Ir is
userl.for lifting a weight 0;30 kN. [ind 1he force required at the plunger.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of rain,
D = 20 ctn = 0.2 1n
...
A=
Area of rain,
Dia. of plunger
...
Area of plunger,
1t
D2 =
7t (.2)2 =
4
4
d = 3 cm = 0.03 111
0.0314 1n2
a= n (.03) 2 = 7.068 x 10- 4 rn2

4
W = 30 kN = 30 x 1000 N = 30000 N.
Weight lifted,
See Fig. 2.3.
Force
F
.
.
Pressure 1ntens1ty deveIope d due to p1unger =- -Area
a
By Pascal's La\.v, this pressure is transrnitted equally in all directions
l
f
Hence pressure transn1itted at the ran1= ...
Force acting on rain = Pressure intensity x Area of rarn
..
F
Fx.0314
=-XA = - - -4 N
a
7.068x10But force acting on rain= Weight lifted= 30000 N
F X .0314
30000 =
7.068 X 10 - 4
-4
30000
7.068
0
X
X]
f =
...
= 675.2 N. Ans.
.0314
Problem 2.3 Calculatr, the pressure due to a colurnn of"0.3 rf'( a) water, (b) an oil oj'sJJ. gr. 0.8, and
(c) rnercury of"sJJ. gr. 13.6. Takr, density of water, p = 1000 kg!n,3.
Solution. Given :
I-Ieighl of Liquid colutnn,
Z = 0.3 rn.
L
The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by equation (2.5) as
J> = pgZ
(a) For water,
...
p = 1000 kg/ln 3
2
p = pgZ = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2943 N/Jn
29 3
- N/cm 2 = 0.2943 N/cm2 Ans.
10
(b) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8,

Fro1n equation ( l. lA), ,ve kno,v that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid
1nultiplied by density of water.
:. Density of oil,
(p0= Density of oil)
Po = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
= 0.8 X p = 0.8 X 1000 = 800 kg/m 3
No,v pressure,
p = p0 x g x Z
N
2354.4 N
= 800 X 9.81 X 0.3 = 2354.4 2 =- 2 .
111
10 4 Cln
= 0.2354 N 2 Ans.
cm
(c) For rnercury, sp. gr.
= 13.6
From equation ( l . lA) we kno,v that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid
multiplied by density of water
:. Density of 111ercury,
Ps = Specific gravity of 1nercury x Density of water
= 13.6 X 1000 = 13600 kg/111 3
...
p = Ps X g X Z
N
- 13600 X 9.81 X 0.3 = 40025
m40025
N . ;-\ns.
4.002
=
104
cm 2
Problem 2.4 1'/ie pressure intensity at a point in a/7,uid is given. 3.924 Nlcn12. Find the corresponding height of fluid when the.fluid is : (a) 111a1er, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9.
Solution. Given
4N
N
10
=
3.924
=
3.924
x
JJ
Pressure intensity,
2 .
2
Clll
ID
The corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as
Z=
(a) For water,
...
(b) For oil, sp. gr.
:. Density of oil
...
P
pxg
p = 1000 kg/tn 3
Z=
3.924 X 104
= 4 1n of water. ,\ns.
1000x9.81
pxg
= 0.9
3
Po = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m
Z=
3.924 X 10 4
JJ
-- - - -= 4.44 m of oil. Ans .
900 X 9.81
Po xg
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140
Fl11id Mechartics
Problem 2.5 An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is containecl in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 40 ,n. f"ind
the corresponding height of water at the point.
Solution. Given
Sp. gr. of oil,
S0 =0.9
Z0 = 40 n1
Height of oil,
3
Density of oil,
Po =Sp. gr. of oil x Density of \Vater =0.9 x 1000 =900 kg/Jn
Intensity of pressure,
:.
p = Po X g X Zo = 900 X 9 .8 l X 40 N2
1n
Co1Tesponcling height of water =
.
Density of
"vater x g
900 X 9.81 X 40
- - - =0.9 x 40 =36 m of ,vater. Ans.
=
1000 X 9.81
Problem 2.6 An open tank contains waler upto a depth of 2 ni and above it an. oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for
a depth of 1 111. }-ind the pressure intensity (i) at the inte,face o_{ the two liquids, and (ii) al the bottorn
of the tank.
Solution. Given
Z 1 = 2 Ill
Height of water,
--.
:..
:..
-: :.:-: :.. :.
-.
Z2 =11n
Height of oil,
:.."': :.::
:.-. :..::
:..-. :..
:._-.
_-.--
:..:: :..-: :..:: :...
"---
1.0 ---oil
:..":.:, - . -: :..-. :..--: :..-:

_-.-------_....
Sp. gr. of oil,
S0 =0.9
- -::. -::. -::. -::. -::. -::. -::. A:_ -Density of water,
p I = 1000 kg/111 .,
----------2.0 ----------Density of oil,
p2 = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
-::WATER:::: --------3
---------
= 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/in
-:: .:: :: .:: ::
- .::- ::- .::- .-B-Pressure intensity at any point is given by
Fig. 2.4
p = p X g X Z.
(i) At interface, i.e., at A
p =p 2 X g X 1.0
=900x9.8lx1.0
"':
8829
2
N
C
=
0.8829
N/crn
. Ans.
= 8829 2 =
4
1n
10
(ii) At the botto1n, i.e., at B

p = P2 x gZ2 + P, x g x z, = 900 x 9.81 x 1.0 + lOOO x 9.81 x 2.0
28449
=8829 + 19620 = 28449 N/Jn =

N/c1n =2.8449 N/cm. Aus.
4
10
Problem 2.7 1'he clia,neters of a srnall piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 3 cn1. and
10 cm respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the sniall piston. f"ind the load lifled by the large
piston vhen :
(a) the pistons are at the sa,ne level.
(b) s,nall piston is 40 crn above the large piston.
The tlensi ty o/ the liquid in tJu, jack is given as 1000 kglrn.3.
Solution. Given
Dia. of s1nall piston,
d = 3 crn
2
..
Area of s1uall piston,
a= d2 = x (3) 2 = 7.068 cn1 2

4
4
L
Dia. of large piston,
Area of larger piston,
= 10 ctn
A = E.. x (10)2 = 78.54 ctn 2

4
F= 80 N
= w.
Force on small piston,

Let the load lifted
(a) When the pistons are at the sa1ne level
Pressure intensity on s1nall piston
F
- - -80 -N/c1n2
a
7.068
This is transn1itted equally on the large piston.
... Pressure intensity on the large piston
Fig. 2.5
80
7.068
... Force on the large piston
= Pressure x Area
80
-- x 78.54 N =888.96 N. Ans.
7.068
(b) \-Vhen the small piston is 40 c1n above the large piston
Pressure intensity on the sn1all piston
Ii'
80
N
= -= a
7.068 c1n 2
:. Pressure intensity at section A A
-
= !... + Pressure intensity due to height of 40 c1n of liquid.

a
But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid
=p X g X h =1000 X 9.81 X 0.4 N/m2
- 1000 x9.8lx.40 N/c1n2 = 0.3924 N/crn2
-------104
.. Pressure intensity at section A-A
Fig. 2.6
- -8-0- + 0.3924
7.068
= 11.32 + 0.3924= ll.71 N/cn, 2
... Pressure intensity transrnitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/c1n2
... Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston
=11.71 XI\= 11.71 X 78.54= 919.7 N.
... 2.4
SMALL
PISTON
-- --- _.- A
ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES
The pressure 011 a fluid is 1neasured in two different syste1ns. In one system, it is measured above
the absolute zero or con1plete vacuu1n and it is called the absolute pressure and in other syste1n,
pressure is 1neasured above the at1nospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus
1 . . i\hsolutepressure is defined as the pressure which .is 1neasured vvith reference to absolute
vacuutn pressure.
2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure ,vhich is 1neasured with the help of a pressure 1nea
suring instrument, in which tl1e annospheric pressure is taken as datu1n. The annospheric pressure on
the scale is marked as zero.
L
142
Fl11id Mechartics
3. Vacuu1n 11rcssurc is defined as the pres-
--
A
sure belov,1 the atmosphe1ic pressure.
g;
GAUGE PRESSURE
'
ATMOSPHERIC
The relationship bet\veen the absolute pressure, (/)
w
PRESSURE
/
gauge pL"essure and vacuun1 pressure arc shown in a:
-=-1-l--'-- - -
-- Fig. 2.7.
- VACUUM PRESSURE
....._
Mathen1atically :
ABSOLUTE - (i) Absolute pressure
PRESSURE--... B
= Aunospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
or
Pab == Patm + Pgauge
ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE
(ii) Vacuu1n pressure
Fig. 2.7 Relationship between pressures.
= Atn1ospberic pressure - Absolute pressure.
Note. (i) The ahllospheric pressure at sea level at 15 C is 101.3 kN/tll 2 or 10.13 N/ctll2 in SI unit. In case of
MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgf/c1ll2 .
(ii) The atrllospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 111 of ,vater.
Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure an.d absolute pressure at a point 3 m belo,v the free
su1face of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg!m3 ij' the atniospheric pressure is equivalen1 10
750 n1.n1 of ,nercury ? The specific gravity of ,nercury is 13.6 and density of va.ter == 1000 kg!m3.
Solution. Given
Depth of liquid,
Density of liquid,
Atmospheric pressure head,
2 1=3 lU
p 1 = 1.53 x 103 kg/Jn3
20 = 750 01111 of Hg
=-750-= O.75 Ill Of 1-fg
1000
... Atn1ospl1eric pressure,
patm= Po x g x 20
where p 0= Density of Hg= Sp. gr. of 1nerctuy x Density of water= 13.6 x 1000 kg/n13
and
Z0 = Pressure head in tenns of ,nercuJy.
2
...
/Jatm = (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 X 0.75 N/m
(: Z0 = 0.75)
== 100062 N/n1 2
Pressure at a point, \vhicb is at a depth of 3 1n from the free surface of the liquid is given by,
p=p L xgxZ1
= (1.53 X 1000) X 9.81 X 3 = 45028 N/tn 2
Gauge pressure,
p = 45028 N/1n 2 Ans.
== Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Now absolute pressure
= 45028 + 100062= 145090 N/n12 Ans .
.... 2.S MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

The pressure of a fluid is 1neasured b y the following devices
l . Nlano1neters
2. Mechanical Gauges.
2.S. I Manometers. Mano,neters are defined as the devices used for measuring the presstue at
a point in a fluid by balancing the colun1n of fluid by the sa,ne or another column of the fluid. They are
classifiecl as :
(a) Sitnple Manometers,
(b) Differential M.anorneters.
L
2.5.2
Mechanical Gauges.
Nlechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring

the pressure by balancing the fluid colu 1nn by the spring or dead \Neight.The cornrnonly used rnechani
cal pressure gauges are :
(a) Diaphrag 1 n pressure gauge,
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and
(cl) Bello,vs pressure gauge.
.,.. 2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS

A si1nple 1nano 1neter consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be 1neasured and other end rernains open to annosphere. Cornrnon types of sirnple n1a
no1 11eters are
1. Piezorneter,'
2. U-l11be Mano1neter, and
3. Single Colu 1 nn Nlanorneter.
2.6.1
Piezometer.
lt is the sitnplest for 1n of 1nanon1eter used for

1neasuring gauge pressures.One end of this rnanon1eter is connected to
the point "vhere pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the
at1nosphere as sho,vn in Fig.2.8. The rise of liquid gives the pressure
head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in
piezorneter tube, then pressure at A
N
=pxgxh 2
m
2.6.2
Fig. 2.8 JJiezometer.
U-tube Manometer.
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is

connected to a point at which pressure is to be rneasured and other encl remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.9. The tube generally contains n1ercury or any other liquid \vhose
specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be 1neasured.
T
T
*- l
..L
h2
h1
h1
-A
(a) For gauge pressure
-A
Iz
..
(b) For vacuum pressure
U-tube Manometer.
(a) For Gau ge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be 1neasured, whose value is p.
The daturn line is A A.
Let
h 1 = Height of light liquid above the datun1 line
h2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line
S1 =Sp.gr. of Light liquid
p 1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 x S1
S2 =Sp.gr.of heavy liquid
p 2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S2
Fig. 2.9
L
144
Fl11id Mechartics
As the pressure is the sa1ne for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datu1n
line A-A in the left colurnn and in the right column of U-tube 1nano1neter should be satne.
Pressure above A A
- in the left colutnn
= p + p 1 x g x h1
Pressure above A-A in U1e right colun1n
= p2 x g x h2
Hence equating the two pressures
p + p 1gh. 1 = p 2gh 2
. .. (2.7)
:.
p = (p2gh2 - P t x g x h 1 ).
(b) For Vacuun1 Ptessure. For measuring vacuun1 pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the
1nano1neter will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Then
Pressure above A A
- in the left colu1nn
= p2gh2 + p 1gh1 + p
Pressure head i n the 1jght colu1nn above A -A
=0
:.
Pz8h2 + P t8h 1 + P = 0
...
... (2.8)
Problem 2.9
The right lilnb of a si,nple U-lube ,nanomeler containing mercury is open to the
ahnosphere vhile the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is .floving. The
centre of the pipe is 12 crn belov the level of mercury in the right lirnb. Find the pressure offluid in
the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the t1vo lirnbs is 20 cm.
Solution. Given
Sp. gr. of fluid,

S I =0.9
3
x
... Density of fluid,
x
kg/Jn
1000
=
0.9
1000
=
900
=
S
Pi
1
12
Sp. gr. of mercury,
S2 =13.6
=:: =:: ::= .,..-......,,.:.._:..:..---
.
j
3
1
;.
20 cm
:. Density of mercury,
=
13.6
X
1000
kg/Jn
p2
Difference of 1nercury level,
h2= 20 ctn= 0.2 111
Height of fluid fron1 A A
- ,
h 1 = 20 - 12 = 8 Clll = 0.08 JU
A
A
Let p = Pressure of fluid in p.ipe
Equating the pressure above A A
- , ,ve get
P + P 1gh 1 = P2gh2
Fig. 2.10
or
p + 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2
p = 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X .2 - 900 X 9.81 X 0.08
= 26683 - 706 = 25977 N/n12 = 2.597 N/cm 2 Ans.
-- 1
Problem 2.10 A sim.ple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in 1'lhich a
fluid oj'sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the ,nanometer is open to
alinosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in. pipe, f the difference of mercury level in the t,vo linibs is
40 crn and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 Cl'l'l below.
Solution. Given
Sp. gr. of fluid,

Sp. gr. of mercury,
Density of fluid,
Density of mercury,
s, = 0.8
S2= 13.6
p 1 = 800
P 2 = 13.6 x 1000
=---;::;;
- =- =- --------
Difference of 111ercury level, h2= 40 cn1= 0.4 111. Height of liquid in left limb, h 1
= 15 c1n = 0.15 111. Let the pressure in pipe= p. Equating pressure above datum
Line A-A, we get
15 cm
40cm
_L
Fig. 2.11
L
...
Pressure and its Measurement 4 5

1
p = - [ P28h2 + Pt8h.L]
= - [13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X 0.4 + 800 X 9.81 X 0.15]
= - [53366.4 + 1177.2] = - 54543.6 N/m2 = - 5.454 N/cm2 Ans.

A U-Tube mano,neter is used to measure the pressure o.f' water in a pipe line, H1hich
Problem 2.11
is in excess of ahnosph.eric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to
atmosphere . The contact between ,vater and rnercury is in the le.ft lirnb. Deterrnine the pressure of
water in the rnain line, if the difference in level o.f' rnercury in the limbs o.f' U-tube is JO crn and the
free surface of mercury is in level 111ith the centre of the pipe. If the pressure of vater in pipe line is
reduced to 98 IO Nim 2, calculate the ne111 difference in the level o.f' mercury. Sketch the arrangem.ents
in both cases.
Solution. Given
Difference of 1nercury = 10 cm = 0.1 m
'fhe iurangement is shov,n in Fig. 2.11 (a)
1st Part
Let p11 = (pressure of water in pipe line (i.e., at point A)
Tbe points B and C lie on the sa1ne horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure
at C. But pressure at B
= Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10 cn1 (or 0.1 n1)
RIGHT LIMBof water
WATER
= p11 + p xg x h
where p = 1000 kg/Jn3 aod h = 0.1 n1
=PA + 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1
= PA + 981 N/1n 2
...(i)
Pressure at C = Pressure at D + Pressure due to 10 cn1 of 1nercury
= 0 +Pox g x h.0
where Po for 1nercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/rn 3
and
h 0 = 10 c,n = 0.1 m
:. Pressure at C = 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.1
...(ii)
= 13341.6 N
But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equa
tions (i) and (ii), we get
PA + 981 = 13341.6
...
p11 = 13341.6 - 981
= 12360.6
N
m2
LEFT LIMBB
10 cm
_.i..._
MERCURY
Fig. 2.11 (a)
Ans.
Th1d Part
Given, PA = 9810 N/m2
Find new difference of n1ercury level. The atTange1nent is shO\Vn in Fig. 2.11 (b ). In this case the
pressure at A is 9810 N/Jn 2 which is less than the 12360.6 N/111 2 Hence 1nercury in left limb will rise.
The rise of n1ercury in left lin1b \Vill be equal to the fall of mercury in right li1nb as the total volu1ne of
n1ercury ren1a1ns same.
Let x = Rise of n1ercury iu left lin1b iu c1n
Then fall of 1nercury in 1ight Ii111b = x c1n
The points B, C and D sho,v the initial conditions ,vhereas points B*, C* and D* sho"v the
final conditions.
L
The pressure at B* = Pressure at C*
Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10 - x) cn1 of ,vater
= Pressure at D* + Pressure clue to
(10 - 2x) cm of 1nercury
J)A + p I X g X h I = pD* + P2 X g X h 2
or
or
1910 + 1000 X 9.81 X (
or
.x)
lO100
10-2.x
= 0 + (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 X (
)
100
Dividing by 9.81, we get
1000 + 100 - I Ox= 1360 - 272x
272.x- I Ox= 1360 - 1100
262x = 260
or
or
or
260
x = -- = 0.992 cn1
262
Fig. 2.11 (b)
.. New difference of mercury = 10 - 2x cm =10 - 2 x 0.992
= 8.016 CID. ,\.ns.
Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 shows a conical vessel having if.s outlet at A to which a U-tube n1anonieter
is connected. 1"he reading of .the ,nano,neter given in the figure sho111s 1vhen the vessel is e,npty. Find the .
reading of the rnanonieter when the vessel is co,npletely filled 1vith 1vater.
Solution. Vessel is em1>ty. Given
-I.--2 M-......1 --+
Difference of 1nercurv level
h2 = 20 ctn
Let h 1 = Height of \.Yater above X X
3M
S2 = 13.6
Sp. gr. of mercury,
Sp. gr. of water,
S1 = 1.0
p 2 = 13.6 x 1000
Density of mercury,
h1
p
=
I
000
Density of water,
1
Equating the pressure above daturn line X X,
- we have
20 .cm
x-X
P2 X g X h2 = p I X g X h 1
or
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X 0.2 = 1000 X 9.81 X h 1
h 1 = 2.72 m of water.
Vessel is full of \Vater. Wben vessel is fuU of water, tbe
Fig. 2.12
pressure in the right lirnb will increase and mercury level in the right Ji1nb ,vilJ go down. Let the
distance through which mercury goes down in the right limb be, y c1n as shov.1 n in Fig. 2.13. The
1nercury will rise in the left by a distance of y c1n. Now the datum line is Z-Z. Equating the pressure
above the datun1 line Z-Z.
Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right li1nb
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X (0.2 + 2y/100)
= 1000 X 9.81 X (3 + h 1 + y/100)
...
L
or
or
or
or
Pressure and its Measurement 4 71
(0.2 + 2y/100) = (3 + 2.72 + y/ 100) ( .,' h 1

2.72 + 27.2y/100 = 3 + 2.72 + y/100
(27.2y-y)/100 = 3.0
26.2y = 3 X 100 = 300
300
..
y = - - = l l .45 cn1
26.2
The difference of 1nercury level in two li1nbs
= (20 + 2y) c1n of 1nercury
13.6
= 2.72 cm)
= 20 + 2 X 11.45 = 20 + 22.90
= 42.90 c1n of 1nercury
:.
-- -=-=- 1
- -- --- --
1.
.L
y
Z-
3m
h,
fc-:: J-x (2T+ 2y) cm
1 z
1.I -
T
1
y- j_
Reading of rnanorneter = 42.90 cn1. Ans.
Fig. 2.13
Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of t1110 cylindrical bulbs Band C each of'JO sq. c,n cross
sf'ctional arPa, which are connected by a U -tube vith vertical lirnbs each of0.25 sq. Cl'n cross-sectional
area. A red liquid(>/ JJJecific gravity 0. 9 is .fillecl into C and cfPar ,vater is filled into B, the sur_{acP o.l
separation being in the linib attached to C. rind the displace,n.en.t of'the surface oj'separation vhen the
pressure on the surj'c1ce in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to 1 c,n head oj'111ater.
Solution. Given
Area of each bulb B and C,
;1 = 1 0 cm 2
Area of each vertical li1nb,
a= 0.25
Sp. gr. of red Liquid
Cll1
= 0.9
...
lts density = 900 kg/Jn 3
X -X = Initial separation level
Let
he= Height of red liquid above X -X
h8 = Height of water above X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left lin1b = 1000 x 9.81 x h8

Pressure above xx in tbe right li1nb = 900 x 9.81 x he
Equating the two pressure, ,ve get
1000 x 9.81 x hn = 900 x 9.81 x he
..
...(i)
h8 =0.9hc
Z/40
Z/40
When tbe pressure head over tbe surface in C .is

i
increased by l cn1 of water, let the separation level
falls by an a111ount equal to Z. Then Y Y
- beco111es the
WATER
final separation level.
Now fall in swface level of C 1nultiplied by cross
sectional area of bulb C n1ust be equal to the fall in
separation level multiplied by cross-sectional area of
X
FINAL
limb.
SEPARATION --+--1------
y - y
LEVEL
... Fall in surface level of C
_ Fall in separation level x a
A
- - "' - - - - - - ,..:_
_ .
Fig. 2.14
he
INITIAL
SEPARATED
LEVEL
L
Also fall in su1face level of C
Zxa
A
Z X 0.25
10
Z
40
= Rise in su1face level of n
40
The pressure of 1 cm (or 0.01 m) of water = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98.1 N/n12
Consider final separation level Y-Y
Pressure above Y-Y in the left li1nb= 1000 x9.81 ( Z +h8 + )
4
Pressure above Y-Y in the right li1nb = 900 x 9.81( Z +he -
:0)
98. l
Equating the two pressure, we get

1000x9.81 (z+hB + !) =(Z+hc-!)9oOx9.81 + 98.l
Dividing by 9.81, \Ve get
1ooo(z +h8 + )=9oo(z+1ic-!)+10
Dividing by 1000, \Ve get Z+h8+ = 0.9 (z+hc- ) +0.01
40
40
But fro,n equation (i),
h8 =0.9he
Z
39 z
=
:.
Z+0.9hc+
x0.9+0.9hc+0. 01
40
40
4lZ
or
= X .9Z + .01
40
40
39 9
41 s.1
or
)=.01
or
; )=.0l
4
z(:-
z(
40 X 0.01
Z = --- = 0.0678 m =6.78 c1n. Ans.
5.9
2.6.3 Single Column Manometer. Single colu1nn 1nano1neter is a modified for1n of a U-tube
1nano1neter in whlch a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 ti1nes) as co1npared to
the ,uea of the tube is connected to one of the lin1bs (say left li1nb) of the 1nano111eter as shown in Fig. 2.15.
Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid
level in the reservoir ,viii be very s1nall which tnay be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the
height of liquid in the other lirnb. The other lin1b rnay be vertical or inclined. Thus there are t,vo types
of single colurnn 1nanon1eter as :
I. Vertical Single Colurnn Manometer.
2. luc)jned Single Colu1nu Manon1eter.
...
I. Vertical Single Column Manometer

Fig. 2.15 shows the vertical single colu1nn mano1neter. Let X-X be the datu1n line in the reservoir
and in the right li1nb of the 111anometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. \Vhen the mano1neter is
L
connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liguid in the reservoir will be pushed
down,vard and will rise in the right limb.
Let !ih = Fall of heavy liquid .in reservoir
h 2 = Rise of heavy liquid in right li1nb
h 1 = Height of centre of pipe above X-X

P A= Pressure at A, which is to be rneasured
t'-:.<t=
---
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
_R_V.9!
- X -S_E
--------
a= Cross-sectional area of the right lin1b
S1 =Sp.gr. of liquid in pipe
='--_ -__ -
X
y
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right titnb

Fig . 2.15 Vertical single column
p 1 = Density of liquid in pipe
manometer.
p2 = Density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right lin1b.
:.
A X !ih = a X h.2
a X h1
... ( i)
A
Nov., consider the datu111 line Y-Y as sho\vn in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right li1nb above Y-Y.
= P2 X g X (!ih + h2)
...
/ih =
Pressure in the left li1nb above Y-Y = p 1 x g x (!ih + h 1) + PA

Equating these pressures, we have
(!ih + h2) = P,
(!ih + h 1) + PA
or
PA = p (lilt+ h2 ) - p 1 g(/ih + h 1 )
= lih[P28 - P 1 8l + h2P28 - h,P 1 8
a X h2
But from equation (i),
=
!ih
A
ax h2
.. .
=
...(2.9)
PA
A
a
As the area A is very large as cotnpared to a, hence ratio
becomes very stnall and can be
P2 X g
neglected.
...(2 .10)
Then l'A = h 2p2g - h. 1 p 1 g
Fron1 equation (2.10), it is clear that as h. 1 is knov.,n
and hence by knowing h.2 or rise of heavy liquid in the
right li1nb, the pressure at A can be calculated.
1-l
---
-=
=
'-
T
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer
Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single colu111n 1nanon1eter. This rnano,neter is ,nore sensitive. Due to inclina
tion the distance n1oved by the heavy liquid in the right
lin1b will be 1norc.
Fig. 2.16
Inclined single column

manometer.
L
I so Fl11id Mechartics
Let
L = Length of heavy liquid 1noved in right li1nb fro1n X-X

0 = Inclination of right li1nb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right li1nb fro1n X-X = L x sin 0

Fro1n equation (2.10), the pressure at A is
PA = h2P2g - h 1 P 1 8
Substituting the value of h2, we get
. .. (2.11)
P,1 = sin 0 x p2g - h 1 p 1 g.
Problem 2.14 A single colun1.n manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid ojsp. gr. 0.9
as sho}vn in Fig. 2. 17. Find the pressure in the pipe l the area o. t the reservoir is 100 ti,nes the area
cl the tube for the mano,neter reading sho,vn in Fig. 2.17. The specf'ic gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Solution. Given
Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe,
S I = 0.9
..
Density
Sp. gr. of heavy Uquid,

Density,
p I = 900 kg/111 3
S2 = 13.6
P2 = 13.6 x 1000
Area of reservoir = A =
100
Area of right liJnb
a
Height of liquid,
Rise of 1nercury in right lin1b,
Let
Using equation (2.9), we get
h. 1
20 cm
PA
-- :!- -=--=-=
:=-------:=-- =-:
:''=-: : : :
------------------------
--------
Fig. 2.17
a
h2[P2g - P i g]+ h2 P2g - h1 P 1 g
A
J X 0.4[13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 - 900 X 9.81] + 0.4 X 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 - 0.2
100
4
- 0 [133416 - 8829] + 53366.4 - 1765.8
100
= 533.664 + 53366.4 - 1765.8 N/1112 = 52134 N/n1 2 = 5.21 N/cm 2 Ans.
... 2.7
40
= 20 cm = 0.2 111
h 2= 40 cm= 0.4 m
=
PA Pressure in pipe
=
k.c-: - - -
900
9.81
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Differential manometers are the devices used for 1neasuring the difference of pressures bet\veen
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential 1nano1neter consists of a U-tube, contain
ing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, \Vhose difference of pressure is to be
measured. Most comn1only types of differential 111ano1neters are
l. U-tube differential n1ano1n.eter and
2. Inverted U-tube differential n1ano1neter.
2.7.1 U-tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shov.,s the differential 1nano1neters of
U-tube type.
L
Pressure and its Measurement
T
X
I:_!__= - -
t
X
x- - -.. x--
51 I
x
- -
(a)Two pipes at d ifferent levels
Fig. 2.18
(b) A and Bare at the same level
U-tube differential manometers.
In Fig. 2.18 (a), the t\.vO points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different
sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential mano1neter. Let the pressure at .t1 and B
are PA and p8.
Let
h = Difference of 1nercury level in the U-tube.
y = D.istance of the centre of B, fro1n the n1ercury level in the r.igbt limb.
x = Distance of the centre of A, fro1n the 1nercury level in the right li1nb.
p 1 = Density of liquid at.tL
p 2 = Density of liquid at B.
p8 = Density of heavy liquid or 1nercury.

Taking datu1n line at X-X.
Pressure above X X
- in the left li1 nb = p 1 g(h + x) + PA
where p, 1 = pressure at A.
Pressure above X X
- in the right li 1nb = p8 x g x h+ p2 x g x y+ p8
where p8 = Pressure at B.
Equating the two pressure, we have
p t8(h+ X) + pA = p 8 X g X h + P28Y + pB
PA- Pn = P 8 x g x h. + P 28Y- P ,g(h + x)

= h X g(pg - P t)+ P2gy- P 18X
...
...(2.12)
:. Difference of pressure at A and B = h x g(p8 - p 1 ) + p2 gy- p 1 gx

In Fig. 2.18 (b), the two points A and B are at the sarne level and contains the sa1 ne liquid of density
p1 . Then
Pressure above X-X in right li1nb = p 8 x g x h + p I x g xx+ JJ8
Pressure above X -X in left limb
Equating the tv,o pressure
..
= p I x g x (h + x) + PA
Ps x g x h + P 1 8X + Pn = P 1 x g x (h + x) + PA
JJA - JJs
= Pg
X g X h + P 1 8X- P 1 g(h + x)
= g X h(p8 - P 1 ).
...(2.13)
Problem 2.15 A piJ>e contains an oil of sp. gr . 0.9. A differential n1anorneter connected at the two
points A and B sho,vs a difference in. niercury level as 15 cm. Fine[ the difference of pressure a t the two
points.
L
Solution. Given :
...
Sp. gr. of oil,
Difference in mercury level,
Density, p 1
= 0.9
= 15 cm = 0.15 m
S8 = 13.6
:. Density, p8 =
x 1000
= 900 kg/tn3
Sp. gr. of n1ercury,

13.6 x 1000 kg/n13
The difference of pressure is given by equation (2.13)
or
PA -p8 = gxh( P8 -P 1)
= 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 - 900) = 18688 N/m2. Ans.
Problem 2.16 J\ clifferf'ntial 1nano1neter is connectf'd at thf' two /Joints A and B of nvo pipes as
sho1,vn in Fig. 2.19. The JJiJJe A contains a liquicl of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe Bcontains a liquid of
2
2
sp. gr. = 0.9. 1'he pressures at A and B are 1 kgj'/c,n and 1 .80 kgflcn1. respectively. li'ind the
difference in rnercury level in thf' differential n1anometer.
Sp. gr.= 1.5
2
_ __
Solution. Given :
PA =1 kgf /cm
Sp. gr. of liquid at A, S 1 = 1.5 :. p 1 = 1500

Sp. gr.=0.9
Sp. gr. of liquid at B, S2 = 0.9 :. p2 = 900
3m
Pressure at A,
JJ11 = 1 kgf/c111 2 = 1 x l 04 kgfhn2
= 10 4 x 9.81 Nhn2 (: 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
2.0 m Ps = 1.8 kgf /cm 2
2
Pressure at B,
l'n = 1.8 kgf/cm
i_
h
= ].8 X 10 4 kgf/Jn2
- X
4
2
= 1.8 X l0 x 9.8] N/111 (: 1 kgf= 9.81 N) X
Density of 1nercury
= 13.6 X 1000 kg/m3
Taking X X
- as datum. line.
Fig. 2.19
Pressure above X-X in the left li1nb
= 13.6 X ] 000 X 9.81 X h + 1500 X 9.81 X (2 + 3) + PA
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X fz + 7500 X 9.81 + 9.81 X 10 4
Pressure above X X
- in the right lin1b = 900 x 9.81 x (h + 2) + p8
= 900 X 9.81 X (ft+ 2) + 1.8 X 10 4 X 9.81
Equating the two p ressure, we get
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81/i + 7500 X 9.81 + 9.81 X 10 4
= 900 X 9.81 X (h + 2) + 1.8 X 10 4 X 9.81
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81, we get
13.6h + 7.5 + 10 = (h + 2.0) X .9 + 18
or
13.6h + 17.5 = 0.9h + l.8 + 18 = 0.9/, + 19.8
(13.6 - 0.9)h = 19.8 - 17.5 or 12.7/i = 2.3
or
}
i
...
h=
23
12.7
0.181 111
18.1 cm. Ans.
Problem 2.17 A tlif.ferential rnanorneter is connected at the nvo points J\ and B as shown in
Fig. 2.20. At Bair pressure is 9.81 Nlc1n2 (abs), .fine! th<' absolute JJressure at A.
Solution. Given :
or
Air pressure at
B = 9.81 N/c1n2
4
2
Pn = 9.81 x 10 N/Jn
L
3
Density of oil
= 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/Jn
B
Density of n1ercury
= 13.6 X 1000 kg/m 3
Let the pressure at A is pA
Taking datum line at X-X
--Pressure above X X
- in the right li1nb
60 cm
T
= 1000 X 9.8) X 0.6 + JJB
20cm
= 5886 + 98100 = 103986
OIL OF
Sp. gr.=0.9 10 cm
Pressure above X-X in the left lin1b
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1 + 900
X
T X
x9.81 x0.2 +1,,1
= 13341.6 + 1765.8 + PA
MERCURY
Equating the two pressure heads
Sp. gr. = 13.6
103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + PA
Fig. 2.20
...
p 4_ = 103986 - 15107.4 = 88876.8
2
88876.8N
N
.. .
p4 = 88876.8 N/Jn =
, = 8.887
,.
10000 cn1c1n:. Absolute pressure at A= 8.887 N/cn1 2 Ans.
2. 7.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It consists of an inverted U-tube,
containing a light liquid. The t,vo ends of the tube are connected to the points ,vhose difference of
pressure is to be 1neasured. It is used for 1neasuring difference of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an
inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is
tnore than the pressure at B.
Let
h1 = l-Ieight of liquid in left lin1b below the datu1n Line X X
s
h2 = }leight of liquid in right lin1b
h = Difference of light liquid
p L = Density of liquid at/\
p 2 = Density of liquid at B
Ps = Density of light liquid
PA = Pressure at A
p 8 = Pressure at l3.
Taking X X
- as datum line. Then pressure in the left li1nb belo'vv X X
S1
=pA -P J XgXh 1 .
Fig. 2.21
Pressure in the Iight Limb below X-X
= pB - P2 X g X h2-p s X g X h
Equating the t,vo pressure
PA-Pl xgxh, =po -P2Xg Xh2 -Ps xgxh
. .. (2.14)
or
p4_ -p8 =p 1 xgxh1 -p 2 x gxh2 -p sxgxh.
Problem 2.18 lVater is jloivin.g through llVO different pipes to which an. inverted dij]'erential
1n.anon1.eter having an oil oj'sp. gr. 0.8 is con.nectell. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2 ,n oj'water,
jinll the pressure in the pipe B for the rnano,neter readings as shovn in Fig. 2.22.
Solution. Given
A = pA = 2 m of water
pg
..
PA = p X 8 X 2 = 1000 X 9.81 X 2 = 19620 N/Jn 2
Fig. 2.22 sho,vs the arrangen1ent. Taking X-X as datum line.
Pressure below X-X in the left lin1b = P A -p 1 xg x h 1
Pressure head at
L
154
Fl11id Mechartics
19620 - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3 = 16677 N/111 2.

Pressure belo,v X X
- in the right litnb
= PB-1000 X 9.81 X 0.1-800 X 9.81 X 0.12
=p8-981-941.76=p8-1922.76
Equating the t,vo pressure, we get
=
16677 = PB - 1922.76
PB= 16677 + 1922.76 = 18599.76 N/tn2
or
or
x-
OIL of
Sp g r . 0.8
,- f-c
ocJ
[o cm
_A _
-
A.:
_i - ---- -
WATER.__.
WATER
Fig. 2.22
2
PB = 1.8599 N/cm Ans.
Problem 2.19
In Fig. 2.23, an inverted differential rnanorneter is connectecl to t1110 JJiJJes A and B

which convey water. The fluid in 1nano11ieter is oil of sp. g r . 0.8. For the nianorneter readings shown in
the figure, find the pressure d[ference between A and B.
,,,......""
OIL of
Sp. g r . 0.8
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil

Difference of oil i n the two limbs
= 0.8
...
3
=
800
kg/Jn
Ps
= (30 + 20) - 30 = 20 ctn

Taking datu1n line at X-X
Pressure in the left limb belo,v X X
-
Pressure in the right litnb below X X

-
=pA - l 000 X 9. 81 X 0
=PA - 2943
Fi g. 2.23
= p8 - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3-800 X 9.81 X 0.2

= JJ8- 2943-1569.6 = p8 - 4512.6
Equating the two pressure PA-2943 =P B-4512.6
:.
/>8-PA = 4512.6 -2943 = 1569.6 N/m2 Ans.
Problem 2.20 Fintl out the differential reading 'h' o{an inverted [ ! -tube rnanorneter containing oil o.l
1Jec(/ic gravity 0. 7 as the rnano,netric fluid vhen connected across JJipes !\ and B as shotvll in Fig. 2.24
belo,v, conveying liquicls o{SJJecific gravitirs l.2 ancl 1.0 and irnniiscible 1,vith ,nanornetric .fluid. Pipes A
ancl B are located at the sa1ne level ancl assurne the JJressures at A and B to be equal.
__,.,.,:,:;:re,,,._
Solution. Given :
,,,
Fig. 2.24 shows the arrangement. Taking X X

- as datum line.
Let
Density of liquid in pipe A
Density of liquid in pipe B

Densitv of oil
X--.1--
- -----X
.':.
:>
:..:.
:.
....
Sp. gr.=1.2 ffe:
= 1 X 1000 = 1000 kg/m
:,t,P
'
1:; ::: ,:
......:.
=Sp. gr. x 1000

= 1200 kg/111
'/
:,:
PA = Pressure at A
pB = Pressure at B
= 1.2 X 1000
.,.
J
Sp. gr.=0.7
30 cm
= 0.7 X 1000 = 700 kg/Jn 3
.U/.L.
.J.._.
PIPEA
PIPE B
Fig. 2.24
L
551
Novv pressure belo\v X-X in the left li1nb
= PA - 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 X h

Pressure belovv X-X in the right li1nb
Equating the tvvo pressure, we get
But
= JJ s - 1000 X 9.81 X (h + 0.3)
PA - 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 X h = PB - 1000 X 9.81 (h + 0.3)

PA = p8 (given)
..
- 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 X h = - 1000 X 9.81 (h + 0.3)

Dividing by 1000 x 9.81
- 1.2 X 0.3 - 0.7h = - (h + 0.3)
or
0.3 x 1.2 + 0.7h = h + 0.3 or 0.36 - 0.3 = h - 0.7h = 0.3h
h = 0.36 - 0.30 = 0.06 ,n
0.30
0.30
...
=5
m. =
- x l 00 = 20 cm. Ans.
5
Problem 2.21 An. inverted U-tube rnano,neter is connectecl to ,vo horizontal pipes A and B
through 1vhich water is floving. The vertical di.stance between the axes of these pipes is 30 c,n. When
an oil of"specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of vater cohunns in the two
linibs of the inverted 1nano1neter (,vhen ,neasurecl j'roni the respective centre lines of the pipes) are
found to be sa,ne and equal to 35 crn. Deter,nine the difference o,f pressure benveen the pipes.
..
.[ii
Solution. Given
.
Sp. gr.= 08
V
,v.::
Specific gravity of ,neasuring liquid = 0.8

The arrangement is sho\vn in Fig. 2.24 (a).
pA = pressure at A
JJ8 = pressure at 13.
The points C aucl D lie on the same horizontal line.
Le!
1-ience pressure at C should be equal to pressure at D.

But pressure at C
= PA - pg h
E
A
= PA - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35)

WATER
And pressure at D
= JJs - P 18h 1 - P28h 2
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35) - 800 X 9.81 X 0.3
But pressure at C = pressure at D
:. P A - 1000 X 9.81 X .35
= Ps - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.35 - 800 X 9.81 X 0.3
or
800 X 9.81 X 0.3 = [Js - PA
or
30 cm
35cm
WATER
Fig. 2.24
(a)
p8 - PA = 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2354.4 N2 Ans.

m
L
..,.. 2.8
PRESSURE AT A POINT IN COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
For compressible fluids, density (p) changes ,vith the change of pressure and tcrnperature. Such
problen1s are encountered in aeronautics, oceanography and 1neteorology ,vhere we are concerned
with atrnospheric* air ,vhere density, pressure and ten1perature changes with elevation. Thus for fluids
with variable density, equation (2.4 ) cannot be integrated, unless tbe relationship between p and p is
kno\vn. For gases tbe equation of state is
p_ = l?T
or
No,v equat.ion (2.4) is

...
... (2.15)
p = JJ
R1'
dp
- = w =pg= P xg
c!Z
1?1'
clp= g dZ
...(2.16)
RT
p
In equation (2.4 ), Z is measured verticaUy downward. But if Z is measured vertically up, then
.
df) = - pg and hence equation
(2.16 ) becomes
dZ
clp=-g
dZ
...(2.17)
R1'
p
.
2.8.1 Isothermal Process. Case I. If te1r1perature Tis constant "vh.ich is true for isotheranal proc
ess, equation (2.l 7 ) can be integrated as
z
g
g
JP dp
- = -Jz - dz=--'-- ciz
Z,., RT
R T fZ0
Po p
p =-g [Z
-Z ]
log 0
RT
Po
where Po is the pressure where height is 20 . lf the datum line is taken at Z0, then Z0 = 0 and p0 becomes
the pressure at clatu1n line.
or
...
logL = -_ _g_
RT
/Jo
L = e- gZJRT
Po
or pressure at a height Z is given by p = p 0e- gVRT
. . . (2.18)
2.8.2 Adiabatic Process. If te1nperature 'f is not constant but the process follo,vs adiabatic
la"v then the relation bet\veen pressure and density is given by
p
k = Constant. = C
p
... (i)
* The standard atrnospheric pressure, temperature and density referred to STP at the sea-level are :
2
3
Pressure= 101.325 kN/in ; Te1nperature = I 5C and Density= 1.225 kg/rn .
L
571

where k is ratio of specific constant.
...
or
k
p
p=
llk
p= ( )
C
Then equation (2.4) for Z measured vertically up beco1nes,
Ilk
d
_.l?_ = - pg = - ( p )
dZ
C
or
... (ii)
g
= -gdZ
Integrating, \.Ye get JP CIlk p-Ilk dp =

Po
C1 lk p
or
JZn
-Ilk+!
1
-+1
Po
Cllk p-llk+ I p
or
z- gdZ-
--+
1 1
k
[C is a constant, can be taken inside]
= - g [Z] Zo
Po
c'" = (:, )'" - p:
B,t from cq"8tion (i),
Substituting this value of C 11k above, we get

p 1 1 k p-11k+1 P
- - - =- g[Z - 20 ]
1
p -+1
JJ
or
Po
1-l+k p
k
p
or
f!..Q_]
=-
g[Z - 20] or [ k !!...J

k- 1 p
Po
Po
=-
g[Z - Z0]
k [!!... = -g[Z-Z0 J
k - I p Po
If datu111 line is taken at 20, \.Yhere pressure, te1nperature and density are p0, T0 and p0, then Zo=0.
:.
or
k-1
k
k_1
[pp - p]: = - gZ
p
or
p-
p
11 0
= - gZ
(k-1)
k
.Q_]
-I Z
(k - l) f!..Q_
k
1
= -gZ
g
[
=
k
k
P Po
Po
JJo
17
f!..Q_
L
k-1 Z Po
1 +--g
k
Po
or
P = Po
k
k
P
Po
But fron1 equation (i),
or
(fup )
Substituting the value of Po in equation (iii), ,ve get

p
k- I
Po
Po
_
l
=
x
Z
_!!__
g
k
P
Po
Po
_!!__ X
or
Po
Po
Po
...
..
/) k
1
(
(_f!__)-ltk [ 1 - - 1 .Q_J
I
k
1- =(_E_) ; =[ ] -k-] gzfu]
k
gZ
110
_E_
or
fu
= !!J.... or
=
p
p
(J!J....)11k
Po
p = [1-k-1
p0 H
-g_
Zk
Po
PoJ
Pressure at a height Z from ground level is given by
110
k-1
J
k-1 z....Q..
p
[
1p
=
g
p
0
k
Po
1n equation (2.19), p0 = pressure at ground level, vvhere Z0 = 0
Po = density of air at ground level
1
Po
P
=
o=
RT o or
Equation of state is
Po
Po !<.To
Substituting the values of Po in equation (2.19), we get
Po
k-1 gZ
1k l<.T0
p =po
2.8.3
... ( iii)
... (2 .1 9)
k
k-1
Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid.
... (2.20)
For the adiabatic process, the
te1nperature at any height in air is calculated as :

.Equation of state at ground level and at a height Z fro1n ground level is w1itten as
P
Po
Dividing these equations, we get
o -R
\T
or
p -J>\T
ancl P
p R 10 T0
Po x . = 1o
o
+
=
=
or
(P )
RT
1
P
Po
Po P T
Po JJ P Po
1
-=-X-=-XTo
Po P Po
P
...(i)
L
But J!_ frotn equation (2.20) is given by

Po
Also for adiabatic process

P
or
591
k-1 gZ k-t
P -[ 1-- - --J
k !?10
Po
= pz
or (Po
P
Po
p;
Po
p
=(:;)k =()
l
=[ l-k- 1 gZ](ki)
k 1?1'0
(-) =[l-k-1 gZ]-6

k
Substituting the values of L and Po in equation (i), we get

[Jo
p
k- l gZ
-= [ ]-- - 70
[1 - I
k
k-
RT0
l1
k
kk
k-l g Z
X 1-- k R T, 0
1
gZ k- I - k- L =
[1 - 1
k
R'f,0
i-
k-
gZ
k-l gZ
...(2.21)
]
k 1<10
2.8.4 Temperature Lapse-Rate (L). It is defined as the rate at ,vhich the temperature
changes '>Vith elevation. To obtain an expression for the tetnperature lapse-rate, the te1nperan1re given
by equation (2.21) is differentiated ,vith respect to Z as
:.
T-T
- 0 [1-
clT
d
=T,0
(i _
k -1 gZ
)
k 1<10
clZ dZ
where 1'0, K, g and R are constant
g
llT
g k-I
k-1
)
-- - -X-- XT0-- (
R
dZ
k
R
k
The temperature lapse-rate is denoted by L and hence
_ dT _ -g
L
... (2.22)
- dZ R
k
lll'
In equation (2.22), if (i) k = l which tneans isotherrnal process, - = 0, which 1neans tetnperature
dZ
is constant with height.
(ii) lf k > 1, the lapse-rate is negative which means te1nperature decreases with the increase in
height.
In at1nosphere, the value of k varies \Vith height and hence the value of te1nperature lapse-rate also varies.
Fro1u the sea-level upto an elevation of about 11000 m (or 11 kln), the te1nperature of air decreases
unifor1uly at the rate of 0.0065C/in. fro1n 1 1 000 111 to 32000 1n, the te1nperature re1nains constant
at-56.5C and hence in this range lapse-rate is zero. Te1nperature rises again after 32000 m in air.
r
_ -
(k -1)
L
Problem 2.22 (SI Units) {f the attnosphere pressure at sea level is 10.143 N/cm2, deterniine the
pressure at a height of 2500 m assuming the pressure variation follo1-vs (i) Hydrostatic law, and
(ii) isothermal latv. The density of air is given as l .208 kg!m3 .
Solution. Given
Pressure at sea-level,
Po= 10.143 N/ctn2 = 10.143 x 104 N/1112
Height,
z = 2500 111
Density of air,
Po = 1.208 kg/1n 3
(i) Pressure by hydrostatic law. For hydrostatic law, p is assun1ed constant and hence pis given
dp
by equation - = - pg
dZ
Integrating, we get
or
For datum line at sea-level,
...
f dp = f - pg dZ = - pg f dZ
2
I\)
Zo
P - Po = - pg LZ - ZoJ
Z0 = 0
P - Po = - pgZ or p = Po - pgZ
= 10.143 x 104 - 1.208 x 9.81 x 2500 [: p
= 101430 - 29626 = 71804
N
111
= p0 = 1.208]
71804
2
or- N/c111
104
= 7.18 N/cm2 Ans.

(ii) Pressure by Isothermal La,v. Pressure at any height Z by isothennal law is given by equation
(2.18) as
p = o e gZIRT
P
.z X Po
: Po = RT and p0 g = w0
= 10.143 X 104 e Po
Po
Zpo Xg
= 10.143 X 10 e Po
4 e (- 25 00x 1.208x9.81)/I0.1 43x104
x
43
10
= 10_1
l
= 101430 x e- 292 = 101430 x __
= 75743 N/1n 2
1.3391
75743
2
2
7.574
N/cm
. Ans.
N/crn
=
=
4
10
Problem 2.23 1'he barometric pressure at sea Level is 760 mm o,f rnercury white that on a mountain
top is 735 rn,n. !f the density o,f air is assu,ned constant at 1.2 kglm3, vhat is the elevation of the
1nountain top?
Solution. Given
Pressure* at sea,
Po = 760 111,n of Hg
= -760- x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 N/Jn-? = 101396 N/In2
1000
* Here pressure head (Z) is given as 760 1n111 of Hg. I-fence (plpg) = 760 1nm of Hg. The density (p) for 1uercury
760
= 13.6 x 1000 kg/n13 . Hence pressure (p) \viii be equal top x g x Z i.e., 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x
N/Jn 2.
1000
L
p = 735 111111 of Hg
735
x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 = 98060 N/Jn2
=
1000
Density of air,
p = 1.2 kg/1113
Let h = Height of the mountain fron1 sea-level.
We k11ow tbat as the elevation above the sea-level increases, the at1nospheric pressure decreases.
Here the density of air is given constant, hence the pressure at any height 'h' above the sea-level is
given by the equation,
p =]Jo- p X g X h
Po - p = 101396 -98060
= 283_33 m. Ans.
=
h
or
1.2 X 9.81
p Xg
Problem 2.24 Calculate the pressure at a height of' 7500 ,n abovr sea level if' the atJnospheric
pressure is 10.143 N!c,n2 and te,nperature is 15 C at the sea-level, assu,ning (i) air is inco,npressible,
Pressure at 111ountain,
(ii) JJressure variation f'ollolvs isother,nal law, ancl (iii) pressure variation f'ollo"vs adiabatic law. Take
the density of air at the sea-level as equal to 1.285 kg!m 3. Neglect variation. oj'g with altitucle.
Solution. Given
Height above sea-level,
= 7500 111
2
4
2
P o = 10.143 N/c,n = 10.143 x 10 N/m
Temperature at sea-level,
t0 = l 5 C
T0 = 273 + 15 = 288 K
:.
Density of air,
p =Po= 1.285 kg/i113
(i) Pressure when air is inco,npressible :
dp
= - pg
dZ
...
or
z
J dp =- J p gdz
Po
Zo
P
or p -/Jo = -pg[Z -20]
{: Z0 =datu111 line=O}
=10.)43 X 104 - 1.285 X 9.81 X 7500
p =po-pgZ
2
= 101430 - 94543 = 6887 N/111 = 0.688 _N_
2 Ans.
cm
(ii) Pressure variation f'ollo1vs isotherniaf law :

gVRT
e
=
Using equation (2.J 8), we have
p p0
{:
= Po e- .ZPo'Po
Po
Po
1
= 101430 e-slpo Po = 101430 e-7500 x
= 101430 e - 932 () = 101430 X .39376
= 39939 N/1n2 or 3.993 N/cm2. ,\ns.
(iii) Pressure variation follovs adiabatic lav : [k = 1.4)
Using equation (2.19), ,ve have
k-1
p0
p =po 1---gZk
Po
kl(k- l)
,
= J?.J'
:. Po
Po
J.285 x9.8J/l01430
I )
R1'
where Po= 1.285 kg/Ju 3
_J
Fl11id Mechartics
1.4
(7500xl.285) 1.4-1.o
(1.4-1.0)
x9.81 x - - -]
p = 101430 [ l- - 101430
1.4
= 101430 (1 - .2662] 1 4. 14 = 101430 X (.7337)35
?
N
= 34310 N/m- or 3.431 ? Ans.
cmProblem 2.25 Calculate the pressure and clensiiy of air at a height of 4000 ,n .fro,n sea-level .vhere
pressure and te1n.pera1ure of the air are 10.143 Nlc1n 2 and 15 C resfJecrively. 17te ieniperature lapse
rate is given as 0.0065 C/1n. Take density of air at sea-level equal to 1.285 kg/1n3.
Solution. Given
Z = 4000 m
I-feight,
N
2
4
10.143
N/c1n
=
10.143
x
10
=
101430
=
Po
2
...
Temperature at sea-level,
...
Temperature lapse-rate,
ID
lo = 15C
1'0 = 273 + 15 = 288 K
L = dT = - 0.0065 K/m
dZ
Po = 1.285
Using equation (2.22), we have L = ;
! ( l)
kg/111
=_
9.81 k-1 .
- 0 .0065 = - - -or
-), where R = --'--"Po
- 101430 = 274.09
(
R
k
p 0 To 1.285 x288
- 81
=
...
X
- 0.0065
k
274.09
k-1 0.0065x274.09
...
=
=0.1815
k
9.81
...
k(] - .1815] = 1
k __
l__ l
.. .
=
= 1.222
1-.1815 .8184
This rneans that the value of po,ver index k =1.222.
(i) Pressure at 4000 111 height is given by equation (2.19) as
(k - l)
k-1 , where k = l.222 and Po= 1.285

J
k
k-1
p
=
1--gZ
i
p Po [
k
Po
...
1.222
1.222 - 1.0
4000 X 1.285 1.2
=
lO
1430
l
-(
[
) X 9.8l X
]
p
101430
1.222
2-1.0
=101430 [1 -0.09] 550 =101430 X .595

N
= 60350 N/Jn 2 = 6.035
, . Ans.
cm-
L
(ii) l)ensity. Using equation of state, we get
631
.f_ = fT
p
where p = Pressure at 4000 n1 height
p = Density at 4000 n1 height
1'= Temperature at 4000 m height
No,v 1' is calculated frotn tetnperature lapse-rate as
tat 4000 m =t0
dZ
1 = 273 + t = 273 - 11 = 262 K
...
...
ar
+ - - x 4000 = 15 - .0065 x 4000 = 15 - 26 = - 11C
p
60350
.
3
3
.
p = -'--=- - - -kg/tn = 0.84 kg/m.
}\ns.
RT 274.09 x 262
Density is given by
1-\n. aeroplane is flying ar an altitude of 5000 m. Calculate the pressure around the
aeroplane, given the lapse-rate in the allnosphere as 0.0065 KJ,n. Neglect varicuion oj'g with altitude.
Take pressure and te,nperature at ground level as 10.143 Nlcrn 2 and 15 C ancl density of air as
1.285 kg!c,n3.
Solution. Given
Height,
Z=5000 rn
d
Lap_se-rate,
L = T =- .0065 K/m
dZ
4
2
Pressure at ground level,
10.143
x
10
N/in
Po=
t0= 15c
T0=273+ 15=288 K
:.
Density,
Po =1 .285 kg/111 3
Problem 2.26
Ternperacure at 5000 n1 height= T0 + dT x I-feight= 288 - .0065 x 5000

dZ
= 288 - 32.5 = 255.5 K
First find the value of power index k as
:.
Frotn equation (2.22), ,ve have

or
g
err_ -_
L-R
dZ
_ .0065= _
where
101430
R = Po =
= 274.09
Po1o 1.285 x 288
9.81
R
_ .0065= _
(k-1)
9.81
274.09
...
k = 1.222
The pressure is given by equat.ion (2.19) as
...
(k -1)
(k -1)
k
[
k-1
p
- z-o
P =po 1-- g
k
Po
l(kI)
L
164
Fl11id Mechartics
1222
1.222- 1.0
l.222 - 1.0
5000 X 1.285
X
9.81
X
101430 [l - - - - - )
( - 1.222
101430 ]
1.222
X
X 5000 1.285 .222
.222 X _
101430 [ l 9 81
]
101430
1.222
= 101430 [1- 0.11288] 550 = 101430 X 0.5175
= 5.249 N/cm-. Ans.
= 52490 N/tn 3
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The pressure at any point in a fluid is defined as the force per unit area.
2. The Pascal's la\v states that intensity of pressure for a fluid at rest is equal in all directions.
3. Pressure variation at a point in a fluid at rest is given by the hydrostatic law which states that the rate of
increase of pressure in the vertically downward direction is equal to the specific weight of the fluid,
rlj.J
- =iv=pxg.
r!Z
4. The pressure at any point in a incon1pressible fluid (liquid) is equal to the product of density of fluid at
that point, acceleration due to gravity and vertical height fron1 free surface of fluid,
p=pxgxZ.
5. Absolute pressure is the pressure in wbich absolute vacuun, pressure is taken as datun1 while gauge
pressure is the pressure in ,vhich the attnospheric pressure is taken as datu1u,
Pabs.
= Patm + Pgauge.
6. Manometer is a device used for n1easuring pressure at a point in a fluid.

7. Manometers are classified as (a) Sin1ple manometers and (b) Differential manon1eters.
8. Sin1ple manon1eters are used for 1ueasuring pressure at a point while differential n1anorneters are used for
rneasuring the difference of pressures betvveen the two points in a pipe, or t,vo different pipes.
9. A single colu1nn 111ano1net.er (or micro1neter) is used for 1neasuring sn1all pressures, where accuracy is
required.
10. The pressure at a point in static co1npressible fluid is obtained by co1nbining two equations, i.e., equation
of stale for a gas and equation given by hydrostatic law.
11. The pressure at a height Z in a static con1pressible fluid (gas) under going isothennal con1pression
( =
const.)
- ZIRT
P =Poe '
where p0 = Absolute pressure at sea-level or at ground level

Z = f-Ieighl fro1n sea or ground level
R = Gas constant
7' = Absolute ten1perature.

12. The pressure and temperature at a height Z in a static con1pressble fluid (gas) undergoing adiabatic
k
con1pression (plp
const.)
= [
k-1
=
]- [
Po
1
gZ
Po
k
k
k-1
] k
k-1 gZ k-1
Po I - - - ' .
k R
L
T
and te1nperature,
= To
]
l
[1
k
651
gZ
k RTo
where p0, T0 are pressure and temperature at sea-level k = l .4 for air.
13. The rate at which the ten1perature changes with elevation is known as Temperature Lapse-Rate. It is
given by
L=
if
:(k;J )
(i) k = l, te111perature is zero.

(ii) k > l, ten1perature decreases with the increase of height.
EXERCISE
(A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS
1. Define pressure. Obtain an expression for the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid.
2. State and prove the Pascal's law.
3. What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law ?

4. Differentiate bet\vecn : (i) Absolute and gauge pressure, (ii) Si1nple n1anon1eter and differential 111anon1eter, and (iii) Piezometer and pressure gauges.
5. What do you 111ean by vacuu111 pressure ?
6. What is a n1anometer ? Hov., are they classified ?
7. What do you 1nean by single colun1n 1nanon1eters ? How are they used for the measuren1ent of pressure ?
8. \Vhat is the difference bet\veen u-tube differential manometers and inverted U-tube differential
1nanometers ? Where are they used ?
9. Distinguish bel\vcen 111ano1netcrs and n1cchanieal gauges. What are the different types of 1ncchanical
pressure gauges ?
10. Derive an expression for the pressure at a height Z fron1 sea-level for a static air when the con1pression of
the air is assurned isothennal. The pressure and temperature at sea-levels are p0 and T0 respectively.
11. Prove that the pressure and te1nperature for an adiabatic process at a height Z fro1n sea-level for a static air
are
[ - Jk -1
k l gZ
P O = Po 1- - - -k
RT0
[ - J
k J gZ
and T = To 1 - - k
RT0
\Vhere p0 and 1'0 are the pressure and ten1perature at sea-level.

12. What do you understand by the tenn, 'Ternperature Lapse-Rate'? Obtain an expression for the
tc1npcrature Lapse-Rate.
13. What is hydrostatic pressure distribution? Give one exa111ple where pressure distribution is
non-hydrostatic.
14. Explain briefly the working principle of Bourdon Pressure Gauge with a neat sketch.
(J.N.T.U., Hyderabad, S 2002)
(B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

l. A hydraulic press has a ran, of 30 en, dia1ueter and a plunger of 5 en, dia111eter. fjnd the weight lifted by
[Ans. 14.4 kN]
the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 400 N.
2. A hydraulic press has a ran1 of 20 cn1 dian1eter and a plunger of 4 cn1 dia111eter. It is used for lifting a
\veight of 20 kN. Find the force required at the plunger.
fAns. 800 Nl
L
3. Calculate the pressure due to a colutnn of 0.4 n1 of (a) \Vater, (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.9, and (c) rnercury of sp. gr.
ko
2
2
2
13.6. Take density of water, p = 1000-S3.. .
[Ans. (o) 0.3924 N/cn1 , (b) 0.353 N/c1n , (c) 5.33 N/c111 ]
nr
4. 'fhe pressure intensity at a point in a t1uid is gi vcn 4.9 N/c1n2. Find the corresponding height of Jluid when it
is: (a) \Vater, and (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8.
rAns. (n) 5 Ill of \\later, (b) 6.25 Ill of oill
5. An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 20 m. Find the corresponding
height of water at that point.
[Ans. l 6 111 ]
6. An open tank contains water upto a depth of 1.5 111 and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 for a depth of 2 111. Find
the pressure intensity : (i) at the inte1face of the two liquids, and (ii) at the botto1ll of the tank.
2
2
[Ans. (i) 1.57 N/cn1 , (ii) 3.04 N/cm ]
7. The diameters of a s111all piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 2 c1n and 10 c111 respectively. A
force of 60 N is applied on the s111all piston. Find the load l.ifted by the large piston, vvhen : (a) the pistons are
at the san1e level, and (b) srnall piston is 20 e111 above the large piston. The density of the liquid in the j ack is
k
given as 1000 .
[Ans. (a) 1500 N, (b) 1520.5 NJ
111
8. Determine the gauge and absolute pressure at a point \Vhich is 2.0 111 below the free su1face of ,vater. Take
allnospheric pressure as 10.1043 N/cm2 .
fAns. 1.962 N/cm2 (gauge), 12.066 N/cm2 (abs.)l
9. A simple n1.anon1eter is used to measure the pressure of oil (sp. gr. = 0.8) flowing in a pipe line. Tts right
litnb is open to the atrnosphere and left lirnb is connected to the pipe. The centre of the pipe is 9 ctn below
the level of n1ercury (sp. gr. 13.6) in the right lirnb. If the difference of n1ercury level in the two lirnbs is 15
2
c111, dete1n1ine the absolute pressure of the oil in rhe pipe in N/cn12.
[Ans. 12.058 N/c1ll ]
10. A sirnple rnanometer (U-tube) containing rnercury is connected to a pipe in which an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is
flowing. The pressure in the pipe is vacuum. The other end of the manon1eter is open to the at1nosphere.
Find the vacuum, pressure in pipe, if the difference of 111ercury level in the two limbs is 20 cn1 and height
2
of oil in the left litllb from the centre of the pipe is 15 c111 be!o,v.
[Ans. - 27.86 N/cm ]
11. A single colurnn vertical rnano1neter (i.e., 111icrorneter) is connected to a pipe containing oil of sp. gr. 0.9.
'fhe area of the reservoir is 80 ti111es the area of the 111anon1eter tube. The reservoir contains 111ercurv
, of
sp. gr. 13.6. The level of 1nercury in t11c reservoir is at a height of 30 crn below the centre of the pipe and
difference of 1nercury levels in the reservoir and right l.i1nb is 50 c1u. Find the pressure in the pipe.
[Ans. 6.474 N/c111 2 ]
l 2. A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.8. A differential tnanoiueter connected at the t1vo points A and B of the
pipe sho\VS a difference in n1ercury level as 20 crn. Find the difference of pressure at the two points.
[Ans. 25l J 3.6 N/Jn 2 ]
13. A U-tube differential manon1eter connects t\vo pressure pipes A and B. Pipe A contains carbon
tetrachloride having a specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of l l.772 N/cn12 and pipe B contains oil of
sp. gr. 0.8 under a pressure of 11.772 N/c111 2 . The pipe A lies 2.5 m above pipe B. Find the diffe.rence of
pressure n1easured by 1nercury as fluid filling U-tube.
[Ans. 31.36 cn1 of n1ercury]
14. A differential manon1eter is connected at the two points A and Bas shown in Fig. 2.25. At Bair pressure
is 7.848 N/cnJ2 (abs.), find the absolute pressure at A.
[Ans. 6.91 N/e1n 2]
AIR
B
OIL Sp. gr.=0.8
- - -A===--- -- --
t2cm
50 cm
10cm
ERCURY
Sp. gr.=13.6
Fig. 2.25
0.8
T '::
30 cm:
100 cm
.1
.',
OIL Sp. gr.
L
+ .:
50 cm
_i
- -- - ------.--A-- WATER
Fig. 2.26
L
671
15. An inverted differential 111anometer containing an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is connected to find the difference of
pressures at t\VO points of a pipe containing water. If the 111ano111eter reading is 40 crn, find the difference
?
[Ans. 392.4 N/n1- J
of pressures.
16. In above Fig. 2.26 sho\VS an inverted differential manon1eter connected to two pipes A and B containing
\vater. The fluid in manon1eter is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manon1eter readings shown in the figure, find the
difference of pressure head between A and B
[Ans. 0.26 111 of \.vater]
17. If the atn1ospheric pressure at sea-level is 10.143 N/cm2, detern1ine the pressure at a height of 2000 n1
assuming that the pressure variation follows: (i) l-lydrostatic Jaw, and (ii) Isothen11al law. The density of
[Ans. (i) 7.77 N/c1112, (ii) 8.03 N/c1u3 ]
air is given as 1.208 kg/iu3 .
18. Calculate lhc pressure at a height of 8000 111 above sea-level if the attnospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/1112
and te1nperature is 15C at the sea-level assu1ning (0 air is incon1pressible, (ii) pressure variation follo\vs
adiabatic law, and (iii) pressure variation folio'NS isothennal la\v. Take the dens.ity of air at the sea-level as
equal to 1.285 kg/Jn3 . Neglect variation of g with altitude.
[,\ns. (i) 607.5 N/Jn2, (ii) 31.5 kN/rn 2 (iii) 37.45 kN/rn2 ]
19. Calculate the pressure and density of air at a height of 3000 111 above sea-level \vhere pressure and tem
perature of the air are I 0.143 N/cn1 2 and 15 C respectively. The temperature lapse-rate is given as 0.0065
2
3
K/111. Take density of air at sea-level equal to J .285 kg/111 3.
[Ans. 6.896 N/cn1 , 0.937 kg/111 )
20. 1\n aeroplane is flying at an altitude of 4000 111. Calculate the pressure around the aeroplane, given the
lapse-rate .in tbe atn1osphere as 0.0065 K/tu. Neglect variation of g w.ith altitude. Take pressure and
2
temperature at ground level as 10.143 N/cn1 and 15 C respectively. The density of air at ground level is
given as 1.285 kg/1113 .
[Ans. 6.038 N/cm2 ]
21. The at1nospheric pressure at the sea-level is 101.3 kN/tn 2 and the te111perature is 15C. Calculate the
pressure 8000 111 above sea-level, assu111ing (i) air is incotnpressible, (ii) isothennal variation of pressure
and density, and (iii) adiabatic variation of pressure and density. Assurne density of air at sea-level as
I .285 kg/1113 . Neglect variation of 'g' \Vith altitude.
[,1\ns. (i) 501.3 N/n12, (ii) 37.45 kN/rn2 , (iii) 31.5 kN/111 2 1
22. An oil of sp. gr. is 0.8 under a pressure of 137.2 k_N/111 2
(i) \Vhat is the pressure head expressed in metre of \vater ?
[Ans. (i) 14 m, (ii) J 7.5 n1]
(ii) \Vhat is the pressure head expressed in 1uetre of oil ?
2
2;'\. 'fhe atrnospheric pressure at the sea-level is 101 .3 kN/m and ten1perature is 15 C. Calculate the pressure
8000 m above sea-level, assu1ning : (i) isotbern1al variation of pressure and density, and (ii) adiabatic
variation or pressure at1d density. Assun1e density of air at sea-level as l.285 kg/m3. Neglect variatiot1 of
'g' \Vith altitude.
[Ans. (i) 37.45 kN/tn2, (ii) 31.5 kN!tn2 J
Derive the fonnula that you n1ay use.
24. What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 4 rn be)o\v the free surface of a liquid of
specific gravity 1.53, if atrnospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 111111 of 1uercury.
2
2
[Ans. 60037 N/rn and 160099 N/111 1
25. Find the gauge pressure and absolute pressure in N/111 2 at a point 4 111 below the free surface of a liquid of
sp. gr. 1.2, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 n1111 of 1nercury.
2
2
[Ans. 47088 N/in ; 147150 N/111 )
26. A tank contains a liquid of specific gravity 0.8. Find the absolute pressure and gauge pressure at a point,
which is 2 1n below the free surface of the liquid. The atn1ospheric pressure head is equivalent to 760 111m
2
2
of 1uercury.
LAns. 117092 N/111 ; 15696 N/tn ]

Chap 2

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CHAPTER

FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT

2.2 PASCAL'S LAW

Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a

Forces on a fluid element.

P x X dy X I - p (ds X l) sin (90 - 0) =0

PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro

l. Pressure force on AB = p x M and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downv,rard direction.

M, acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward

p = p x g [cancelling Mt..Z on both sides]

where 111 = Weight density of fluid.

Here Z is called 1>ressure head.

a= n d2 = n (0.045)2 = .00159 1112

Pressure intensity due to plunger

Due to Pascal's la\,v, the intensity of pressure 'Nill be

a= n (.03) 2 = 7.068 x 10- 4 rn2

(b) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8,

The corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as

Co1Tesponcling height of water =

:..":.:, - . -: :..-. :..--: :..-:

(ii) At the botto1n, i.e., at B

=8829 + 19620 = 28449 N/Jn =

Area of s1uall piston,

a= d2 = x (3) 2 = 7.068 cn1 2

Area of larger piston,

Pressure and its Measurement 411

A = E.. x (10)2 = 78.54 ctn 2

Force on small piston,

= !... + Pressure intensity due to height of 40 c1n of liquid.

ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES

3. Vacuu1n 11rcssurc is defined as the pres-

.... 2.S MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Nlechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring

.,.. 2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS

lt is the sitnplest for 1n of 1nanon1eter used for

Fig. 2.8 JJiezometer.

It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is

(a) For gauge pressure

(b) For vacuum pressure

Sp. gr. of fluid,

Sp. gr. of fluid,

Pressure and its Measurement 4 5

= - [53366.4 + 1177.2] = - 54543.6 N/m2 = - 5.454 N/cm2 Ans.

Fig. 2.11 (a)

1910 + 1000 X 9.81 X (

Pressure and its Measurement 4 71

(0.2 + 2y/100) = (3 + 2.72 + y/ 100) ( .,' h 1

= 42.90 c1n of 1nercury

fc-:: J-x (2T+ 2y) cm

Reading of rnanorneter = 42.90 cn1. Ans.

Area of each bulb B and C,

Area of each vertical li1nb,

Sp. gr. of red Liquid

lts density = 900 kg/Jn 3

X -X = Initial separation level

he= Height of red liquid above X -X

h8 = Height of water above X-X

Pressure above X-X in the left lin1b = 1000 x 9.81 x h8

When tbe pressure head over tbe surface in C .is

Also fall in su1face level of C

= Rise in su1face level of n

Equating the two pressure, we get