Wec 2007 CD

ALGERIA
W E C 2 0 07
2007 Schlumberger
Published by Schlumberger
Produced by Lynx Consulting, Inc., Houston, TX, USA
Cover, logo, and overview headings designed by Mohamed-Arslane LERARI,
Teacher, Institut Suprieur Des Beaux Arts, Algiers, Algeria
Interior design and layout by Diego SNCHEZ
Printed by Wetmore Printing Company, Houston
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any meanselectronic,
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WELL EVALUATION CONFERENCE

ALGERIA 2007
The preparation of this joint document of
Sonatrach and Schlumberger
has been managed and coordinated by
Smaine ZEROUG
Schlumberger
and
Noureddine BOUNOUA, Petroleum Engineering

Rabih LOUNISSI, Exploration
Sonatrach
With the contribution and assistance of Rabah ZEGHOUANI, Production Division, Sonatrach, and Nasreddine DJELLAS,
Upstream, Sonatrach; Khelil KARTOBI, Petroleum Engineering Division, Sonatrach; and Arnaud ETCHECOPAR,
Mohamed TCHAMBAZ, Sherif ABADIR, Philippe SIMON, and John FULLER, Schlumberger; as well as more than
120 engineers and scientists from Sonatrach, Schlumberger, and Sonatrachs international associates.
Their names are mentioned in each chapter.
Preface
or the past several decades, Sonatrach and Schlumberger have continuously applied their respective skills to hydrocarbon exploration and
production in Algeria. The Well Evaluation Conference (WEC), organized periodically, reflects and measures our joint efforts, and this third
edition, which I have the honor and privilege to introduce, is notable for a number of reasons.
Since the second WEC, held some 12 years ago, numerous hydrocarbon discoveries and many development projects have been conducted in
the spirit of a successful partnership. The last decade has been marked by two striking eventsthe introduction of horizontal well technology
and the discovery of the Berkine field. While the first enabled important redeploymentnotably in the Hassi Messaoud fieldthe second permitted a significant increase in our reserves. Schlumberger has been a remarkable partner not only in introducing the necessary technology but
also in understanding our needs and contributing to our successes.
The work that constitutes this third edition of the WEC will find its place among the reference documents of Sonatrach. It will serve as a
qualitative tool not only for the national and international hydrocarbon industry but also for the academic community. This edition is particularly rich and covers all aspects of the upstream business. The first chapters reflect the strength with which Sonatrach has deployed its
efforts in the exploration and development of its fields. In the chapters that follow, the descriptions of the various technologies and their
applications are eloquent and serve as an indicator of both their evolution and their deployment in reservoir characterization, development,
production, and HSE.
In addition to its remarkable technical content, this WEC expresses, beyond doubt, the depth of the relationship between our companies. Yet
already, we turn our thoughts toward how we can deepen that relationship as the future promises to present an even more complex technical environment requiring still closer collaboration for addressing the challenges of developing our tight sand reservoirs and managing our
mature fields.
This document is the work of some 120 engineers of both companies who collaborated for many months to add value to the considerable
amount of data amassed. On behalf of Sonatrach, I express my gratitude for their efforts and extend my congratulations for their results.
Boumedine BELKACEM,
Upstream Vice-President
Sonatrach
Foreword
am especially pleased to write this foreword to the third Algeria Well Evaluation Conference bookthe outcome of a remarkable collaboration among the engineers and scientists of Sonatrach, its international associates, and Schlumberger. To those who have contributed,
I extend my sincere thanks.
At a time of highly dynamic operations in Algeria, characterized by marked increases in exploration and production, the role of technology in
improving performance and reducing risk, consistent with strong HSE standards, cannot be overemphasized. Yet, addressing complex challenges such as increasing recovery from the giant Hassi Messaoud field or developing natural gas from the fractured tight reservoirs in the
southwest region requires more than the application of new technology. Sustained cooperation and knowledge sharing are needed to articulate the issues and identify potential techniques and technologies for testing and implementation or for joint development as the local environment dictates. I am confident that the completion of this book establishes a new spirit that will lead to further promotion of an already longlasting partnership.
Since the first logging operation in Algeria more than 50 years ago, the Schlumberger commitment to contribute leading-edge technology to
the success of the Algerian hydrocarbon industry has remained steadfast. Tangible investment over the past decade to develop Algerian professionals from Algerian universities who have trained and worked in Schlumberger operations around the world now underline this commitment. Schlumberger is proud of its relationship with Sonatrach and its international partners, and looks forward to success in helping meet
the challenges that lie ahead.
Satish PAI,
PresidentEurope, Africa, and Caspian
Schlumberger Oilfield Services
Treasures of the Sahara Desert

n the early 20th century, when the exploration of the Sahara was still in progress, two discoveries were to reveal its most precious treasuresa civilization dating from 50 centuries before the pyramids and oil.
In 1927, the geologist and explorer Conrad Killian, while observing the stratigraphic characteristics of the magnificent landscapes through which
he passed, jotted in his field notebook: Oily or bituminous Schists. Large oil-bearing structures certain. Establishing the foundation of Saharan
geology and having a premonition about the presence of oil, he was the first person to report the famous names of Edjeleh and Tiguentourine.
In 1933, during a military reconnaissance, a camel troop led by Captain Duprez rode into the wadi of Djerat near Illizi (formerly Fort Polignac).
He gazed in astonishment at hundreds of figures carved on the rocks: hunters, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, and farther off, an
8-meter tall giraffe, the worlds largest rock carving. What Duprez saw was a lost civilization, a world revealed.1
In prehistoric times, more than 10,000 years ago, the Sahara, like the Middle East and the famous Fertile Crescent, was one of the oldest cradles
of the invention of pottery, of basket-weaving, and of domesticationassets that would establish the foundations of modern civilization. In the
days when it still enjoyed a wet and hot climate, the pre-desert Sahara was a crowning center of innovative ideas and techniquesilluminating
Africa as well as the Mediterranean. The carvings and rock paintings illustrated in this book are undoubtedly the jewels of the crown.
In the Algerian Sahara, the worlds largest rock art gallery testifies to the high degree of spirituality reached by Africans at a time when Egypt,
buried under the waters of the Nile, did not yet exist. In the stone sanctuaries of Tassili NAjjer, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, magnificent
frescoes show the first gods and the early myths of the Round Heads from nearly 10,000 years ago. This was the birthplace
of African art, underpinning the many beliefs and religions from which the peoples of Africa would draw. On the walls, representations
of masks bear witness to the birth of the art of Negritude, the origin of primitive arts, which in turn provided a major source of inspiration for
the modern schools of painting such as Fauvism and Cubism.
Around 8,000 years ago, the Bovidians, who were cattle breeders of black, white, and mixed race, painted and carved fine herds of cattle,
goats, and sheep as signs of their flourishing civilization. They bathed in a highly diversified culture in which several languages, beliefs, and
sociocultural practices existed side by sidea testimony to North Africas long history as a place of multiculturalism and tolerance.
With the advent of Antiquity, the ancient Berbers, called Libyans after Libyathe old name for Africawere already famous for their skills
as horsemen and chariot drivers. By the beginning of the first millennium BC, they had mastered metal work. From then on, this warlike aristocratic society began to make its own weapons.
In demand on the greatest battlefields of the Mediterranean by rulers such as the king of the Persians and the king of Carthage, the Libyan
warriors struck fear into the pharaohs Mineptah and Ramses III. Toward the end of the second millennium BC, after a long gestation from the
geometric motifs of Berber art, the Libyans devised an autochthonous form of writing that led to the emergence of Lybic, one of the worlds
oldest scripts and precursor to the present-day Touareg tifinaghs.
If the Sahara has been generous enough to offer man its most precious treasuresa civilization from the past, and oil for the futuresurely,
these two must enhance each other. By including pictures of our Saharan heritage in this book, we invite people everywhere to explore and
enjoy this incredible place. At the same time, we are keenly aware that the development of Saharan oil must respect the history and delicate heritage that exist. And we sincerely hope that the future will provide the support for the preservation of the past.
Malika HACHID,
Prehistorian and Head of the Franco-Algerian Project for Direct Dating of Saharan Rock Art,
Former Director of Tassili National Park,
Founding Member and Past Vice President of the Sonatrach Tassili Foundation
1.
Conrad Killian and Captain Duprez were both guided by Touaregswhose names were not recordedbut whose contribution remains essential in the discovery of this world.
Contents
1. Petroleum Geology of Algeria
2. Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Algeria
3. Reservoir Definition and Evaluation
4. Reservoir Development
5. Production Optimization
6. Health Safety and Environment
7. Way ForwardPartnering to Meet the Challenges
Black Lady of the Sfar site (the Tassili of the Ajjer), a highly emblematic work of the period known as the Round Heads. Highly aesthetic, and with deep religious and symbolic
meaning, the painting represents a black woman with her eyes covered by a ritual white band (95 cm high). This period, the oldest of the Saharan rock paintings, dates from
approximately 10,000 years ago.
1. Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Preface
Introduction
Eastern Province Basins
The Amguid-Messaoud Uplift
11
Berkine Basin
16
Oued Mya Basin
23
Illizi Basin
29
Western Province Basins
37
Ahnet-Gourara Basin
39
Gourara North Basin
45
Bechar Basin and its Margins
48
Reggane Basin
53
Tindouf Basin
58
Taoudenni Basin
62
Sba Basin
68
Northern Algeria
73
Offshore Basins
78
Chelif Basin
81
Hodna Basin
84
Atlas/Southeast Constantine/Chott El Melrhir Basins
87
Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria
Preface
s part of the Algeria WEC 2007, the Petroleum Geology chapter
reviews the overall oil geology of Algeria and provides details for
understanding this complex area. The quality of the knowledge gained
in the last few years has improved, thanks to numerous field projects undertaken by Sonatrach and its associates. This progress has provided the
Algerian mining sector with enhanced insight into the discoveries and identification of new plays and the significant hydrocarbon potential in zones that
had been largely ignored or whose importance had been minimized.
Introduction
The Algerian territory extends over 2,381,741 km2, making it the second
largest country in Africa and the Arab world after the Sudan. The natural
boundaries of Algeria are the Mediterranean Sea to the north, where it has
1,200 km of coastline, Morocco to the west, Mauritania and the Western
Sahara to the southwest, Mali and Niger to the south, and Tunisia and Libya
to the east.
The morphology of Algeria (Fig. 1.1) comprises four separate domains from
north to south:
Tellian Atlas: an area of high topography including hill scarps and coastal
plains, the richest of which are Mitidja in the center, Chelif in the west, and
Seybouse in the east
Saharan Atlas: a long range of mountains oriented NE-SW, extending from
the Moroccan border to the Tunisian border
Sahara Desert, the site of most of the hydrocarbon resources, comprising
large areas of dunes (the Eastern and Western ergs) and pebbly plains (Regs)
with scattered oases with growing conurbations
High ranges (the Eglabs to the west and the Hoggar to the east).
Introduction
M e d i t e r r a n e a n
S p a i n
A t l a n t i c
S e a
Tellian Atlas
O c e a n
Hodna Basin Constantine Basin
Chelif Basin
h
Hig
tea
Pla
Melrhir Trough
s
tla
nA
ara
Sah
Hassi Rmel Gas Field
Tilrhemt
Dome
gh
M o r o c c o
d
nou
Be
Djofra Saddle
Allal Dome
Bechar Basin
Oued Mya Basin

Berkine Basin
Gourara
Beni Abbeb Saddle Jamazar
Saddle
Basin
Ougarta Ridge
Azzene Ridge
Tindouf Basin
Hassi Messaoud Oil Field
Hassi
Messaoud
Ridge
u
Tro
Tamaza Dome Oued Namous Dome
T u n i s i a
Touggourt Saddle
Idjerane Spur
Mouydir Basin
Djoua Saddle
Bou Bernous Saddle
L i b y a
Sba Sincline
Illizi Basin
Amguid Spur
Reggane Basin
Eglab Shield
Azzel Matti Saddle

Ahnet Basin
M a u r i t a n i a
Taoudenni Basin
M a l i
Hoggar Shield
Tafassasset
Basin
Tamesna
Basin
N i g e r
Oil field
Gas field
100 km
Figure 1.1: Sedimentary basins of Algeria.
Algeria is structurally subdivided into two major tectonic

units separated by the South Atlas fault:
to the north, an Alpine domain marked by chains of
mountains of Cenozoic age resulting from the Alpine
orogenesis
to the south, the Saharan platform, a relatively more
stable region comprising a Precambrian basement on
Jurassic
Oil shows
Triassic
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Tert.
Objective horizons
which thick sedimentary series have been deposited in basins with structures formed during the Paleozoic (Fig. 1.2).
The Algerian oil minerals domain is subdivided into three provinces: eastern,
western, and northern (Fig. 1.3).
The eastern province includes the Illizi, Berkine, and Oued Mya basins and the
Amguid-Messaoud uplift. The giant fields of Hassi Messaoud (oil) and Hassi
Rmel (gas), are where most of the oil and gas discoveries, have been found.
Intense exploration activity in this region in the past 10 years has resulted in
the introduction of new exploration techniques, particularly those relating to
acquisition, processing, and reprocessing of seismic and drilling data. These
techniques have provided the basis for refinement of the prevailing ideas
about the region. The improved understanding of the geochemistry, sedimentological models, role of faults, and mapping of levels beneath the salt has
resulted in a number of large discoveries in the Triassic and in the deeper levels of the Carboniferous and the Devonian. The Berkine basin, therefore, has
been reclassified as one of the most prolific in the world.
Carboniferous
The intense work carried out around Hassi Messaoud has revealed not only a
greater potential for oil than previous work recognized, but also other large oil
accumulations in the Cambrian and Ordovician, such as the Hassi Terfa field.
This significant potential was noted after the definition of oil/water contacts
(OL-2) deeper than those found in the giant Hassi Messaoud in the Cambrian
reservoir.
Devonian
Gas field
Oil field
Camb. Ordovician
Silurian
Paleozoic
Algiers
Eglab Shield
Hoggar Massif
Salt
Anhydrite
Limestone
Shale
Sandstone
Basement
Production
Figure 1.2: Generalized geologic column of Algeria.
Figure 1.3: Mining areas and hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Introduction
The intense exploration activity in these regions has resulted in a more certain estimate of their oil potential by identifying deep targets, tight reservoirs,
low-resistivity reservoirs, and targets associated with subtle traps. Recent
preliminary exploration has achieved excellent results that confirm the oil
interest associated with these new concepts and justify ongoing investigation
efforts in these domains.
The western province includes the Ahnet, Timimoun, BecharOued Namous,
Reggane, Tindouf, Taoudenni, and Sba basins. This dry gas province has
raised the interest of oil companies, which are engaging in more intense
exploration following very positive results for the whole province over the last
few years. Several fields discovered by Sonatrach are ready for development
and subsequent production.
Significant gas potential is associated with both conventional and unconventional
traps, particularly targets associated with subtle traps, tight reservoirs, and
basin-centered gas accumulations (BCGA). Work is in progress on the surface
infrastructure, pipelines, and transport to make more effective use of this region,
which is destined to become another front-ranking center for gas in the near future.
In addition, recent interest has focused on the Taoudenni, the largest basin in
West Africa, the northeast extension of which lies in Algerian territory. Initial
Quaternary
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambro-Ordovician
Cambrian
Basement
Volcanic
prospecting and drilling shows have revealed excellent

source rock in the Precambrian, and additional work will
enable explorationists to more precisely estimate the oil
potential of this large basin.
The northern province includes the Southeast
ConstantineMelrhir, Hodna, Chelif, offshore, and
Saharan Atlas basins. First exploration began in the Chelif
basin in 1890, and the first commercial discovery of oil at
Oued Gueterini was made in 1948.
Because of its extreme geologic complexity (Fig. 1.4), this
province has not experienced the same exploration activity as other oil provinces in the country. Nevertheless, the
work done so far has revealed oil discoveries that
demonstrate the oil potential of northern Algeria. This
potential is heightened by the excellent prospects of offshore Algeria (93,500 km2). Preliminary investigations
have shown that this region has significant oil interest,
which means that it will likely see intense oil prospecting and exploration in the near future.
S e a
Tuni s i a
0
100 km
M o r o c c o
Figure 1.4: Geologic map of northern Algeria and subcrop view of the pre-Hercynian Saharan platform.
Eastern Province Basins

The Illizi, Oued Mya, Berkine, and AmguidHassi Messaoud basins constitute
a vast domain of approximately 493,632 km2 (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). The resources
trapped in these sedimentary basins over their geologic history have barely
been explored or discovered. The Hassi Messaoud and Illizi basins are essentially Paleozoic, and the Oued Mya basin is Mesozoic. The geologic history of
the Berkine basin is even more complex as it has endured less Hercynian erosion and more Mesozoic sedimentation than the surrounding regions. Most of
the reserves discovered so far are located in the eastern Sahara, where the
largest oil and gas fields are located at Hassi Messaoud and Hassi Rmel.
The Oued Mya basin is bounded by the Idjerane-Mzab High to the west and
the AmguidEl Biod High to the east, which also bounds the south of the
Hassi Messaoud dome. The Oued Mya basins and AmguidHassi Messaoud
uplift are filled by a thick Paleozoic and Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary
sequence with major hydrocarbon fields in the Cambrian, Ordovician, and
Triassic.1
The Illizi and Berkine basins are bordered on the west by the Amguid High and
on the east by the Tihemboka uplift. They lie on the Touareg shield to the
south. Sonatrach, alone and in partnerships with international oil companies,
has made several discoveries in these two basins. Most of the explored anticlines are concentrated in the central and southern parts of the Amguid High.
At the level of certain structural heights, the eroded Paleozoic reservoirs are
in direct contact with the Triassic reservoirs, thus creating a hydrocarbon
migration and feed path. In the AmguidHassi Messaoud ridge, the main discoveries have recently been made on the perimeter of Hassi Massaoud in the
Cambrian and Ordovician reservoirs.
Stratigraphy
In the northern part of the Oued Mya platform, the type sedimentary sequence,
which can be 6,000 m thick (Fig. 1.5), has Paleozoic deposits that are often
eroded as far as the Ordovician and Cambrian. The Mesozoic is unconformable
on the Paleozoic and is present from the Triassic to the Cretaceous. The
Cenozoic is represented by a thin Miocene-Pliocene detritic series.
The characteristic sedimentary series of the Illizi and Berkine basins, which vary
in thickness from 2,500 m in the south to 6,000 m in the north, make up a complete Paleozoic sequence that is unconformable on the Precambrian, followed
by a complete Mesozoic sequence in the Hercynian unconformity, and a thin
Miocene-Pliocene. The Mesozoic formations outcrop at the center of the basin
where they are partly clastic at the base. Mesozoic deposits, characterized
mostly by an argillo-clastic and evaporative sequence, are located throughout
the Berkine basin.
Eastern Province BasinsGeneralities
Miocene-Pliocene
Eocene
Limestone
Anhydrite
Salt
Turonian
Cenomanian
150
0-150
100
220
25
280
Neocomian
200
Austrian
250
Dogger
Anhydrite
200
Salt-bearing
50
30
HB
Liassic
Pyrenean
220
Malm
810
S1 + S2
450
0-100
Clay
0-20
0-120
0-180
T2 + T1
Eruptive rocks
Lower series
Ordovician
Ouargla sandstones
Hamra quartzites
0-50
50
75
El Atchane sandstones
20
El Gassi clays
85
Alternation zone
25
50
120
Ri
Ra
R2
0-300
80
S4
Hercynian
200
Clay
RDC-1/
Berkaoui-Benkahla
BKHE-1
HGA-1,2/RDC-4/
Onj-76
HTF-1, HTF-2, HTFN-1
HDZ-2
Hassi Messaoud/Baguel
Mesdar
El Agreb-El Gassi
HGA-1,3/OL-2
500
Triassic
S3
Cambrian
Reservoir rocks
300
Aptian
300
R3
Pan-African
Basement
Clays
Sandstones
Salts
Anhydrites
Cap rocks
80
120
Barremian
R1
Source rocks
120
Albian
Jurassic
Unconformities
Regional cover
Cretaceous
Senonian
Cenozoic
Thickness
(m)
440
Lithology
Limestones
Eruptive rock
Main source rock
Possible source rock
Main reservoir
Secondary reservoir
Cap rock
Oil
Figure 1.5: Lithologic columns for the Amguid and Oued Mya basins.
Structural aspects
Cambro-Ordovician distension and

emplacement of the sedimentary cover
The geologic history of the Saharan platform is very

ancient. Its development was influenced by the presence of sometimes very ancient shields such as the
Reguibat, which became stable between 1,800 and 2,000
M.Y., and younger shields such as the Touareg, which
resulted from the Pan-African phase about 500 M.Y. ago.
The Pan-African orogenic phase that ended in the course of the Cambrian was
followed by a period of major erosion that leveled the existing structures and
reliefs. It forms an extensive pediplain called the Infra-Tassilian.2
The Cambro-Ordovician paleogeographic environment is affected by tectonic
instability marked by variations in thickness and facies on either side of submeridional faults; the most prominent is the Foum Belrem uplift.
The chief structural trend is the presence of major vertical submeridional faults emphasized by thick bands of
mylonites. These submeridional faults are offset by a
system of conjugated faults. The faults in the basement
trending N-S, NE-SW, and NW-SE are of at least late
Pan-African age. This faulting system ultimately had an
important part to play in the structure and sedimentation
of the Saharan platform (Fig. 1.6).
Several wells in the Hassi Messaoud region and the Oued Mya basin have
passed through volcanic rocks interbedded with sandstones attributed to the
Cambrian (Ra and R2) and the Ordovician. According to BEICIP-Sonatrach
(1972), these are, to a greater or lesser extent, basic flows or fragments of
spilites resedimented at the same time the Hassi Messaoud sandstones were
deposited.
Several tectonic phases modeled the Saharan platform:

Cambro-Ordovician distension
Taconian compression
Caledonian compression
various tectonic sedimentary events in the Devonian
Hercynian movements
Mesozoic-Cenozoic events (Austrian and Alpine phases).
Hercynian movements
Hercynian movements are subdivided into early and major (Late Paleozoic). The
early Hercynian phase had, in general, an influence on sedimentation. In the
eastern region (Illizi), the formation of a number of structures resting on NW-SE
trending faults can also be seen. On the other hand, Hercynian movements
Oued Mya Mesozoic Basin
A
NW
Tellian Atlas
High
Plateau
Saharan
Atlas
Berkine Basin
Illizi Basin
A
SE
Tilrhem Arch
Hassi Rmel
El Biod Arch
Hassi Touareg Arch
Ahara Arch
Hoggar Massif
Touareg
Hassi Messaoud Hassi
Gassi Touil
0
1,000
2,000
Depth, m
3,000
4,000
5,000
Mesozoic-Cenozoic
Paleozoic
Metamorphic basement
Figure 1.6: Regional geologic column.
Miocene-Pliocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Cambro-Ordovician
Precambrian
200 km
Eastern Province BasinsGeneralities
Kef El Argoub
Ngoussa
Takhoukht
Hassi Messaoud
Ben Kahla
ug
gh
Tro
im
Ha
a
y
Mesdar
i n
e
B
Zotti
Dor
b
ane
r k
Tro
El Agreb
ugh
M
d
Baguel
El Gassi
i n
ss
iB
rah
sk
Ke
i n
rou
T
es
Berkaoui
Gassi Touil
Toual
Figure 1.7: Cutaway view of the Mesozoic of the Hassi Messaoud field and neighboring zones.
had a major part to play in structuring the various basins of the Saharan platform and in the distribution of reservoir rocks. The result is obvious in the preMesozoic surface of the Hassi Messaoud region (Fig. 1.7).
because of Hercynian erosion. This layer is extremely

rich in the north and to the west of the Hassi Messaoud
dome (Fig. 1.8a). It is generally less thick to the east and
north than in the west (Oued Mya), where it averages 60 m.
The Silurian is oil-productive throughout most of the
Present structure
The action of many tectonic distensive or compressive phases on a fractured,
folded, and eroded basement and the sedimentary cover are responsible for
todays structure. These often relate to movements of the lithospheric plates
resulting from the breakup of Pangea from the Triassic onward. The fracturing system in these basins trends N-S and NE-SW.3
Silurian erosion
Source rocks
The main source rock in the Oued Mya and AmguidHassi Messaoud basins,
the Silurian, includes a base layer of radioactive gray-black to black clays
that are very rich in organic matter. They do not occur in some regions
Figure 1.8a: Distribution of TOC values of the Silurian around Hassi
Messaoud.
area with the exception of the western regions (HBA 1,

BRD 4, and BK 1), where it is gas-productive (Fig. 1.8b).
The periods during which the oil was generated were the
late Jurassic and early Cretaceous in the eastern region
(GEA and EAT) and Cretaceous in the western region. It is
Cenomanian (90 M.Y.) for the proximal border and Aptian
(110 M.Y.) for the distal border. Toward the central parts
of the Berkine and Oued Mya basins, maturation was
associated with burial at the end of the Paleozoic, producing oil of late Devonian/early Carboniferous age.4
Around Hassi Messaoud the radioactive Silurian has generated 1.08 x 109 barrels (bbl) of oil and 730 trillion cubic
feet (Tcf) of gas, and expelled 850 bbl of oil and 730 Tcf of
gas. With an average trapping coefficient of 12%, the
quantities of oil trapped are likely to be 102 bbl. Taking
into account the proven in-situ reserves (54 bbl), the quantities of oil that remain to be discovered in the region are
likely to be on the order of 48 bbl. This oil is mainly in the
Cambro-Ordovician plays to the northwest of the Berkine
along the REB NZ trend and to the southeast of the eastern flank of the Oued Mya basin, as well as the Triassic
plays, particularly in the northern and western regions of
the Hassi Messaoud dome (OEM, BKZ, and BKH).
The Illizi and Berkine basins have two main source rocks:
the Silurian and the Frasnian. In the Illizi basin, deposition of the radioactive Frasnian clays was controlled by
the paleotopography established at the beginning of the
Frasnian. The maximum thickness is found toward the
northeast of Tinhert and southwest of the Illizi platform.
Thinning toward the east (Tihemboka uplift) is noted.
The Frasnian is rich in organic matter throughout the
basin [2.4% to 10% total organic carbon (TOC)]. Initial
total organic carbon values exceed 7% to the north of the
Ahara uplift and toward the southwestern part of the
Illizi basin.
The radioactive Silurian thickness to the east of Tinhert
and toward the southwest of the platform ranges from 50
to 85 m. On the Tihemboka uplift, thicknesses vary from
20 to 35 m. The radioactive Silurian has excellent initial
TOC values (Fig. 1.8b). The richest areas (TOC from 9% to
11%) are located in the Tin Fouy region, the center of
10
Tin Fouye
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.5
4.9
3.3
1.7
1.0
TOC
Figure 1.8b: Distribution of TOC values of the Silurian in the Illizi basin.
the platform, and toward the south. Outside the Bordj-Omar-Driss region,
where the source rock begins to generate oil of moderate maturity, the organic
matter in question is in the condensate and gas phases.
Two periods of expulsion have been detected: one early on toward the regions
northeast and west of the Illizi platform (Carboniferous-Jurassic and
Cretaceous) and a later one to the northwest and south (Upper Cretaceous to
Cenozoic).
The maximum thickness of the Frasnian clays in the Berkine basin has been
recorded in the central part (RKF 1, HAD 1, WT 1, and BKE 1). They are completely eroded because of Hercynian attrition to the west. Richness in organic
matter increases toward the northeast. TOC values vary from 4% to 6% in the
MLSE, EME 1, RKF 1, WT 1, and AKF 1 regions toward the north. The level of
concentration of organic matter (OM) depends on the depositional environment (upwelling currents, reducing medium, etc.) and level of maturity. The
Frasnian is in the dry gas phase at the center of the basin (RMD 1 and RKF 1).
The radioactive Silurian is in the dry gas phase (TR > 90%) in most of the Berkine
basin; however, it is in the oil phase in the northern part (ANR 1, BTR 1, ELB 1,
and SMR 1) and toward the Ahara East uplift.
For the most part, hydrocarbon generation took place in two stages:
in the Carboniferous, which is essentially oil
in the post-Hercynian, which is characterized by the generation of wet gas
in the Lower Cretaceous and dry gas in the Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic.
Eastern Province BasinsThe Amguid-Messaoud Uplift
The Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

With a total surface area of 157,793.38 km2, the Amguid-Messaoud is characterized by various tectonic features, bounding a basin with a fairly complete
stratigraphic column.
Geology
The Hassi Messaoud region is located in the central part of the Algerian
Sahara and is known for its oil-producing wells, mainly from the Cambrian
reservoirs. Several fields have been foundthe El Agreb, Zotti, El Gassi,
Rhourde El Baguel, and Mesdar. The Hassi Messaoud super-giant field is a
dome covering an area of almost 1,600 km2 (Fig. 1.9).
The Cambrian deposits, which are represented by sandstones and quartzites,
are the best known and form the major reservoirs (Cambrian Ri and Ra).
The Ordovician reservoir (Hamra quartzites), which has been eroded under the
Hercynian unconformity and forms the Hassi Messaoud ring, is an oil play with
very high potential. New discoveries have recently been made, including HGA,
HTF, and HDZ.
12 km
HGA-2
13 km
Md-36 Md-164
12.5 km
Md-1
14 km
Omp-35b
35 km
Oni-17 One-23
20 km
RDC-4 RDC-2
MOM-1
3,000
3,200
ZA
Depth, m
3,400
ZA
Ri
Ra
Ri
Ra
Ra
R2
Contact H/E
R3
R2
Ri
Ri
Ra
Ra
El Gassi shales
R2
R3
R2
R3
3,600
Jurassic
Triassic
Silurian
Ordovician
Lower Ordovician (Hamra quartzites)
Cambrian
Figure 1.9: Cross section of the Hassi Messaoud oil field area.
Microcong. shales
0
10 km
Ouargla sands
Hamra quartzites
El Gassi shales
11
Lower
Silurian
Hercynian unconformity
Wenlock
Llandovery
Lower
Ordovician
Upper
Ashgill
Taconic unconformity
Caradocian
Llandeilian
Azzel shales (25 m)
Llanvirnian
Ouargla sands
(50 m)
Arenigian
A thick sequence of detritic rocks consisting of sandstones, quartzites, and conglomerates lies between the
basement and the Ordovician. The Cambrian is represented by a set of sandstone sediments divided into two
membersa lower and an upper. Thickness is on the
order of 150 m.
The lower member, Ra (anisotropic), is represented by
fine to coarse gray-white sandstones and by compact,
indurated light-gray conglomerates, which are ferruginous in places. The upper member, known as Ri (isotropic),
is represented by pinkish gray sandstones of quartzite
composition with a siliceous cement. Stylolitic joints and
fracturing are present. The Cambrian reservoirs Ri and Ra
appear to be appreciably different. The sandstone bodies
and silts of reservoir Ra are discontinuous and of small
lateral extent, unlike sandstone Ri, which shows better
continuity.
12
Hamra quartzites
(75 m)
HGA-1: 500 bopd

HGA-2: 2,000 bopd
HGA-4: 1,450 bopd
Atchane sands (20 m)
The Cambrian play is productive in the Hassi Messaoud

field and in surrounding areas, as well as in the Rhourde
El Baguel, Mesdar, El Agreb, Zotti, and El Gassi fields.
Cambrian Ri/Ra lithology
Microconglomeratic
shales
(65 m)
Oued Saret sands
(60 m)
Cambrian play
Tremadocian
Cambrian
The Ri unit forms the transition between the coarse

facies of the Ra zone and the pelitic sandstone of the
overlying alternating zone. The transition from the R2/Ra
assemblage to Ri shows an obvious facies change, and
the sandstones are medium to coarse and bioturbated
(Scolithus). The top of the Ri reservoir is a shallow transgressive marine sandstone. It comprises a well-sorted
fine to medium clean sandstone with abundant bioturbation (Scolithus). Its thickness is variable and could be
unconformable with reservoir Ra.
TOC middle: 6-8%
MabKratta dalle (25 m)
Cambro-Ordovician play
Like the Hassi Messaoud, El Agreb, and El Gassi oil-producing fields in the Cambrian reservoir, most of the structures drilled have revealed further but relatively limited
accumulations (as at OL and HGA). From the point of
view of surface area and closure, the Ordovician (Hamra
quartzites) has shown impregnated columns of more than
100 m and surface areas of more than 500 km2 (HTF-HDZ
zone). Tests have shown flows between 6 and 14 m3/h of
oil (Fig. 1.10). The ring shape of the Ordovician reservoir
makes it of great interest.
Radioactive shales
(50 m)
El Gasssi shales
(85 m)
Alternance zone (25 m)
Md-28: 1,150 bopd
Ri unit
(50 m)
Hassi Messaoud
El Agreb
Zotti
El Gassi
Rhourde El Baguel
Messdar
Ra unit
(120 m)
Oil field
Petroleum system
HGA-1: 2,000 bopd

HGA-3: 1,750 bopd
3,800 bopd
OL-2: 5,000 bopd
R2 unit
+
R3 unit
(300 m)
Primary source rock

Possible source rock
Primary reservoir
Secondary reservoir
Sandstones
Shales
Eruptive rocks
Figure 1.10: Paleozoic section of the Hassi Messaoud oil field area.
Ri/Ra reservoirs
The Ri and Ra reservoirs found on the western perimeter of the Hassi
Messaoud field (OL and HGA) are of the same type as those known in the
field, but there is great variability in porosity and permeability values. This
variability is directly related to the heterogeneous nature of the Cambrian
sandstones. The characteristics of each member depend on their lithology,
clay content, and diagenetic history.
Core studies have shown that the top and median parts of reservoir Ri are
generally poor, whereas at drain D5 corresponding to the basal part, it is more
promising with very useful hydrocarbon production in the southern (HGA) and
western (OL) parts. Ra is by far the main producing reservoir in the Hassi
Messaoud, El Gassi, Zotti, and El Agreb fields (Fig. 1.11).
Ordovician play
Sedimentology
350
The Taconian unconformity separates the basal Ordovician (Tremadocian) from

the Upper Ordovician (upper Ashgill) consisting of fluvio-glacial and glaciomarine formations. In the western and eastern parts of the Messaoud dome,
the Taconian unconformity takes the form of erosion resulting mostly from glacial planing.
50
300
40
250
30
200
150
Porosity, %
0
3,200 3,250 3,300 3,350 3,400 3,450 3,500 3,550 3,600
Permeability
Porosity
Figure 1.11: Petrophysical results from the Cambrian reservoir.
35
50
30
40
25
30
20
15
The existence of ichnofacies associated with the presence of Scolithus, which

are sometimes abundant to very abundant, are characteristic of an upper
shoreface, marine-type environment.
20
10
10
Permeability, mD
In the Ordovician reservoir, the thickest section is that of the Hamra quartzites
with numerous proven oil-producing locations around the Hassi Massaoud.
The Hamra quartzites take the form of a massive, clean, well-developed sandstone having petrophysical characteristics from 2% to 10% porosity and permeabilities from 0.1 to 100 mD (Fig. 1.12).
0
Depth, m
This 90-m thick formation is often described as massive and compact. It is

composed of fine to medium, locally coarse, compact hard silico-quartzite to
quartzite, white to gray-white sandstone with episodes of black, silty, laminated
clay. Analysis of the lithofacies in cored levels in the Hamra quartzites has
demonstrated the existence of different lithofacies:
horizontally bedded fine to very fine quartzite sandstone
obliquely bedded very fine to fine quartzite sandstone
bioturbated very fine to fine quartzite sandstone
crossbedded very fine to fine quartzite sandstone with graded bedding (only
at HGA)
very fine to fine sandstone with clay chips, clay pebbles, and clay films
very fine to fine quartzite sandstone.
Hamra quartzites reservoir
10
50
0
3,300
3,350
3,400
3,450
3,500
Porosity, %
Lithology
20
100
Permeability, mD
The unit from the Tremadocian to the Caradocianthat is, all the lower
Ordoviciancomprises two transgressive-regressive cycles:
Tremadocianlower Arenigian cycle, where formations were deposited in a
shallow to fluviatile marine environment
Middle ArenigianCaradocian cycle, which is truncated in places by the
Taconian unconformity and includes the Hamra quartzites, Ouargla sandstones, Azzel marine clays, and the Oued Saret littoral deltaic sandstones.
Depth, m
Permeability
Porosity
Figure 1.12: Petrophysical results from Hamra quartzites reservoir.
13
Reservoir qualities vary, however, because of diagenetic

effects, the position of the quartzites in relation to the
Hercynian unconformity, and whether there are any
faults that significantly increase permeability values. The
Ordovician produces from the zone where the petrophysical properties improve through fracturing, and the intensity of this production is directly associated with the
formation density
formation thickness
proximity of the regional fault system.
Some elements, such as radioactive elements, may be
concentrated in the fault system. Analysis of diagraph
data in the Hassi Terfa field has shown concentrations of
radioactive elements (Th, K, and U) and suggests a relationship between these elements and fracturing.5
Triassic play
Petrographic and petrophysical characterization of the
Triassic reservoir is a major concern. In addition to the
problems of lateral discontinuity in sandstone bodies,
there are problems with compaction directly related to
diagenetic phenomena and other factors such as dissolution and weathering of the minerals.
Sedimentology
The continental sequences of the Middle Triassic were the first to be deposited
on the Hercynian unconformity. The Triassic deposits are concentrated in
depressions of NE-SW orientation.
The sedimentary sequence is marked by a major evaporitic formation extending from the Triassic terminal to the Dogger and by volcano-detritic and
lagoonal deposits. The Triassic basin occupies an extensive depression (more
than 200,000 km2), the filling of which gave rise to a great variety of facies,
depending upon the location of the sedimentation and distance from sources of
input. The deposits are generally continental (fluviatile) at the base of the
sequence and become increasingly more evaporitic toward the top.6
Traps
Exploration has concentrated on structural and mixed traps, and special emphasis has been placed on stratigraphic traps (sandstone lenses in the Triassic).
Structural traps in the Middle Triassic are anticlinal folds formed during various
tectonic phases as a result of fracturing tectonics, or are bounded on their
flanks by major faults forming part of the very complex system of the
AmguidHassi Messaoud High (Figs. 1.13a and 1.13b).
Baetyls in situ at Tan Khadidja, dating from the end of the Neolithic period and the start of Proto-history (near 2000 BC). These upright dressed stones served a cultural function and
are assumed to represent human beings who are perhaps pointing toward an ancestor cult.
14
NW
SE
Type Rhourde El Baguel
NW
SE
Type El Gassi
GS-3 GS-5 GS-1
AR-3
500
1,000
2,500
1,500
Liassic
2,000
Triassic
3,000
2,500
Ri
Ra
R2
OWC -3,090 m
R3
3,500
3,500
Triassic clay
Ordovician
Alternation zone
Depth, m
Depth, m
3,000
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic salt and anhydrite
Triassic argillite and volcanic
Ordovician
Cambrian Ri/Ra/R2
R3
Oil
0
Oil
2 km
2 km
Figures 1.13a (left) and 13 b (right): Characteristic schemes of the different types of traps.
Stratigraphic traps relate to the sandstone bodies that have been closed off
by lateral wedging (Fig. 1.13c).
Seal
The AmguidHassi Messaoud uplift includes several levels of rock seal that
vary in age and facies. The El Gassi clays cover the Cambrian reservoirs and
are distributed over the entire Saharan platform. The Azzel clays provide a
seal for the Hamra quartzites reservoir in the Ordovician. The best seals consist of the clay-evaporite deposits of the Triassic and Liassic.
Oued Mya
Hassi Messaoud
RDC-2
Berkine
BST-1
FM-2
REH-1
50 m
0
Figure 1.13c: Stratigraphic traps.
15
Berkine Basin
The intracratonic Berkine basin is located in the northeastern part of the Saharan platform. It has an overall
surface area of 102,395 km2 and is one of the most
important hydrocarbon-producing basins (Fig. 1.14).
The basin is divided into three oil-bearing areas: southeast Triassic depression, Dahar depression, and the
Berkine depression.
Berkine depression
Topographically, the thick dune cover of the eastern erg marks the Berkine
depression. The Berkine subbasin is a vast Paleozoic depression in which the
basement is located at more than 6,000 m in depth. Its central part was barely
affected by Hercynian erosion, and the terminal Carboniferous series is preserved. On the structural rises toward the periphery of the basin, the Paleozoic
series is successively affected by Hercynian erosion. The perimeters of the
basin as such are marked by the development of Silurian-Devonian beneath
the Mesozoic.
Southeast Triassic depression

This depression superimposes on the existing salt-bearing
trough of Dorbane and its extensions to the southwest.
This region constitutes a buffer zone between the
AmguidHassi Messaoud uplift to the west and the
Berkine basin to the east. It is marked by the development
of Paleozoic reservoirs and the TAGI TAGS, with which the
main discoveries and known fields are associated:
Rhourde En Nouss, Gassi Touil, Gassi El Adem, Hassi
Chergui, Brides, Rhourde Adra, and Rhourde Chouf. These
fields are mainly associated with Triassic reservoirs and
the Hamra quartzites. These oil, gas, and condensate
fields are associated with structures of large amplitude
generally bounded by reverse fault systems of great throw.
To the west this depression is bounded by the structural axes of the Rhourde
En Nouss and to the south by the old AharaEl Ouar uplift, with an E-W orientation separating it from the Illizi basin.
Major subsidence affected the Berkine basin in the course of its evolution so
that it shows the most complete sedimentary sequence (more than 6,000 m),
with three cycles of sedimentation: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic (Fig. 1.15).
Petroleum system
Source rocks
Two main source rocks recognized in the Berkine basin correspond to development of black clays rich in organic matter of marine origin marking the onset
of the period of transgression in the Silurian and Frasnian. Their extent within the basin depends on the degree of erosion during the Hercynian phase.
Dahar depression
This depression is a vast Mesozoic monocline dipping NE
and superimposed on the Dahar structural high, which
constitutes the western extension of the Tunisian
Djeffara arch. It is bounded to the north by the Melrhir
Trough and forms the northern boundary of the Berkine
basin. This axis has received little exploration because of
the limited development of the Triassic and Ordovician
reservoirs and, more importantly, because of risks associated with maturation and the boundaries of the Silurian
source rock. This area is marked by significant Hercynian
and Taconian erosion and by the development of NE-SW
structural trends. The Triassic sequence is superimposed
on the ancient Silurian to Cambro-Ordovician series.
Melrhir
Trough
Triassic Basin
Tuni s i a
Dahar
Depression
Dahar High
Hassi Messoud
Hassi Messaoud
Ridge
Berkine
Basin
Oued Mya
Dorbane Trough
Berkine
Depression
El Agreb
Triassic
Depression
Ghadames
Ahara High
L i by a
Figure 1.14: Structural elements of the Berkine basin.
16
Eastern Province BasinsBerkine Basin
Formation
Tertiary
Tectonic
events
Alpine
(Pyrenean
unconformity)
Upper
Cretaceous
Austrian
unconformity
Depositional
environment
Continental interior sag
+ fracturing
Lithology
Age
Continental interior sag compressional
Middle
Jurassic
Horizon B
S1-S2
Lower
S3
Permian
Middle
Lower
Upper
Lower
F
Hercynian
unconformity
E
D
C
Lower
F3
Lower
F4-F5
F6
Upper
Silurian
Middle
Lower
Upper
Ordovician
Middle
Lower
Cambrian
Frasnian
Unconformity
B2
B1
A2
A1
M2
M1
Clays
Caledonian
unconformity
Microconglomeratic shales
Taconian
unconformity
Oued Saret sands

Azzel shales
Ouargla sands-Harnra
Quartzites-Atchane sands
El Gasssi shales
Alternance zone
Ri
Ra
R2
Continental interior sag
Upper
Middle
Shallow
marine
continental
Bir Berkine
El Merk Est
Restricted
shallow marine
Fluvial/glacial
Semhari
Ain romana
brides
Rifting
Devonian
Rh. El Khrouf
Berkine E.
Bir Rebaa N.
Menzel
Lejmat
B
A
F2
Ourhoud
Berkine
Bir Rebaa W.
RH. el Khrouf
El Merk
El Borma
Menzel
Lejmat
Shallow marinecontinental
fluvio-lacustrine
Upper
Carboniferous
Restricted
lagoonal-marine
Rifting
Upper
Triassic
Fields
Alternating
open marinerestricted
lagoonal
Lagoonal
continental
Clay
S4
TAGS
Carbonate
TAGI
Seal
Continental
fluvio-lacustrine
Lower
Upper
SR RR
Pan-African
unconformity
H. Messaoud
Rh. El Baguel
Precambrian
Figure 1.15: Stratigraphic column of the Berkine basin.
17
The Silurian source rock, of regional extent, is the main

generator of hydrocarbons in the region (Fig. 1.16). The
Frasnian source rock has a more limited extension and is
mostly found in the central part of the basin. The main
reservoirs in the Berkine basin are those of the Triassic,
Carboniferous, Lower Devonian, Ordovician, and
Cambrian (Table 1.1).
1
0.9
The TAGS reservoir is located in the southeastern

Triassic depression to the southwest of the basin. It corresponds to a terminal sandstone episode of the post-rift
Triassic. With a mean thickness of 100 to 150 m, it consists of sequences of fluviatile and deltaic channels in
which medium to coarse grain predominates, denoting a
nearby source of material. This series wedges out to the
southeast on the Maouar High and disappears to the
west against the Ramade fault and the El Biod uplift.
Toward the north it becomes progressively clayey and
then salt bearing (the equivalent of S4). An excellent
reservoir, the TAGS is the main oil target in the Rhourde
En NoussRhourde ChoufHassi CherguiGassi Touil
Rhourde AdraBrides region.
Triassic limestoneIntermediate Triassic

The Triassic limestoneIntermediate Triassic was formed
during a period of rifting. It consists of generally
dolomitic clay facies and sandstone sequences of the
Intermediate, which are well developed in the southeast
Triassic depression. Thicknesses vary and are influenced
by the presumed stretching of major faults. It is of limited
interest in terms of reservoir potential. The main oilbearing results have come from the Rhourde En Nouss
and Hassi Chergui region. Within the Berkine basin sandstone, horizons of small extent (SF and SWSFBRSE,
etc.) have produced oils.
Lower Triassic clay sandstone (TAGI)

The TAGI reservoir constitutes the basal series of the
Mesozoic. It is marked by deposits of a fluviatile nature
that are developing throughout the basin.
The TAGI has two main sequences:
the Lower TAGI, or fill series, the extent and thickness
of which are governed by the post-Hercynian paleotopography
the Middle to Upper TAGI, in which channel formation
of an anastomosing, meandering type predominates.
443
3.5*106
0.5
0.1
0
TOC
18
KA-1BIS
HTB-2
441
236
215
NZN-1
402
GEAN-1
GEA-1
NZE-1
BRD-4
406
404
405
237
HSN-1 TG-3
GT-3
214
246
RHA-1 213
DKL-1
3.3*106
AZS-1 RNNE-2 RNSA-3
ARG-1
RNSW-1
DRA-1 RA-4 221 SOH-1
MKS-1
3.25*106
RMN-1
ELA-1 REO-1
208
209
211
210
3.35*106
440
212
243
222
235
OU-101
SED-1
ET-101
TZM-1 TTD-1
ZM-1
THD-1bis
Figure 1.16: Maturity map of the Silurian.
The terminal sequences of the Upper TAGI in the central part and to the
northeast of the Berkine basin are marked by the onset of a marine transgressive period at the base of the Triassic limestones.
Carboniferous reservoirs
Of Strunian to Visean age, Carboniferous reservoirs occur in the form of sandstone intervals within clay-sandstone sequences associated with a shallow
marine depositional environment. The basal Carboniferous has an extent limited to the central part and western edges of the Berkine basin. The trend of
the sandstone facies of a proximal type indicates the predominant role of the
ancient relief of the Amguid-Messaoud and Dahar, which served as the major
source for material. The Strunian-Carboniferous reservoirs have mean thicknesses on the order of 20 to 50 m with excellent petrophysical characteristics.
These sandstones produce condensate gas and oil at Menzel Lejmat (MLN)
and oil at Rhourde El Khrouf (RKF).
Lower Devonian
The Lower Devonian reservoirs are represented by two essential sequences of
the Gedinnian, dominated by a series of massive sandstones of fluviatile type
(post-Caledonian) of mean thickness on the order of 200 m, and the transgressive Siegenian, which has reservoirs in interbedded sandstones corresponding
to the offshore bar and deltaic type. The distribution of facies in the Lower
Devonian is also marked by the influence of the major relief of AmguidMessaoud and detritics entering the Berkine basin from the southeast. These
sandstones with good petrophysical characteristics are known to produce gas
condensate and light oil in the MLSE and MLE area.
Berkine basin source rocks
Mean thickness
TOC
Radioactive Silurian clays
3040 m
3.517%
Radioactive Frasnian clays
1030 m
2.56.6%
Table 1.1: Main Berkine reservoirs.
442
REN-1
3.45*106
0.3
432 BRT-1
ANR-1 401
REL-1 GEF-1
407 403
0.7
3.4*106
Reservoirs
Upper Triassic clay sandstone (TAGS)
444
424
3.55*106
Ordovician
The Hamra quartzites and the Ouargla sandstones are the two main reservoirs
in the Ordovician reservoirs. Presently, they are recognized as having potential
in the area of the southeast Triassic depression (gas and oil at Hamra and
Rhourde En Nouss, and oil at Nezla) and in the Dahar depression (oil in the
Semhari field) on extensions of the Rhourde El Baguel trends. Mean thickness
of these reservoirs is 250 m, and they evolve gradually from the southeast
Triassic depression pinching out toward the northeast toward the TouggourtSemhari region. Production from quartzite reservoirs of this type is associated
with the existence of fracturing.
In the Carboniferous and Devonian, intraformational

clays provide capping. At the edges of the basal basin,
TAGI passages with poor characteristics provide a vertical cap associated with the Triassic limestones.
The Ordovician and Cambrian reservoirs are sealed by the
Silurian clays and intra-Ordovician clays, respectively.
In the Cambrian, the El Gassi clay provides a cap.
Laterally, the vertical throws of faults associated with
structural trends ensure lateral closures.
Cambrian
The Cambrian reservoirs are represented by three units: R1 (Ri and Ra), R2, and
R3. The best reservoirs are found in the Ri and Ra sandstones, which are generally quartzitic. The Cambrian sandstones produce oil at Rhourde El Baguel,
Ain Romana, and Damrane. The Cambro-Ordovician reservoirs recognized so
far are located on the northern and western edges of the Berkine basin.
Seal
The Triassic reservoirs are sealed by the clays of the Triassic
limestonesIntermediate, and evaporites of the Triassic-Liassic. Fault throws
provide a lateral seal in most traps.
NW
BRW-1
Traps
Traps in the Triassic reservoirs are of two types: structural
and stratigraphic (Fig. 1.17). The structural traps are
associated with Hercynian and Austrian compressive
phases. Simple anticlinal traps represent the most prominent example the RKF structure, an unfaulted multiphase
structure. Faulted anticlines are structures against faults
of the Ourhoud and Rhourde En Nouss types.
Stratigraphic gaps are wedges under unconformities
MLSE-1
AKF-1
SE
Aptian
Cretaceous
Jurassic evaporites
TAGI
Hercynian
unconformity
Carboniferous
Cretaceous
Jurassic evaporites
S3+S4
Triassic carbonate
TAGI sand
Carboniferous
F1
F2
F3+4
Frasnian source (mature)

Upper Silurian
Tannezruft/M. Yaha source
Ordovician
Cambrian
Figure 1.17: Traps and migration in the Berkine basin.
19
Hassi Messaoud
432
Rhourde El Baguel
Mesdar
439
Brides
402b
404a
406b
212
246
Hassi Chergui
211
0.0
40.0
Gamma ray
(gAPI) 150.0
Depth
(m)
Results
3,364.0 m
100%
3,373.0 m
402a
406a
Hassi Touareg
237
Toual
Slowness
(s/ft)
140.0
TAGS
Nezla
215
Stage
Keskessa
Silurien radio
System
443b
42%
Liassic
444
Liassic shale
Time
445
3,400
3,407.0 m
100%
3,425.0 m
100%
3,443.0 m
210
235
3,450
TAGI
Silurian radioactive
F6
Frasnian radioactive
Carboniferous
Traps under unconformities can be found in the northwestern part of the basin where the lower Devonian
wedges out onto eruptive rocks or beneath the Triassic.
Sandstone lenses in the Triassic limestones can form
local stratigraphic traps if they lie in the path of hydrocarbon migration.
There are four plays within the Berkine basin: the
Triassic, Carboniferous, Silurian-Devonian, and CambroOrdovician plays (Fig. 1.18).
Triassic play
There are three producing reservoirs in the Triassic play
(Fig. 1.19):
The sandstone of the Upper Triassic clay-sandstone
(TAGS) produces oil in the EMK field.
The sandstone of the Triassic limestones produce oil at
Rhourde En Nouss and Hassi Chergui.
The lower Triassic clay-sandstone (TAGI) produces oil in
the fields of El Borma, Zemlet En Nouss, Keskessa,
BRW, ROM, EME, HBN, HBNS, BKE, etc.; and oil and
gas in the RDB and RERN fields (Table 1.2).
Triassic
TAC
against faults or sandstone wedges associated with

extensions of the Triassic and Carboniferous facies.
These traps are mainly Mesozoic (Triassic) and locally
Paleozoic (lower Devonian and Carboniferous).
3,550
3,600
TINT 1
Berkine basin.
3,650
3,672.0 m
B2 TAGI
Figure 1.18: Extension limits for reservoirs and source rocks in the
3,500
100%
3,690.0 m
Figure 1.19: Oil accumulations within the Triassic.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian and Frasnian clays

Cap rock
Intra-Triassic clays and Triassic-Liassic evaporites
Traps
Structural, associated with faults and anticlinal structures with closure against a
fault; give rise to the juxtaposition of reservoirs within the Triassic-Liassic clay
formations
Table 1.2: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Triassic play.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian and Frasnian clays

Cap rock
Intra-Carboniferous clays
Traps
Structural
Table 1.3: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Carboniferous play.
20
TAGS, TAGI, B1, M1
TINT
Hamra
0.0
Slowness
140.0 (s/ft) 40.0
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
150.0
Carboniferous play
Depth
(m)
Cap rocks
Cores
TAGS
100%
100%
3,240
3,280
Tint. II
TC6.E.SALEE (290 g/L)
3,200
TCEE.SALEE+Tr. H (300 g/L)
Liassic clays
3,160
Tests
The Carboniferous reservoir takes the form of sandstone

intervals within clay-sandstone sequences associated
with a shallow marine depositional environment
(Strunian). The Tournaisian and Visean formations are
fluvio-deltaic. The Visean sandstone produces gas and
condensate at ORD-1. The Tournaisian sandstones produce gas and condensate at Menzel Lejmat. Porosities
are on the order of 20%, and permeabilities range from
86 to 600 mD (MLN-4).
3,320
3,360
3,400
Middle
Triassic clays
Rarely developed in the Berkine basin, the Eifelian reservoir, represented by a sequence that is locally present in
the El Merk region, produces dry gas at EME-1 (Table 1.3).
Tint. I
Silurian-Devonian play
Reservoirs
3,440
3,480
TAGI
100%
DH
100%
100%
100%
100%
3,720
3,760
3,800
TF2.N.REUSSI
3,680
100%
DC
TF3.N.REUSSI TF5.e.SALEE(31.5 g/L)
3,640
TF4.N.REUSSI
3,600
Gedinnian
3,520
3,560
The lower Devonian reservoirs produce gas at MLSE-1, -3,

and MLE. The lower Devonian sandstones are of fluviatile origin.
The clay-sandstone Silurian reservoirs (units M, A, and
B) produce oil and gas at Rhourde En Nouss and
Rhourde Adra.
The Emsian-Siegenian sandstones are productive at
BBK, BRW, ROM, and ZEA.
The Gedinnian sandstone (Tadrart) is massive and of
the continental type. Appreciable quantities of hydrocarbons have been found at BRN, BRSW, and ZEK
(Fig. 1.20).
The Strunian reservoir is producing in the western and
central edges of the Berkine basin at EME, EMK, and
EMN (Table 1.4).
3,840
3,880
100%
100%
3,920
Figure 1.20: Hydrocarbon findings from well REH-2 (Lower Devonian and Triassic).
Source rock Silurian clays

Cap rock
Intra-Devonian clays (Devonian reservoirs)
Traps
Mixed structural and stratigraphic (Devonian reservoirs). Laterally, the vertical

throws of faults associated with structural trends provide lateral closures
Table 1.4: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Silurian-Devonian play.
21
System
Stage
Time
40.0
Depth
(m)
4,800
Azzel shales
4,850
GO
4,950
5,000
5,050
5,100
The hydrocarbon potential outside the ongoing development and production areas is undoubtedly significant.
22
Figure 1.21: Hydrocarbon findings within the Ordovician.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays

Cap rock
El Gassi clays (Cambrian); Azzel clays (Ordovician)
Traps
Mixed structural and stratigraphic (Devonian reservoirs)
Table 1.5: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Cambro-Ordovician play.
100%
TC-1: 271,000 m3/d
Ordovician
4,900
Results and prospects

The Berkine basin is one of the most important hydrocarbon-producing basins. Exploration effort in this basin is
ongoing. Seismic and drilling activity has been extensive,
including:
Around 43,097 km of 2D seismic acquired between
1986 and 2004
Around 8,119 km2 of 3D seismic acquired between
1995 and 2004
Around 215 wells drilled from 1985 to 2004.
4,710.0 m
100%
4,728.0 m
100%
4,746.0 m
100%
4,760.0 m
4,795.0 m
100%
4,798.0 m
4,750
Harnra quartzites
Very extensive diagenesis was caused by compaction

and pressure solution, and often resulted in quartzification of the sediments. The main positive hydrocarbon
results have been found at the Damrane oil field. Other
wells, which have reached the Cambrian, have produced
water or were dry (Table 1.5).
Results
om
The quartzite sandstones of the Cambrian generally have

mediocre petrophysical properties.
Core porosities are low (5% to 6%), and permeabilities
range from 0.01 to 0.16 mD. The fracture network is controlled by the transpressive tectonic and plays a prominent role in oil and gas interests.
Slowness
(s/ft)
140.0
Gamma ray
0.0
(gAPI) 150.0
M. shales
The Hamra quartzite constitutes a massive compact

homogeneous reservoir, fractured with very low matrix
porosities on the order of 4% to 5%. There is significant
fracturing, and this plays a part in encouraging permeability, which ranges from 50 to 100 mD in the Hassi
Larroque structure. Several gas discoveries have been
made in this reservoir: Brides, Nezla, Meksem, and
Rhourde Adra south. The Gassi El Adem produces gas
and oil (Fig. 1.21).
G.O. Saret
5,045.5 m
100%
5,043.3 m
Eastern Province BasinsOued Mya Basin
Oued Mya Basin

The Oued Mya basin is located to the north of the Saharan platform
approximately 600 km to the south of Algiers (Figs. 1.1 and 1.22). It is one of
the most prolific basins in Algeria and contains several oil and gas fields in the
Triassic sandstones, which are the main oil target. These produce gas
condensate with a ring of oil in the giant Hassi Rmel field and oil in the
Berkaoui, Benkahla, and Guellala oil fields. Several other oil fields and
discoveries within the basin produce mainly from the Triassic sandstones but
also from Ordovician quartzite sandstones and Lower Devonian sandstones.
3,800
124b
136c
3,700
106
410
409
408
3,600
421
412
435
420b 419b 418
420a 419a
3,500
The Oued Mya is an intracratonic basin in which the type series of the Triassic
province has developed with a thin Miocene-Pliocene section (0 to 400 m) and
a thick Mesozoic series that can exceed 4,000 m (Fig. 1.5). The latter thickens
toward the northeast of the basin and lies with angular unconformity on the
Paleozoic formations, which have been strongly affected by Hercynian erosion
(Fig. 1.23).
315
314
128b
128a
411
120a
350
422
318
417b 416
438a 417a
438b
438c
425
3,400
300
400
500
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
600
700
Ordovician
Cambrian
Basement
800
900
200 km
Figure 1.23: Subcrop view at the Hercynian discordance.
GZ.0
Field locations and

pipeline network
3,700
Ain Naga
Djelfa
GZ2
Gas field
Oil field
Oil pipeline
Condensate pipeline
LPG pipeline
Gas pipeline
Projected gas pipeline
Projected oil pipeline
Projected LPG pipeline
GG1
GK1
GO2
OZ1
GO1
OB1
GZ3
OK1
ric
Laghouat
NZ1
LZ1
Bordjnili
LNZ1
Meskar
3,650
Bousbaa
Dj Bissa
GPDF
Belektaief
3,600
em
OZ2
oM
ati
ei
GK2
En
3,750
Biskra
GZ1
(G
3,800
Hassi
Rmel South
LR1
LNZ1
3,550
Garet Chouf
Boukhezzana
Ouarsenis North
Oulouga
Ouarsenis
Hassi Rmel
Guellala NE
GR1
Moukhag El Kebach
Oued
Noumer
GR2
El Haicha
Ngoussa
Djorf Zelfana Mellala
Zidane Lakhdar
Draa Temra
Kef El Argoub
Ait Kheir H El Beida
H El Mokta
Ghardaia
Sidi Mezrhich
Guellala
O. Merabia
NH1
3,500
OZ1
OZ2
El Oued
Bir Seba
Rhourde Chegga
Haoud El Hamra
Hassi Messaoud
NH2 Rhourde El Baguel
Bab
Hattaba
Ouargia
Haoud
Berkaoui Ben-Kahla East
Ben-Kahla GR1
OH1
OD1
OD2
GR2
0
GM1
100 km
OH2
LR1
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
Figure 1.22: Oil fields and pipeline network in the Oued Mya basin.
23
The basin is bounded by the Djemaa-Touggourt High

structure to the north, the Mouydir basin to the south,
the Amguid-Messaoud High structure to the east, and
the Allal dome to the west. The main structural elements
trend N-S and NE-SW (Fig. 1.24). The present structural
arrangement of the basin is the result of several tectonic
phases, the most important of which are the Pan-African,
Hercynian, the Triassic-Cretaceous extension, the Austrian,
and the major Alpine phase.
Oued Mya basin

El Mzaid block
Touggourt saddle
Guerara block
NW
The graptolite clays of the radioactive Silurian constitute

the main source rock in the basin. When not affected by
Hercynian erosion, they have a mean thickness of 50 m
and initial TOC content averaging 11%. This excellent
source rock has been in the oil phase since the Upper
Cretaceous. It reaches the gas phase in some very deep
zones (Benoud). Three main kitchen areas are recognized
in the basin: the Benoud and Melrhir trough and the axis
of the Oued Mya depression.
The El Gassi clays and the Azzel clays of the Ordovician
are secondary source rocks. There are two main
reservoirs in the basin: the fluviatile sandstones of the
Triassic, which comprise the
Lower Series unit (center of the basin and south Hassi
Rmel)
T1 unit (north of the central part of the basin and the
Hassi Rmel region)
T2 unit (Hassi Rmel region).
The quartzite sandstones of the Hamra quartzites unit
(Ordovician) are regarded as the main target since the
recent discovery of oil in the Berkaoui structure (Well BKP).
SE
Benoud trough
Tilrhemt dome
Oued Mya basin
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Silurian and Devonian
Devonian
Ordovician
Cambrian
B
A
Touggourt saddle
Oued Mya basin
Hassi Messaoud ridge
A
B
Benoud trough
Tilrhemt dome
Figure 1.24: N-S and NW-SE sections in the Oued Mya basin.
Traps in the basin are of the structural, mixed, or purely stratigraphic type.
Reservoirs are fed vertically through faults and/or laterally along drains
consisting of the reservoir levels.
Petroleum system
Triassic play
There are two main secondary reservoirs:

the sandstones of the Lower Devonian, the quartzite
sandstones of the Ordovician (MKratta slab, Oued
Saret sandstone, Ouargla sandstone, and El Atchane
sandstone), and the Cambrian sandstones
the sandstones and limestones of the Moscovian to the
northwest of the basin and the Jurassic carbonates to
the northeast.
The regional rock seal for the Triassic reservoirs consists
of the evaporites of the Triassic (salt-bearing S4) and the
Liassic (levels S3 to S1). The rock seal of the Paleozoic
reservoirs consists of an interbedded clay series.
24
In the Oued Mya basin, the Triassic corresponds to an Azoic detritic

assemblage covered by the evaporitic deposits of the salt-bearing S4 and
resting with angular unconformity on formations of variable age from the
Cambrian to Lower Devonian. At the base, the basin is bounded by the
Hercynian unconformity, and at the top by the base of dolomite,2 which is of
Hettangian age and regional extent. Palynological dating gives the Triassic
deposits a variable age from Lower Carnian to Rhaetian.
In the Oued Mya basin the Triassic reservoir is subdivided into six lithological
units. From bottom to top, they are the Lower Series, the eruptive rocks, level
T1 (members C and B), level T2 (member A), the lower clays, and salt-bearing
S4. The surface topography of the Hercynian unconformity and the extensional
tectonic regime in the course of Triassic rifting are major factors controlling
the distribution of the Triassic sediments. The latter were deposited in a
semiarid to arid climate over a large surface area in the form of deposits filling
river valleys. The Lower Series, T1 B and C, and T2 A levels constitute the
main reservoirs in the basin. The main source rock for the Triassic reservoirs
in the Oued Mya basin consists of radioactive Silurian clays. Ordovician clays
(El Gassi clays and Azzel clays) are source rocks of lesser importance.
Reservoirs in the Oued Mya basin have been fed by hydrocarbons through
vertical migration along faults and/or lateral migration along permeable
drains.
Moved water
Moved
Moved water hydrocarbon
Moved
hydrocarbon
Oil
Water
Igneous rock
Oil
Water saturation
1.85 (m3/m3) 2.85
Gamma ray
Neutron
(gAPI) 150
45
Quartz
ELAN
fluid
analysis
Density
0.5
(V/V)
Net pay
-15
Water
Bound water
0
Illite
Reservoirs
Lower Series
The Lower Series represents the basal member of the
Triassic and is the main reservoir in the central part of the
depression (block 438). It is represented by an alternation
of brown to green silty clay and white, reddish brown to
greenish fine to coarse sandstones and conglomeratic
sandstones. In the areas proximal to the sources of
sediment, the detritic material is coarser and
conglomerates are abundant (Benkahla, Haoud Berkaoui,
Garet Echouf, and Guellala areas), interbedded with thin
clay strata. They were deposited in a fluviatile
environment of the braided type, with their source in the
Hassi Messaoud and TilrhemtHassi Rmel uplifts,
developing in the north toward deposits of the
meandriform type with a marine influence, which is
increasingly more noticeable in the limestone levels. The
total thickness of the Lower Series averages 50 to 70 m
(varying from 0 to more than 90 m).
Chlorite
Water saturation 0
()
10
Slowness Depth
Gamma ray
Net pay
Resistivity
1:500 100 (%) 0 Impregnated
150 (gAPI) 300 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 140 (s/ft) 40 (m)
0
()
10
3,500
3,520
3,540
The reservoir quality of this unit is largely controlled by

the sedimentary facies and their textural characteristics.
Particle size, cement, and binder concentrations are the
main factors controlling permeability. The sandstones of
the Lower Series underwent the effects of intensive
diagenetic activity to the north of the basin. Pressure
dissolution and the formation of secondary quartz are
common. Anhydrite, carbonate, and salt cements are also
present.
The mean porosities of the Lower Series are 9% to 12%,
and permeabilities can exceed values of 100 mD (Fig. 1.25).
Levels T1 and T2
3,560
3,580
3,600
The T1 and T2 levels are represented by reddish brown

fine to coarse sandstones and silty and slightly dolomitic
reddish brown clays. Sedimentation, like that of the
Lower Series, is characterized by an increase in
substance and thickness toward the northeast. It is
controlled by the new relief created by the emplacement
of the eruptive rocks and the tectonic readjustments
associated with Triassic rifting. Units T1 and T2 were
deposited in a continental fluviatile environment,
progressively passing into fluvio-deltaic sedimentation
toward the northeast. Log correlations show the
Figure 1.25: ELAN results of the reservoir in the Lower Triassic series of the Oued Mya basin.
25
superposition of several sequences corresponding to

channel or point bar deposits. The sandstones are gray
and red, micaceous, coarse at the base, or with clay
pebbles. Reddish brown or greenish gray floodplain clay
strata separate the sequences with the presence of
paleosols. The total thickness of units T1 and T2
averages on the order of 100 m and increases toward the
north, where it can exceed 200 m.
Mean porosities of reservoirs T1 and T2 are 15% to 20%,
and mean permeabilities exceed 200 mD (Table 1.6).
Ordovician play
The Ordovician, which produces oil in several wells in
block 438, starts with deposits evolving from continental
to marine and marking the onset of a marine
transgression, ending in a glacial period. It is subdivided
into eight formations, from bottom to top:
El Gassi clays
El Atchane sandstone
Hamra quartzites
Ouargla sandstone
Azzel clays
Oued Saret sandstone
Microconglomeratic clays
MKratta slab.
Tin Amali (the Tassili of the Ajjer).
26
The Ordovician reservoirs are fed by lateral migration along drains and/or
vertically along faults.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays (primary); Ordovician El Gassi and Azzel clays (secondary)
Cap rock
Thick evaporitic series of salt-bearing S4 of Triassic and S3 to S1 of Liassic;

interbedded clays on a local scale; eruptive rocks of Lower Series
Traps
Structural (lower amplitude structures); mixed structural and stratigraphic

(as in Benkahla structure); stratigraphic (pinchouts and point bars in Lower
Series and T1)
Table 1.6: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Triassic play.
Source rock Silurian clays (primary); El Gassi and Azzel clays (secondary)
Cap rock
Clay series of Ordovician age interbedded between reservoirs; clays of the

radioactive Silurian and the Devonian when clays and eruptive rocks of the Triassic
do not erode them
Traps
Structural; mixed structural and stratigraphic with a lithological component
Table 1.7: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Ordovician play.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays

Cap rock
Overlying clay series of the Lower Devonian and/or clays and eruptive rocks of
the Triassic
Traps
Mixed structural and stratigraphic
Table 1.8: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Devonian play.
Reservoirs
Moved water
Quartz
Moved
hydrocarbon
14 7( ) 0
Depth
Gamma ray
1:800
0
(gAPI) 150
(m)
Perforations
(in.)
Water
Illite
Oil
Chlorite
ELAN
fluid analysis
Volumetric
analysis
NETP
Caliper
4
The El Atchane sandstone, Hamra quartzites, Ouargla

sandstone, Oued Saret sandstone, and MKratta slab
formations have reservoir levels consisting of
sandstones and quartzite sandstones deposited in a
fluviatile and fluvio-glacial environment. They are
regarded as secondary oil targets in the basin. The
MKratta slab reservoir produced oil in some wells to the
northeast of block 438 (MEK). A number of wells drilled
since 2002 in the Berkaoui region have revealed large
accumulations of oil in the Hamra quartzites reservoir,
which is now regarded as the main oil target in the
region. The Ordovician reservoirs are compact (mean
porosity of 7% and permeabilities less than 10 mD). Their
productivity depends on the growth of open fissures and
fractures (Fig. 1.26; Table 1.7).
Bound water
Water
saturation
1 (m3/m3) 0 0.5
(V/V)
0 1
(V/V)
3.840
3,860
Oil
production
Ordovician
3,880
Hamra quartzites
Devonian play
3,900
3,920
3,960
El Atchane sand
3,940
Strongly affected by the Hercynian erosion, only one

clay-sandstone assemblage of the Lower Devonian was
saved from that erosion in the axis of the Oued Mya
depression (Gedinnian-Siegenian) and to the west of
Hassi Rmel (Gedinnian to Emsian in the Benoud trough).
Oil shows have been recorded in several wells in the
center of the basin (block 438) and west of the Hassi
Rmel field (Belktaief structure). Regressive shallow
marine shelftype sandstone bars, interbedded with clay
series, represent the reservoir levels. The sandstones are
of micaceous grains and fine to medium grey-white
silico-clay. Porosity values can exceed 25%, while
permeabilities remain relatively low (less than 100 mD).
In the Oued Mya basin, the sandstone levels of the
Devonian reservoir are saturated with hydrocarbons, yet
they have low resistivities. Also, primary porosity seems to
be preserved by ferruginous chlorite aureoles (Table 1.8).
Cambrian play
The Cambrian consists of a sandstone-conglomerate
assemblage, which is mainly Azoic and was deposited in
a continental fluviatile environment. It is subdivided into
several lithological units, which are, from bottom to top,
Figure 1.26: ELAN results for the Hamra quartzites reservoir.
27
R3, R2, R1 (Ra-Ri), and the alternating zone. Level Ra is

the main reservoir in the Hassi Messaoud field and
where oil is produced.
In the Oued Mya basin, few wells have reached the
Cambrian levels. Reservoirs Ri and Ra are regarded as
secondary oil targets and consist of quartzite sandstones,
in which the reservoir quality depends on diagenesis and
development of fracturing. They have revealed good oil
shows in the Hassi Rmel region (Table 1.9).
Carboniferous (Moscovian) play

Northwest of the Hassi Rmel field (Bordj Nili zone), the
Moscovian constitutes an oil play. It is represented by a
clay-sandstone assemblage on which a limestone
assemblage lies. Its total thickness varies between 0 and
80 m. Well Nl-2, drilled in 1959, recorded oil production
from the sandstone assemblage in tests.
The Moscovian reservoir consists of fine to medium
sandstones, fairly well sorted, interbedded with silts and
black and greenish clays. The total thickness of this
reservoir varies from 5 to 15 m. It has highly variable
reservoir qualities due to facies variations. In Well NL-2,
porosities reach 19% and permeabilities reach 850 mD.
Seismic and lithological data on the limestone sequence
suggest the possibility of the development of reef forms
to the north of the Bordj Nili area (Fig. 1.27; Table 1.10).
Jurassic play
The limestone levels of the Jurassic (Malm and Dogger)
have shown interesting oil shows to the north of the
Oued Mya basin (Djemaa-Touggourt region and Melrhir
trough) where they form an oil play. The Jurassic
3,750
3,700
409
408
Hassi Rmel
Barrier reef
Subtidal zone
Intertidal zone
420
0 10 km
Figure 1.27: Paleogeography of the Moscovian deposits (Carboniferous) in

the Bordj Nili region.
28
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays (primary); Ordovician where throws of faults have
permitted lateral migration
Cap rock
Paleozoic clays (alternating zone to Devonian); clays, eruptive rocks, and evaporites
of the Triassic to Liassic when they crop out beneath the Hercynian unconformity
Traps
Mixed structural and stratigraphic
Table 1.9: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Cambrian play.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays (primary), which are in a gas phase of maturity in the
Benoud trough; Jurassic clays and limestones and Ordovician clays (secondary)
Cap rock
Carboniferous clays and limestones; Triassic and Liassic clays and evaporites
Traps
Stratigraphic, associated with the lenticular nature of the sandstone bodies and
the reef bodies in the limestone levels
Table 1.10: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Carboniferous (Moscovian) play.
Source rock Clay and limestone levels of the Jurassic, which are rich in organic matter and are
in the oil phase in the Melrhir trough
Cap rock
Clay formations and compact limestone levels interbedded between reservoir levels
Traps
Structural, mixed structural and stratigraphic, or purely stratigraphic
Table 1.11: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Jurassic play.
formation encloses several sandstone and limestone reservoir levels, with

good to very good reservoir qualities and encouraging oil shows in some wells
in the basin (Table 1.11).

Exploration efforts in the Oued Mya basin have resumed in the past five years
with several discoveries of oil. Particular attention has been paid to the
possibility of extending the Triassic fields, particularly Berkaoui and Benkahla,
and to developing the system of open fractures in the deep targets (Hamra
quartzites in the Ordovician). Thus, several recent discoveries have been made
in the basin:
an oil field, Benkahla East, discovered in the Lower Series reservoir (Triassic)
to the east of the Benkahla field (Well BKHE-1, 1999)
an oil discovery in the Hamra quartzites reservoir of the Ordovician in the
Berkaoui region (Well BKP-1, 2002)
an oil discovery in the Triassic reservoirs T1 and Lower Series to the west of
the Berkaoui field (Wells BKO-1 to 3, conducted between 2001 and 2005)
two oil discoveries between the Berkaoui and Benkahla fields and to the
north of Berkaoui, in the Lower Series reservoir (Well BKRE-1, 2005) and in
the Hamra quartzites reservoir (Well NHN-1, 2005).
Modeling and geochemical balances in the Oued Mya basin show that a very
large volume of hydrocarbons (approximately 3 to 4 times the total discovered
so far) remains to be discovered in different types of traps (structural, mixed
and stratigraphic traps, extension of fields, and deep targets).
Eastern Province BasinsIllizi Basin
Illizi Basin
Tags Domain
RN
Rhourd Trend
HR
Amguid El Biod
The Illizi basin (Fig. 1.28), which has a surface area of 108,424 km2, has been
the location of a major exploration effort that began in 1956 with the discovery of Edjeleh. Since then, at least 413 exploration wells and 281 evaluation
wells have been drilled with a success rate of 23%.7
Maouar
OH
TFT
ALR
he Mesozoic
t of t
Limi
ZR
Illizi Basin
TG
There have been 54 oil discoveries and 44 gas discoveries, which have given
rise to fields such as Tin Fouy, Zarzaitine, Edjeleh, Alrar, Ohanet, and Stah.
Ajjers Tassili
Cen.
Gas field
Oil field
Source rock wedge beneath
the Mesozoic and outcrops
Frasnian
Silurian
HC expulsion
ALR - Alrar
GT - Gassi Touil
HR - Hamra
OH - Ohanet
RN - Rhourde Nouss
TFT - Tin Fouy-Tabankort
TG - Tiguentourine
0 100 km
ZR - Zarzaitine
Oil
Oil-Gas
Oil
Oil
Oil-Gas
Gas
Oil
Oil-Gas
Gas
Silurian Devonian Carbonif
Figure 1.28: Regional setting of the Illizi basin.
Upper
Cretaceous
Lower
Lower Middle Upper
Jurassic
Trias
Dolomites
Shaly sandstones
29
Dolomitic shales
Anhydritic shales
Sandstones/shales
Upper
28
Limestones
Shales/limestones
Shales
27
Upper
F2
Sandstones/shales
Middle
Lower
Sandstones/shales
Sandstones/shales
Lower
Carboniferous
30
Sandstones/shales
Caledonian unconformity
Sandstones/shales
Shales
Cambro-Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Limestones
Gypseous shales
y a
L i b
Mesozoic
Hoggar
Shaly sandstones
Top uncorformity
Paleozoic
Seal rock
Facies
Reservoir
Age
Source rock
The Illizi basin is a shallow marine basin located close to a continental margin subjected to a period of intense erosion that resulted in the establishment
of a major Paleozoic sedimentary column (Figs. 1.29a and 1.29b).8 This basin,
of the polycyclic type, has a Mesozoic sequence that is separated from the
Sandstones
Taconic unconformity
Precambrian
Basement
Crystalline
Metamorphic
Sandstones/shales
Quartzites
F3
F4
F5
F6
IV-2/3
III-3
II+III-2
2 km
10
Middle Devonian
Lower Devonian
Silurian shaly sandstones
Silurian argillites
Ordovician
Cambro-Ordovician
Tiguentourine
Westphalian F
Westphalo-Namurian E, Namurian D
Visean C
Visean B
Tournaisian A
Upper Devonian
Figure 1.29: a) Lithostratigraphic section and b) pre-Mesozoic subcrop map.
29
3,000
Ajjers Tassili
Tadjentourt Plateau
2,000
TXH-2
Pf=1,053 m
Tinhert Plateau
Grand Erg Oriental
TE-101
IRLW-1
WHB-1
TXF-2
AH-101
OU-101
Pf=1,560 m Pf=2,626 m Pf=2,610 m Pf=2,924 m Pf=2,947 m Pf=4,079 m
HAD-1
Pf=4,102 m
RE-1
BTR-1
BRT-1
Pf=4,126 m Pf=3,477 m Pf=3,600 m
1,000
0
-1,000
Cross Section Location
-2,000
BHT-1
BHR-1
-3,000
Tu n i s i a
Illizi Basin
RE-1
HAD-1
-4,000
Ahara Ridge
L i b y a
OU-101
AH-101
TE-101
IRLW-1
-5,000
TXF-2
WHB-1
TXH-2
-6,000
Depth, m
Berkine Basin
110
220
330
440
550
660
770
Distance, km
Dunes
Eocene
Senonian
Turonian
Cenomano-Turonian
Cenomanian
Albian
Neocomian
Malm
Dogger
Liassic
Triassic
Westphalo-Namurian
Namurian
Upper Visean
Lower Visean
Tournaisian
Upper Devonian
Middle Devonian
Lower Devonian
Silurian clay-sandstone
Silurian clays
Ordovician (Unit IV)
Ordovician (Unit III)
Cambrian
Basement
Figure 1.30: South/north geologic cross section of the Illizi basin.
Paleozoic sequence by the Hercynian unconformity,

which gives rise to the most important oil-bearing systems (Cambro-Ordovician and Devonian reservoirs) in the
region (Fig. 1.30).1
Unit IV
Petroleum system
SW
Unit IV corresponds to the terminal complex of the Ordovician. Its thickness

varies from 10 to 350 m, and it consists of fluvio-glacial to periglacial deposits
(Fig. 1.31).
SE
Upper Ordovician Glacial Fill
Reservoirs
Unit II
Unit II is of Cambrian age. Its mean thickness is 250 m,
and it consists of fluvio-deltaic deposits. This unit is producing in the West Ihansatene, East Tiguentourine, Ouan
Taredert, and Collenias dome fields.
Prograding glacial
deltas
Unit III-2
Unit III-2, belonging to the Ordovician, consists of fine to
coarse quartzite sandstones of thicknesses varying from
0 to 200 m. This reservoir produces through fracturing at
Hassi Tabtab and Assekaifaf.
In Tahouil Fm.
100 m
Intra-valley glacial
pavement
Basal glacial pavement
Mass flow
Prograding glacial deltas
2 km
Figure 1.31: Upper Ordovician glacial fill sediments.
30
Ribbon channel
Microconglomeratic
greenish shales
Subunits IV-3 and IV-2 have porosities of 5% to 15% and produce gas at Tin
Fouy, West Amnas, Tiguentourine, Zarzaitine, and Irlalene.
Hydrodynamism plays an important role in the Tin Fouy field; for example, the
distribution of fluids in the Ordovician is controlled by a hydrodynamic flow of
the aquifer (Table 1.12).
Siluro-Devonian play (F6, F5, and F4 reservoirs)

Reservoirs
F6 reservoir
The F6 mega reservoir produces oil and gas in the Illizi basin. It consists of a
clay-sandstone assemblage subdivided from bottom to top into eight units:
M1, M2, A, B1, B2, C1, C2, and C3. This lithostratigraphic series can be divided
into a lower series belonging to the Upper Silurian (Ludlow) and an upper
series of Lower Devonian age (Praguian). The reservoir levels consist of shallow marine sandstones (M1) and fluviatile sandstones (A, B1, C1, C2, and C3).
F6 has the highest porosity and permeability values in the region. Porosity
reaches 20% to 25%, and permeability varies from 0.1 to several hundred
millidarcies.
F6 is present over virtually all the basin apart from the northwestern section
where it is partly eroded.
The reservoirs in F6 produce oil at Tin Fouy, West Djoua, Ahara, Tinrhert,
Gara Tisselit, Tin Mesnagune, and others.
F5 and F4 reservoirs
Reservoirs F5 and F4 form part of a clay-sandstone sequence of Middle
Devonian age that were deposited in a meandering fluviatile system. The
thickness of this sequence is 40 to 50 m, with good petrophysical properties.
These reservoirs are producing at Assekaifaf, El Adeb Larach, and Taradert
(Table 1.13).
Source rock Silurian clays

Cap rock
Intraformational clays and a thick Silurian clay sequence 200 to 500 m thick
Traps
Structural (mainly anticlinal and sometimes faulted)
Table 1.12: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Cambro-Ordovician play.
Source rock Silurian clays and basal Frasnian

Cap rock
Intraformational clays
Traps
Structural (mainly anticlinal and sometimes faulted)
Table 1.13: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the F6-F5-F4 play.
31
Upper Devonian play (F3 and F2 reservoirs)

Reservoirs
F3 reservoir
Reservoir F3 consists of tidal bars from 0 to 30 m thick. It exists only in the
northeastern part of the basin between the Tihemboka and Ahara uplifts, and
it has a porosity of 10% to 15%. F3 is producing at Alrar, Stah, and Mereksene.
F2 reservoir
Interbedded in the form of sandy lenses within Upper Devonian deposits, the
F2 reservoir has sandstone levels generally less than 5 m thick but can locally
reach 15 to 20 m. F2 is producing at Ouan Dimta and Issaouane (Table 1.14).

Cap rock
Middle and Upper Devonian clays, which provide a seal; capped by a thick
Carboniferous clay series
Traps
Structural, but with erosion wedges in the Devonian of the Illizi basin; stratigraphic
(F3 at Alrar)
Table 1.14: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the F3-F2 play.
Carboniferous play
Reservoirs
The reservoir levels of the carboniferous consist of sandstone lenses that are
producing at Edjeleh, Tiguentourine, Zarzaitine, and Hassi Tabtab. These
reservoir levels are less than 30 m thick. Their petrophysical properties are
poor to medium, but they can improve locally (Table 1.15).

Cap rock
Thick Carboniferous clay deposits
Traps
Structural
Table 1.15: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Carboniferous play.
Upper Triassic clay-sandstone play

Reservoirs
In the Illizi basin, the only Triassic reservoir is the Upper Triassic clay sandstone (TAGS), which corresponds to the salt-bearing S4 in the center of the
Berkine. This formation, which has a very restricted extent, is located on a narrow fringe to the northwest of the basin forming the boundary between the
Berkine and Illizi basins.
The discovery at El Ouar South 1 (EOS 1), with an oil flow of 12 m3/h, revealed
the oil potential of the TAGS, despite being close to the limit of its extent.
32
NW
SE
Brine
(250 g/L)
Upper Zarzaitine
Fresh water
(<10 g/L)
Maouar High
F6 fresh water
Middle Zarzaitine
Lower Zarzaitine
Silurian clays
DH
Cambro-Ordovician
(200-300 g/L)
Figure 1.32: Hydrodynamic model in the northwest region of the Illizi basin.
The TAGS has good primary porosity; the particle size is coarse and clay content fairly low. These good petrophysical properties are proved by the test
results: 12 m3/h of oil at EOS-1, 7 m3/h of brine at BTF-1, and 10 m3/h of brine at
MDB-1. The best mean porosities were recorded at MDB-1 at 13% and EOS-1
at 11%, with mean permeabilities of 18 and 10 mD, respectively (Table 1.16).
trolled hydrodynamic system throughout the basin. This

is why, at the level of reservoir F6, hydrodynamic phenomena play an important part in trapping hydrocarbons.
The Tin Fouy field in the Illizi basin is the best example
of a field that has been affected by hydrodynamic activity (Fig. 1.32).9

Cap rock
Another specific feature of the region is the presence of

dolerites, which, although not very widespread within
the basin, have an impact on the trapping of hydrocarbons. These magmatic rocks are located in the northern
part of the basin and are interbedded with Ordovician,
Silurian, and Devonian strata. After the intrusion of the
dolerites in the sedimentary series, certain traps such as
those of Stah and Mereksen formed (Fig. 1.33). However,
in many cases, these dolerites formed extrusively during
the sedimentary deposits.
Thick assemblage of Triassic salt-bearing and Liassic clays
Table 1.16: Source rock and cap rock in the Upper Triassic clay-sandstone play.
Traps
The discovery at El Ouar South 1 (EOS-1) demonstrated the interest of the
TAGS wedges to the north of Illizi. The Illizi region is characterized by the
presence of oil accumulations affected by active hydrodynamism. In fact,
after the Hercynian, orogenesis lifting of the Hoggar set up a gravity-con-
SW
Intrusive limit
28
21
NE
11
19
2,105 24
16
4
ect
XS
SW
21
15
140
28
12
ion
23
106
STAH-22
107
108
STAH-2 STAH-1 bis

109
110
111
STAH-19
112
113
114
STAH-17
115
116
8
14
0s
NE
75 TST 4
STAH-3
17
18
5
Seismic line
75 TST 04
2,130
Liassic
Hercynian
unconformity
1s
2,145
10
2,115
24
24
S = 40 km
A = 40 ms
Fpd = 128 m
16
2,100
F2
Fras. unconf.
Base A
2s
Ordovician
Figure 1.33: Doleritic intrusions of the Stah area.
33
SE
NW
DJW-1
EDY-1
TRN-1
IRLW-1
TG-2
HFO-1 HFA-1
TRT-1
TEL-1
Bottom pick radioactive

Middle Devonian shales
Frasnian unconformity
Caledonian unconformity
F4
F5
B2
B1
A1
M2
C3
C2
C1
M1
0
Silurian shales
20 km
Figure 1.34: NW-SE cross section across the west flank of the Tihemboka arch.

Within the Illizi basin it has been established that the identified structural traps
that have not yet been drilled are small, and evaluations show that a large volume of oil and gas remains to be discovered: 217 x 109 barrels of oil and 302 Tcf
of gas. These hydrocarbons are in hydrodynamic or stratigraphic traps in the
Paleozoic and Triassic reservoirs.
Our present state of knowledge enables us to locate stratigraphic traps in the
eastern part, which are generally associated with Silurian-Devonian sedimentation, such as the Silurian-Devonian wedges in the Tihemboka sector
(Fig. 1.34).
In the northwestern part, toward the Ahara uplift, areas of facies change and
wedges in the siliceous clastic formations of the Cambro-Ordovician unit have
been identified (Fig. 1.35).10
Ahara arch
OTN-1 IA-101
North flank
ET-101
OU-101
IV-4
Unit IV
South flank
Unit II
IV-3
IV-2
III-3 III
Ashgill to Llandovery (Unit IV-4)

Ashgill (Unit IV-3)
Ashgill (Unit IV-2)
Caradocian to Llanvirnian (Unit III-3)
Arenigian (Unit III-2)

Tremadocian (Unit III-1)
Cambrian (Unit II)
Figure 1.35: N-S cross section 1 across the Ahara arch.
34
Ahara arch
South flank
WIB-1
WIH-2
EDY-1
North flank
TE-101
OT-101
OTN-1
IA-101
Unit II
Unit III
III-1 III-2 III-3
Unit IV
IV-4
WHB-1
Ashgill to Llandovery (Unit IV-4)

Ashgill (Unit IV-3)
Ashgill (Unit IV-2)
Caradocian to Llanvirnian (Unit III-3)
Arenigian (Unit III-2)

Tremadocian (Unit III-1)
Cambrian (Unit II)
Figure 1.36: N-S cross section 2 across the Ahara arch.
All these new concepts, which are likely to be applied to relaunch exploration
in the Illizi basin, have been reinforced by the recent first discovery of oil in
Unit IV-1.
TAKW-1: 3.67 m3/h of oil and 460 m3/h of gas in Unit IV-1 of the Ordovician,
and 3.81 m3/h in Unit C (Lower Devonian F6)
TAKE-1: 1,524 m3/h of gas and 1.04 m3/h of condensate in Unit IV-1 of the
Ordovician.
W
WIA-1
These two wells were drilled in the perimeter of Gara

Tesselit. They prospected a mixed trap with three componentsstratigraphic, structural, and diageneticand
two wells are scheduled in the near future to confirm this
type of trap.
The basin has future gas potential, particularly in the
horst area of In Amnas and Alrar (Figs. 1.36 and 1.37).
E
NIA-1
ZR-1
Silurian clays
Unit IV
Unit III
Unit II
Basement
Location of wells IFT-1 and IFT-2
North In Amnas North Horst In Amnas Alrar
Figure 1.37: Cross section of the Ordovician across wells WIA-1, NIA-1, and ZR-1.
35
Masked character displayed at the In Ouarenhat shelter (the Tassili of the Ajjer). A sacred object, the mask is a forerunner of the first African art masks. The Round Heads period
prefigures Negritude art and civilization (85 cm high).
36

Ahnet-Gourara Basin
39
Gourara North Basin
45
48
Reggane Basin
53
Tindouf Basin
58
Taoudenni Basin
62
Sba Basin
68
37

The Western region of the Saharan platform covers several geologic basins
totaling more than 650,000 km2 in surface area, of which 195,710 km2 are currently undergoing exploration and 206,620 km2 prospecting. These are the
basins of Ahnet-Gourara, Bechar, Reggane, Tindouf, Taoudenni, Sba, and
Gourara North. These basins are separated by structual uplifts such as Azzel
Mati, Djoua, Azzne, Ougarta, and Bou Bernous (Fig. 1.1). Gas in the Sahara
was first discovered in the Djebel Berga-1 well, which was drilled from a surface anomaly in the Ahnet basin in 1953. Since then, several gas discoveries
have been made, mainly in the Cambro-Ordovician and the Devonian.
Better known as a gas region, the Western region nevertheless contains several oil deposits. The first indications of oil were noted in the Reggane and
Tindouf basins at the beginning of exploration in the 1950s. In the early 1980s,
the first discovery of commercial quantities of oil was made in the Sba basin
in the Carboniferous, known as the Sba sandstone, and in the upper
Devonian. Oil was also discovered in commercial quantities in the
Ordovicianmuch to the surprise of the geologists who always considered
this often deep reservoir as holding only dry gas in this part of the Saharan
platform. The search for liquid hydrocarbons thus became an important part of
exploration programs in the region. The presence of gas condensate in several
reservoirs, as shown by one of the latest discoveries in the north of Gourara,
confirmed the existence of an important liquid hydrocarbon potential in the
Western region.
More than 320 exploration and step-out wells have been drilled over the entire
region, totaling 60 discoveries that include 7 gas fields. According to geochemical surveys, the volumes discovered to date are a long way from the
total volumes of hydrocarbons probably trapped. Hence, over the last few
years, the gradual introduction of 3D seismic has reinforced the desire and the
need to find increasingly complex, unconventional trap types, such as stratigraphic traps and channels that may contain very large volumes of hydrocarbons.
38
Western Province BasinsAhnet-Gourara Basin
Ahnet-Gourara Basin
Geologic context
The Ahnet-Gourara basin is located in the central-western part of Southern

Algeria. Covering a surface area of 121,164 km2, the Ahnet-Gourara is one of the
sedimentary basins having the highest dry gas potential in the Saharan platform.11
The Ahnet-Gourara basin is one of the gas-producing

Paleozoic basins running along the northern flank of the
African Craton. This basin preserves a thick sedimentary
sequence from the Cambro-Ordovician to the
Carboniferous, which are essentially clastic and partly
carbonated sediments in the basal part of the Silurian
and the Middle and Upper Devonian (Fig. 1.38).
Carboniferous
Source rock
Key reservoir
Schematic
Coastal
Onlap
Chart
Land NNW
Gourara
Djoua
Ahnet
SSE
C30
325
ViseanNamurian
Key events
Stratigr. seq.
Age 106 yr
cycles
Stage
Period
The Berga 1 well was the first drilled in this part of the Saharan platform in
1953. More than 50,000 km of 2D seismic and 1,660 km2 of 3D seismic data
have been acquired, and 150 wells have been drilled. This effort, carried out
mostly by Sonatrach, has revealed 45 accumulations of dry gas of sizes ranging
from 1 to 250 Bcm, with a proven gas potential estimated at 760 Bcm (~26 Tcf),
possible reserves of more than 600 Bcm (20 Tcf), and resources of up to 1,500
Bcm (~50 Tcf). 11
C20
345 4
TM C15
urs
RM C10 S-B
Tournaisian
355
Lower
Strunian
D70
Famennian
365
Frasnian
TM D65 urs
Devonian
Middle
375
Givetian
380
Eifelian
D60
390
Emsian
Upper
D50 urs
400
D40
Siegenian
RM
390
Gedinnian
D20 urs
D10 S-B
410
Pridoli
Ludlow
Silurian
S20
Unit IV
430
S15 urs
Wenlock
440
Llandovery 435
Dalle MKT
Clays MICRO
TM S10 S-B
RM O70
urs
O60
GEGolea
400
GOSaret
U III-3
Ordovician
S-B
D30
Azzel shales
U III-2
Hamra quartz
U III-1
El Gassi shales
O50 S-B
O40 urs
470
Cambrian
Marine sand
Fluvial sand
O30 S-B
500
540
TM C20 urs
RM C20 S-B
Marine shale
Marine carbonate and calcareous mudstone
Slope mudstone
Tidal sand body
Shelf silt and thin sand

Carbonate mud mounds
Figure 1.38: Sedimentary charge and stratigraphy of the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
39
Deformations in this region are marked by a series of

folds associated with extensive reverse faults, essentially
associated with the Hercynian stage. Overlapping compartments deformed by reverse faults are also found.
The third system in the north of the basin consists of the Tournaisian sandstones, which are capped and probably fed by mudstones of the same age.
Allal Dome
Timimoun Basin
MJB Saddle
RE
m
Do
GS
dle
ad
B
a
Sb
Petroleum systems
ow
ult
T-T
I
Mouydir Basin
Arak Fa
ng
Djoua Saddle
AM
TT
ren
Oue
Ahnet East
ne
erra
dK
sin
e Ba
gan
Reg
Ahnet West
lt
Fau
40
Ra
rta
The second system in the Lower Devonian consists of

three unitsthe Gedinnian, the Siegenian, and the
Emsian. These reservoir levels, representing more than
ga
The Cambro-Ordovician system produces dry gas from a

number of accumulationsthe most important being
Bahar El Hammar and Garet El Guefoul. These consist of
three unitsthe Hamra quartzite, capped by the Azzel
and Tiferouine mudstones; the Oued Saret sandstone;
and the El Gola sandstonewhich are overlain by
Silurian shale. Hydrocarbons were probably fed in from
the radioactive Silurian hot shale and, secondarily, mudstones of the same age whose source rock characteristic
is maintained at the top.
Ou
Data from wells drilled in the Ahnet-Gourara basin have

revealed three gas-producing systems, which are independent from a hydrodynamic point of view.11,12
Idjerrane Ridge
ne
In Salah-Djou
a Axis
ze
Az
Folding is generally asymmetrical and trending northwest, in a direction parallel to the Ougarta range. N-S
trends are apparent in the southern part of the basin. The
Djoua saddle, the highest feature, creates a division
between the two subbasinsthe Ahnet to the south and
the Gourara to the north (Fig. 1.39). As a result of its marginal position during the rifting at the start of the
Paleozoic, the region includes a thick sequence of postrifting deposits. The structures of Hercynian age have only
been very slightly modified by post-Hercynian phases,
which folded and reactivated a number of faults.12,13
65% of the reserves in the basin, are covered by a thick mudstone sequence
of Middle Devonian age and are fed with hydrocarbons from shale of the same
age and Silurian shale.
Ahnet Central
Arak
Ridge
Ahnet Gourara limits
Regional trends
Major faults
Top of the Ordovician outcrops
Southem limit of the Cretaceous
Cambro-Ordovician outcrop
Infra-Cambrian
0
100 km
0
Figure 1.39: Structural map and tectonic elements of the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
100 km
Source rocks and charging

Analysis of geochemical data from the various wells in the basin shows that
all the Paleozoic shale have source rock qualities, the main ones being the
radioactive black graptolite hot shale from the base of the Silurian and the
carbonaceous shale sequence of the Givetian-Frasnian.
Basin modeling tests have shown that the organic matter from the Silurian
and Givetian-Frasnian source rocks achieved maturity toward the end of the
Upper Devonian (360 x 106 yr). This event corresponded to maximum burial.
Formation
tops
Depth
1:5,000
(m) 0
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
Slowness
150 140
40
(s/ft)
D65
500
The main hydrocarbon-generating phase occurred in this period, which produced most of the hydrocarbon potential.
A redistribution of quantities of gas probably occurred during the Hercynian
uplift and hydrocarbon migration that began at the end of the Devonian and continued throughout the Carboniferous to the end of the Paleozoic (Fig. 1.40).11,12
D60
Well AFF-1
C
P Tr
1,000
D40
TT
D30
D20
D20.1 1,500
S20
1,000
50
70
2,000
80
90
2,000
3,000
110
070.9
130
070.4
050
4,000
Depth, m
030
5,000
500
400
300
200
100
2,500
Age, million years

Frasnian
Silurian
Reservoirs
3,000
All the Paleozoic sandstones can be regarded as potential reservoir rocks, and
the main gas-producing levels are the Ordovician, Gedinnian, Siegenian,
Emsian, and Tournaisian.11,12
Ordovician reservoirs
The El Gola sandstones are of shallow marine fluvio-glacial type. The grains
are fine to coarse and well cemented. This unit is marked by major variations
in facies and thickness. Porosities vary from 5% to 14%.
3,500
Figure 1.40: Source rock richness and maturity.
41
-0.15
Emsian
D55
C1 DST#1
D50
2,700
D40.2 C2
Siegenian
The Gedinnian reservoir facies is associated with a continental plateau environment dominated by tides and
storms and takes the form of meter-sized sand banks
alternating with thin shale layers. The thickness of the
useful sandstones varies between 10 and 65 m. The
sandstones are made up of fine to medium grains, relatively well sorted, with a clay to clay-siliceous cement.
Porosities vary from 10% to 15%. The depositional environment and the chlorite/silica ratio are the main factors
controlling reservoir qualities (Fig. 1.41).11,12
m3/h
Gedinnian reservoirs
2,800
D40.1
C3
C4
D30
2,900
Gedinnian
C5
Siegenian reservoirs
The Siegenian formation is marked by a thick continuous
series of sandstones associated with a fluviatile environment with marine influences. These sandstones are
fine to medium and strongly quartzitic. There is no regular distribution of reservoir qualities, and porosity can
vary from 1% to 20%. Reservoir qualities are controlled
by the silica/chlorite ratio.
D20
3,000
D10
Emsian reservoirs
42
3,100
Figure 1.41: Lower Devonian reservoirs of the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
S20
Silurian
The Emsian reservoirs, represented by coarse and even

conglomeratic sandstones deposited in an estuarine
environment, are of limited extent. The net sandstone
thickness varies between 5 and 25 m, and porosity is on
the order of 20%. The key factors are associated with
incised valley deposits and the level of burial of the sediments (Fig. 1.41).
Observations
(m3/m3)
10,490
150 0.45
DST
40
NPHI
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
(s/ft)
Stage
140
Depth
1:1,000
0
(m)
Cores
Slowness
Sequence
The Hamra quartzites are of a shallower marine fluviatile

type, very fine to coarse with porosities of 3% to 8%.
Fracturing is the key factor controlling Ordovician reservoir qualities.
Caliper
6
Depth
1:500
(m)
(in.)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
16
Water saturation
200 100
(%)
Gas
Illite
Water
Sandstone
Porosity
0 50
(%)
Tournaisian reservoirs
ELAN volumes
0 1
(V/V)
2,000
The Tournaisian sandstones are marked by fluvio-estuarine to deltaic-type facies. These are medium to coarse
sandstones several meters thick with oblique crossbedding and ripple marks at the top of the sequence. The
thickness of the clean sandstones varies from 2 to 25 m
with maximum porosities of 24%; permeabilities reach
400 mD. The main factor controlling reservoir qualities is
the depositional environment (Fig. 1.42).
Seal and preservation

2,020
2,040
The thick sequence of Silurian mudstone forms an excellent rock seal for the reservoirs in Unit-IV (the MKratta
slab, the El Gola sandstone, and the Oued Saret sandstone). The distribution of potentiometric pressures indicates a gravity flow system. Nevertheless, the influence
of meteoric water is minimal. The Middle Devonian
shales, which are continuous on the regional scale, form
an excellent rock seal for the Lower Devonian reservoirs.
On the local scale, the Lower Devonian shales, particularly those of the Gedinnian, form a rock seal.
2,060
The manner in which the potentiometric pressures are

distributed in this reservoir indicates that the reservoirs
are discontinuous and that there is no large-scale circulation of fluids.
Figure 1.42: Lower Carboniferous reservoirs of the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
The Tournaisian clays and mudstones form a rock seal for

the Tournaisian reservoirs. Potentiometric pressures
decrease from the Gourara subbasin toward the Ahnet
subbasin.
Dunes and sandstone on the Tadrart plateau, a magical landscape (from the Lower Devonian).
43
Traps
Exploration in the Ahnet-Gourara basin has concentrated
on structures of an anticlinal or faulted anticlinal type.
The most recent work, however, has shown that traps
may be of the combined type, which may be associated
with incised valley fills (Fig. 1.43), pinchouts, or permeability barriers. Permeability barrier traps are possible but
have not yet been proven. More complex traps, such as
those associated with slumped (footfall) blocks, are possible but have not been explored very much. This type of
trap is frequent on the periphery of the depressions,
notably in the Djoua saddle.11
84mk98
100
0
105
110
115
120
125
129
120
125
129
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
2,200
2,400
The Ahnet-Gourara basin, which has seen significant

exploration activity since the early 1950s, has a huge
potential for gas. Seismic workboth 2D and 3Dand
drilling have estimated reserves at more than 26 Tcf subdivided into 45 discoveries of highly variable size.11
2,600
2,800
2,992
100
TH102
96mk18
105
96mk19
110
84mk94
TH101
96mk20
115
Figure 1.43: Trapping style of the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
Analysis of the data has shown that the Ahnet-Gourara

basin is rich in hydrocarbons, and the unexplored potential has been estimated at more than 50 Tcf (Fig. 1.44).
ECF
Five possibilities have been defined for maximum discovery of additional volumes:
determination of the boundaries of existing discoveries
new mapped structures
evaluation of deep reservoirs
evaluation of tight reservoirs
exploration of mixed (structural and stratigraphic)
traps.
The resources are significant but require a new approach
and more appropriate exploration methods. Despite
intensive exploration, the geologic risk remains fairly
high in some locations that have not been well explored,
and the uncertainties are mainly associated with
low pressures related to shallow reservoirs in the
Ordovician that have been found in some discoveries
the multilayer nature of the reservoirs in the Lower
Devonian, particularly those of the Gedinnian
low reservoir resistivities in the Lower Devonian, which
could prove a serious problem for interpretation when
distinguishing saturation by hydrocarbons from saturation by formation water.
44
Timimoun
Belrhazi
OFN
Moussa
Hassi Mahdjib
TBR Iraharene
ODA
Zerafa
Rekani
Zerafa O.
Oued Saret
Hassi Chebaba
ZRSW
Krechba
Hassi
Hassi
Chebaba
Barouda
South
Abiod
Daiet Adrek
Afflisses
Teguentour
Drina
Hassi Yakour
Reg
IRS
Oued Abid
Bouhadid
Toua
O. Hamou
Oued Zine
Gour Nefrat
Foukroun
Decheira O. Sba
Decheira
Azzene
Foukroun E
Adrar
Bouteraa
Hassi IIatou N-E
Oued Tourhar
Hassi IIatou
Garet El Guefoul Garet El Befinat
Cambrian Hassi IIatou
A6
Djoua Hassi Moumene E
A1
Hassi Moumene
Hassi MSari
GET
A3
A5
MHF
A4
In Salah
In Salah
Tioulinine
A2 Tit
Tigfermas
SMH
GMD
Reggane
Hassi
ZN
Djebel Hassine
AEN
A3
Reggane
A8 MSI Berga
BZW
DT
BZN
Mekerrane N.
Azrafil S-E A4 A2
A7
BZ
A11
MH
TC TCN
MG
Bahar El Hammar
THN
MKRS
TH
Azzel Matti
OTS
TB
KDo
GMT
HM
DMS
Adrar Morat
0
Figure 1.44: Discoveries and prospects in the Ahnet-Gourara basin.
100 km
Western Province BasinsGourara North Basin
Gourara North Basin

The area under study corresponds to the northern end of the Gourara basin,
together with its western margin, and the Allal dome, which is the northern
extension of the Idjerane uplift. The Oued Namous dome forms its western
border (Fig. 1.45). It is an extensive mining domain in southwestern Algeria
that is underexplored. The small number of wells is one reason for the poor
understanding of the hydrocarbon system. However, two recent major discoveries in the northern part of the Gourara basin and the Allal dome in the
Strunian reservoir suggest possibilities for prospects, particularly because
these results were obtained in completely different geologic contexts. The
stratigraphic series is equivalent to that described in the Gourara basin. This
series is represented by deposits from the Cambrian to the intercalary continental (Fig. 1.38).
Selected on the basis of refraction seismic, the first well drilled in the region
(1954) targeted the Siegenian and the Ordovician. Most of the wells drilled in
the 1950s and 1960s targeted the Siegenian and Cambrian sandstones, and
were positioned on the basis of gravimetric and magnetometric anomalies.
The last three wells drilled in the region (20032005) are located to the north
of Gourara and in the Allal dome. Currently, 26 wells, with a density of
4 wells/10,000 km2, have been drilled, and 14,709 km of reflection seismic
data (2,348 km/10,000 km2) have been acquired, so drilling and seismic densities remain low. The quality of recent seismic acquisitions is good.
M o r o c c o
Hassi Rmel
Field
Saharan Atlas Faults
103 421
312
Benoud Trough
Zousfana Saddle
313
315 314
Tilrhemt Dome
350
309
310
420
Djofra Saddle
311
Oued Namous
Dome
317 349
318
Oued Mya Basin
348
Meharez Dome
Allal Dome
Gourara Basin
356
355
319
321
322
347
320
Figure 1.45: Location of the basins.
45
The Allal dome acted as a structural high from the PanAfrican phase, which gave rise to the first uplifts caused
by upward movements of the basement up to the
Hercynian phase. Early and late Hercynian movements
were major structuring phases in the region.
The Silurian shales and the carbonate shale series of the
Givetian-Frasnian are excellent source rocks in the
region.
The Strunian-Tournaisian sandstones are the main target
in the region, but Emsian sandstones may be present in
the northern region, together with the SiegenianGedinnian sandstones, which are present everywhere
and have produced many shows. To a lesser extent,
Ordovician sandstones and quartzites may prove to be
good reservoirs.
(estuarine/delta and deltaic plain associated with incised valleys). Mediocre

qualities may be found in more distal areas. Excellent hydrocarbon results
have recently been obtained for this play in the Gourara depression and the
Allal dome. To the north of the depression, recent wells (2004 and 2005) have
demonstrated a 132-m Strunian reservoir that incorporates 90-m thick, subangular to subrounded medium sandstones in its top part with a net pay of
44 m. Porosities reach 28% and permeabilities exceed 200 mD (Fig. 1.46).
Cased hole formation tests have revealed major gas flows (Table 1.17).
Gas
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
Depth
1:500
6
(m)
Caliper
(in.)
150
(%)
Petroleum system
Strunian-Tournaisian play14
Source rocks
The Silurian shale and the carbonate shale sequences of
the Givetian-Frasnian are excellent source rocks in the
region. The organic matter in the Silurian source rocks
reached maturity from the end of the Upper Devonian
and have been within the gas phase since the beginning
of the Carboniferous. In the central part of the Gourara
depression, the degree of maturity is well advanced.
Hydrocarbon expulsion, exceeding 95% of the total generated, began in the Upper Devonian.
Organic matter in the Givetian-Frasnian, which reached
maturity at the beginning of the Carboniferous, is in the
gas phase in the central part of Gourara and the condensate phase in the northern part. The main hydrocarbongenerating phase took place at the end of the Devonian
toward the beginning of the Carboniferous. Hydrocarbon
expulsion from the Frasnian source rock began in the
Westphalian, with a conversion rate of 90%.
1,120
1,140
1,160
1,180
Reservoirs
The Strunian-Tournaisian sandstones have been shown
of good quality in the southeastern part of the Gourara
depression and on the periphery of the Allal dome
46
Figure 1.46: ELAN results for the Strunian reservoir.
Illite
Sandstones
ELAN fluids
Water saturation
16 100
Water
Net pay
0 100
ELAN volumes
0 100
(%)
Western Province BasinsGourara North Basin
Siegenian-Gedinnian play15
The Siegenian-Gedinnian sandstones may have fairly good reservoir qualities
at moderate depths. In fact, there are very favorable areas in the
Gourara/Allal region associated with secondary porosity (Table 1.18).
Source rock Namurian clays and muddy limestones that have shown low hydrocarbon potential
Cap rock
Intra-Carboniferous at Nekheila and Bechar-Abadla; reservoir crops out at surface

elsewhere; cap rocks do not provide a good seal on the eastern flank of the
Mharez Dome and the Nekheila Bowl, given low salinity of formation water
Traps
Mainly stratigraphic, with carbonaceous mud mounds and discontinuous incised

river valleys protected by clays and intra-formational micrites
Table 1.17. Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Namurian play.
Source rock Visean clays and muddy limestones that have shown low hydrocarbon potential
Cap rock
Intra-Carboniferous; cap rocks do not provide a good seal on the eastern flank of
the Mharez Dome and the Nekheila Bowl, given low salinity of formation water
Traps
Perhaps stratigraphic in the case of biogenic structures, and sandstone or mixed

lenses
Table 1.18. Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Visean play.
Giant kettle holes in the lower part of Tin Tegherghara agelman, an

expanse of water replenished by rainfall (guelta in Arabic).
Major flows have been obtained at moderate depths and are explained by the
great mobility of the gas and its transmissivity based on the horizontal permeabilities observed in cores, from 36 to 600 mD. The analysis of fluid samples
(water and gas) recovered during formation tests has shown that the gas is
dry with a very low percentage of CO2. In addition, an unquantified volume of
natural gasoline was recovered. Confirmation of the low CO2 content and the
presence of this natural gas should encourage more sustained exploration.
updating of more reliable mapping incorporating existing

seismic data, 2D seismic data, which is now being
acquired, and future 2D and 3D seismic programs. The
processing of these new data will make it possible to
develop a program of exploration and step-out wells.
Gas discoveries in the Strunian, the volumes of gas associated with the
Siegenian reservoir, and the resources of the other structures mapped in the
area will bring about better utilization of the hydrocarbon potential of these
regions. As a result, exploration is expected to restart in the northern part of
the Gourara basin. A substantial program has been undertaken, including the
Walkaway recordings will be required, because very little vertical seismic profile (VSP) data have been acquired
to date, and the results are sometimes doubtful (problems with shifts). Walkaway data will also make it possible to recognize heterogeneous areas.
47

Bounded by the South Atlas fault to the north and by the Ougarta range to the
south and southwest, the Bechar basin lies to the northwest of the Saharan
platform (Fig. 1.47). To the west it extends beyond the Algerian-Moroccan
frontier. It is separated from the Timimoun basin to the southeast and to the
east by the Bni-Abbs saddle and the Mharez and Oued Namous domes.
The Bechar basin constitutes an extensive mining domain in southwestern
Algeria that has not been well explored. Because the basin is tectonically
complex, the hydrocarbon-producing system is poorly understood and
mediocre results have been obtained. However, two recent major discoveries
in the Strunian, to the north of Gourara and in the Allal dome, suggest the
possibility of prospects in the eastern margins of the Bechar basin and within
the basin itself.
The region has a surface area of more than 70,000 km2, a drilling density of
three wells per 10,000 km2, and a seismic density of 3,500 km per 10,000 km2.
The first exploration wells, TK-1, which stopped in the Ordovician, and NM-1,
which stopped in the Siegenian, were drilled at Taoudrara Kahla to the south
of the Mharez dome in 1953 and at Oued Namous in 1955, respectively. Tests
showed no positive results. Between 1960 and 1961, four wells were drilled
Bechar
Kenadza Depression
TAG-1
ER-1
NEK-2
NEK-1
NEK-3
CBM-1
Abadla Depression
Oued Namous
MR-1
Goumriat-2
MR-2
UC-1
UT-1
DBR-1
Tamzaia
TK-1
Mharez Dome
Draa El Kheima
Hassi Guebairet
Hassi Belgueza 1
Figure 1.47: Architecture of the deep Bechar-Abadla basin.
48
Western Province BasinsBechar Basin and its Margins
in the Mharez dome and its eastern flank with shows of gas in the Upper
Visean limestones (400 m3/h) and the Siegenian sandstones. In 1970, three
wells explored the carbonate buildups in the Nekheila basin without reaching
the Devonian. Subsequent wells explored the Oued Namous dome, the Oued
Gharbi saddle, and two structures to the south lying beside the Ougarta
rangenone with positive results.
The stratigraphic sequence16 depicted in Fig. 1.48 shows the age, lithology,
and thickness differences particularly in the Carboniferous between the deep
Bechar-Abadla basin and its margins, and the possible oil plays.17
0 to 200 m
Upper Namurian
0 to 300 m
Lower Namurian
0 to 400 m
Upper Visean
400 to
3,500 m
Lower Visean
0 to 600 m
Tournaisian
100 to 800 m
Famennian
300 m
Frasnian
70 m
Givetian
60 m
Eifelian
180 m
Emsian
40 to 180 m
Siegenian
Gedinnian
280 m
Seal
Westphalian
Reservoir rocks
0 to 300 m
Lower
Devonian
Middle
Devonian
Upper
Devonian
Bechar-Abadla Flysch
Carboniferous
Stephanian
Source rocks
Pliocene-Quaternary
Silurian
14 to 70 m
Ordovician
180 m
Ioucha-Meharez-Nekheila biostructures
The carbonate biostructures of the Visean and Namurian are developed in
the Ioucha-Meharez-Nekheila region, whereas to the west, in the deep basin,
the Visean deposits are flysch-like and very thick.
The reservoirs consist of
Limestones and sandstones
Reservoir rocks
Cap rocks
Incised valleys filled with sandstones crop out in the Carboniferous series.
Cambro-Ordovician
Precambrian Basement
Figure 1.48: Stratigraphy of the Bechar basin region.
49
50
Sedimentation rate, cm/1,000 years
The Bechar-Abadla basin is marked by strong subsidence18 during the Carboniferous (Fig. 1.49). It was
disturbed during the Hercynian phase by the E-W
trending Chebket Mennouna anticline, which separates
it into the Knadza basin to the north, with a MesozoicCenozoic cover, particularly the Cretaceous halites, and
the Abadla basin to the south (Fig. 1.47). This trough is
abrubtly separated from the Ioucha-Mharez High to the
east by a NNE-SSW trending fault system with a normal
throw of more than 3 km.19
40
30
20
10
0
Middle
Upper Tournaisian Lower
Devonian Devonian
Visean
Deep Bechar 1 basin
The basin is bounded, nevertheless, at its northern

extremity by E-W faults that merge with the South Atlas
fault. In this area Alpine tectonics have been very
intense, and there is evidence of overthrusting of the
Jurassic strata over those of the Upper Visean.19
Upper
Visean
Lower
Namurian
Loucha-Mharez High
Figure 1.49: Comparative sedimentation rates in the Bechar basins and their upper margins.
Petroleum systems
Namurian play22
Biostratigraphic data, correlations between wells, and

reflection seismic have shown several unconformities17,18,20
within the Paleozoic section, particularly at the following
levels:
at the base of the Paleozoic (Pan-African unconformity),
between the Middle Cambrian and the Ordovician,
between the Silurian and the Ordovician (Taconian
unconformity), between the Silurian and the Devonian
(end of the Caledonian cycle), the Breton phase at the
end of the Devonian (start of the Hercynian), and the
intra-Visean, intra-Namurian, end-Moscovian, and final
Hercynian unconformities
during the Silurian and the Devonian. There was no distinction between the Bechar basin and the remainder of
the Saharan platform from a geodynamic point of view.
Platform deposits predominate in an intracratonic context, except here the sediments are more distal and
therefore finer. From the Carboniferous onward, the
Bechar basin ceases to be a part of the Saharan platform in the geologic meaning of the term. Overthrusting
from the Moroccan Tamlalt and with a thrust component created a deep trench where more than 10,000 m
of flyschoid sediments and wildflysh sediments21 were
deposited during the period from the Tournaisian to the
Upper Visean. Throughout the Carboniferous,18 sedimentation continued in the center of the basin with no
major discontinuities (Fig. 1.49).
Reservoirs in the Namurian play consist of carbonate buildups sealed by

oolitic levels, but their extent is restricted to the area from the Nekheila basin
to its northeastern extension. These facies are highly fractured at Nekheila
but have not been explored elsewhere. Incised river valleys filled with a good
sandstone reservoir crop out and are buried in the direction of the deep
Bechar-Abadla basin (Table 1.19).
Visean play22
Reservoirs in the Visean play consist of carbonate bioconstructions in the
northern part. The extent of this facies is limited to the area from the Nekheila
basin to its northeastern extension. They are essentially sandstones to the
south in the Saoura and flyschoid in the direction of the deep Bechar-Abadla
basin to the west and Ben-Zireg to the north. Noncommercial flows of gas have
been obtained from the Visean limestone reservoirs at Ioucha (Table 1.20).
Cap rock Famennian and Visean clays to the west; Tournaisian clays in the Terfas depression;
cap rocks do not provide a good seal on the eastern flank of the Mharez Dome and
the Nekheila Bowl, given low salinity of formation water, which decreases from
the east (233 g/L on the Allal dome) to the west (67 g/L at Ioucha)
Traps
Perhaps stratigraphic or structural; possibly wedge traps beneath the Breton

unconformity or the Intra-Visean unconformity to the west, and beneath the
Hercynian unconformity to the east
Table 1.19. Cap rock and traps in the Famennian play.
Source rock Silurian and Intra-Devonian clays

Cap rock
Lower, Middle, and Upper Devonian and Carboniferous clays; Mesozoic clays north
of the Oued Namous dome and throughout the eastern region; low level of
mineralization of formation water in these two domes indicates communication
with meteoric water, which indicates a cap rock risk in these regions
Traps
Often mixed structural and stratigraphic because of superimposition of sandstone

lenses and associated folding; traps against faults also common
Table 1.20. Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Siegenian-Gedinnian play.
50
Western Province BasinsBechar Basin and its Margins
20
500
Morocco
TOC %, S2 kg HC/T of rock, PRV %
CBM
2.34
3
31
10
15
450
TAJ-1
32
TAG-1 NEK-2
1.97
1.90
3 1.6 1.15 UT-2
0.95 0.47
MR2
Ordovician
Silurian
Eifelian
Givetian
Frasnian
Famennian
AMG-1
1.51
2.06
OR-3
GK-1
1.21
HBZ-1
3.24
30
HBL-1
0.44
BTJ-1
0.26
DKM-1
2.33 NM-1
2.03
400
5
RJ-3
0.66
TRZ-1
0.91
350
Source rock
TOC, %
S2 P-HC
PRV
Tmax = S2 peak
0 to 1 T/m2
0 to 3 T/m2
Direction of oil migration
Figure 1.50: Geochemical characteristics of source rocks.
0 to 6 T/m2
100 km
Figure 1.51: Quantities of oil expelled by Silurian source rocks and migra-
Famennian play
Source rocks 23
tion pathways.
Source rocks are the clays of the Silurian and Givetian-Frasnian shales, which,
along with those of the Famennian (Fig. 1.50), have the best potential. At the
end of the Devonian, large quantities of oil and gas were expelled by the
Silurian source rock located in the Terfas depression on the northern flank of
the Ougarta (Figs. 1.51 and 1.52). The beginning of the Tournaisian to the end
of the Lower Visean corresponds to the period of maximum hydrocarbon
expulsion. Up to 50% of all the oil and gas expelled was from Devonian source
rocks during this period. The remaining hydrocarbons were expelled during the
rest of the Paleozoic, and because of a gentler thermal history, only the
regions to the north of the Timimoun basin could still be charged during the
Mesozoic because of the cooler heat flow.
Reservoirs 24
32
0.9 0.8
1.11
1.2 TAG-1: 1.19
1.3 CBM-1: 1.34
TAJ-1: 0.44
HBL-1: 0.22 0.1

BTJ-1: 0.06
NEK-2: 0.87
0.2
NEK-1: 0.86
0.4
OR-3: 0.71
NEK-3: 0.88
GK-1: 0.73
MR
UT-2: 0.98AMG-1: 0.52
0.42
31
NM-1: 0.88
DKM-1: 1.02
HBZ-1: 1.36
30
1.3
In the Mharez region, the sandstone facies are found at the base of the
Famennian in the central part; to the north of the Terfas depression, the
0.5 0.4
0.1
0.7 0.6
Morocco
0 to 1 T/m2
0 to 3 T/m2
Direction of gas migration
1.2
RJ-3: 0.46
TRZ-1
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.5
0
0
0.2
0.1
1
100 km
Figure 1.52: Quantities of gas expelled by Silurian source rocks and

migration pathways.
100
10
Permeability, mD
0.1
0.01
0
10
15
20
Porosity, %
Famennian
Siegenian-Gedinnian
Figure 1.53: Porosity and permeability of the Devonian reservoirs.
25
30
sandstones form very thick strata, which are found right

through the Famennian-Strunian series. The sandstones
are deposited under deep waters as suggested by
slumping structures, and the ichnofacies represented by
the Zoophycos family (outer shelf). These deep marine
deposits are sometimes followed by shallower shoreface
deposits where HCS and SCS have been described. Their
good petrophysical characteristics (Fig. 1.53) have been
demonstrated by commercial gas discoveries recorded to
the north of Gourara and in the Allal dome. Brine has
been recovered at Ioucha on the eastern flank of the
Mharez dome. The Strunian-Famennian has provided
shows in 13 wells (Table 1.21).
51
Siegenian-Gedinnian play25
The ichnofacies associations, sedimentary structures, the
fine texture of the sediments, and the vertical development
of the facies reveal a succession of shale-sandstone
sequences of a prograding shoreface from offshore at the
base to an upper shoreface at the top. Petrophysical
characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.48. Abundant gas
shows have been obtained in 22 wells, as well as in cores
and in drilling mud throughout the region from the
Mharez dome in the west to the Allal dome in the east.
The salinity of the formation water decreases from the
east (380 g/L on the Allal dome) toward the west, where
it is only 60 g/L on the Oued Namous dome and 80 g/L
at Mharez (Table 1.22).
Ordovician play
The Ordovician play is the least studied in the region and
is not considered a primary target. As in the case of the
Devonian, the Ordovician deposits are more distal than
the productive levels of the rest of the Saharan platform.
Despite abundant gas shows in 13 wells, this play has
produced no flow (Table 1.23).

The source rocks with the best potential are the Silurian
and Givetian-Frasnian shales and, locally, the Namurian
shales in the Nekheila subbasin. The Ordovician, Lower
Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous source rocks are of
lesser importance but may contribute to the total
potential. Structural traps have been detected beneath
the slightly deformed Carboniferous in the deep BecharAbadla basin and are in a good structural position to
have been charged by fluids during the Carboniferous,
which was the main period for the generation and
expulsion of hydrocarbons. On the Mharez dome and in
the Nekheila subbasin, all the Devonian and
Carboniferous reservoirs have been invaded by
freshwater infiltration.26
52
Source rock Ordovician clays of very low potential; Silurian clays feed the Ordovician reservoir
Cap rock
Ordovician and Silurian clays
Traps
Structural and stratigraphic, possibly owing to the distal nature of the deposits,
which makes reservoir levels discontinuous; permeability barriers formed by intense
silification of sandstones
Table 1.21: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Ordovician play.
Source rock Radioactive graptolite clays of the basal Silurian

Cap rock
Silurian clays
Traps
Mixed structural and stratigraphic; anticlinal where associated with faults; perhaps
stratigraphic toward the south
Table 1.22: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Ordovician play
Source rock Upper Devonian clays, particularly the Frasnian

Cap rock
Visean C clays for the Visean B; Upper Tournaisian and Visean A for the
Strunian-Tournaisian
Table 1.23: Source rock and cap rock, in the Carboniferous play.
The Oued Namous dome was strongly affected by the Hercynian unconformity,
which reached down to the Lower Devonian, and the Mesozoic cover is thin.
To the south, the Devonian layers lying beneath the Carboniferous create
favorable conditions for the preservation of hydrocarbons in the Kerzaz region,
where several but undrilled structures have been detected. The Devonian
plays at Kerzaz are continuous with those located further to the east, which
have revealed gas accumulations at Hassi Tidjerane and Hassi Bahamou,
particularly in the Upper Devonian. The Carboniferous plays consist of incised
valley fills of the Namurian in the Bechar-Abadla basin, the Visean sandstones
on the Bni-Abbs saddle to the south, and the carbonate buildups buried
beneath the northeastern extension of the Nekheila subbasin. These plays
and those of the Ordovician have not been investigated very much. The
sudden change in geothermal flow between the very hot western part
(incorporating the Bechar basin, the Nekheila, and the western Kerzaz) and the
eastern part (from Oued Namous, Kerzaz, Gourara, and the Allal dome) with a
moderate heat flow has yet to be explained. This thermal zoning has a direct
influence on the type of fluids that can be expected, as well as the degree of
cracking of the organic matter and gas in place.
Western Province BasinsReggane Basin
Reggane Basin
The Reggane basin lies in the southwest of the Algerian Sahara. It is bounded
to the north by the southern edge of the Ougarta range, which separates it
from the Sba basin, to the west by the KrettamiaBou Bernous saddle, to the
east by the Azzel Matti saddle, and to the south by the crystalline mass of the
Eglab. The basin covers a surface area of 140,000 km2.
Exploration of the Reggane basin began in the 1950s with field trips followed
by major reconnaissance seismic surveys (refraction) in 1957 and gravimetric
surveys in 1969.
Major reconnaissance seismic (reflection) surveys began in the 1970s. A large
volume of detailed 2D seismic was obtained between 1979 and 2003. In 2004,
the first 3D seismic survey in the basin was conducted. Most of the wells
were drilled between 1956 and 1958. The first Sonatrach well was drilled in
1978. Currently, there are 75 wells; 45 of those are core drills (35 for
stratigraphic purposes and 10 for geochemical purposes), 5 are delineation
wells, and 25 are exploration wells with 9 discoveries to

date. The rate of drilling slowed down and picked up
again after 1995.
From a geologic point of view, the pericratonic Reggane
basin is located on the eastern edge of the West African
craton, overlapping the craton and the Pan-African
domain located further to the east. The juxtaposition of
these two domains is the result of a collision (600 x 106 yr)
caused by the closure of a paleo-ocean of Proterozoic
age. On the northwest African scale, this event is known
as the Pan-African.27
This syncline, which has an asymmetrical transverse
profile (Fig. 1.54), is edged by the folded chains of the
Ougartian ridge to the north and by the Reguibat shield
SW
NE
400
0
-400
-800
-1,200
-1,600
-2,000
-2,400
-2,800
-3,200
-3,600
-4,000
Depth, m
-4,400
-4,800
Mesozoic
Namurian
Visean
Tournaisian
Strunian
Famennian
Frasnian
Givetian
Eifelian
Emsian
Siegenian
Gedinnean
Silurian
Ordovician
Figure 1.54: Regional geological cross section of the Reggane basin.
53
to the west and south. Its eastern flank is highly

structured and narrow and contains anticlinoriums
showing structures compartmented by directional and
reverse faults of complex geometry (Fig. 1.55). Its
western flank forms a gently dipping monocline. The
Reggane depression is marked by a multiphase tectonic
history and significant subsidence, which resulted in the
deposition of more than 6,000 m of Paleozoic sediments
in its axial portion. At its top, these paleozoic series
often display doleritic levels. In addition, abnormally high
pressures are often encountered in the Lower Devonian
reservoirs.
Kaha
l
Boubarnous
Tab
elb
ala
Sba Bowl
HDK-1
FHD-1
Djebel Heirane
Kahal Tabelbala
Adrar
Hassi MDakane
KTN-1
DHKT-1
Tazoult Azrafil
DJHN-1
DJHN-2
KL-1
KL-1O1
Currently, the most promising play is represented by the

reservoirs of the Lower Devonian, to which must be
added those of the Cambro-Ordovician and Carboniferous.
Hydrocarbon generation took place during two periods

(Fig. 1.56): one during the Paleozoic at the time of burial
(Upper DevonianCarboniferous) and the other probably
during the Jurassic overheating.
350
300
250
De
MO-1
PRP-101
RA-301
BR-2
TZ-301
BR-7
BR-1 BR-5 BR-3
BR-301
BR-6
Anticlinorium
Deep syncline
BR-4
Shallow syncline
Positive trend
Figure 1.55: Structural components of the Reggane basin.
200
150
100
Mesozoic
Cb
RPL-1
EGB-101
Paleozoic
O
AZSE-1
SLP-1
The Reggane basin is essentially a gas province, as

evidenced by the accumulations discovered so far. Most
of the traps are associated with structures of very
complex geometry, generally backed against reverse
faults beneath overthrusting horizons.28
AZ-101
Razk Allah Kahlouche

Djebel Heirane
RAN-1
MK-1
Petroleum system
400
TT-1
TK-105
TIO-2
IZ-101
TIO-1
RG-102
TE
RG-3
50 Ma
Cenozoic
Geologic time
Oil system
Pe
Source rock
Reservoir rock
Cap rock
?
?
Trap formation
Generation/migration/accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Figure 1.56: Reggane petroleum system.
54
Devonian play
Source rocks
Cap rock First Bani: overlain Caradocian clays, 200 to 1,800 m thick and of good regional extent;
second Bani: Silurian clays, 100 to 800 m thick of good regional extent
Anticlinal and against faults to the north of the basin; same to the south except that
stratigraphic wedges may also exist
Traps
Geochemical analyses have shown that the main source

rocks are the radioactive graptolite clays of the lower
basal Silurian and the Frasnian.29 Geochemical modeling
has revealed that the western edge of the basin has
liquid hydrocarbon and/or gas potential, while the
eastern edge has gas potential. These source rocks also
act as a rock seal for the reservoirs. Given the structural
complexity, the rock seal may also be lateral.
Geochemical modeling (Fig. 1.57) has also demonstrated
that large volumes of hydrocarbons have been generated
and expelled: 4,872 Tcf and 3,410 Tcf, respectively. Of the
102 Tcf of gas that are likely to be trapped, only 4.3 Tcf
have been discovered to date; therefore, a substantial
volume remains to be discovered.
Table 1.24: Cap rock and traps in the Ordovician play.
The structure of the basin is the result of the superimposition of several

tectonic phases from the Caledonian event to the Hercynian. Evidence of the
impact of subsequent stages has not been proved.27
Ordovician play
The Ordovician reservoir is formed mainly of clay quartzite sandstones. It has
not been highly studied because of its very deep structural position. Only three
wells have been explored on the northern flank of the basin. The porosity
of this reservoir is on the order of 5%, and the permeability is very low.
This reservoir has produced gas in the northern part of the basin (Table 1.24).
Ougarta Ridge
HDK-1
HYDROCARBONS WINDOWS GEOHISTORY
System
Series
Si
S
De
Cb
Pe
D
Tr
mJ
IC
C
uC
O M
D
FHD-1
Study name:
Well name:
0.5
Fras. Fam.
Time (ma)
1
1.5
10
Depth (km)
10
2.5
Sil. arg.
Oil Window
89
10
Gd. Sieg.
10
Oil and gas zone
99
3.5
Computing Parameters:
4.5
5
DHKT-1
GasWindow
HYDROCARBONS WINDOWS GEOHISTORY
450
System
Series
14
Si
S
De
Cb
Pe
D
Tr
mJ
IC
C
uC
KT-4
Well name:
O M
D
Time (ma)
12
Source rock
Hot shale
Middle cell
o m TYPE II
10
Depth (km)
Variable Heat flow
Study name:
Study name:
Expelled Hydrocarbons
(mg HC/g initial dry rock)
Time (ma)
HYDROCARBONSWINDOWSGEOHISTORY
Gas
System
Series
C6 +
Si
S
De
Cb
Pe
D
Tr
mJ
IC
C
uC
E
M
Depth (km)
O M
D
Namurien.
Oil Window
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Not Calibration
Variable Heat flow
Imposed Pressure
Open System
TT-1
Oil and gas zone

GasWindow
Visen.
Depth (km)
450
DJHN-2
Cret. Inf.
DJHN-1
Well name:
Initial TOC 3.5%

Net thickness 20m
Exp. saturation 10%
HYDROCARBONS
WINDOWS
GEOHISTORY
10
10
System
Series
Si
S
De
G
10
10
Sil. arg.
95
6
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Time (Ma)
Study name:
Cb
Tr
mJ
ComputingPe Parameters:
S
D
T
IC
C
uC
E
M
O M
D
KL-1
IZ-101
TIO-1
KL-101
TEH-1
Well name:
Variable Heat flow
Fras-Fam. 14
Expelled hydrocarbons (mg HC/g initial dry rock)
Depth (km)
Source rock
Hot shale
Middle cell
o m TYPE II
12
Time (ma)
Initial TOC 5%
Net thickness 30m
Exp. saturation 10%
10
8
C6 +
AZSE-1
No Calibration
2
0
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Variable Heat flow
Imposed Pressure
Open System
Time (Ma)
Study name:
Date:27-Jan-2003 10:44
Si
System
Series
De
Cb
Pe
D
Tr
mJ
IC
T
uC
C
Cret. Inf
Namurien
De
Cb
Pe
W
Tr
IC
T
uC
Study name:
Namurien.
5
450
Depth (km)
Oil and gas zone
Ca
Or
Si
S G
De
Eglabs Shield
400
350
300
250
200
Time (Ma)
150
100
50
Cb
V
Pe
W
Tr
IC
T
uC
E
M
Oil Window
De
Cb
300
250
200
Time (Ma)
Pe
W
Tr
mJ
D
IC
T
uC
C
Time (ma)
D
GasWindow
Variable Heat flow
12Imposed Pressure
Source rock
Hot shale
Middle cell
o m TYPE II
Open System
10
Gas
8
C6 +
6
150
100
50
Initial TOC 6%
Net thickness 50 m
Exp. saturation 10%
No Calibration
4
2
Imposed Pressure
Open System
0
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
Time (Ma)
100
50
Date: 27-Jan-2003
Source rock
Hot shale
Middle cell
o m TYPE II
Initial TOC 5%
Net thickness 60m
Exp. saturation 10%
10
8
Variable Heat flow
10:44
PRP-101
Time (ma)
Variable Heat flow
Open System
RPL-101
Well name:
OilE and
gas zone
O M
M
14Not Calibration
14Not Calibration
12Imposed Pressure
350
Well name:
HYDROCARBONS
WINDOWS
GEOHISTORY
System
Series
400
Study name:
GasWindow
10
450
10
MO-1
Oil Window
Fras-Fam.
10
Si
S
G
C
Computing
Parameters:
4.5
Visen.
System
Series
4
Time (ma)
10
3
3.5
10
10
2.5
Well name:
Time (ma)
Visen.
Expelled HC per time interval
Si
Depth (km)
Study name:
Or
1.5
2
Ca
Well name:
0.5
RAN-1
System
Series
RG-3
Gas
6
TZ-301
Gas
C6 +
No Calibration
4
2
Imposed Pressure
Open System
Variable Heat flow
0
450
400
350
300
250
200
Time (Ma)
150
100
50
Date:26-Jan-2003 11:25
30 km
Figure 1.57: Burial history of the Reggane basin.
55
Reservoirs
Displaced
hydrocarbon
The Devonian reservoirs are the main targets in the

region, and their extension toward the interior of the
basin has proved to be relatively regular.
Gamma ray
0
Depth
1:700
(m)
(gAPI)
150
C-Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
10
Perforations
The Siegenian-Gedinnian consists of four bands of

sandstone with net pay thicknesses up to 50 m (Fig. 1.58).
This reservoir has a mean porosity of 11% and a
permeability on the order of 50 mD.
Water
Water saturation
100
(%)
Gas
Displaced
hydrocarbon
Quartz
Water
Bound water
Gas
Clays
ELAN fluid A
0 50
(%)
ELAN volumes
0
100
(%)
The Siegenian, the main reservoir in the Lower Devonian,

has yielded good flows that have exceeded 640,000 m3/d.
This reservoir has high-level petrophysical characteristics
(Fig. 1.59).
The Gedinnian has yielded nearly 410,000 m3/d of gas in
the southeastern part of the basin with a mean porosity
of 8% and a permeability of 10 mD. The reservoir shows
an overall thickening from the southwest to the
northeast with two clearly evidenced depocentersone
to the southeast, the other to the northwest. Similarly,
the Siegenian reservoir thickens from the southwest to
the northeast.
The sandstone layer at the top of the Emsian formation
has been regarded as compact in most of the wells
located in the southeastern part of the basin, while in the
northwest, the formation produces gas. The thickness of
the Emsian reservoir shows some similarities with those
already described. It shows a substantially NW-SE
orientation and thickens from the southwest to the
northeast.
2,680
2,700
2,720
2,740
Seal
The Middle Devonian clays provide a rock seal for the
Lower Devonian reservoirs.
Figure 1.58: ELAN output for the Siegenian reservoir.
Carboniferous play
Traps
The types of trap associated with the Devonian play are
identical to those of the Ordovician. The most frequent
situation encountered is that of a very narrow block in a
SE-NW direction bounded laterally by deep faults
referred to as a trend. The best known are those of
Djebel Hirane Kahal-Tabelbala, Azrafil, and Hassi
MDakane.
56
Where it exists, this play has good petrophysical characteristics with

porosities of 10% to 20% and permeabilities of 10 to 100 mD. Wells in this
play frequently show traces of gas and oil.
The sandstones of the Tournaisian-Strunian reservoir are formed from very
well sorted, very fine to fine grains. They have porosities of 28% and good
permeabilities. This reservoir appears promising, given the number of shows
found in the wells drilled there.
Source rock Radioactive Silurian clays; reservoirs fed vertically through faults affecting the
region
Cap rock
Clay series of the Middle and Upper Devonian, which is of regional extent and from
500 to 1,200 m thick
Traps
Anticlinal and against faults
Table 1.25: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Lower Devonian play.
The Visean B sandstone reservoir is well developed in the east of the basin. It
has good porosities with a mean of 15% and permeabilities up to 100 mD.
Traces of gas and oil have been observed in some wells. The Visean B
reservoir has yielded 2,000 m3/d of gas and 0.5 m3/d of oil. Traps in this play
are similar to those found in other Reggane plays (Table 1.25).

After recent discoveries, prospects in the Reggane basin are viewed as
somewhat promising. The basin is of some hydrocarbon interest because it is
represented by an area in which the hydrocarbon system has operated very
well, given the large number of fields discovered in this region. These fields
amount to only 4.5% of the volume of probable trapped gas in place.
Several other factors may encourage greater exploration of this basin. So far,
no tests have found a manifest aquifer in the Lower Devonian, the main
target. This further supports the possibility of the existence of a basincentered gas accumulation (BCGA), especially because most of the
discoveries have indicated pressure anomalies.
1,000
100
10
1
Permeability, mD
0.1
0.01
0.001
0
12
16
20
Porosity, %
Figure 1.59: Porosity/permeability diagram of the Lower Devonian reservoir.
57
Tindouf Basin
The Tindouf basin is located at the western extremity of the Saharan platform.
This basin forms an extensive depression oriented E-W and covers a surface
area of more than 130,000 km2 (Fig. 1.60). It is bounded to the east and
northeast by the KrettamiaBou Bernous saddle and the Ougarta mountains;
to the west by the Algerian-Moroccan and AlgerianWestern Sahara
borders; to the north by the Moroccan anti-Atlas; and to the south by the
Reguibat range.
This is an asymmetrical pericratonic-type basin having a southern flank with
a very shallow dip (maximum 3 degrees) and a very upstanding and highly
structured northern flank related to a complex series of faults with a general
E-W to NE-SW trend.
The Tindouf basin is marked by a multistage tectonic history and major
subsidence, which resulted in the deposition of more than 8,000 m of
Paleozoic sediments in its axial area.30 The thickness of the Paleozoic
decreases from north to south and from west to east. At its southern edge, the
Paleozoic is 1,500 m thick. The deposits are transgressively overlain by a thin
Cenozoic sedimentary cover approximately 130 m thick (Fig. 1.61).
8 W
7 W
6 W
ZL-1
NG-1
28
R.A.S.D
3 W
HMY-1
Tindouf
HTN-1
4 W
HMA-1
IGA-1bis
ASJ-1
M o r o c c o
29
5 W
GSL-3
EAN-1
OLF-1 ARE-1
GSL-2
27
26
Reguibat Ridge
M a u r i t a n i a
Carboniferous
Tournaisian
Upper Devonian
S
+1000 m
N.M
Reguibat Ridge
Middle Devonian
Lower Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian
Tindouf Basin
ASJ-1
-2,000
-4,000
-6,000
Carboniferous
Middle-Upper Devonian
Lower Devonian
Silurian
Cambro-Ordovician
Figure 1.60: Pre-Mesozoic subcrop and section through the Tindouf basin.
58
HMA-1
Mesozoic-Cenozoic
Seal
Source rock
Age
Reservoir
Lithology
Thickness, m
Western Province BasinsTindouf Basin
5-130
Gas and brine shows
Brine with emulsified gas
0-808
GSL-3
Namurian
HTN-1
Visean
NG-1
339-1,480
Tournaisian
Tournaisian
Strunian
HTN-1 3.13 m3
551-1,520
Famennian
Frasnian
Strunian-Famennian
Devonian
NG-1 gas show

Givetian
99-460
Eifelian
Emsian
Praghian
Lower Devonian
109-466
ZL-1, GSL-2 and

GSL-3 Emsian
Lockhovian
177-907
Silurian
IGA-1b
Asghillian
HTN-1
Ordovician
Caradocian
EAN-1
Llandeilian
103-2,000
Llanvirnian
GSL-3
Arenigian
Cambrian
Tremadocian
Cambrian
Gas shows
Upper Carboniferous
Westphalian
Ordovician
OLF-1
IGA-1b
EAN-1
ASJ-1
IGA-1b
HMA-1
0-1,000
Acadian Georgian
EAN-1
Precambrian
Figure 1.61: Lithographic section for the Tindouf basin.
Ca
S A
Or
Si
S
De
Cb
V N
Pe
H
Tr
T
IC
J
UC
C
e
P
M
N
Well: HMA-1
Famennian Type II 30%
Frasnian Type II 30%

Lockhovian
2
3
Silurian Type II 30%

Ashgillian 2nd Bani
Type II 30%
Llandeilian 1st Bani
Lower Ordovician
5
Depth, km
Trace of oil
Dry
Stephanian
Carboniferous
Clays
Sandstones
Evaporites
Limestones
Dolerites
Granite and gneiss
Results
Hydrocarbon exploration in this basin began around 1956

with the drilling of the Zemoul 1 well (ZL-1), which
produced oil shows from the Emsian sandstones. This
result encouraged exploration in the region through a
seismic survey carried out between 1959 and 1971 to
detect other structures and confirm those visible at
outcrops. Between 1969 and 1971, 10 wells were drilled
that produced shows only in the sandstone reservoirs of
the Cambro-Ordovician and Devonian. The Tindouf basin
is marked by strong geothermal gradients comparable to
those in the Reggane and Ahnet basins where major gas
discoveries have been made.
Hydrocarbon generation/expulsion generally took place
toward the end of the Devonian (Fig. 1.62).31 Subsequent
generation with overheating during the Triassic-Jurassic
cannot be ruled out, although the limited 1D geochemical
modeling carried out on the wells has been unable to
demonstrate its existence.
The structuring of the basin is indicative of a tectonic
history profoundly marked by Hercynian events.30 Several
structural directions overlap. In the west, the SE-NW
directions, known as Ougartian, are predominant, while
in the east, the atlas direction is prominent.
As in the Reggane basin, the Paleozoic series of the
Tindouf basin includes doleritic intrusions affecting the
Cambrian formations, and the Famennian. These
dolerites take the form of sills, dikes, or masses and are
associated with overall tectonic phenomena characterizing the West African craton, which underwent major
episodes of doloritic emissions in response to the
opening of the central Atlantic, which is dated to the
Triassic-Jurassic.
Oil phase
Condensate phase
Dry gas phase
6
500
400
300
200
100
Time, million years

Figure 1.62: Evolution of the Paleozoic source rocks over time in the Tindouf basin.
59
Petroleum system
M o r o c c o
HMA-1
Ougarta Mountains
IGA-1bis 490
ASj-1
480
ZL-1
Ordovician play
Source rocks 31
NG-1
The main source rocks capable of feeding the Ordovician

reservoirs are located in the Caradocian clays called the
Ktaoua shales and the radioactive clays of the Silurian.
Gas
Condensate
The Ktaoua shale (Ordovician) source rock has a slightly

lower actual organic matter content, with TOC values
varying from 0.83% in the south to 1.3% in the north.
Hydrocarbon potential is very low. As in the Silurian,
these shales are in the oil phase to the south with a
Tmax of 450C and in the dry gas phase to the north. This
source rock is located between the two main reservoirs
in the Ordovician, namely the sandstones of the first and
second Bani. Charging of these two reservoirs, therefore,
will mainly occur vertically through ascent in the case of
the second Bani and descent in the case of the first Bani,
and subsidiarily through lateral migration caused by
faulting.
Reservoirs 32
The main reservoirs in the Ordovician play are located in
the sandstone levels of the Llandeilian and Ashgillian,
known as the first Bani and second Bani sandstones,
respectively (Fig. 1.64).
60
Tindouf
GSL-3
Ean-1
HTN-1
Rasd
The few Silurian clay samples analyzed have revealed an

organic matter content varying from 0.97% in the south
to 3.50% in the north. These values are far from
representing the full richness of this level when
compared with nearby basins such as the Reganne and
Ahnet. Therefore, it is premature to deduce the
hydrocarbon potential associated with this basin. The
state of maturation increases from south to north.
Organic matter is in the oil phase in the south with Tmax
of 443C and 460C (GSL-2 and GSL-3, respectively) and
in the dry gas phase in the north with a TAI of 5 and Tmax
> 485C (Fig. 1.63). This source rock feeds the second
Bani reservoir laterally and vertically.
Are-1
490
a
GSL-2
464
Oil
OLF-1
Bou Bernous
Saddle
443
u
it
Reguibat Shield
ia
Figure 1.63: Maturation map of the Silurian source rock in the Tindouf basin.
The first Bani level consists of a greenish-gray fine, sometimes clayey

quartzite sandstone with a siliceous to silico-clayey cement. This massive
facies corresponds to shore bar deposits. The thickness of these sandstones
averages on the order of 140 m, with highly variable porosities across the
basin, from 4% to 7.5%, and occasionally up to 19% in the south.
The second Bani level consists of a fine to coarse well-sorted massive
quartzite sandstone with siliceous to silico-clayey cement with crossbedding.
The sandstone facies of this reservoir corresponds to deposits of a fluviatile
nature. The mean thickness of this sandstone is on the order of 150 m in the
south and 280 m toward the north of the basin. Porosities average from 5% to
7% (Table 1.26).
Cap rock Carboniferous clays and Liassic/Triassic evaporites

Traps
Structural and stratigraphic, with wedges beneath the Hercynian unconformity
Table 1.26: Caprock and traps in the Ordovician play.
Western Province BasinsTindouf Basin
IGA-1b
GR (gAPI)
B 17.5 g/L
2nd Bani sandstone
Ashgillian
Ktaoua shales
Lower Ktaoua shales
Equiv. Roud
Assa sandstone
Ordovician
2,150
2,650
920
2,200 146+B
2,700
+ Gaz
2,087 m
2,100
2,118 m
2,150
2,250
2,750
2,300
2,800
2,250
2,850
2,300
1,351 m
1,402 m
2,050
2,720 m
Silurian
1,336 m
1,350
1,400
1,450
1,488
1,500
2,160 m
2,200
2,276 m
Ashgillian
1,994 m
Basement
2,350
2,400
2,430 m
301
2,900
304
2,450
2,950
2,500
3,000
HMA-1 303
ASJ-1
TGA-1bis
302
ZL-1
NG-1
Ordovician
2,000
Caradoc Arnig Llanvirn Llandeilo Caradoc
2,589 m
2,600
86 m
Caradocian
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1,950
2,090 m
2,100
GSL-2
GR (gAPI)
50 km
Infracambrian
2,550
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Rhezzian sandstone
equivalent
Silurian
GSL-3
GR (gAPI)
150 km
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
2nd Bani sandstones
2,050
50 km
Eq. 1st Bani

sandstone
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Arouta clays
HMA-1
GR (gAPI)
N
364
363
365
2,550
Tindouf
307
EAN-1 ARE-1
305
306 GSL-3
HTN-1
GSL-2
OLF-1
0
3,050
GR (3,054 m)
75 km
50 m
2,600
3,260 m
146+B
3,600 m
2,650
50 km
Brine (g/L)
Gas shows
Sandstone levels
3,208 m
Figure 1.64: Ordovician correlation in the Tindouf basin.
Lower Devonian play30,32

The main reservoirs in the Lower Devonian play are located in the sandstone
levels of the Siegenian and Emsian, commonly referred to as rich
sandstones. These reservoir levels are represented by strata from meters to
tens of meters thick, consisting of beige fine to very fine well-sorted
sandstones with a clayey cement, with facies corresponding to tidal marine
deposits developing into shoreline bar deposits. The thickness of these
sandstones varies from 7 to 38 m, and develops favorably from east to west,
with porosities varying from 5% to 13%.
In the Upper Devonian, channels have yet to be identified (Table 1.27).

The Tindouf basin covers 130,000 km2 yet has only 11
exploration wells; therefore, the territory is greatly
underexplored. In addition, the limited and old seismic
data have not enabled a precise enough structural
characterization of this basin, particularly of the fault
system that controls its structure.33 Given the negligible
drilling density (one well per 12,000 km2), the negative
results from the few wells drilled in this basin should not
be relied on to determine its value. Geochemical modeling
has revealed significant hydrocarbon potential of more
than 33 Tcf trapped and shows of oil in some wells.
Source rock Silurian clays (maturation history described above under Strunian-Tournaisian play)
Cap rock
Clay formations of the Middle Devonian, Emsian, and Siegenian
Traps
Structural, in simple anticlines or against faults; stratigraphic, such as sandstone

lenses; mixed structural and stratigraphic
Table 1.27: Source rock, cap rock, and traps in the Siegenian-Gedinnian play.
61
Taoudenni Basin
With a surface area of approximately 1,500,000 km2, the Taoudenni basin,
which takes the form of an extensive syncline, is the largest basin in West
Africa. Located at the southwestern end of Algeria, the basin also covers the
northern parts of Mali and western Mauritania. It is located to the south of the
Tindouf and Reggane basins, from which it is separated by the Reguibat dorsal or shield, and to the West of the Hoggar massif. It is topped by a very
slightly deformed sedimentary cover of the infra-Cambrian and Paleozoic
series (Fig. 1.65).34
The first hydrocarbon exploration work took place during the 1970s when four
wells were drilled: Abolag 1 and Ouassa 1 in Mauritania, and Yarba 1 and
Atouila 1 in Mali. Only Abolag 1 provided a few shows in the stromatolite
limestones of infra-Cambrian age.35,36
Reguibat Ridge
Aa
iun
-Ta
rfa
ya
Ba
sin
Tindouf Basin
Taoudenni Basin
1,600 km
Volta
West African Craton
Chenachene perimeter
Taoudenni basin
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Cretaceous
Paleozoic
Precambrian
Igneous rocks
Gulf of Guinea
0
Figure 1.65: Geologic map and study area of the Taoudenni basin.
62
500 km
Western Province BasinsTaoudenni Basin
Lithology and structure

The Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary cover of the northeastern part of the
Taoudenni basin, in the Chenachne region, can be subdivided into three main
lithological strata (Fig. 1.66):37,38
lower sandstone complex (Douik group), which consists of coarse sandstones and conglomerates and lies unconformably on a substratum consisting of pink granites of the Reguibat basement. Thicknesses vary from 20 to
150 m.
Cambrian
Systems tract
Plays
TST: Transgressive systems tract

LST: Lowstand systems tract
Trapping
styles
Reservoir rock
Source rock
Cap rock
Paleozoic
Lithology
SB
TST
Upper clay
assemblage
*D
HST
MFS?
*A and C
TST
Dolomitic summit bar
HST?
SB
*C and A
Infra-Cambrian
TS/SB?
Upper sandstone-clay
assemblage
MFS
Limestone
assemblage
Reguibat
Ridge
Basic sandstone assemblage
TS?
TS?
Basement
SB TST?LST
*B
Figure 1.66: Stratigraphic column of the Taoudenni basin.
63
Cross section
20 km
Basement
Lower sandstone-clay assemblage
Limestone assemblage
Upper sandstone-clay assemblage
Paleozoic
Dolerites
20 km
Oued Chenachne Trend
West area
Basement
East area
Hamada Safra
Basal sandstone assemblage
Lower sandstone-clay assemblage
Paleozoic
Dolerites
0
20 km
Oued Chenachne trend

Oued Sous trend
B
A
Hamada Safra axis
A: Deposition of the sandstone series at the base subject to old basement faults
reactivated with extension or transtension.
B: General transgression and deposition of the limestone and sandstone series with
the development of a system of north-south normal faults.
Hamada Safra Axis

C
Surface
C: Reactivation of the basement faults in transpression with folded en-echelon
structuring of the infra-Cambrian series.
Figure 1.67: Map and structural model of the Taoudenni basin.
64
Section
D: Unconformable deposition of the Cambrian on infra-Cambrian structures.
The paleo-valley of Edarne-Eherir is an ancient fjord sculpted by the ice flow of an ice age almost 400 million years ago. Today, it shelters picturesque hut villages.
limestone complex (Hank group), which consists of a superposition of three

sequences. One is siliciclastic at the base, and two are limestones with a
generally regressive trend at the top. Thicknesses vary from 400 to 700 m.
upper sandstone shale complex (Dar Echeikh group), which consists of
exclusively siliciclastic deposits. The overall trend in this complex is regressive. Thickness is on the order of 500 m.
The outcrops of the Proterozoic formations are distributed over two major
areas separated by a broad band of outcrop of the cristallophyllite Reguibat
basement of NW-SW orientation (Fig. 1.67):
an eastern zone, which could correspond to a small and relatively narrow
basin in its northern part (at Chenachne), and which opens into a trough
toward the south (at Tilemsi and Grizim). The deposits there are organized
into a large syncline with an axis plunging to the southeast. The western
flank has been affected by a N-S fault known as the Oued Chenachne,
along which there are in echelon folds.
a western zone, whose limits are in the shape of a broad arc of a circle that
extends beyond the boundaries of Algerian territory into Mauritania and
Mali. Regional dips range from 50 to 80 degrees, which give this Proterozoic
assemblage the appearance of a geosyncline. In addition, the Oued Souss
fault is well marked in the basement and cuts both Proterozoic and CambroOrdovician formations in this western zone.
Model and structural evolution

Preliminary analysis of these two structural elements35,36 reveals a number of
important events in the tectonic and sedimentary history of the infra-
Cambrian sedimentary complex and has made it possible to develop a chronology of their occurrence. In fact,
the evolution of the northwestern zone of the
Chenachne area took place in four major stages:
At the end of the cratonization of the Reguibat High
(2,000 x 106 yr), submeridian basement faults were
reactivated through extension or transtension, and an
unconformable basal sandstone series was deposited
along these in what were probably pull-apart basins.
Then, transgression with deposition of the Stromatolite
limestone series and regression with deposition of the
upper clay-sandstone series occurred. The two complexes were deposited with variations in thickness
indicative of transpressive and synsedimentary activity
of faults in the rock seal (probably associated with
faults in the basement).
In the third stage, the Hamada Safra axis resulted from
transpressive (maybe dextral) reactivation of the basement faults and formation of the folded structures of
Oued Chenachne and Oued Souss. This axis could also
represent preexisting relief from the start of infraCambrian sedimentation and would therefore have
constituted a topographical boundary between the
eastern and western zones.
Finally, there was termination of the transpressive tectonics and deposition of the first Paleozoic members
(Cambrian) unconformably on the infra-Cambrian
purple series.
65
Petroleum systems
Source rocks
An excellent source rock39,40 described as black shale
exists in the infra-Cambrian formations. The TOC level
found in these formations is excellent. Data that would
allow a reliable assessment of the lateral and vertical
extent of these clays are unavailable. Reconstitution
studies have demonstrated, however, that this source
rock was deposited in a synrift context, which could give
rise to great thickening in the vicinity of major faults in
the region.
Reservoirs
The Proterozoic series, also known as the Hank series, is
represented by detritic and limestone formations that
developed between the two major unconformities on the
Precambrian basement and beneath the Eocambrian
tillite.35,36 This series is subdivided into three groups
(Fig. 1.68):
Douik groupknown as G1, G2, and G3or lower
detritic complex. This sandstone assemblage has a lateral extent that is impossible to predict within the
study sector. It appears to disappear around the meridian of Chenachne at 5W. Reservoir qualities are poor.
Hank groupknown as C1 to C9. This Stromatolite
limestone complex has a broad extent from the
Mauritanian Adrar to Grizim, a distance of 1,200 km.
Thicknesses visible at the outcrop to the south of the
Eglab vary between 19 and 35 m. These limestones are
often compact and hard with poor petrophysical characteristics. When fractured they can form hydrocarbon
reservoirs, as in the case of the Abolag 1 well in
Mauritania, which has a small output. Above the
Stromatolite limestones, ferruginous sandstones
appear to be continuous with the fine to medium, generally friable saccharoidal sandstones known as the
Kerboub facies. Their thicknesses vary from 20 m at
Chegga to 16 m at Tilemsi.
66
Dar Cheikh group, which is divided into four subgroups:

CG 1 and 3 subgroup, which consists of light to greenish, sometimes saccharoidal, medium to coarse sandstones with porosities of 7% to 18% and
thicknesses of 5 to 20 m.
CG 4 and 5, a subgroup of sandstones that are generally clean, sometimes
friable and quite porous, quite well developed in the region, and could
form a good reservoir. Thicknesses range from 8 to 22 m. Porosities are on
the order of 6% to 19%.
CG 6 and 7 subgroup, which has two sandstone reservoir levels: a basal
level whose characteristics may be locally good (at Chegga, for example),
where mean porosity is on the order of 21%, or poor (at Mokrid, for example), where porosity varies from 2.5% to 13%. The thickness is only
5 to 6 m. A friable summit reservoir sometimes occurs in the Kerboub sandstones. These form a reservoir 25 to 40 m thick. Porosity is 12% to 26%.
CG 8, 9, and 10 subgroup, which is not very well developed in the east.
It is 47 m thick at Chegga, and porosities vary from 8% to 15%. The sandstones are fine to medium with crossbedding and rapidly pass into compact limestone-containing sandstones.
Traps
Structural and sedimentological investigations have identified different types
of traps35,36 that may exist within the perimeter of Chenachne:
Type A, a purely structural trap corresponding to folding induced by the
transpressive tectonics at the end of the Proterozoic.
Type B, which corresponds to a combined trap and affects only the basal
sandstone series when it is covered by the limestone series. The extent of
this type of trap is interesting because this structural feature can be found
along all the N-S faults, and particularly toward the south beneath the
Paleozoic series.
Type C, which includes all the traps found in sedimentation contemporary
with extensional tectonics (of the North Sea type).
Type D, which is a conventional stratigraphic trap given the arrangement of
the infra-Cambrian series that dips southward beneath the Paleozoic series
and biotherms to embedded stromatoliths.
A2
A1
Limestone
series
A3
Basal
sandstone
series
Basement
Type B traps: Applicable only to the basal sandstone series where it is in
contact with a possible source rock (in this case the limestone assemblage).
This is an assemblage of sandstone levels established in corridors in the
basement, which is capped by the upper series. This type of trap is likely to
be found along the extension of the basement faults beneath the limestone
series.
2 km
5 km
5 km
2 km
5 km
5 km
Upper Cretaceous
Lower-Middle Cretaceous
Paleocene
Upper Jurassic
Liassic
Triassic
0
Sandstone series
10 km
Structural section through the eroded blocks of the Ninian region to the
east of the Shetland basin (North Sea). Based on Albright Turner and
Williamson, 1980, in Basin Analysis, Principles and Applications
(Philip A. Allen, John R. Allen).
Basement
Limestone series
Basement
Limestone series
Cambrian
sandstone series
Cambrian
sandstone series
Type A traps: Anticlinal structures that are closed or against faults most often associated
with the north-south transverse faulting of Oued Chenachne and Oued Souss.
Type C includes all the traps that might develop in the context of
syntectonic deposition with extension or transtension.
Above is a section in the North Sea showing the various producing
plays in the region.
C
A
C
D
B
Basement
Basal sandstone assemblage
Limestone assemblage
Paleozoic
Dolerites
0
Type D trap: A stratigraphic trap related to the wedges that the infra-Cambrian sandstone levels can
form (essentially those of the upper sandstone series) beneath the transgressive Cambrian deposits.
20 km
These illustrations show the different types of traps found in

the Chenachne area, notably below the Paleozoic deposits in
south Chenachne. The traps are structural, stratigraphic, or
mixed. The stratigraphic study shows several very good reservoirs
in the series, some with significant thickness. Reservoirs with
trap conditions similar to those in types B and D hold the
possibility of sizeable accumulations.
Figure 1.68: Taoudenni basin trap types.
67
Sba Basin
The Sba basin, located in the southwest of the Algerian Sahara, covers a
surface area of 32,683 km2 and is bounded
to the southwest by the Ougarta ranges, which separate it from the Reggane
basin
to the south by the Bled El Mass High
to the northeast by the Timimoun basin
to the east by the Ahnet basin and the Azzne dome (Figs. 1.69 and 1.70).
Timimoun Basin
Bel Rhazi
Dj. Heche Trend
Synclinal
Bel Rhazi/Oufrane
Sba Trend
Kahal Tabelbala
Tadmait
Trend
Gara Oulbet
Sba Bowl
Kesra Sud
Touat
North Trend
Bou Hadid
Foukroun
Decheira Trend
Oued Moungar
Zine
Azzene Trend
Oufrane Trend
Oued Messaoud
Reggane Basin
Hassi
Ilatou
Touat
Azzene Dome
Sillon Erg Erraoui
Saoura
Oued
Tourhar
Bled el Mas
Cambro-Ordovician
Infra-Cambrian
North transverse trend

Central transverse trend
Central transverse trend 0

South transverse trend
Figure 1.69: Situation and main structural trends in the Sba basin.
Namurian
Visean
Tournaisian
Strunian
Famennian
Middle Devonian and Frasnian
Figure 1.70: Transverse geologic section of the Sba basin.
68
Lower Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Infra-Cambrian
20 km
Hydrocarbon
results
Targets
Seal
Reservoir
Source rock
Age
Thickness, m
Lithology
Western Province BasinsSba Basin
Cretaceous
Intercalary
continental
100-800
Namurian
Lower
Exploration work resumed between 1970 and 1974 with

regional seismic surveys followed by detailed seismic
surveys beginning in 1976. This activity was followed by
drilling the SBAA-1 well in 1980, which revealed a major
accumulation of oil in the Tournaisian. Since that year,
activity has picked up significantly.
LT
0-800
Visean
Upper
Carboniferous
Upper
Mesozoic
Sand
Clay
Limestone
Tournaisian
0-200
Strunian
0-200
ODZ, SBAA
DECH,
DECHW,
TOT LTNE
LT
Fammenian
0-600
Middle
Devonian
Frasnian
Givetian
0-75
AZ
Couvinian
Lower
Emsian
Siegenian
0-500
Gedinnian
Ludlow
Petroleum system
Source rock
80-800
Wenlock
OTRA, FOKE
Upper
Ashgillian
ODZ, BD,
BDW, BLR,
OFN, ODA,
LT, LTNE,
LTC
Middle
Ordovician
Caradocian
Llandeilian
The Sba basin to date has seen the development of 74

wells and 26,000 km of 2D seismic and 500 km2 of 3D
seismic. Oil has been discovered in all the reservoirs in
the hydrocarbon system. Although the western Sahara is
best known as a gas province, the Sba basin is the only
basin there that includes commercial oil fields. Most of
the gas fields were discovered in the reservoirs of the
Cambro-Ordovician. These reservoirs, with varied and
complex depositional environments, have highly variable
characteristics (Fig. 1.71). Generally, they are of good
quality in the south and center of the basin, and of the
tight reservoir type toward the north of the basin.
FOK
Pridolian
Silurian
Paleozoic
Exploration in the Sba basin began in 1954 when a

gravimetric survey was carried out. Between 1956 and
1979, a dozen wells were drilled and revealed an accumulation of oil in the Givetian in the Azzne structure
(AZ-1) in 1959 and gas in the Ordovician in the Belrhazi
structure (BLR-101) in 1963.
80-500
Radioactive Silurian is the main source rock feeding the

Cambro-Ordovician reservoirs. This stratum can be summarized as having
Type II organic matter
high initial total organic carbon (1.8% to 6.7%)
high initial hydrocarbon potential (8 to 35 kg HC/metric
ton of rock).41,42
Llanvirnian
Lower
Arenigian
Tremadocian
Cambrian
OTRA
SBAA
Cambrian
250-600
Pre-Cambrian
Figure 1.71: Lithostratigraphic section of the Sba basin.
69
The maturation of this source rock stratum varies from

immature in the extreme south of the basin to dry gas in
the north (Fig. 1.72).
Sa
ou
ra
Bu
nd
le
DJ. Heche
Reservoirs
TBR-1
OLM-1
The reservoir consists of a set of units from the Cambrian

(Unit II) to the Ordovician (Units III and IV).
The Cambrian reservoir, represented by Unit II, consists

of medium coarse to microconglomeratic sandstones
having very low porosities with very fine clay bands. The
depositional environments are predominantly proximal
fluviatile. The facies consist of trough crossbedded and
planar oblique crossbedded sandstones.
The Cambro-Ordovician is mainly known as a gas reservoir, although oil has been discovered in some strata at
depths less than 1,500 m.
Seal
The Silurian clays, which are regionally well developed,
provide a good rock seal for the Cambro-Ordovician
reservoirs. The base of these clays is highly radioactive
with abnormally high pressures, thus increasing the
effectiveness of this rock seal.
ODA-1
OFN-1
NBA-1
OF-1,2
MSD-1
Unit IV in the Upper Ordovician is the main reservoir. The

reservoir facies is dominated by sandstones of mean
porosity that reaches 10%, with interbedded microconglomeratic clays. The sandstones are often fine to
clayey-silty at the base and become clean and coarse at
the top. Although permeability is often low, the top of
this reservoir produces in some fields. This permeability
is often improved by the presence of fracturing.
Depositional environments are of the proximal fluvio-glacial type controlled by glacial incised valleys and offshore deposits. Unit III, which is dated to the Ordovician,
consists of sandstones and clays of a shallow upper to
lower shoreface marine type, sometimes dominated by
storm deposits.
BLR-101
ERA-1
DECHW-1
DECH-1,2
FHD-1
Kahal Tabelbala
TAD-1
COT-1
OK-1 TS-1
OHA-1 KES-1
BD-1 1 bis GNF-1,2 FOKN-1
BDW-1
K-1 FOK-1
FOKE-1
2a 3 ODZ-1,2
SBAAS-1
2
MGR-1M AZ-1
HRA-1
OTRT-1 LTN-1 2
ADRAR
SBAN-1
TOT-1-2
SBA-1`A7
Reggane Basin
LTNW-1
LTSW-1
LTNE-1 2
LTC-1
2 1 2
3
LT-1bis
OTRA-1 OTLA-1
EAB-1
Bled el Mass
Immature zone
Oil zone
Gas zone
Current maturation
24 km
Figure 1.72: Maturation map for the Silurian in the Sba basin..
are the Silurian shales, whose characteristics can be summarized as follows:

high initial total organic carbon (0.7% to 2.5%)
high initial hydrocarbon potential (2 to 18 kg HC/metric ton of rock)
Type II organic matter.
The maturation of this level increases from the south to the north of the Sba
basin.
Reservoirs
The Gedinnian reservoir consists of fine sandstones and silts. The depositional
environments are shallow marine with a tendency toward confinement. The
sandstones may be oolitic with the presence of chamosite, providing evidence of disturbed or nonoolitic environments, often finer and more clayey
and bioturbated, with ripple marks and flaser bedding. This reservoir is of
relatively limited extent and is smaller than the other reservoirs found in the
Sba basin.
Seal
The Middle and Upper Devonian clays provide a good rock seal for the
Gedinnian sandstones.
Lower Devonian play

Source rock
Carboniferous/Upper Devonian play

Source rocks
Although difficult to prove, regional studies indicate that

the main source rocks feeding the Gedinnian reservoirs
The source rock capable of feeding the reservoirs in the Tournaisian-Strunian

is the Frasnian, which is characterized by
70
Western Province BasinsSba Basin
Reservoirs
The Tournaisian-Strunian is the main oil reservoir throughout the region. The
sandstones are fine, with the presence of glauconite and bioclastics. These
sandstones take the form of 20- to 50-m marine bars. The characteristics of
this reservoir are generally good, with porosities higher than 15% and permeabilities exceeding 100 mD.
Formation
Depth
(m)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
Sba sandstone
mixed organic matter (Types II and III)

mid-range initial TOC (0.6% to 2.4%)
low to high initial hydrocarbon potential (1.2 to 11 kg HC/metric ton of
rock).41,42
750
The basal sequence of the Tournaisian is known by the name of the Sba
sandstone (Fig. 1.73).
800
Seal
The Strunian-Tournaisian reservoir is covered by the Visean and Namurian
clays.
Traps
Structural and stratigraphic traps are found in the Sba basin. These trap
types may be associated with all plays without distinction.
850
Strunian
The structural traps found can be classified into two major families:
structures associated with a major fault
complex structures with intersections in two directions.
Stratigraphic traps are wedges of the Tournaisian sandstones beneath the
intra-Carboniferous unconformity in the southern edge of the basin and those
of the Gedinnian in the center of the basin.
900

The most important results from research and exploration in the Sba basin
during the last three decades have been the discovery of 10 oil fields and 12
commercial gas fields.
The oil fields currently under development will supply the Adrar refinery,
which is under construction.
950
The gas fields are currently under evaluation. Nevertheless, the north and
northwestern parts of this basin have not been explored very much. Four gas
accumulations and several gas prospects have been discovered in these zones.
In the center and south of the basin, the Gedinnian and Tournaisian wedges
could form stratigraphic or mixed traps.
Figure 1.73: Log from the Strunian-Tournaisian.
71
Sfar the Tassili of the Ajjer. Procession or ceremonial dance of characters thought to be initiates or mythological heroes.
72
Northern Algeria
Offshore Basins
78
Chelif Basin
81
Hodna Basin
84
Atlas/Southeast Constantine/Chott El Melrhir Basins
87
73
Northern Algeria
From south to north, Northern Algeria43-52 is made up of
the following structural features (Fig. 1.74):
to the south, the Saharan Atlas, a mountain chain of
Alpine origin
in the center, rigid and stable platforms such as the
Oran High platform to the west and the Constantine
uplift to the east
in the north, the Tellian Atlas, which is a complex area
consisting of ancient massifs (Paleozoic and older) generally metamorphosed with an allochthonous sedimentary cover, emplaced during the Lower Miocene, on
which postorogenic Neogene basins such as the Chelif
and the Hodna were established
the offshore domain, which extends to the north of the
Algerian coast, features a narrow continental shelf and
is made up of a sedimentary cover of essentially
Miocene-Pliocene-Quaternary age. It lies on a volcanic
or metamorphic basement but can locally (probably
northern offshore) rest on an allochthonous sedimentary substrata such as the one in Chelif.
In Northern Algeria, despite small-scale oil and gas discoveries, the potential
for oil has not yet been revealed due to its complex geologic setting.
These provinces or basins, where relatively little exploration has been carried
out, are, in order from least to most mature, the
Offshore basin
Saharan Atlas basin
Chelif basin
Hodna basin
Melrhir/Southeast Constantine basins.
Stratigraphy
Northern Algeria fits into the geologic evolution of a Mesozoic basin. The
upper part of the country contains four paleogeographic or structural sets:
Oran Meseta
Saharan Atlas
Southeast Constantine
Tellian and the offshore domains.
144b
144a
145
143
M
37
Annaba
Algiers
Bejaia
Mitidja
36
Oran
AZ
O.G.
sin
if Ba TL
Chel
Southeast
Constantine
Hodna Basin
Miocene Foredeep
35
Fo
DK
DDN
Telagh Trough
HEK
High Plateau
OGZ
Saharan Atlas
Oran Meseta
Melrhir Trough
34
Tu n is ia
GKN
GKS
RTB
33
Mo ro cc o
Saharan Platform
Benoud Trough
Figure 1.74: Structural map and oil fields in northern Algeria.
74
Anticline
Syncline
HEK-field
Limit of allochthonous terrains
2
Reverse fault
Normal fault
8
Northern AlgeriaGeneralities
The stratigraphy of northern Algeria has been defined in these domains on the
basis of field and logging data. It was amply described in the 1995 Algeria
WEC so is not repeated here.
Structural overview
The structure of northern Algeria is marked by a young relief and active seismicity. Vertical Pliocene and Quaternary strata are noted at several locations
in the Tellian along the edge of the Sahara. The morphology is characterized
by two large folded ranges located north and south of the 35th parallel, with
summits toward 2,000 m. One, corresponding to the Saharan Atlas, runs
NE-SW; the other, in the Tellian Atlas, runs in an E-W direction.
Northern Algeria was included in the Alpine orogeny of northern Africa, also
known as the Maghreb Chain. This orogenesis took place between the ocean
basin of the western Mediterranean Sea, which began to open up in the
Oligocene, and the South Atlas flexure separating it from the Saharan platform.
Major faults
In addition to the structural boundaries specified, the orogenic structure is
marked by the existence of several families of faults of regional extent and
direction parallel to the chains or running through them.
Directional faults
In addition to the South Atlas fault separating the Alpine domain from the
Saharan platform, which is relatively well known and the line of which is
clean with well-reconstituted character, two other faults have been identified
in the northern part of the Saharan Atlas:
the South Mesetian fault, which is the real boundary between the subsiding
belt of the Saharan Atlas and the Oran Meseta, which formed a stableplatform during the Mesozoic
the North Atlas fault dividing the Atlas chain into two parts:
a pre-Atlas area to the north, which is less subsident and less structured
than the southern part
an area to the south known as Atlasic, which has thicker deposits and is
more subsident, wider, and more structured than the previous one, and
which forms the Saharan Atlas in the strictest sense.
The North Atlas fault is the boundary where the limestone slab of the LiassicDogger of the high plateau comes to a stop. It gives way to a thick, sandyclayey series deposited in the southern trough from the Toarcian. This fault is
regarded as the tectonic axis of the range with the structures having opposing dips on either side. Thus, it has played a paleogeographic role since the
Triassic, separating different zones and influencing their sedimentation and
geodynamic behavior (subsidence) during the extension and filling of the
basin, and would have acted as an overlap area during the episodes when the
basin suffered compression and was shortening.
Transverse faults
Transverse faults have been thoroughly investigated
through observations in the field and geophysical interpretations. The most noteworthy is the Tafna transverse
fault, which governs the linear morphology of the Oran
coast. It has been recognized as far as the Habibas
Islands, where it is accompanied by various Miocene volcanic strata. Similarly, there are many major transversal
faults, generally parallel or dextral breakaways, in the
140N direction and that of the eastern border of Algeria
(Ngrine-Bjaia fault, Gafsa fault, etc.). In addition, the
existence of miscellaneous transversal faults in the 50N
direction, such as the Ksiksou fault, might have played a
mega-regional role.
Saharan Atlas
The Saharan Atlas is marked by large folds ending in
sharp periclines. The staggered long, narrow anticlines
are separated by broad flat-bottomed synclines. Placed
end to end, these folds extend over a distance of 500 km.
The style of the anticlines is ejective. They are often
affected by faults with orthogonal directions and varying
throw, some of which have enabled the Triassic plastic
series to reach the surface at the heart of certain anticlines. Other structures, such as the Rass El Guenatis,
are purely halokinetic and developed from the Dogger
onward.
In general the folding represents a succession of overthrusts on inclined and horizontal planes from opposite
directions on either side of the tectonic axis of the range.
Only the tips of the overthrusts are terminated by propagation folds, as is the case with the N-W overfold direction of the Djebel Nador fold or the S-E overfold direction
in the TadjerounaEl Abiod Sidi Cheikh region.
The most probable and extensive detachment planes
should correspond to formations that are both thick and
plastic and known to be present in the Triassic and possibly in the Kimmeridgian and Cenomanian.
Tellian domain
This domain encompasses the area between the
Mediterranean Sea to the north and the autochthonous
pre-Saharan to the south. The southern limit is marked by
a number of Miocene basins running from west to east
from the Ghossels plain to Sellaoua. This succession of
basins corresponds to the remainings of a foredeep,
which is now covered by overthrusted nappes.
75
The allochthonous
The allochthonous of the Tellian domain comprises a
series of ancient blocks edged by a limestone spine,
which because of its original features forms the orogenic
entity of this domain.
This domain, which is subdivided into blocks, consists of
a gneiss basement and an unconformable phyllite cover.
These features are unconformably followed by the sedimentary members of a more or less complete Paleozoic
sequence.
The tectonic process ends with a late Eocene/Oligocene
phase that shaped the domain definitively. The imposed
structures are fossilized under a thick series said to be
Oligocene. Finally, in the late Upper Miocene stage, this
cover was again deformed, enabling the final setting of
the nappes and the filling of the Miocene basins.
Flysch domain
The Flysch domain forms an almost continuous strip to
the north and especially to the south of the ancient
blocks. It is subdivided into three units that crop out in
three positions: as strips squeezed between the Kabylia
and Tellian domains; as tectonic superstructures resting
on the Tellian allochthonous formations (Numidian
Flysch); and finally as reworked material through the
north and south Kabylia olistostromes.
Tellian nappes
The classification used here takes into account the position of the elements in the structure, their facies, and
their original paleogeographic positions.
The Flysch nappes (Numidian, Mauritanian, and
Massylian) are named after their facies. The ultra-Tellian
Nappes consist of formations of Cretaceous age. The
epi-Tellian nappes consist of sequences of Cretaceous
and Eocene age. Finally, the meso-Tellian nappes consist
of Eocene neritic facies close to the autochthonous preSaharan.
This classification has been established by university and
petroleum researchers and applied to the south Tellian
domain (Bibans chain and Hodna Mountains).
The allochthonous was emplaced during the Burdigalian
and the Lower Langhian. Emplacement occurred later in
the south than in the north, where the postnappe deposits
indicate a pre-Upper Burdigalian age.
76
An earlier stage was recently recognized in the Bni-Chougrane area, in synorogenic Priabonian-Oligocene basins.
Alpine tectonic phases

The Alpine history of north Africa consists of the climactic Upper
EoceneMiocene age events and preceding and subsequent phases.
Preliminary phases
A first phase is marked by unconformities in the Babors at the JurassicCretaceous boundary (Neo-Cimmerian phase), recognized in the Saharan Atlas
and the Sahara. The second phase, known as the Austrian, occurred in the
Middle Albian and was responsible for folding, trending NNW-SSE. Finally,
the third phase, known as the Emsherian and occurring in the Lower Senonian,
has been noted in the Hodna and Southeast Constantine.
Climactic phases
In the late Eocene, the collision between the African and European plates produced a collision chain. The major phase, or Pyrenean phase, placed in the
Upper LutetianPriabonian, generated the larger part of the current series
architecture in the Tellian and the Atlas domain. In the Aurs and the rest of
the Saharan Atlas, it roughed out anticlines that were quickly worn down by
erosion and synclines in which the eroded material accumulated. Study of the
local continental formations shows that deformation was progressive. In the
Atlas and Aurs forelands, this phase was responsible for large box folds oriented NE-SW. It was followed by a pre-Miocene/Oligocene extension, which
gave rise to small grabens at right angles to the Atlas structures.
A further phase, of Miocene age, is marked by continued warping and major
overthrusting, giving rise to folding as well as torsion and offsets between the
structural axes.
The last phase, N-S compression, affected the post-Villafranchian series. Its
effects can be seen throughout Algeria, along the Saharan flexure between
Negrine and Biskra and in the Oran area (Tafraoui).
Source rocks
The clay or micritic source rocks found in the Cenomanian-Turonian, Upper
Albian (Vraconian), and possibly the Lower Eocene (Ypresian) make up the main
source rocks in north and northeast Algeria.
Upper Albian (Vraconian)

The marl and limestone deposits of the Upper Albian, following the coarse
sandstone facies of the Lower Albian, mark the major Upper Cretaceous transgression (Fig. 1.75).
This Vraconian rock is very rich in organic material (Tamesmida in Tunisia), but
in the Southeast Constantine region, it is only locally present at Djebel
Darmoun and in Hodna Kef El Asfar.
Northern AlgeriaGeneralities
The organic material is amorphous to mixed. The facies are purely pelagic, rich
in fauna, with ammonites present toward the northeast of the Hodna Mountains.
Geochemical analyses of the Vraconian in KEF 1 indicated petroleum potential
(PP) varying between 1 g HC/kg of rock and 7 g HC/kg of rock, with a mean of
2.5 g HC/kg of rock. Nevertheless, this rock is not very mature, with a Tmax of
432C in the KEF 1 well; in the center of the basin, on the other hand, it would
seem to lie in the area of the dry gas window.
At Djebel Darmoun in the Southeast Constantine area, the Vraconian indicated
a significant PP in DDN 1 with values extending from 2 g HC/ kg of rock to
32 g HC/kg of rock, with a mean of 7 g HC/kg of rock and a thermal maturity
within the range 435C < Tmax < 460C.
This assemblage is also present in the Biskra region

(Djebel Bou Rhezal), Oued Djellal, and the south of
Negrine, where it is nevertheless more dolomitic and thus
loses its quality as a source rock. The highest TOC values
are recorded in the Southeast Constantine region, where
the mean value is 4% with peak values exceeding 13%.
Good values have also been recorded to the north of
Batna, in the vicinity of Djebel Clia (TOC 2.7%), and in
the Hodna (TOC 2%).
The organic matter is essentially amorphous, probably
sapropelic, and is associated with dinoflagellates and,
more rarely, with plant debris.
Cenomanian-Turonian
The main Mesozoic source rock lies in the transition from the Cenomanian to
the Turonian, and appears to be confined to the northeastern part of Algeria.
The measured kerogen sometimes has high values,

reaching up to 90 kg HC/ton of rock.
The marine transgression which began in the Upper Albian produced clay-carbonate strata of variable thicknesses with good geochemical characteristics.
They correspond to the marly black limestone having a laminated slab structure of the Bahloul formation found in Tunisia.
With the exception of the regions of Djebel Bottena, to

the southeast of Tebessa, and the Saharan platform
where it is immature, it is essentially in the oil phase.
The Eocene
GRN-1
Ld (ohm-m) Sonic
CAL
BGZ-1
Vsh (%)
OGS-1
Vsh (%)
ID-2
Vsh (%)
DRW-1
Vsh (%) Ld (ohm-m)
Hydrocarbon potential
(g HC/kg
KEF-1
DTK-1
Vsh (%) of rock)
Vsh (%)
0 4 8
Wells
Section line
Jijel
MDJ-1
BSK-1 OCN-1
OGS-1 O. Gueterini
ID-2
Setif
KEF-1
GL-1
MTL-1
S e a
Annaba
Constantine
An Regada
DDN-1
Vsh (%) Sonic resistivity
Albian sandstones Vraconian marls Vraconian
DKS-1
Vsh (%)
The microfacies is a blackish fossiliferous micrite, with

interbedded evaporites (gypsum and anhydrite) and
phosphates. Geochemical analyses have shown a high
organic matter content with a TOC varying between
0.80% and 4.38%, Type II organic matter of marine origin, sulphur content exceeding 5%, and anoxic deposits.
Tunisia
Its microfacies is a Globigerina and Pithonella micrite, rich in organic matter

and pyrites. Net pays reach several dozen meters in the Southeast Constantine
area, as well as in the Aurs Kef trough, and become distinctly weaker and
shallower in the area of the Talamzane Dome in the Saharan platform.
4 8
32 g HC/kg
of rock
SB-1
BNW-1
DTA-1
DTK-1
BDJ-1
DDN-1
DK
BDJ-2
Sandstone facies
Limestone facies
Clay facies
Figure 1.75: Correlation of the Albian from the Oran Meseta to the Southeast Constantine area.
77
Offshore Basins
The offshore basins, which stretch for a distance of
1,200 km from east to west, were formed in earth movements from the Oligocene to the Pliocene, which were
followed by conditions of relative stability in the late
Pliocene and Quaternary.
Petroleum system
These offshore basins cover a surface area of approximately 100,000 km2. This domain is fragmented into four
major exploratory blocks (143, 144a, 144b, and 145). The
sedimentary cover, which rests on a metamorphic or volcanic basement, extends from the Oligocene to the
Quaternary (Fig. 1.76). This extensive mineral domain is
very poorly known; it has only been investigated by a single well (HBB 1) and two core-drills (ARZ 1 and ALG 1),
with a drilling density of 3 wells per 100,000 km2. From a
scientific viewpoint this domain has been investigated a
few times by drilling carried out within the framework of
the Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP, Leg 42A, Sites 371
and 372). This domain (Algero-Baleares basin) has also
been the subject of gravimetry and magnetometry surveys carried out by various institutions (Sonatrach,
IFP/CNEXO, and others).
Western region
The structural patterns in the Algerian offshore domain can be described as

follows:
The structural style of the western region is illustrated by the seismic sections
passing through the HBB-1 well. These sections show a N-S detachment
plane associated with faulting caused by collapse of the basement during the
Middle to Upper Miocene. They also show that HBB-1 is located on a high in
relation to the north and east of the corresponding sections.
Lithology
Reservoirs
Source rock
Seal
Pliocene-Quaternary
Stratigraphy
Tortonian + Langhian Serravalian

Numidian
Miocene
Messinian
Net pay: 20 m
Sonic < 30%
Oligocene-Miocene
This domain comprises the Alboran basins in the west

and the Algero-Provenal basins in its central and
eastern parts. The source rocks are located in the transgressive intervals of the Miocene (Fig. 1.77) and the
Lower Pliocene (Fig. 1.78). Potential targets lie in the
Miocene and Lower Pliocene. Seismic coverage (2D) is
on the order of 29,500 linear kmthat is, a coverage of
0.31 km/km2. During 2000 to 2002, 9,000 km of 2D seismic were acquired in the context of a partnership (nonexclusive survey) between Sonatrach and WesternGeco.
Interpretation of the various seismic lines reveals interesting results, particularly in terms of basin geometry
and the thickness of the sedimentary cover.
Structural models
Net pay: 20 m
mean = 3%
Net pay: 48 m
mean = 10%
8% < > 16%
Net pay: 26 m
mean = 5%
4% < < 6%
Gas shows were observed

during drilling:
0.02% < C2 < 0.4%
0.01% < C3 < 0.14%
Basement
Sandstone
Marls and clays
Volcanic tuffs
Reef limestones
Evaporites
Limestone transitions
Basement
Figure 1.76: Synthetic stratigraphic column and petroleum systems of the offshore Algerian region.
78
Northern AlgeriaOffshore Basins
120
Series Stage Depth
(m)
Slowness
(s/ft)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
80
150
Calculated
porosity
(%)
0 10 20
120
Series Stage Depth
(m)
Density
(g/cm3)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
2.95
Serravalian
GR
4,250
Middle Miocene
Serravalian
Middle Miocene
3,600
Langhian
3,650
4,300
Calculated
porosity
(%)
0 5 10
Source rocks
Pliocene shales
Miocene shales
- Messinian
- Serravalian
- Tortonian
Cretaceous
Reservoirs
Miocene-Pliocene
- Pliocene sands
- Messinian reefs
- Tortonian sands
- Serravalian sands
Cretaceous
Trapping styles
Anticlines
Faulted blocks
Horsts
Reefs
Stratigraphic
Slope fans
3,700
0.0
140.0
(gAPI)
Slowness
200.0
(s/ft)
40.0
Depth
(m)
Stage
Series
Gamma ray
Porosity
(%)
0.00
1,850
Age SB
(106 yr)
20.00
Stratigraphic
sequence
Figure 1.77: Miocene reservoirs recognized in HBB-1.
Good
4.04
1,900
TST
Lower Pliocene
Good
1,950
LST (PC)
The major geologic events that affected the

Mediterranean Sea on a regional scale have been dated,
according to the survey carried out within the
SH/Anadarko Convention, as follows:
The Lutetian: the major Alpine collision, in the form of
subduction of the African plate beneath the European
plate toward the northwest
The Aquitanian: E-W opening of the rift in the Gulf of
Valencia-Provence
The Burdigalian: formation of the Mediterranean
oceanic crust
The Tortonian: minor episodes of extension
The Messinian: a tectonically calm period and confinement of the Mediterranean
The Upper Pliocene: tectonic inversion of the western
Mediterranean.
The presence of volcanism in the Pliocene-Quaternary
might (because of its proximity) have helped play a positive part in thermal maturation of the source rocks from
the Lower Pliocene (immature at HBB-1) as well as the
presence of diapirism in the deep layers of the Messinian
salt.
2,000
Upper
Miocene
Messinian
4.32
Figure 1.78: Pliocene reservoirs and their environments.
79
Eastern region
The structural style of the eastern region centered
around Bejaia can be observed by the interpretation of
the seismic sections in which faulted anticlinal structures and upthrust structures are noted in the N-S seismic section of the eastern offshore:
Source rocks
Working downward, the main source rocks known in the
offshore are described below:
Those of the Lower Pliocene, although the mean TOC
is barely average (0.23% < TOC < 2.71%), reveal a very
encouraging PP of 14.08 kg HC/ton of rocks but are
immature in the vicinity of HBB-1. In the vicinity of the
maximum flooding surface (MFS) identified in the
Lower Pliocene, geochemical analyses have shown the
following values: TOC at 2.71% and PP of 14.08 kg
HC/ton of rock, at a level of 1,695 m (TOC of 1.12%
and PP of 2.88 kg HC/ton of rock, at a level of 1,590 m).
In those of the Miocene, PP is lower than in the above,
with variable TOC values (0.23% < TOC < 1.13%); the
PP could reach values exceeding 5 kg HC/ton of rock.
The organic matter analyzed is mature and located
within the oil window phase.
Clay strata at the base of the Oligocene may also
constitute potential source rocks in the eastern part of
the Algerian offshore.
Reservoirs
Well HBB 1 encountered a number of sandstone levels in
the Miocene. Porosity values are on the order of 5% to
18% in detritic intervals in the Miocene. In the turbiditic
sandstones of the Lower Pliocene, sonic porosity values
are close to 30%. Sequential analysis of these turbidites
shows the presence of deposits associated with lowstand prograding complexes and a highstand system
tract draped by a transgressive system tract associated
with the MFS.
80
Other reservoir levels, such as the Numidian sandstones, have been observed in
the eastern part of the Algerian offshore (core drills in Bou Abed, BAD-1 to -5)
carried out in the coastal region of Annaba.
Seal
The problem of cover does not arise since a seal is provided by the Middle
and Upper Pliocene, Tortonian, and Serravalian thick clay sequences found
throughout the Algerian offshore which, due to their strength and extent, provide adequate rock seal.
Traps
The large number of leads identified by the interpretation of seismic data
confirms the presence of traps (anticlinal, reverse fault, and mixed traps).
Specific features
Young oil targets, which are of Miocene and probably Pliocene age, are of
interest in the western offshore. The region is not very well known but could
gain more prominence from positive oil results in the Chelif basin, which continues out to sea.
In the eastern part onshore Constantine, active indicators of oil have been
observed in the Numidian Flysch (Oligocene-Miocene) and in the Eocene.
These series could extend out to sea and form a substrata for the autochtonous Miocene.

The Algerian offshore domain is not well explored but is promising. Seismic
interpretation shows several leads of a size having a surface area that can
exceed 400 km2. The few core-drills carried out show that the levels can present the characteristics of existing reservoir rock, bedrock, and cover rock.
These data must be combined with other data and analyses in order to build
up plays that could, in the future, be tested by drilling.
Northern AlgeriaChelif Basin
Chelif Basin
Exploration in the western area (Chelif basin) started at the end of the 19th
century on the basis of surface shows and revealed small accumulations of
relatively light oil at Tliouanet (28API), medium oil at Ain Zeft (25API), and
a noncommercial show of very light oil at Sedra and El-Biod. The surface area
of the Chelif perimeter is 17,440.20 km2. Only 3,122 km of 2D seismic have
been shot, and 10 deep exploration wells of more than 2,000 m have been
drilled, which is a ratio of 1 well per 1,700 km2.
Structural aspects
The surface of the Chelif basin is marked by folding and
reverse faulting. The fold axes trend NE-SW in the region
of Akboube, Zemmora, and Tliouanet, and tend to lie
ENE-WSW in the Ain Zeft sector (Figs. 1.79 and 1.80).
The folding is related to transpressive phases relating to
A
Dahra and Bou Maad
Chelif Basin
Ouarsenis Mountains
45 km
S e a
An Zeft
Habra Plain
M'Ieta Plain Tliouanet
Chelif Plain
African basement
Basement (Maghrebids)
Jurassic (foreland)
Jurassic (Maghrebids)
Paleozoic, Jurassic, Lower Cretaceous

Lower Cretaceous flyschs
Upper Cretaceous allochthonous flyschs
Upper Cretaceous flyschs
20 km
Pliocene-Quaternary
Oligocene-Miocene molasse
Upper Miocene
Lower Miocene synch-nappe
Figure 1.79: N-S structural section of the Dahra-Chelif-Ouarsenis.
TL-23
(+515)
TL-62
(+331)
TL-20 TL-94++ TL-86++ TL-85++ TL-88++ TL-70

(+310) (+306) (+304) (+307) (+306) (+313)
F1
F1
the reverse faulting, their orientation following that of

the anticlines; these are thrust faults. Below, the surface
of the Chelif basin comprises a Neogene synclinorium
affected by subvertical faulting.
+300
Blue
Marls
120 L
46 L
Clear unconformities are found at the boundaries of the

Pliocene, Upper Miocene, and Lower Miocene. These
boundaries are overthrusting toward the south where
faulting affects the Upper Miocene visible on the surface. All these data suggest that the Chelif is a piggyback basin.
1,250L
Blue Marls
1,200 L
+200
Producing level of water-free oil in the Upper Miocene

Daily production: 1,200 L
Cretaceous
150 km
Figure 1.80: Lithostratigraphic column of the Chelif basin.
81
Age
Stage
Pleistocene
Thickness
(m)
Lithology
(m)
Calabrian
Aptian
>400
Pliocene
Plaisancian
Petroleum system
The Chelif basin is known from the fields at Tliouanet
and Ain Zeft, but also by the number of surface and subsurface oil shows occurring along its northern and
southern edges. Oil plays are located in the Miocene
and the Cretaceous.
Messinian
>150
AZ
Upper
Miocene
TL
Tortonian
>1,000
Langhian
Serravalian
>100
Source rock
Geochemical analyses show the following source rock
values:
Upper Cretaceous: 0.5 < TOC < 3.23%
Lower Miocene: 0.45% < TOC < 1.3%
Upper Miocene (Messinian): 0.5% < TOC < 4%, which
is quite high.
Middle
Miocene
>250
Burdigalian
>1,500
Lower
Miocene
Reservoirs
The main reservoirs are the
Upper Miocene sandstones, which have proved to be
productive (30,000 t of light oil, D = 0.8 g/cm3) in the
Medjilla and MSila fields (Tliouanet). These are fine
clayey sandstones, essentially interbedded within the
Aquitanian
Oligocene
>200
Chattian
Upper
Cretaceous
Lower
>600
Basement
Jurassic
Triassic
Figure 1.81: Geological cross section through the Tliouanet field.
82
AZ
Seal
Fields
Reservoir rocks
The sedimentary sequence extends from the Burdigalian

to the Pleistocene (Fig. 1.81). The lithologic cross sections and drilling logs show series that correspond with
three sedimentary cycles:
Lower and Middle Miocene cycle lying unconformably
on a basement marked by a change in thickness and
facies
unconformable or transgressive Upper Miocene cycle,
concluding in a calm episode (Messinian)
Pliocene-Quaternary cycle.
Source rocks
Northern AlgeriaChelif Basin
TL-102
50
100
Producing reservoir levels in the Upper Miocene

R18 in.
R64 in.
150
200
250
R16 in.
300
Depth, m
350
400
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Resistivity, ohm-m
Sandstone facies
Clay facies
Figure 1.82: Resistivity log from the Tliouanet Miocene.
blue marls of the Upper Miocene. Peak porosities on the order of 20%, and
an average is on the order of 15%. There is marked matrix permeability
(Fig. 1.82).
sandstones at the base of the Lower Miocene, where the reservoir rock is
of the paralic type with porosities varying between 10% and 15%.
Seal
The reservoirs may be covered by the clay strata of the Miocene (marls and
gypsum) and the Upper Cretaceous (clays and marls).
Traps
Traps are essentially mixed (faulting and pinchout, as, for example, at MSila
and Medjilla (Tliouanet). The oils identified in this basin are from immature
oils (Ain Zeft), poorly mature oils (Tliouanet, MSila, and Medjilla) to mature
oils at SedraEl Biod. This diversity in the maturity of the oils identified in the
basin is a specific feature of the Chelif basin, which is still poorly known.

Despite the few results obtained, in light of the surface oil shows and the
quality of the Upper Cretaceous and Oligocene source rocks, the Chelif basin
remains promising, but it has a complicated and poorly known structural
domain. Leads in the bottom of the Neogene may have oil interest.
83
Hodna Basin
The Hodna is a Neogene basin in which the filling sequence
started with continental deposits of Oligocene age and
continued with marine Miocene. The oil targets are the
Eocene, Cretaceous, and Jurassic. Within the Hodna
basin, exploration began during the 1940s and revealed
a small oil field in the Paleogene of Oued Gueterini,
which is currently producing about 3,000 m3/year of light
oil of density 32API. Heavy oil (15API) also exists in the
Paleogene of the MSila basin.
For a surface area of 13,474.85 km2, 4,116 km of linear
2D seismic have been acquired, an area of 0.33 km/km2.
The number of wells drilled is 41 (and 180 surface wells
in the Oued Gueterini field), a drilling density of 32
wells/10,000 km2.
Upper Albian (Vraconian)

Geochemical analyses of the Vraconian in KEF 1 revealed PP values varying
between 1 g HC/kg of rock and 7 g HC/kg of rock, with a mean of 2.5 g HC/kg
of rock. Nevertheless, the maturity of this rock is low with a Tmax of 432C.
Upper CenomanianLower Turonian
Geochemical analyses of the Upper CenomanianLower Turonian show TOC
values varying from 0.64% to 2.3% with a mean that could be around 1.5%.
From the viewpoint of maturity, these formations are at the start of the oil
phase, with Tmax values between 439C and 436C for the Lower Turonian
and between 447C and 442C for the Cenomanian.
Eocene
TOC for the Eocene varies from 0.82% to 3.23%, with mean TOC values of
1.65%. The Eocene is immature. The measured Tmax is less than 420C.
Upper Kimmeridgian
Structural aspects
The structural aspects of the Hodna are summarized in
(Fig. 1.83), where the corresponding sections are similar.
In this figure the section C-C', which is oriented N-S,
shows a stack of allochthonous nappes on Miocene terrains. The Oued Guetirini field lies within these gravity
nappes.
Some hydrocarbon saturation indexes associated with the values of geochemical measurements made in the Guellalia well (GL 1) indicate that the
Upper Kimmeridgian may be rich in organic matter.
Reservoirs
Several Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks could constitute hydrocarbon reservoirs
in the Hodna basin. These are, in order of importance, as follows:
Albian sandstones
Figure 1.83 shows two geologic sections, one N-S (A-A)
and one E-W (B-B), cutting across the entire Hodna
basin. They are based on seismic profiles crossing the
region where the morphology of the terrain permits.
Petroleum systems
Source rocks
The Cenomanian-Turonian transition and possibly the
Upper Albian are regarded as source rocks, as are the
anoxic rocks of the Eocene with high petroleum potential. These horizons are known in Northern Algeria and to
a lesser extent at the Melrhir Trough in the case of the
Cenomanian-Turonian transition.
84
The observed porosity in the Albian sandstones, which varies from 8% to 20%
with a mean of 15%, and a measured permeability (DRW-1) of more than
1 Darcy, makes the Albian sandstones the best reservoir in the Hodna basin
from the standpoint of petrophysical quality.
The presence of hydrocarbons in the sandstones is marked by log measurements that show values of oil saturation varying between 20% and 60%
(DKS-1, ID-2, and KEF-1). This presence of hydrocarbons increases the
interest in the Albian sandstones.
Thicknesses vary from the west to the east-northeast where the depositional
environment is marine. Areas that are, in general, fault-bounded constitute
areas of erosion, which are indicative of Alpine orogenic episodes.
Northern AlgeriaHodna Basin
NW
NE
On the basis of seismic profiles: 81 DG 07 / 80 DG 25 /

80 DG 09 / 81 SG 55 / 78 SG 15 / 78 SG 15 bis / 80 ARN 09
Enageo interpretation 1994
Southeast
Hodna Basin
Bo-1
RH-1
GRN-1
GBA-1
DTA-1
DKS-1
DEG-1
ID-1
KEF-1
GL-1
MTL-1 BNM-1
DTK-1
AMR-1 B
1,000
0
-1,000
-2,000
-3,000
Allochthon from South Bibans

Upper Miocene
Lower Miocene
Upper Cretaceous
Lower Cretaceous
Albian
Triassic
Jurassic
100 km
S
Seismically quite well defined
(lines 86 SGSOS and 79 SG 39)
Surface data and seismic

data combination
Bibans
Tellian nappes
BSK-1
OGN-1
OGS-1
OG-1 OG-131
OG-19
Basement (including Paleozoic)

Triassic
Lower Jurassic
Upper Jurassic
Jurassic
Lower Cretaceous (Barremian-Neocomian)
Albian (Vraconian/Lower Albian)
Upper Cretaceous
Pre-Miocene Cenozoic
Lower Miocene
Post Upper Miocene
Tellian nappes
Fault
Bo-1
Oil well
Dry well
Oil well
A
C
DEG-1
C
3 km
3 km
N
Seismic lines
79 SG 30 /
80 ARN 13 /
78 ARC 10
Hodna Basin
KEF-1
2,000
Rouached
Chott Meharga
Dj. Dj. Mansourah Msila
1,000
Hodna
0 A
-1,000
-2,000
-3,000
Dj. Mimouna
G. El Kebch
MTL-1
BNM-1
A
Dj. Hamara
B
C
A
150 km
Figure 1.83: Interpretive structural sections in north-northeast Algeria.
85
Upper CenomanianLower Turonian
Traps
The only levels having good petrophysical reservoir characteristics are located in the Upper CenomanianLower
Turonian. The facies correspond to high stand marine
limestones formed in a high-energy environment. The
petrophysical characteristics are poor in certain areas of
the basin (in the case of core porosity, which varies from
2.7% to 5%, and permeability, which varies from 0.4 mD
to 0.85 mD). The best characteristics are located in the
eastern part of the Hodna basin. Sonic porosity (corrected
for clay content) varies between 9% and 30% (mean
16%), whereas matrix permeability is low, within the
range 0.01 and 1.2 mD, while fracture permeability is
close to 1 Darcy.
No commercial accumulation of hydrocarbons has been discovered since

Oued Gueterini, but the possibility of finding mixed traps (pinchouts against
faults) is likely.
Eocene
The reservoir rock has shown oil impregnation in SA-1
and SA-2 core drills. Porosity varies from 1.5% to 20%,
with a mean porosity of 5%. Matrix permeability is less
than 0.1 mD, whereas fracture permeability varies from
0.4 to 145 mD.
This reservoir rock showed signs of impregnation during
drilling, and oil productions were observed (density of
0.94 to 20C). Approximately 4.20 m3 of oil and 15.89 m3
of water (oil/water ratio of 0.264) were produced in the
course of the tests.
The Eocene is not well developed in the western area
where it is affected by the emplacement of the nappes.
Seal
The cover for the reservoir rocks generally consists of clay
or marly sequences overlying the known reservoirs. The
development of evaporitic series in the MSila basin in
the Cenomanian and Upper Lutetian must be mentioned.
86
Specific characteristics
At the present time, only the Oued Gueterini field in the Hodna basin, discovered at the end of World War II, might constitute a marker and reference from
the petroleum viewpoint. Because of the small size (surface area and net pay),
the quantity of hydrocarbons produced, the stage of ultimate recovery reached
(it currently produces only 8.2 m3/day, but without water inlet), and its location in the Ypresian calcareous slabs at the base of the south Tellian nappes,
it is a special deposit. These conditions provide the field with specific features
and interest as a model that could be used for prospecting and exploration for
larger accumulations of hydrocarbons in this south Tellian strip. The hydrocarbons produced at Oued Gueterini are clearly much more mature than those
extracted from the Paleogene source rocks known in the Hodna basin. This
indicates that the hydrocarbons in the Oued Gueterini field are probably of far
older and deeper origin.
In addition, the Paleogene of the MSila basin is promising for heavy hydrocarbons (15API), known from the SA-1 and SA-2 wells (Ypresian-Lutetian
pinchout).

Although promising, the Hodna basins have hardly been explored because of
their structural complexity. Two types of hydrocarbons could be produced:
light hydrocarbons (32API) and heavy hydrocarbons (15API).
Northern AlgeriaAtlas/Southeast Constantine / Chott El Melrhir Basins
Atlas/Southeast Constantine/
Chott El Melrhir Basins
The total area of the Southeast Constantine/Chott El Melrhir basins is
145,138 km2, with 2D seismic coverage of 42,951.02 linear km, a density of
0.85 km/km2. A total of 90 wells have been drilled, with 26 in delineation, for
15 wells/10,000 km2.
These basins were formed in the Tertiary. The Southeast Constantine/Chott El
Melrhir basins underwent structuring in the Cenozoic and have a MesozoicCenozoic fill (more than 10,000 m thick). They generated and accumulated
hydrocarbons. The main discoveries of oil in the Upper Cretaceous are Djebel
Onk (1956), Ras Toumb (1977), Guerguitt El-Kihal North (1988), Djebel
Guerguitt El-Kihal South (1994), and Hassi El Kerma (2001); gas has been discovered at Djebel Foua (1954). Several accumulations of noneruptive oil have
been discovered at Djebel Darmoun (2000), HCZ-1 (2002), and OSD-1 (2005).
The discovered oils have various densities. For example, at Ras Toumb the
density of the oils varies from 36API for the oils from the Coniacian to 38API
for the oils from the Turonian. In the Oglat El Mezloub, Djebel Darmoun, and
Hassi El Kerma wells, the density of the oils from the Coniacian is close to
20API.
Structural framework of the Southeast Constantine

The known oil traps, particularly in the southern regions of the Southeast
Constantine and the Chott El Melrhir basins, formed after the tectonic inversion
between the Middle Eocene and the Oligocene, which developed intense fracturing accompanied by NE-SW folding. These tectonic events reactivated deep
faults and were followed by an overall uplift accompanied by the rise of Triassic
evaporites along longitudinal faults. The events also resulted in active erosion
that affected the Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic series in some locations.
These compressional tectonic stresses, related to the last orogenic phases of
the Cenozoic and Quaternary, took place in a system of progressive submeridian
stresses after the paroxysmal stages of the Middle Eocene to the Oligocene.
The Chott El Melrhir Trough is located to the south of the Atlas flexure and is
marked by a relatively stable domain, with little tectonic activity and having
constituted a depocenter for the thick series of Pliocene-Quaternary. Within
this domain, intense synsedimentary fracturing reflecting a stretching regime
can be observed in some locations. This stretching regime is associated with
the early Alpine cycle (Neocimmerian, Austrian, and Emscherian). After the
end of the Eocene, the northern part of this region was subjected to compression in connection with the last orogenic stages (end of the Eocene to the
present) of the late Alpine cycle as part of a system of progressive submeridianal stresses that have caused strong and rapid inversion. These deformations gave rise to folding, faulting, and conjugate (slip) faults linked with reactivation of the South Atlas fault and the transverse Ngrine-Bjaia fault.
87
Neocene
Paleocene
Cenozoic
Quaternary
0-250
Miocene-Pliocene
400-2,000
Limestone reservoirs
Sandstone reservoirs
Source rocks
Seal
Lutetian
Eocene
240-700
Ypresian
500-650
Santonian
240-350
Coniacian
220-450
Turonian
150-350
Cenomanian
300-500
Albian
240-600
Aptian
40-600
Barremian
400-900
Neocomian
300-900
Malm
300-500
Dogger
150-250
Liassic
450-600
S1+S2
limestone
and anhydrite
535
S3
evaporitic
290
Upper clay
274
S4
184
Triassic clay-sandstone
206
Carboniferous
Sometimes silty
gray clay
>450
Devonian
Clay and clay-ferruginous

quartzite sandstone
>450
Lower Cretaceous
Upper Cretaceous
200-400
Campanian
Triassic
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Clay and microcrystalline

limestone
Clay and sometimes
clay-ferruginous
quartzitic sandstone
Alternation zone
Sand and sandstone

Clay
Clay sandstone
Anhydrite
Salt
Limestone
>200
>450
>100
Dolomite
Marl
Unconformity
Figure 1.84: Synthetic stratigraphic section for the Chott El Melrhir.
88
Seal
Thickness
(m)
Lithology
Maastrichtian
Jurassic
The Cretaceous play includes the highest quality source

rocks known in Northern Algeria. These are reservoir
rocks of the limestone type and rock seals of a clay and
marly nature, mainly from the Cretaceous, that make up
the petroleum plays in these basins (Fig. 1.84). The potential source rocks in the Cretaceous of the Southeast
Constantine are represented by the marls and clays of the
Vraconian, with a marly, marly-limestone, and clay
source rock facies, which shows values varying from
0.61% to 2.43% (to 8% in the vicinity of DDN-1) and a
PP up to 0.3 kg HC/metric ton of rock to 4.2 kg HC/metric
ton of rock (to 32 kg HC/metric ton of rock in the
vicinity of DDN-1). From the point of view of maturity,
the Vraconian is in the oil phase with a conversion rate of
80% to the south of the Saharan flexure; to the north of
the flexure the Vraconian shows a change in maturity
moving from the oil phase zone to the gas zone in the
central part.
basal Cenomanian, which consists of marls, clays, and
bituminous marls, the measured values of which are
distributed according to their geographic situation in
relation to the Saharan flexure. To the south of the
Saharan flexure, geochemical analysis has provided
values of 0.5% < TOC < 3.25% and 0.38 < PP < 5.08 kg
HC/metric ton of rock. From the point of view of maturity,
the Cenomanian is in the oil phase with a conversion
rate of 25%. North of the Saharan flexure the values
obtained are 0.5% < TOC < 2.05% and 0.3 < PP < 3 kg
HC/metric ton of rock. Maturity is variable; it changes
from the immature phase/onset of the oil phase to the
gas phase zone with condensates.
Turonian, which consists of marls, limestones, and
bituminous marly-limestone slabs. To the south of the
Atlas flexure, values vary (0.5% < TOC < 11.5% and
0.5 < PP < 35 kg HC/metric ton of rock). Maturity of this
area is in the oil phase. To the north of the Atlas flexure,
values vary (0.5% < TOC < 8.08% and 0.45 < PP < 47 kg
HC/metric ton of rock). This area is at the beginning of
the oil phase (Figs. 1.85a and 1.85b).
Mesozoic
Cretaceous play
Paleozoic
The hydrocarbon systems of the Southeast Constantine/Chott El Melrhir are of Upper Cretaceous and
Jurassic ages. In the Southeast Constantine they are represented by the limestones of the Upper Cretaceous.
Eras and ages
Source rocks
Petroleum systems of the Southeast

Constantine/Chott El Melrhir
Reservoirs
The main reservoir rocks in the Cretaceous play are the limestone series of the
Upper Cenomanian and the limestone series of the basal Turonian and bioclastic limestones of the Coniacian.
Limestone series of the Upper Cenomanian

The limestone series of the Upper Cenomanian is formed of oosparites and
locally by oolithic limestones. The facies developed within a proximal shelf
with the development of high energy levels to distal shelf deposits where the
energy is clearly moderate. The measured matrix characteristics ( and k) vary
within the ranges of 10% to 15% and 0.1 to 5 mD. These Cenomanian limestones produce oil and gas at GKN and GKS, as well as noneruptive oil at
HEK-1, DDN-1, OGZ-1, and HCZ-1.
Limestone series of the basal Turonian

The limestone series of the basal Turonian is represented by bioclastic limestones. The petrophysical characteristics vary within the range of 5% < < 10%
and 0.1 mD < k < 10 mD. Locally, the porosity may reach 25%. The net pay of
the bioclastic limestones varies between 20 and 25 m. These limestone series
produce oil and gas at GKN and GKS; oil at RTB-1 and RTB-4; and noneruptive
oil at DDN-1, OGZ-1, and HCZ-1.
Figure 1.85a: Isorichness of source rocks in the Turonian.
Limestone series of the Coniacian

The Coniacian reservoir consists of bioclastic limestones.
The facies developed in proximal shelf marine to distal
open sea shelf environments. The petrophysical characteristics (porosity and permeability) vary in the range of
3% < < 29% and 0.4 mD < k < 100 mD. Net pay appears
to be 10 to 30 m thick. These limestone series of the
Coniacian produce gas at Djebel Foua; oil at Djebel Onk,
RTB-5, and HEK-3; and noneruptive oil at DDN-1, OGZ-1,
HEK-1, HCZ-1, and OSD-1.
Seal
Rock seals of the Cretaceous are
thick clay-marl series capping the Coniacian limestone
reservoirs
marly series of the Upper Turonian capping the limestone series of the basal Turonian
clay series of the Cenomanian-Vraconian, which cap
the limestone series of the Albian and Aptian.
Figure 1.85b: Maturation of source rocks in the Turonian.
89
N
2,000
KM-1
DDN-1
MAN-1
HEK-3
1,000
Melrhir trough
-1,000
-2,000
Neogene
Paleogene
Maastrichtian
Campanian
Santonian
Coniacian
Turonian
Cenomanian
South Atlas fault
South Auresian fault
Tbessa
Bottena
RES-1
T u n i s i a
BDJ-1
TYA-1
BDJ-2
ROA-1
Dj. Foua
DDN-1
Dj. ONK
BTN-1
BTS-1
9 km
DDN-1
129
Location of profile
T u n i s i a
Depth, m
KM-1
KM-1
HEK-3
GTR-1
HCZ-1
HEK-1
HEK-3
MAN-1
MAN-1
Figure 1.86: Structural system and types of traps in the Southeast Constantine.
Traps
Traps are structural to mixed types. They are generally
anticlines of considerable proportions formed during the
compressive Eocene/Oligocene Alpine tectonic phase.
Their axial directions are NE-SW, and their meridian sides
are straighter than the northern sides. They are often
affected by normal or reverse faults with varying throws
and directions. The folds nearest to the South Atlas fault
can have subvertical to vertical meridian sides or be
uneven and overlapping toward the south (Fig. 1.86).
Specific gravities
The oils found in the Coniacian of the Southeast
Constantine (HEK-3) (Fig. 1.87) are generally not very
mature. Their densities vary from 0.89 g/cm3 to
0.912 g/cm3 (between 22API and 27API). In the
Cenomanian, the oils are a little lighter, having a density
of 34.3API at 60F (0.852 g/cm3). In general the GOR for
the Coniacian oils is low, since the oils are noneruptive.
The permeability measured in the series producing these
Coniacian oils is low.
Jurassic play
The Jurassic play relates to the Chott El Melrhir zone.
This lozenge-shaped zone is bounded by the Atlas flexure
90
and the Atlas range to the north, and by the Djemaa-Touggourt-Talemzane

High to the south.
Source rocks
Geochemical analyses show that the highest values are in the
Dogger marls: 0.32% < TOC < 9.61%, supported by excellent hydrocarbon
potential: 0.38 g HC/kg of rock < PP < 39 g HC/kg of rock. The Dogger marls
are in the oil phase.
Kimmeridgian-Portlandian marls and limestones: Results obtained vary from
0.5% < TOC < 2.06%, but PP values are low: 0.47 g HC < PP < 1.19 kg of rock
in the Chott El Melrhir area. These formations are in the oil window stage.
Liassic marls and limestones, where results vary from 0.5% < TOC < 2.8%.
PP values, on the other hand, are low, varying between 0.18 g HC/kg of rock
< PP < 0.33 g HC/kg of rock.
Reservoir rocks
The limestone facies of the Jurassic have good to mediocre reservoir petrophysical properties:
Kimmeridgian, consisting of bioclastic and sometimes oolitic limestones
Portlandian, consisting of oolitic limestones and dolomites. Core porosities
vary between 2% and 14%, and permeabilities vary between 0.03 and 24 mD
Oxfordian, consisting of bioclastic limestones and with effective porosity
values of 3% to 25%
Dogger, consisting of sandstones and limestones with measured porosities
of 5% to 15%
Liassic, consisting of limestones of porosities varying between 2% and 15%

but with poor matrix permeability values of 0.1 to 5.7 mD.
Seals
The reservoir rocks of the Oxfordian have clay rock seals of the Lower
Kimmeridgian. The Liassic is also capped by the clays of the Lower Dogger.
The rock seal for the Dogger, however, is not well known.
in the southern part of this transect, these objectives

may be very deep in the northern part of this section.
Still poorly known in this region, the Jurassic plays are
being reinvestigated to derive a better definition.

Traps
Unikely traps in the Chott El Melrhir area of the Jurassic have not been well
defined, but by comparison with the N-S seismic transect moving between the
ZH-1, BAR-1, HBS-1, ESF-1, RTB-7, and FKN-1 bis surveys, they could be present in the form of anticline structures, against faults, or mixed. Fairly shallow
Slowness
140 (s/ft) 40
(in.)
Deep resist.
Water
14 0.2 (ohm-m)2,000 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
Gamma ray
0
Density
Rxo
Neutron
(gAPI) 150 0.2 (ohm-m)2,000 0.45 (%) -0.15
Limestones
Perforations
Caliper
4
HC
Sw
Depth
100 (%)
1:5,000
2,380
Fluid
analysis
0 50
Illite
Test
Volumetric
analysis
100
(%)
Recent discoveries (20002005) in the reservoir rocks of

the Coniacian, Turonian, and Cenomanian in the Southeast
Constantine to the north of the Atlas flexure increase the
chances of discovering hydrocarbon accumulations where
conditions for better field productivity are met.
A source rock with excellent hydrocarbon potential and
with an oil phase is present in the Dogger. The reservoir
rock and a propitious structural framework for the development of different forms of traps are also present. These
results heighten the hydrocarbon interest of the Jurassic.
A
HEK-3
2,400
Coniacian
Turonian
Cenomanian
2,420
Tbessa
Bottena
RES-1
DST-2
BDJ-1
Choke 32/64 in.

7.264 m3/h
2,440
DDN-1
TYA-1
BDJ-2
ROA-1
Foua
Dj. ONK
T u n i s i a
570 m3/h
129
BTN-1
BTS-1
HTG-1
GTR-1
2,460
HEK-1
HCZ-1
A
A HEK-3
MAN-1
Figure 1.87: Seismic profile showing the structure of Hassi El Kerma-3 and ELAN results for the HEK-3 well (Coniacian).
91
This chapter was written by the following Sonatrach experts:

Rabih LOUNISSI (General introduction and coordination)
Eastern Region
Nour Eddine DAOUDI (Coordination and Introduction); Hafsa REMIDI and Leila LASSOUANI (Berkine); Kamel DERGUINI (Oued Mya); Nora DIB (Illizi); Nour
Eddine DAOUDI (Amguid Messaoud)
Northern Region
Taib RADJA (Coordination and Introduction); Kahina CHENNA (Chelif); Tayeb TADJIN E (Southeast Constantine)
Western Region
Lhocine ABDOUS (Coordination and Introduction); Mohand Sadek BENKHANNOUCHE (Sba); Badaoui ZATTOUTA (Reggane); Farid BELHAMECHE and Habiba
GHOUL (Tindouf); Madjid BADSI and Tayeb TENKHI (Bechar); Madjid BADSI, Youcef KHANFAR, and Tayeb TENKHI (Gourara Nord); Athmane RAHMANI and
Boubekeur MALEK (Ahnet); Boubekeur MALEK, Abdellah GOUCEM, and Nabil SAADALLAH (Taoudenni)
We thank Ibrahim MAAROUF, Rachid SOULALI, Souhir MERABET, and Baya MEZIAN BETTAHAR for participating.
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21. Kazi Tani N and Duee G: La godynamique du secteur de Bchar depuis le Prcambrien, 118e congrs Soc. Hist. et Scient., 13747, 4me Coll. Gologie
Africaine, (1993).
22. Pareyn C: Les massifs carbonifres du Sahara sud-oranais, tome 1: Stratigraphie et tectonique, Mm. Centr. Rech. Saharienne, No. 1 Edition, CNRS,
Paris, France (1961).
23. Dontsov: Etude gochimique des roches mres du Palozoque de la rgion de Bchar, Sonatrach, Algeria (1988).
24. Tenkhi T: Etude gologiques des rservoirs du Dvonien suprieur, Sonatrach, Algeria (1993).
25. Tenkhi T: Etude gologiques des rservoirs du Dvonien infrieur, Sonatrach, Algeria (1993).
26. Tenkhi T and Adour L: Impact sur les qualits des rservoirs de la tectonique de dcollement dans la rgion de Bchar, Journes Sci. et Tech., JST 4,
Sonatrach, EXP, Sonatrach, Algeria (2000).
27. Convention dtudes sur le bassin de Reggane, JNOC, Sonatrach, Algeria(1994).
28. Bassin Reggane, Rapports internes, Sonatrach, Algeria.
29. Ibrihen N et al.: Potentiel en Basin Centred Gas Accumulation (BCGA) dans le rservoir dvonien infrieur. Implication sur les ressources en gaz du bassin
de Reggane, Journes Sci. et Tech., JST 6, Sonatrach, Algeria (2004).
30. Mise au point sur ltat des travaux gologiques et gophysiques dans le bassin de Tindouf, Document Sonatrach, Algeria (1975).
31. Modlisation de lvolution thermique de la matire organique du bassin de Tindouf, Document Sonatrach, Algeria (1992).
32. Dfinition du potentiel ptrolier du bassin de Tindouf, Document Sonatrach, Algeria (2000).
33. Synthse du bassin de Tindouf, Document Sonatrach, Algeria (1999).
34. Godynamique de craton Ouest africain central et oriental: hritage et volution post-panafricains, ORGM Mem. 8 (1996).
35. Potentiel en hydrocarbures de la bordure Nord du bassin de Taoudenni, Partie 1, Rapport interne, Sonatrach, Algeria (June 2005).
36. Potentiel en hydrocarbures de la bordure nord du bassin de Taoudenni, Partie 2, Rapport interne, Sonatrach, Algeria (December 2005).
37. Rapport gologique prliminaire de ltude de surface Chenachene erg chech, Sonatrach, Algeria (1975).
38. Gevin P: Laxe cristallin yetti-eglab et ses bordures sdimentaires, Algeria (1960).
39. Ibrihen N: Prospectivit du play protrozoque sur les bordures nord et orientales du bouclier Reguibat, (2000).
40. Pouchkine et al.: New Occurrence of Meso-Proterozoic Petroleum Source Rock: Black Shale Formation Within Stromatolitic Series of the Taoudenni
Basin, West African Craton Mauritania Geology-Geochemistry Comparisons (2001).
41. Bassin de Sba, Rapports internes, Sonatrach, Algeria.
42. Beicip-Franlab: Etude Etude de la cuvette de Sba,Sonatrach, Algeria (1996).
43. Extension des grs albiens dans le N & le N.E de lAlgrie, SH/ACT-AMT/EXP/DRN, Sonatrach, Algeria (2003).
44. Hydrocarbon Potential Western Algerian Offshore, District 10, III, Sonatrach/Anadarko Association, Algeria (1998).
45. Mghraoui M, Morel LL, Andrieux J, and Dahmani M: Tectonique Plio-Quaternaire de la chane tello rifaine et de la mer dAlboran. Une zone complexe
de convergence continent-continent, Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. (1996) T167 1, 141.
46. Sour el Ghozlane Permit, Tellian Atlas, Algeria Evaluation Report, 5, Sonatrach /BP Association, Algeria (1995).
47. Etude du potentiel ptrolier du Hodna Ouest zone des nappes, rapport final, SH/ACT-AMT/EXP/DES, Sonatrach, Algeria (2003).
48. Analyses des rsultats ptroliers de quelques sondages dans les Bassins nogne des Monts du Hodna, SH/ACT-AMT/EXP/DRN, Sonatrach,
Algeria (1998).
49. Bergheul M: Structure gologique et perspectives en hydrocarbures du bassin du Sud-est Atlasique (Sud-est Constantinois), Thse dtat, acadmie du
ptrole et du gaz (JM Goubkine, Moscou.), Algeria (1991).
50. Laffitte R: Etude gologique de lAurs, Thse Sciences Paris, Bull. Soc. Gol., 1re srie, Algeria (1939).
51. Addoum B: LAtlas saharien sud oriental: Cinmatique des plis chevauchements et reconstitution du bassin du Sud-est Constantinois (confins Algro
Tunisiens), Sonatrach, Algeria (1995).
52. Aissaoui DM: Les structures lies laccident sud-atlasique entre Biskra et le Dj. Mandra (Algrie), Evolution gomtrique et cinmatique, Thse de 3e
cycle, Strasbourg, France (1985).
93
Tan Zoumatak (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Two men in ceremonial robes, body paint, and scarification, prepare to take part in a ritual. As with the Black Lady and all the characters from
the Round Heads period, no facial details are shown.
2. Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Algeria

Introduction
Hassi Messaoud Field
Hassi Berkine South Field
Ourhoud Field
12
Haoud Berkaoui Field
16
Edjeleh Field
20
Hassi Rmel Field
24
Rhourde Nouss
30
Krechba Reservoir
36
Algeria WEC 2007 / Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Algeria
Introduction
lmost all the hydrocarbon fields in Algeria are located in the Sahara
region and are subdivided among different basins. The Oued Mya
basin, which includes the giant Hassi Messaoud and Hassi Rmel
fields, remains the most prolific, but during the last ten years the Berkine
basin has become a major center for development, particularly with the discovery of the Ourhoud and Hassi Berkine South fields. The southwestern
basins are viewed as important gas exploration centers, especially with the
more recent production from gas fields in the In Salah region and the launch
of developing oil accumulations from the Sba basin.
More than 200 fields have now been found. Almost all the reservoirs
lie in sandstones within the Cambrian-Ordovician, Silurian-Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Triassic strata. Hydrocarbon production is largely
supported by secondary recovery operations involving both water and gas
injection.
Eight fields (Fig. 2.1) have been selected to illustrate the different types of
reservoirs under exploitation in Algeria from the standpoint of formation age,
petrophysical properties, nature of the produced hydrocarbons, and reservoir
drainage mechanism, as well as the types of problems encountered and the
solutions implemented. Five of these are oil fields (Hassi Messaoud, Hassi
Berkine South, Ourhoud, Haoud Berkaoui, and Edjeleh), and three are gas
fields (Hassi Rmel, Rhourde Nouss, and Krechba).
Discussion also covers the acquisition and processing of 3D seismic, which
has proved its importance to reservoir characterization and is becoming a
standard practice. In addition, the chapter deals with the installation of
advanced surface facilities to recover associated gas and avoid flaring, and
thus comply with the more stringent environmental standards regarding
hydrocarbon recovery.
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsIntroduction
Bordj Nill
Meskar
Bousbaa
Hassi Rmel
DJ Bissa
Guellala
Djorf
Oued Noumer
Zelfana
Ait Kheir
Sidi Mezrhich
Hassi Rmel South
S e a
Garet Chouf
Ben Ben Kahla
Rh. Chegga
Hassi Messaoud
Haoud Berkaoui
Algiers
Batna
Oran
Rourde
El Baguel
Hassi Guettar
Mesdar
T u n i s i a
M o r o c c o
Zemoul El Kbar
Bir Berkine N
Bir Berkine
Bchar
Zerafa West
Zerafa
Bir Rebaa N
Bir Rebaa SO
Sil Fatima and Bir Sil Fatima
Rhourde Debdaba
Hassi Berkine
Hassi Berkine South
Hassi Berkine
A l g e r i a
El Golea
L i b y a
Timimoun
Berkine N
Krechba
Wadi El Teh
Rhourde El Khrouf
Berkine East
Ourhoud
Kheit El Tessekha
Menzel Lejmat
El Merk
El Merk East
Teguentour
Tener
El Beugra
Rhourde El Hamra
Rhourde El Chouf
Rhourde Nouss
Draa Allal
M a l i
El Assal
O Taredert
Rhourde
El Adra
Tihalatine C
Edjeleh
Hassi Ouan Abecheu
Rhourde
Meksem El Adra S
Ektala
Hamra
500 km
Figure 2.1: Location of the eight fields selected to illustrate the different types of reservoirs.
Hassi Messaoud Field

Introduction
445
Sahane
Guellala N-E
The giant light oil field of Hassi Messaoud was discovered

in 1956 by Well MD-1 drilled across the reservoirs in the
Cambro-Ordovician sandstones at a depth of 3,337 m. The
field, which is 40 km x 40 km in size, is located in the
Algerian Sahara, 800 km south of Algiers (Fig. 2.2).
Rhourde Chegga
Hassi Messaoud
Algiers
423
427
Rhourde El Baguel
A l g e r i a
A total of 1,188 wells have been drilled; 85% of these

are still active. Gas injection has been implemented on
a large scale and constitutes, along with water injection, the main drainage mechanism of the reservoir.
Hassi Guettar
Hassi Terfa
Hassi Dzabat
Mesdar
439
0
500 km
Geology
Figure 2.2: Location of the Hassi Messaoud field.
Structure
similar pressures separated by major fault zones known as inter-zones.1

The outside zone1 areas correspond to transitional faulted sectors located
on the flanks of the field.
The Hassi Messaoud field has the structure of an anticlinal dome (Fig. 2.3), largely inherited from the
Hercynian orogeny, which was at its most active phase
at the end of the Paleozoic.
The erosional episode at the end of the Hercynian
tectonic stage gave rise to progressive disappearance of
the upper units of the reservoirs, from the center
toward the periphery of the field, and the cutting of deep
narrow valleys following major faults. The most deeply
eroded valleys are filled with volcanic rocks. The structural
dip, on the order of 4 degrees, locally reaches 10 degrees.
The field is extensively compartmentalized by regional
fault systems trending NE-SW to NNE-SSW and by
complex perpendicular and parallel systems on a smaller
scale. The systems of fissures associated with the faults
contribute to production by increasing permeability
where they are opened and connected. The volcanic
rocks that have risen along the faults are present at
different levels in the reservoirs, mainly in the southern
part of the field.
Stratigraphy
The Cambro-Ordovician stratigraphic sequence of the Hassi Messaoud field
consists of a silicoclastic series unconformably overlying an eruptive metamorphic basement. Working upward, the sequence consists of the following
levels (Fig. 2.5):
Cambrian:
R3, consisting of 300 m of poorly consolidated microconglomeratic clay
sandstones interbedded with clayey siltstone levels that cannot be exploited
because of its poor matrix properties and its deep position, below the water
table.
150,000
N
140,000
-3,370
-3,330
130,000
-3,290
The nature of the compartmentalization in the Hassi

Messaoud field, revealed in the 1960s after the field
was put on production, occurred through differences in
field pressure between closely adjacent wells and was
attributed to the presence of faults that are to a greater
or lesser extent impermeable to the circulation of fluids.
This led to subdivision of the field into dynamic units
(Fig. 2.4) called production zones, with wells having
-3,250
-3,210
120,000
-3,170
-3,130
-3,090
110,000
790,000
800,000
810,000
820,000
Figure 2.3: Structure at the Hercynian unconformity.
10 km
830,000
840,000
-3,050 m
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHassi Messaoud Field
150,000
MD
(m)
145,000
Age
0.00
Gamma ray
(gAPI) 100.00
Stratigraphy
Facies
Mesozoic
Triassic
Lower
Outside area
140,000
135,000
Triassic clays
Hercynian
unconformity
Hamra
quartzites
Production area
130,000
3,300
120,000
Inter zone
3,400
115,000
Ordovician
125,000
El Gassi clays
Alternation zone
110,000
790,000
800,000
Vertical wells
Producer
Gas injector
Water injector
810,000
820,000
Unconventional wells
Horizontal
Short radius
830,000
840,000
10 km
Ri
3,500
Figure 2.4: Subdivisions of the Hassi Messaoud field.

Ra
R2, exploitable when in high position, consists of relatively clayey coarse sandstones with interbedded levels of clayey siltstones; the top part of this reservoir, whose thickness is on the order of 40 m, has the best matrix properties.
Ra, the main reservoir, whose thickness varies from 100 m in the east to 130 m
in the west, consists of two major superimposed units: the lower RA, which is
70 to 95 m thick, consisting of medium to coarse sandstones with interbedded
siltstone levels, and the upper Ra, which consists of 40 to 60 m of relatively
fine clayey sandstones containing skolithos, with many siltstone levels.
Ordovician (partly preserved on the reservoir western perimeter):

Ri, which is 45 to 50 m thick and consists of 3 units, produces from 5 to 10 m
of fine basal sandstones with abundant skolithos; siltstones predominate in
the upper units.
A sequence 100 m thick of predominantly clay consisting of the alternation
zone, the El Gassi clays, and the El Atchane sandstone.
The Hamra quartzites, which consist of fine compact quartzitic sandstones.
3,600
3,700
Cambrian
R2
3,800
R3
Depositional environments and diagenesis

The lower R3, R2, and Ra units are located within a vast complex of braided river
channels.2 These units are overlain by finer sandstones containing skolithos and
many clayey siltstone levels in the upper Ra, which is of a shallow marine
nature. The marine episode continued during deposition in the Ordovician with
the deposition of fine sandstones containing skolithos and clays.
The sandstones of reservoirs Ri and Ra and the Hamra quartzites very frequently
show a predominance of silica; kaolinite is the main clay mineral. Growth of
secondary silica is observed in the fault zones and as a fill for faults and fractures.
Precambrian
3,900
Basement
Clays
Volcanic rocks
Fine scolithus sandstones
Medium sandstones
Coarse sandstones
Microconglomeratic sandstones
Granite and gneiss
Figure 2.5: Stratigraphic column of the Hassi Messaoud reservoir.
The sandstones and reservoirs R2 and R3 show predominance in the volume

of detrital or authigenic illite in relation to silica.
Fluid properties and initial conditions

Oil/water contact: 3,380 m
Reference level: 3,200 m
Temperature: 120C
Reservoir pressure: 482 kg/cm2
Bubble pressure: varies from 200 kg/cm2 in the west to
140 kg/cm2 in the east
Miscibility pressure: 245 to 270 kg/cm2
Production of fluids
The field currently produces 22 x 106 m3 of light oil per
year. Oil production from the field is mainly from the Ra
reservoir; recovery rate for the field is on the order of
14%.
Stage of development through vertical drilling (19582000)

The production zones were developed by drilling 80% of the vertical wells in
the field, of which 14% are injectors. Hydraulic fracturing operations have
been carried out in 250 vertical wells since 1991; increase in flow from the
fractured wells averages 3 m3/h per well.
Period of recovery by natural depletion (1958)

Between 1958 and 1963, 44 x 106 m3Std of oil were produced by natural
depletion from 144 vertical wells.
Period of recovery through the injection of miscible gas (1964)

The injection of miscible gas in sectors that were not depleted below the
miscibility pressure increased from 5 x 106 m3/day in 1964 to 55 x 106 m3/day
in 2005 (Fig. 2.6b).
Period of recovery through water injection (1972)

Water injection began in 1972 at 5,000 m3/day; it reached 30,000 m3/day in
2005 (Fig. 2.6b).
The associated gas produced along with the oil supplies,

after treatment, is 2 x 106 metric tons of LPG per year and
0.6 x 106 metric tons of condensate gas per year.
The field first underwent a stage of development of the

production zones via vertical well drilling until the year
2000, and a stage of development of structurally complex zones and reservoirs having poor matrix properties
(upper R2) through unconventional drilling after 1997.
Field production has suffered several problemsmainly
deposits of salt and asphaltenes as well as injected gas
and water breakthroughs.
800
35
700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10
200
100
0
1960
1965
1970
1975
1985
1990
1995
2000
Figure 2.6a: History of oil production and GOR.
1.4
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1964
1969
1974
1979
Year
Figure 2.6b: History of gas and water injection.
1980
Year
Injected gas, x 106 m3
The production of oil from the Hassi Messaoud field,

which began in 1958, increased steadily at the rate of
approximately 2 x 106 metric tons per year up to 1973,
followed by a period during which output stabilized at
30 x 106 m3 per year on average until 1983, and then
declined to a plateau of 22 x 106 m3 per year, followed by
a constant increase in the gas-oil ratio (GOR) (Fig. 2.6a).
Oil flow, x 106 m3/yr
History of field development
40
GOR, m3/m3
Matrix permeability and porosity values vary from

0.1 mD to more than 100 mD. Porosities are between
4% and 12%. Their distribution is characterized by a
high heterogeneity.
Surface installations consist of two industrial plants that are capable of processing all produced fluids and injection fluids.
1984
1989
1994
1999
Injected water, x 106 m3/yr
Reservoir properties
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHassi Messaoud Field
35
Short radius
30
250
200
25
Vertical wells
20
150
15
100
10
50
0
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004
Output, x 103 m3/month
Number of short-radius wells
Drive mechanisms
300
40
Year
Figure 2.7: Production of oil from originally vertical wells, converted to short-radius wells.
Stage of development through unconventional drilling (19972005)

Short-radius workovers
More than 100 nonoperating vertical wells have been given short-radius
workovers since 1997. Short radius wells represent 11.4% of daily output
from the field and 6% of cumulative output between 1997 and 2005 (Fig. 2.7).
Productivity indices for short-radius work over wells are up to three times
higher than those for wells that were initially vertical.
Horizontal drilling
Horizontal drilling relates to structurally complex zones with a very high
degree of heterogeneity (interzones and outside zones),3 as well as reservoirs
having poor matrix properties (R2) in which vertical wells are very poor producers and show rapid decline. The mean individual flow from horizontal
wells is 8 m3/h. Individual productivity indices for horizontal wells are up to
eight times greater than those for vertical wells in the same sector.
Underbalanced drilling (UBD) technology, which has recently been applied in
some parts of the field suffering depletion, has shown a net improvement in
rate of penetration (ROP) during drilling and a reduction in skin factor.
After more than 40 years of production, reservoir pressure has reached a level of 100 kg/cm2 in the northeast
of the field and 300 kg/cm2 in the west. The different
drainage mechanisms are as follows:
Natural depletion
Recovery by natural depletion currently represents 33%
of the initial volume of oil in place: 12% is essentially
provided by the production zones, the remaining by the
interzones and outside zones. Recovery by natural depletion represents 7% of the output from the field.
Gas injection
Zones under miscible gas injection contain 52% of the
volume of oil initially in place. Gas injection has supported
67% of the cumulative output. Injection gas breakthroughs occur quickly in fractured intervals, giving rise
to locally high saturations in reservoir Ra (Fig. 2.8), but
the increase in GOR makes it possible to maintain the
overall productivity of the wells. The average rate of
decline in gas injection zones is 1.5%. Analysis of gas
breakthroughs has revealed general anisotropy with preferred flow in the SSW-NNE direction.
Water injection
The water injection process currently affects 15% of
the oil in place. It sustained 26% of the volume of oil
produced. Breakthroughs are relatively slow, but the
decline in well productivity is greater. An average rate of
decline of up to 2.7% in water injection zones has been
observed.
Perspectives
9 10
8
11
12
2N 4
13N
15
6
1C
13S
20B
16
2S
1A
2EX
1B
20A
19
25
23
24
17
14
0.75
0.65
0.60
0.50
0.45
0.35
0.30
0.20
0.15
0.05
0.00
Even if water injection and, more especially, the injection of miscible gas are strong and reliable retrieval procedures, the Hassi Messaoud reservoir, at a fairly
mature stage, also requires high-performance reservoir
management to optimize operations and better control
the injection fluids.
A water-alternating-gas (WAG) project, which is currently
being implemented, is the first phase of a plan aimed at
more efficiently using injection gas and improving
retrieval.
Figure 2.8: Saturation of the Ra reservoir with injection gas.
Hassi Berkine South Field

Introduction
The Hassi Berkine South (HBNS) field (Fig. 2.9) was discovered in January
1995 by the Sonatrach/Anadarko association. Initial production began in
1998. At present, approximately 60 wells have been drilled on the HBNS
structure.
Miscible gas injection has been implemented massively and, along with water
injection, constitutes the principal drainage mechanism of the reservoir.
Algiers
Hassi Berkine
Zemoul El Kbar
Bir Berkine N
A l g e r i a
Bir Berkine
500 km
Figure 2.9: Location of the Hassi Berkine South field.
Geology
Structure
The main seismic horizons identified in the Mesozoic series are described in
Fig. 2.10. These are the top of the Aptian, the top of the Liassic salt, and the
top of the Triassic S4, as well as the top of the TAGI reservoir and the
Hercynian unconformity (DH).1 The last two sometimes are affected by the
presence of multiples.
In the Paleozoic series, the identification of the Frasnian and Ordovician horizons has led to the interpretation of a spatially coherent fault system.
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHassi Berkine South Field
Age
Quaternary
Miocene-Pliocene
Dogger
Liassic
Jurassic
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Senonian
Cenozoic Tertiary
Formation
Carbonate
Anhydrites
Anhydrite, dolomite
Salt
Salt
Turonian
Limestone, shale
Cenomanian
Limestone, salt, shale
Albian
Aptian
Barremian
Sandstone, lignite
Dolomite
Sandstone,
shale, lignite
Neocomian
Shale, sandstone,
dolomite
Malm
Shale, sandstone,
anhydrite, dolomite
Clayey
Shale
Lagoonal
Shale, limestone
Anhydrite
Anhydrite, shale
Salt
Salt
Horizon B
Limestone
S1 + S2
Salt, anhydrite
DO
S4
Arg/Carb/Tags
TAGI
Visean
Triassic
Carboniferous
Devonian
Paleozoic
Seismic Horizons
Sandstone
Sandstone,
dolomite/limestone
Dolomite, shale
S3
DH
Lithology
Aptian
Liassic halite
Salt
Shale, anhydrite
Salt
Shale, Salt, anhydrite,

dolomite, sandstone
Sandstone, shale
Hercynian
unconformity
Shale, sandstone
RKF
Sandstone, shale
Strunian
Sandstone
F2
Silt, shale
Famennian
Shale
Frasnian
Shale
Givetian-Eifelian
Shale
The field is of Triassic age. It has an asymmetrical anticlinal structure of very low relief (Fig. 2.11). It has the
appearance of being a complex assemblage marked by
the interference between two fault systems. The first
system trends NE-SW and is particularly pronounced to
the south and east. The second trends NW-SE and is
present mainly in the north. The field consists of several
compartments between which links are more or less
well established:
The eastern compartment, identified when drilling discovery Well HBNS-1b. It is subdivided into two distinct
culminations which nevertheless appear to be in communication. To the east, this compartment is bounded
by an east-facing compensation fault in relation to the
main NE-SW fault.
The central compartment, which has sunk by approximately 20 m in the north and approximately 50 m in the
south in relation to the eastern compartment.
The western compartment, which is slightly higher
than the central compartment. It is separated from the
latter by a fault having a small throw in the northern
part on the order of 10 m.
Stratigraphic subdivision of the reservoir

Triassic S4
Reservoir TAGI
The main reservoir, the lower Triassic clay-sandstone

(TAGI),2 is of a transgressive nature and lies unconformably on the Paleozoic formations. It is represented
by fluviatile, eolian, and lacustrine deposits. These
deposits sometimes include interbedded deltaic
HBNS-59
HBNS-48
HBNS-55
Emsian
Sandstone, shale
Siegenian
Sandstone, shale
HBNS-58
HBNS-52
HBNS-47
HBN-5
HBN-102
HBN-22
HBN-4
Frasnian
HBNS-58
HBNS-54
HBNS-96
HBNS-Z1
HBNS-28
HBNS-15
Gedinnian
Massive
sandstone
HBNS-19
HBNS-30
Silurian
Shale
CambroOrdovician
HBNS-5
Gothlandian
Cambro-Ordovician
Sandstone
HBNS-7
HBNS-8 HBNSE-2
HBNS-9
HBNS-10
HBNS-6 HBNSE-4
HBNS-34
HBNS-46
HBNS-25
HBNS-19
HBNS-9
HBNS-32
HBNSE-13 HBNSE-5
HBNSE-14
HBNSE-9
Ordovician
3,280
3,180 3,060 2,360 2,860 m
5 km
Figure 2.11: Structural map of HBNS at the top of the TAGI reservoir.
Figure 2.10: Main seismic horizons identified.
TAGI Strat
The middle TAGI is subdivided into four levels:

M2 clayish unit, which is assumed to be a lacustrine
deposit and of regional extent. It is of a very variable
thickness.
M1c, M1b, and M1a, which are sandstones having
generally good reservoir characteristics. They are
marked by variable thicknesses according to the local
distribution of channels.
U-3
U-2
U-1b
M2
TAGI
M-1c
Middle
Ladinian
Middle Triassic
Triassic
U-1a
M-1b
M-1a
Level M1 shows the greatest variation in thickness.

The lower TAGI, which lies directly on the Hercynian
unconformity, is subdivided into two levels:
L5, a sandstone, characterized by fluviatile deposits
L6, of clay.
The lower TAGI is often of very small thickness. It is
marked by predominantly clay facies, sometimes by
sandstones, with poor petrophysical characteristics.
The thickness of the TAGI varies; it thins toward the
north, and clay level M2 thickens in the same direction.
Lower
L6
Devonian
L5
Strunian
Frasnian Famennian
Fluvial
Aeolian
Deltaic
Chott basin shale/flood plain

Regional shale marker
Figure 2.12: Subunits in the TAGI reservoir.
Characteristics of the oil

Saturation pressure
Initial pressure
Reservoir temperature
Viscosity
Reservoir development
Production from the field began in 1998 by draining the
lower Triassic clay-sandstone of the main supersaturated
oil reservoir. The field features appreciable petrophysical
characteristics, such as good permeability and porosity, and
low viscosity. Table 2.1 shows the main oil characteristics.
10
Miscibility pressure
Initial formation volume factor
Initial gas/oil ratio
Degrees API of the stock tank oil
Table 2.1: Oil properties.
217 bars
Hercynian
unconformity
Source
Reservoirs
Baffles/Barriers
Seal
Age
TrCM
Upper
The upper TAGI is subdivided into four levels:

U1a, a sandstone level characterized by fluviatile
deposits traversed by eolian deposits. This has a good
lateral extension.
U1b, a sandstone level whose reservoir qualities deteriorate toward the southeast. It also includes some
interbedded deltaic deposits.
U2, of clay, which is assumed to be regionally continuous and characteristically has small thicknesses. It is
also marked by lacustrine deposits.
U3, of variable thickness, in which the first sandstone
beds interbedded with deltaic deposits are encountered.
Epoch
deposits. The TAGI reservoir is subdivided into three

main levels (Fig. 2.12): upper, middle, and lower.
Correlations within the TAGI are based on the assumption
that the two main clay levels, M2 and U2, are regionally
continuous. Likewise, these levels are subdivided into a
total of nine layers according to the Sonatrach and
Berkine Groupements nomenclature and correlations, as
described below.
Period
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHassi Berkine South Field
Production history during initial stages

The initial development plan called for a first stage of production during the
first two years at a rate on the order of 8,000 m3/d supported by gas injection
at the top of the structure and water injection around the perimeter of the
field (Fig. 2.13). Approximately 20 oil-producing wells, three gas injectors,
and 10 water injectors were needed to ensure this level of output.
WAG pilot
The second stage began in 2001. Between 2001 and 2005, the number of
wells, producers and injectors doubled to ensure a level of output that was
twice as great as that during the first stage.3
The objective of the pilot project was to help evaluate the

risks of injectivity and specify the process parameters
(cycles duration, WAG ratio). In addition the pilot project
goal was to help in the assessment of the effects of
gravity, digitations, and residual hydrocarbon saturations.
The geologic model was refined as static and dynamic data were collected.
Replacement of the volumes of oil produced was reflected in excellent flushing
with miscible gas and good water drainage, together with good miscibility
performance for the gas and incompressibility qualities in the water
drainage. As a result it was possible to maintain the field pressure during
operation with effective flushing using miscible gas.
HBNN-1
HBN-0
BBKN-2
HBN-3
37 40
44 46
42 110 20
31 12
33
27
35
23
36
22
41
26
10
11
15
29 112
18
HBNS-1b
4
9
6
21
7
17
HBNSE-2
46
25
19
30
39
HBN-4
113
109 HBNC-1
34
13
HBN-5
36
111
BBKE-1
The performance of the WAG injection has been closely

monitored by use of an appropriate suite of measurements based on the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool and
CHFR Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool as well as
chemical tracers. The interpretation of the measurements
has indicated a notable reduction of residual oil saturation, reflecting the excellent performance of the process.
HBN-2
16
BBKN-1
To improve recovery and optimize the use of available

gas, a WAG pilot project was implemented using
Well HBNS-46 as injector and Well HBNS-48 as observation well, drilled 140 m away.
Further development and perspectives

The positive results obtained from the WAG pilot project
have led to a realignment of the development strategy of
the field.4 These changes in field development include
two major phases that will influence both the HBNS
field and the neighboring Hassi Berkine (HBN) field:
stage I, which calls for conversion of the existing five
gas injection wells into WAG injectors.
stage II, which provides for expansion of the WAG
process and plans for the provision of new WAG injector wells, six of which are from the HBNS field.
Between 6 and 10 x 106 m3/day of extra production is
expected from the implementation of these two phases,
50% of which is expected to be produced within the first
decade of the project.
32
24
Similar developments within the Berkine basin are

planned, particularly in the neighboring Ourhoud and
Rhourde Ouled Djemaa fields.
28
14
Pilot zone
RBK-2
Figure 2.13: Area of the WAG pilot project within the HBSN field.
11
Ourhoud Field
Introduction
The Ourhoud field is located in the central part of the
Berkine basin 320 km southeast of Hassi Messaoud
(Fig. 2.14). Extending over three exploration blocks
404a, 405, and 406athe Ourhoud is operated by an
association of Sonatrach with Anadarko, Burlington
Resources, and Cepsa.
field is affected by a main fault system parallel to the major fault that subdivides the structure into a number of panels. A local, secondary system runs at
right angles to the main system. These faults have a fairly small throw in the
southern half of the field, but some are larger in the slumped northern half.
Currently, there are four major sectors: Terrace A (structurally the highest),
the area known as the main field (the southern part of the field), the northwestern sector, and a lower portion that includes the wells in the QB-4
sector (Fig. 2.15).
Ourhoud
Stratigraphy and depositional environments of the TAGI

Overlying the Hercynian unconformity, the TAGI consists of a sequence of fluviatile and continental deposits having a total thickness of approximately
80 to 100 m, and showing an alternation of clean sandstones and clay levels.
The TAGI is subdivided into three main units that can be correlated on a
regional scale: the lower, middle, and upper TAGI.
Algiers
406b
406a
N
A l g e r i a
500 km
Figure 2.14: Location of the Ourhoud field.
The field was discovered when Well BKE-1 (Berkine east-1)

was drilled in July 1994 by the Sonatrach and
Anadarko association. This well tested as an excellent
sandstone reservoir in the upper Triassic clay sandstone
(TAGI) with a flow of 2,400 m3 /d of oil of 40.4 API.
The main reservoir is the TAGI, which has a surface area
of 140 km2.
Geology
5 km
Structure
The Ourhoud structure corresponds to a complex1 horst
bounded to the east by a major regional fault whose vertical throw varies between 200 and 300 m. The entire
3,100 3,000 2,900 2,800 2,700 m
Figure 2.15: Structural map of the top of unit U4.
12
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsOurhoud Field
The lower TAGI is very heterogeneous in detail, comprising a stack of many

sequences several meters thick and having fairly poor reservoir characteristics, particularly in the predominantly clay top half.1
U4.TAGI
General stratigraphy
The middle and upper TAGI comprise a stack of fluvial

channel fill sequences interbedded with floodplain or
sabkha episodes that are particularly well developed in
the upper TAGI and locally quite degraded.1
These levels are described from bottom to top in Fig. 2.16.3
U4
U4
U3.C
U3.C
Upper TAGI
Upper TAGI
U3
U3.B
U3
U3.B
U3.A
U3.A
U2
U2
U1.C
U1.B
U1.A
U1
U1.C
U1.B
U1.A
M2
M2
Middle TAGI
M1.D
M1.C
Middle TAGI
TAGI column
M1.D
M2
M1.C
M1
M1.B
M1
M1.B
M1.A
M1.A
L3
L2
Lower TAGI
L2
Lower TAGI
The depositional environments for the lower TAGI are,

working upward,
ephemeral channels (L1)
sheetflood of the terminal ephemeral fans, mainly in L2
overbank floodplain mudrock (L3).
The lower TAGI contains 18% of the original oil in place
(OOIP) at Ourhoud.4
Middle and upper TAGI

The middle TAGI (subdivided upward into M1 and M2 and
having a total thickness of 10 to 33 m) and the upper TAGI
(subdivided upward into U1, U2, U3, and U4 and having a
total thickness of 27 to 42 m) correspond to a transgressive
sequence. M1 and U1 contain many reservoirs deposited in
braided channels. U3 is generally rich in overbank deposits
and was deposited in a meandriform river system.
L3
L3
L2
The lower TAGI (total thickness of 32 to 58 m) consists

mostly of sandstones and lutites, and corresponds to a
fining upward sequence. Average porosity is 14.2%. The
lower TAGI is subdivided into L1, L2, and L3 units.
U1.D
U1.D
U1
U2
Lower TAGI
Subdivisions and characteristics
L1.D-C
The middle and upper TAGI correspond to a sequence that

can be correlated on the basin scale and in which clastic elements increase markedly at the base.
L1.D-C
L1
L1.B
L1.B
L1.A
L1
L1.A
The increase in sinuosity, detected toward the top of the

upper TAGI, is associated with a reduction in the space
of the river system (accommodation) due to the rise in the
base level of the waters associated with the marine
transgression.
HU
High-sinuosity channel-fill sandstones
Low-sinuosity channel-fill sandstones
Sheerlike crevasse splay and sheetflood sandstones
Overbank/ lacustrine mudrocks
Dislocation
Low-amplitude image/friable sandstones
Coastal sabkha
Two intervals corresponding to mudstones (M2 and U2)

are used for correlation in the middle and upper TAGI.
They correspond to floodplain overbank deposits or
possibly lacustrine deposits.
Figure 2.16: Lithostratographic subdivision of the TAGI/Ourhoud.2
13
Crestal gas injection
First development plan
Peripheral water injection
Figure 2.17: Injection system for the initial plan.
The middle and upper TAGI have an average porosity of 15.4%. The middle
TAGI (M1) accounts for 39% of the OOIP of the field. The upper TAGI bears
the major part of the reserves43% of the OOIP of Ourhoud.
Development plan
Several plans have been developed successively for better operation of the
Ourhoud field as a result of the acquisition of new seismic and geologic data
and the drilling of new wells.
Basic plan
The initial plan calls for operations using mixed gas-water injection. Gas produced is reinjected into the top of the structure, but most of the pressure is
supported by peripheral water injection (Fig. 2.17).
3,060
3,054
3,056
3,039
3,054
3,054
Figure 2.18: Various oil/water contacts.
14
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsOurhoud Field
In addition, the plan contemplates that, after five years, a change is made to
widespread gas injection in a miscible form (a pilot study for this injection is
in progress). This development plan would make it possible to improve recovery
but would require a large provision of external gas.
Dispersed injection
Compartmentalization and heterogeneity of the reservoir were put in evidence through 3D seismic data interpretation, the various oil/water contacts
encountered (Fig. 2.18), and the several well tests and interference tests
already performed; these two factors have a notable effect on the fields performance. Consequently, the initial development plan has been adjusted to a
dispersed injection scheme that accounts for the compartmentalization of the
reservoir and its associated risk. Sensitivity to faults has been evaluated
using extreme case scenarios: a relatively optimistic map from the base case
along with a second map that includes a maximum number of faults. At the
end of this development plan, the OOIP was revised upwardly by 17.5%.
the field. Optimization of gas injection must allow for

the reconversion of weak water injector wells into gas
injectors. This should result in a better handling of gas
breakthrough and increased oil recovery. This revision
also includes a reconsideration of the well-to-well spacing
as well as revisiting the northwest sector of the field.
The first phase of the project development includes the
conversion of six water injector wells into gas injectors
and two gas injector wells into water injectors.
The second phase consists of injecting gas within the
new surfaces every two years until all water injector
wells have undergone a gas cycle.
The new plan predicts an increase in oil recovery up to
10% over the dispersed injection plan.
Current development plan

A revision of the development plan has been initiated following new production rates and results obtained from new wells. It calls for gas injection performed at the crest of the structure to be redistributed more efficiently across
GS QB-22
RS BKE-1
R QB-44
WAG pilot
To improve reservoir performance and optimize the utilization of injection gas, a WAG injection pilot project has
been implemented in Terrace A of the field (Fig. 2.19).
Well QB-16 was selected as injector, and Well QB-41,
drilled 150 m away, was selected as the observation
well. Saturation monitoring around the observation well
has been performed using the Schlumberger RST
Reservoir Saturation Tool and the CHFR Casing Hole
Formation Resistivity tool.
RS QB-34
WS QB-19
W QB-45
RS QB-30
R QB-43
RS BKE-2
The pilot project commenced in October 2003 at a rate

of 1,500 m3/d of water (wellhead pressure of 100 bars)
and 500,000 m3/d of gas (wellhead pressure of 235 bars).
Gas breakthrough was observed by the RST tool in
August 2005.
W QB-39
Completion of the WAG pilot will help assess the

generalization of the process to the entire field.
R3 QB-26
RS QB-23
W QB-53
W3 QB-33
OB-41
RS ORD-2
OB-16
Figure 2.19: Location of the WAG pilot.
15
Haoud Berkaoui Field

Introduction
3,530,000
N
3300
The Haoud Berkaoui field is located approximately 100 km

to the west of Hassi Messaoud. It forms part of block 438c
and, along with the Benkahla and Guellala structures,
constitutes the main reservoirs of the Oued Mya depression (Fig. 2.20).
3,528,000
3,526,000
3,524,000
3,522,000
The Haoud Berkaoui oil field was discovered in 1965

when Well OK-101 was drilled. The field produces from
the lower Triassic clay sandstone series. Recently, new
discoveries have been made toward the west of the field
as well as within the deeper Hamra quartzites reservoir.
3,520,000
3,518,000
3,516,000
3,514,000
3,512,000
2 km
Geology
692,000
Structure
696,000
700,000
-3,020
-3,060
-3,100
-3,140
-3,180
-3,220
-3,260
-3,300
-3,340
-3,380 m
704,000
Figure 2.21: Structural map at the top of the lower series.
The results of the interpretation of 2D seismic data

obtained on the Haoud Berkaoui structure show that the
structure is a vast anticline elongated in the N-S direction. It presents two culminations separated by a major
fault with a throw of 150 m in the central portion. The two
culminations are affected by other secondary faults.
Structural interpretation2,3 and the results from the latest
wells drilled have revealed the extent of the south-southeastern part (Fig. 2.21).
1
Haoud Berkaoui
Benkahla
Tertiary
Cenozoic
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Draa El Temra
Guellala
Sahane
Guellala NE
Mesozoic
438 Haniet
El Beida
Stratigraphy
Benkahla East
Algiers
Triassic
426
500 km
Paleozoic
A l g e r i a
Lithology
Sandstones and clays
Miocene-Pliocene
Sen limestone
Sen anhydrite
80
227
Massive anhydrite
Senonian salt
Turonian
Cenomanian
203
68
153
Massive salt
Gravelly limestone
Dolomite and marls
Albian
Aptian
Barremian
495
25
381
Sandstones with interbedded sandy clays

Dolomite and marls
Dolomitic sands, limestones, marls
Neocomian
176
Sandstones with clay and anhydrite horizons
Malm
237
Silty clays, dolomites, limestones, marls
Dogger clays
147
Anhydrites, dolomite, clay, halites
Dogger lag.
111
265
Anhydrite and dolomite, clays, silt

Massive anhydrites, dolomite, clays
Colorless to pink massive salt
Plastic salt-bearing clay
Liassic anhydrite
Salt-bearing liassic
Massive anhydrite
55
Liassic Hor. B
Liassic S1+S2
Liassic S3
Liassic clay
28
251
242
64
Salt-bearing clay
46
Lower clays
15
Silty clay
T2
T1
25
Fine clayey sandstone, silt

Clayey sandstones
RU
27
22
Lower series
50
Massive salt with interbedded clays, marls, anhydrite
Colorless to pink massive salt

Plastic salt-bearing clay
Colorless salt
Weathered andesites
Succession of clayey sandstone sequences
Silurian
Final depth
Figure 2.20: Location of the Haoud Berkaoui field.

Figure 2.22: Stratigraphy of the Haoud Berkaoui field.2,4
16
Very fine clays
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHaoud Berkaoui Field
Stratigraphy and depositional environment

The Haoud Berkaoui field includes Paleozoic and Meso-Cenozoic terrains
(Fig. 2.22). The Paleozoic rests on the granite basement and, in upward order,
consists of the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian. The Mesozoic
lies unconformably on the Paleozoic deposits. It has an average thickness of
3,200 m and is subdivided into three major seriesthe Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous.
Age Reservoir
Gamma ray
Cores
MD
(gAPI)
(m) description
0.00 150.00
3,330
Units
3,340
Non-reservoir part
Clayey
Clayey
3,350
3,360
3,370
Of Triassic age, the reservoir in the Haoud Berkaoui field

(Fig. 2.23) consists, in upward order, of
the lower series, the main target
the intermediate andesitic series
T1, the secondary target
T2, a compact reservoir.
Sedimentological
description
Thin sheets
Diagenetic sequence.
Porosity and permeability,
but dissolution
encourages good
petrophysical characteristics.
In conclusion the regions
which are favorable for
development are the central
part in the case of the upper
units.
Secondary
reservoir
Triassic clay sandstones
T1
3,420
There are no thin strata in

the T1 and T2.
3,430
3,450
RU
RU
RU
Andesitic rocks.
3,521
Succession of sandstoneclay sandstone finingupward sequences with

trough bedding, with a clay
siliceous carbonate cement,
clayey, silt, and dolomite
levels.
3,525
3,530
3,535
Main reservoir
Lower series
Lower series
U2
3,545
3,555
3,560
3,570
3,575
Conversion of clays releasing Fe+,

Mg+ and Ca+ ions.
Major compaction gives rise to

precipitation of silica through
pressure dissolution.
Development of dolomite from
solutions rich in Mg++.
Emplacement of anhydrite, barite,

and halite from concentrated
solutions.
3,550
3,565
DH
Succession of fining-up
sandstone-clay sequences.
The clay is silty calcareous
clay.
RU
3,500
3,540
Early diagenesis feeding I and II:

the quartz grains have been supplied
with silica II depending upon acid
conditions and burial.
Early dissolution of silica through the

effect of the circulation of basic
Fine to very fine clayey-silty water.
sandstone facies, containing
carbonate and salt.
Weathering of oxymicas and feldspars.
3,410
T1
The most commonly

observed phenomena are
pedogenic nodules and
marbling due to
hydromorphic phenomena.
Major late diagenesis compaction

phenomenon gives rise to pressure
dissolution.
3,400
T2
Pedogenetic phenomena.
3,380
3,390
T2
Diagenetic and pedogenetic

phenomena
U1
Succession of claysandstone sequences,

sandstone facies fining
upwards, cross-bedding,
clay-siliceous cement, with
green and red clay clasts.
Marbled silty clay levels.
Diagenetic investigation
shows that petrophysical
characteristics are controlled by the
nature of the cements; a feed of clay
associated with dolomite reduces
reservoir parameters. Dolomite
forming intagranular cement reduces
permeability.
3,580
Figure 2.23: Composite log.
17
Lower series
Triassic T2
A clay-sandstone assemblage, the lower series consists

of upwardly fining sequences with a clay-silica cement
at the base and carbonate clay-silica cement at the top.
Sequential stratigraphy and facies-type analysis show
that the lower series was deposited in a braided river
system and was affected by periods of flooding and
drought toward the top of the series.2
The Triassic T2 corresponds to the last silty sandstone episode of the Triassic,
which was developing into a clay facies. It consists of a brown-red clayey-silty
facies of thickness varying from 8 to 15 m.3
Intermediate series (eruptive rock, RU)
S4
The intermediate series was produced by intradepositional volcanic outpouring in the lower series. Its thickness varies from less than 3 to 70 m. The maximum thickness is observed at the north of the structure.
The final unit in the Triassic, the S4 marks the onset of the evaporitic cycle,
which overlies the entire clay-sandstone series of the Triassic.
Triassic T1
The Triassic T1 formation consists of clay-sandstone
facies of thickness varying from 20 to 30 m. It is represented by downwardly fining channel sequences of
medium to fine sandstones.3
SSTVD
3,205
Top T1
0.00 GR 150.00
1.85 RHOB 2.85
Triassic clay
The Triassic clay, which forms the cap rock for the main Triassic reservoirs,
consists of pasty salt-bearing clays.
Reservoir properties
The clay-sandstone Triassic of Haoud Berkaoui consists of three reservoirs:
T2, T1, and the lower series (SI). T2 is generally compact throughout the
region.
The lower series has an average thickness of 40 m, with a useful depth of
26 m. The SI and T1 reservoirs have an average porosity of 9% and 8%, an
40.00 DT 140.00
OKN-541 (SSTVD)
0.64 HT12 1,763.95
0.59 HTD1 4,276.94
-0.02 NPHI 0.58
3,220
T1
Top RU
3,240
RU
Top SI
3,260
SI
3,280
Top DH
Figure 2.24: Petrophysical properties of Well OKN-541.
18
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsHaoud Berkaoui Field
Some hundred wells have been drilled on the Haoud

Berkaoui structure; 60% of these are oil-producing wells.
Current production and injection rates are 3,100 and
3,300 m3/d, respectively. Figure 2.25 shows the production and injection history.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Normalized production
0.5
0.4
A pilot water injection project began in 1978, making it

possible to adopt a peripheral injection plan in 1984 to
maintain reservoir pressure.5 Production volume has
increased considerably since that date.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1965
1971
1976
1982
1987
1993
1998
2004
2009
Year
Oil production
Water injection
Figure 2.25: Production and injection history of the Haoud Berkaoui field (data normalized to maximum attained).
average permeability of 56 and 20 mD, and an average water saturation of

33% and 26%, respectively.
Petrophysical data have been estimated from core data, which are available
for more than 60 wells, test data, and logs. As an example, Fig. 2.24 shows
the properties of Well OKN-541.
Initial conditions
Oil/water contact: 3,324 m
Pressure: 518 kg/cm2
Temperature: 100C
Fluid properties
PVT analysis results have revealed an oil density of 43 API, a dissolution GOR
of 165 m3Std/m3 Std3, and a saturation pressure of 190 kg/cm2.
Reservoir behavior
The Haoud Berkaoui field was operated with natural depletion until 1978,
when water injection started.
Modification of the injection pattern led in 19986 to the

adoption of a mixed injection scheme. This method of
recovery was characterized by peripheral water injection
supported by water injection in a pattern that takes into
account the degraded transmissibility between the different blocks in the structure.
Information obtained from wells drilled on the flank has
led to readjustment of the field development by modifying
the injection pattern in 2002.6
A number of problems are associated with the operation
of this field: water breakthrough from the injection wells,
plugging of wells by salt, lack of gas lift optimization, and
finally, structural and stratigraphic complexity. This complexity is the most difficult challenge when optimizing
water injection, which is aimed also at maintaining the
reservoir pressure above the saturation pressure. The following work has been initiated to remedy this:
acquiring 3D seismic to update the structural model
review of the reservoir characterization model
optimization of water injection based on the abovementioned updates.
This optimization, coupled with the development of the
southeast part of the structure, is expected to help
increase noticeably the oil recovery.
19
Edjeleh Field
Introduction
125
3,072,500
The Edjeleh field (DL) is located in block 241 in the

southeastern part of the Illizi basin approximately 50 km
southeast of In-Amenas (Fig. 2.26). Located on the
Tihemboka high, the field extends over a surface area of
approximately 30 km2.
The reservoir was discovered in 1956 and brought into
operation a few years later. Hydrocarbons have been
confirmed in six separate overlain reservoirs in this
field. The producing reservoirs consist of sandstone formations of Carboniferous (D2, D4, and D6), Devonian
(F2 and F4), and Cambro-Ordovician age.
-325.00
129
-291.00
181
-276.00 402
126
3,070,000
202
177
-250.00
-213.75
-260 412
-288.00
169 -245.50
-269.00 407-240
176
3,067,500
170
-196.50
-268.00
217
-249.30
-220
415
-270.00
171
-267.00
-240.00
-198.00
201
115
166
-200
-248.70
108
136
-160
-284.50
160
-263.00
410
Algiers
102
-207.43
112
101
-253.20
-218.60 -268.50 417
-236.43 139-204.90
3,065,000
Tihalatine N.
Tihalatine C.
128
173
-183.50
-234.16
-262.00
174
-262.50 184
A l g e r i a
116
204
-234.09
23
-233.00
119
124
120
500 km
195
230
-230.60
3,060,000
121
244
24
-208.85
-263.23
-239.10
-265.50
123
-271.50 -253.50
156 -233.60
229
-255.00
-269.00
More than 300 wells have now been drilled in the field,
of which approximately 20% have been converted into
water injectors in the northern zone.
-242.00
411
5
21
-264.5020
-246.00
14
13
26
INDT
-257.00
408
405
Geology
-245.00
423
27
30
-348.96
35
-227.52
40
-238.50
-270.00-257.50
-287.50 427
28
-339.32
-497.50
420
-403.00
18
-372.65
-265.00 -243.96
10
421
-317.61
-368.10
15 -248.23
-278.37-253.00419
3,057,500
-375.00
-507.00
406 -575.48
-259.00
INDT
INDT
29
-285.80
The Edjeleh field is an anticline located on the axial culmination of a regional structure trending N-S (Fig. 2.27).
Within the field a saddle separates two structural
highsthe north dome and the south dome. The asymmetry of Edjeleh is the result of uplifting of the basement, which created a steep reverse fault on the eastern
side parallel to the axis of the anticline, and a longitudinal normal fault zone cutting the Devonian and
Carboniferous strata, extending between the crest of the
-263.23
-254.50
-260.50
122
205
-214.73
-253.00
-272.93 192
-249.00 418
Figure 2.26: Structure at the top of the Carboniferous D2 reservoir.
-237.60
-239.50
185
Taredert
0
-254.50
103
-255.50
206
179
-227.00
404
-260.50
-245.77
-274.50 172
117
3,062,500
-261.61
178
206
Tener El Beugra
137
133
-201.60
-260.50
111
-175.03 -206.59
183
Edjeleh
33
-334.00
-324.31
25
-252.41
16
31
-273.00 -250.00
62
-227.90
-246.00 425
7
-263.50 -248.45
3,055,000
38
11
-276.00
-250.00
424
22
17
-246.00
39
-226.13
-260.17 -251.50
32
-301.50
-264.50
3,052,500
585,000
Figure 2.27: Stratigraphic section.
20
-268.50
-209.29
-180
180
-275.58
193
-253.00
Tiderer
127
-277.79
157
416
Arene
126
-275.50
-269.50 109
162
-251.50 -287.31
401
-257.70
-299.15
403
-247.79
-271.50
422
-255.00
182
-258.50 -239.39
-300 228
-269.00
189
-284.00
408
152 -255.30
407
-279.87
-280 411
-267.00
110
-320
-277.81 -244.33
175
233
154
-273.50
-284.50 155
-340
587,500
1,500 m
590,000
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsEdjeleh Field
Stratigraphy
Limestone
Series
The stratigraphic series making up the Edjeleh region consists of Paleozoic and
Mesozoic terrains. The Mesozoic, which crops out at the surface and lies unconformably on the Paleozoic series, essentially consists of continental deposits.
Facies
Tiguentourine Zarzaitine Taouratine

Series
Series
Series
Age
Triassic
anticline and the reverse fault over the entire length of the structure. Finally,
the anticline is cut by diagonal faults that also cut through the CambroOrdovician strata. Two of these faults are located on the northern side of the
south dome and another on its southern flank.
The Paleozoic series is clay-sandstone at the base (continental depositional

environment) and carbonate clays at the top (littoral depositional environments) (Fig. 2.28).
B0
B2
MD
Lithology
Sands, clay and sandy

sandstone
Hercynian
unconformity
263
Red clay with rare gypsum

levels
444
544
598
Marl-limestone assemblage
with miscellaneous bioclastic
limestones and mottled marls
772
B4
B6
The structure of the Cambro-Ordovician reservoir consists of two separate

highs separated by a saddle emphasized by faults.
B8
Carboniferous
Properties of the various reservoirs

Cambro-Ordovician
Devonian F4
B11
1,047
B12
D0
The structure of reservoir F4 is affected by several transverse and longitudinal

faults. The top of level F4 lies at a depth of 800 to 850 m. Three unitsA, B,
and Care distinguished.
957
B10
1,212
D2
D4
D6
1,434
D8
The Devonian F4 is regarded as the second largest reservoir in the Edjeleh field.
F2
Carboniferous D4
Devonian
Devonian F2
The thickness of this unit varies between 20 and 30 m, and is oriented NW-SE.
The trap of this reservoir is of lithological type.
Black clay assemblages

alternating with sandstone
and clay-sandstone intervals;
sometimes calcareous
bioclastic, corresponding to
the various levels B0 to B12
and D0 to D8
The mean depth of this reservoir level is 520 m. It is affected by the same system of faults as the Carboniferous D2 reservoir, thus forming the various sectors of the Carboniferous D4 reservoir. The fluid contacts within this reservoir
fluctuate due to the regional hydrodynamics.
Sandstones
Limestones
Clay
Clay-sandstone
1,559
1,806
Sandstone and
clay-sandstone
complexes in reservoirs
F2, F4, F5, and F6
alternating with
thick layers of black clay
F4
1,871
Caledonian
unconformity
F6
2,010
Clay-sandstone assemblage
Laminated black clay with

rare thin beds of fine
calcareous sandstone
2,403
Cambro-Ordovician
Located at a shallow depth of approximately 450 m, D2 is the most important

reservoir. Its structure corresponds to an elongated anticline The reservoir has
an overall thickness of approximately 42 m and consists of layers
of sandstone of fairly good permeability (strata A, B, C, D, and E) but of variable
facies. The gas/oil contact is located in the north at a level of +156 m/Nm.
Silurian
Carboniferous D2
Basement
Terminal clay-sandstone
complex
Taconian
unconformity
Sandstone basal
conglomerate
2,660
Basal
unconformity
Figure 2.28: Statigraphic column of the Edjeleh field.
21
The petrophysical characteristics of the reservoirs are summarized in Table 2.2.
Reservoir
3,071,400
181
3,067,400
3,065,400
3,063,400
D4
F2
F4
C-Ordo
Reservoir temperature
44
47
60
63
76
Average thickness
40
15
24
36.5
120
Net pay thickness
20
10
7.5
21
14
Average porosity
21
25
22
18
11
Average water saturation
15
15
13
19
30
Characteristics
Units
155
3,069,400
226
D2
168
109
505
162
Sect1
157
422
135
182
105 156
149
409
239 213
508
152
134
431146
236
110
202 151509 148b214
506
140 153b153
237
169
193 503
510 161 231
107
241 144
217 104
176
215
171
246 147 501
NNW
238
150
201 232 150b 220
310
132
132b
240
108
511
430 164
140
175
131
309 198 SSE
512158
308 NNE
115
163
130
199
141
180
218
507
143
188187 243
160 513
216
502
410
432
200
514
101
130 130b 114
417
219
111
165b 234
173 235515 307
183 139515 165
142
517
233 516 428 133
174
113
245
178
A
184
504
404
Table 2.2: Petrophysical characteristics of the main reservoirs in the Edjeleh field.
The initial properties of the Edjeleh reservoir fluids are summarized in

Table 2.3.
Reservoirs
D2
D4
F2
F4
C-Ordo
36.6
39.5
66.5
72.5
90.4
1.069
1.060
1.113
1.099
1.157
2.523
2.143
1.10
1.958
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.81
0.85
0.83
39
37
43.2
35
39
Table 2.3: Initial properties of the fluids in the various Edjeleh reservoirs.
History of development of the principal reservoir:

Carboniferous D2
172
242
The Carboniferous D2 reservoir is mainly drained naturally; that is, drained

through the expansion of dissolved gases and a gas cap, with an aquifer
showing little activity. This has resulted in an appreciable drop in reservoir
pressure.1 This drop in reservoir pressure has been accompanied by a decline
in well productivity that has generated production difficulties despite the
installation of a gas lift system. A WAG injection technique has been tested
in a pilot project.
119
120
209
3,061,400
Sect2
191
106 208
207
305
194
224
123
3,059,400
Producing Well D2
Devonian producing well
Non-MPDL well
Injection well
587,000
589,000
Figure 2.29: Injection pattern of the D2 reservoir.
22
Because of premature gas breakthroughs in the producers close to the pilot,

WAG injection was abandoned in favor of water injection alone.2 This
enabled a recompression of the injection zone and led to an improvement in
production from adjacent wells.
A project for the general application of water injection in reservoirs D2 and
D4, known as MPDL, has been investigated and implemented in the northern
part since 1997. Injection water was brought from the adjacent Stah field to
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsEdjeleh Field
300
500
D6 0.6%
CO 5%
D4 9.5%
400
200
F2 13%
300
F4 32.5%
100
100
0
1972
0
1978
1984
1990
1996
2002
GOR, m3/m3
Oil production, m3/d
200
D2 38.8%
Year
Figure 2.30: Production history of the D2 reservoir.
Figure 2.31a: Reserves distribution.
satisfy the requirements in terms of quantity and quality. The project required
a complete revision of the reservoir. Parallel to this development,3 a project
for recuperating the produced gas from the gathering lines was implemented.
It consisted of taking in gas at a pressure on the order of 1 atm at the gathering
lines of the 10 separation facilities. This project is expected to provide a
recuperation on the order of 1.5 x 106 m3/day. In addition to assuring gas
autonomy, the project will also meet HSE requirements pertaining to protection of the environment.
F4 15%
F2 13%
D6 1%
D4 15%
Today, production from the Carboniferous D2 reservoir is essentially based on

maintaining pressure in the northern part (Fig. 2.29), with peripheral injection
associated with injection in the lines. Production is maintained by 80 producing
wells and 40 water injection wells.
Production results obtained in the northern part of the D2 reservoir, with
the help of this exploitation technique, have been satisfactory (Fig. 2.30).
D2S1 40%
Figure 2.31b: Current production distribution.
As a result, this sector, which contained most of the

reserves in place within the D2 reservoir, now provides
approximately 40% of the overall output from the field
(Fig. 2.31a and 2.31b).
450
220
200
Several options to improve recovery have been identified:

infill drilling or well workovers, assisted by a complementary water injection pattern in the lines
possibly extending the water injection process to other
reservoir levels
additional perforations or reperforations of some
reservoir units
isolation of levels flooded by water
optimization of water injection management throughout the reservoir.
180
160
460
140
100
470
80
60
40
480
450
500
550
600
Drainage section, m
Gamma ray - CDR
Gamma ray - CMR
Well trajectory
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
True vertical depth (TVD), m
120
Gamma ray, gAPI
D2 rest 16%
The recent drilling of horizontal Well DL-444 (Fig. 2.32),

whose length extended more than 300 m, has provided
encouraging results in terms of production. The possibility
of extending this technology looks promising.
Figure 2.32: Trajectory of Well DL-444.
23
Hassi Rmel Field

Introduction
The Hassi Rmel reservoir was discovered in 1956 and
put on production in 1961. Located in the Algerian
Sahara 550 km south of Algiers (Fig. 2.33), the reservoir
extends over approximately 3,500 km2. The reservoir is a
gas condensate field with an oil rim on the eastern
flank, which was discovered in 1979. The rim extends
more than 240 km2. More than 400 wells have been
drilled on the structure in accordance with the development plan.
Algiers
Hassi Rmel
A l g e r i a
500 km
0
Geology
Structure
The Hassi Rmel structure is an anticlinorium of elliptical
shape whose major axis is oriented NE-SW (Fig. 2.34).
The structural dip is relatively shallow, on the order of
10 m/km. The major faults are normal faults trending
E-W or NNW-E. The throw is on the order of 10 m.
20 Km
Oil rim area
Figure 2.33: Location of the Hassi Rmel field.
1,325
1,675
1,425
Stratigraphy
The upper Triassic clay sandstones (TAGS) of Hassi
Rmel lie unconformably on the Hercynian surface and
include three main reservoirs known as A, B, and C
(Figs. 2.35 and 2.36). These are separated from each
other by shaly strata.
1,475
1,525
1,575
1,625 m
The top of the Triassic corresponds to the horizon D2, and

the cap rock consists of Triassic clays and Liassic halites.
Depositional environment
The sandstones of the reservoir in the Hassi Rmel field
are of fluviatile1 origin with deposits as follows:
alluvian cone deposits located close to faults
fill deposits and channel bars that correspond to braided
deposits with low to moderate meandering
flood plain deposits that are essentially clays or silty
clays.
Figure 2.34: Structural map of the Hassi Rmel field.
24
25 km
Hydrocarbon ReservoirHassi Rmel Field
System
Mean EP
Stages
Cenozoic
100
Miocene-Pliocene
Alpine unconformity
40
40
Senonian
Turonian
100
Cenomanian
Cretaceous
460
600
Strat
Limestone crust and clay-sandstone series

Limestone with flints
Vacuolar dolomite
Limestone and clay
Albian
Aptian
Barremian
Fine friable sandstones with clay partings
Neocomian
Sandstones with interbedded clay, limestone, and lignite
Marls and sandstones

Fine to coarse sandstones with carbonate cement
Limestones, sandstone, and clay
Malm
Clayey
Dolomitic limestone and clay
Lagoonal
Dolomitic limestone and clay
100
220
Lithology
Dogger
120
Marls and limestone
Marly
130
Limestone
Limestone with interbedded clay and anhydrite
Anhydrite
Massive anhydrite with interbedded clay
Jurassic
80
Liassic
510 150
Massive salt with a dolomitic interval "D1"
Halite I
150
Halite II and III
Salt with interbedded clay
15
Upper Clayey
Plastic clay with interbedded dolomite
50
Lower Clayey
Massive salt and chocolate brown clay

A
Triassic
Paleozoic
120
Triassic
200
250
Clay-sandstone
Fine to medium clay with a relatively clayey

anhydritic cement, with interbedded brown clay
B
C
30
Lower series
Andesite, clay, and interbedded clayey sandstones
22
100
Devonian
Silurian
128
Cambro-Ordovician
Clay with interbedded sandstones

Black graptolite clay
Quartzite-sandstone and fine to medium grey-whitish sandstone with interbedded clay
Fine clayey-bituminous sandstone and tectonic breccias
Basement
Large members of fractured orange-pink ferromagnesian granite
Figure 2.35: Stratigraphic column of the Hassi Rmel reservoir.
Table 2.4 summarizes the essential characteristics of the three reservoir levels:
A, B, and C.
Reservoir
Average
thickness
15 m30 m
0 m30 m
10 m50 m
Facies
Stratification
Troughs at the base

Fine sandstones to
anhydritic cementation going through oblique
stratifications, then to
horizontal and planar
Medium to fine
stratifications, finishing
sandstones
at the top with ripples
Medium to coarse grain
with quartz pebbles
Depositional
environment
Fluviatile
Fluviatile
Fluviatile
Table 2.4: Sedimentological characteristics of the Triassic reservoirs at Hassi Rmel.
25
Petrophysical properties
Permeability, porosity, the initial water saturation value (Swi), and the net to
total thickness ratio (hn/ht) for the reservoir units are shown in Table 2.5.
Reservoir
Gas reservoir
Oil rim
Average
Average
permeability (mD) porosity (%)
Swi
(fraction)
hn / ht
(fraction)
270
15.0
0.24
0.85
250
15.0
0.28
0.46
641
16.8
0.13
0.66
500
20.0
0.15
0.66
Table 2.5: Petrophysical characteristics of the Hassi Rmel Triassic reservoirs.
Deep resistivity
0.2
(ohm.m) 2,000
Shallow resistivity
0.2
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
Neutron porosity
(ohm.m) 2,000 0.45
(m3/m3) -0.15
MD
Density
Laterolog resistivity
Core
1:500
150 (m) description 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 1.95 (g/m3)
2.95
2,110
2,120
Top A
2,130
Bottom A
2,140
Top B
2,150
2,160
Bottom B
2,170
Top C
2,180
2,190
2,200
2,210
2,220
Bottom C
Figure 2.36: Composite log for the Hassi Rmel reservoirs (gamma ray, resistivity, core description,
and density-neutron).
26
Fluid contacts and initial conditions

Table 2.6 depicts the fluid contacts and initial conditions.
Regional contacts
Gas/oil contact
Water/oil contact
Initial conditions
Gas is initially at dewpoint pressure.
Reference depth
Temperature
Table 2.6: Fluid contacts and initial conditions.
Fluid properties
The main characteristics of the fluids in the Hassi Rmel field are shown in
Table 2.7.
Gas condensate
Initial volume factor
Condensate richness
GPL richness
Condensate density
Oil
Density
Formation volume factor
Dissolution GOR
Formation water
Density
Salinity
Table 2.7: Reservoir fluid properties.
27
History of development of the field
120
Development of the Hassi Rmel field, which began in

1961, is characterized by three periods.
2
100
80
Period of natural depletion, 19611978
60
Gas flow, x 109 m3 Std
A cumulative 84 billion m3Std of raw gas and 16 million

tons of condensate were produced from 25 producing
wells and through the provision of a gas treatment unit
having a capacity of 30 x 106 m3Std/d. Production of the
field under natural depletion conditions gave rise to a
12 g/m3 decline in the richness of the gas between 1961
and 1978.
40
20
0
1958
1964
1970
1976
1982
1988
1994
2000
Year
Dry gas injection
Untreated gas production
Cycling period, 19781996

According to the development plan, 160 producing wells
and 54 injection wells, compression stations for the
reinjection of gas, and new gas treatment plans were
placed into service (Fig. 2.37).
Figure 2.37: History of total produced gas and injected dry gas in the Hassi Rmel field.
The second stage in the project will be implemented in 2008. This stage will
make it possible to produce from wells at head pressures significantly lower
than the initial pressure.
The liquid content of the gas produced, which declined

from 60 g/m3 , was consistent with the change in the
thermodynamic characteristics.
Oil rim history
Cycling period, 19972004
Period 1, 19811996
This cycling period corresponds to the production plateau

period of maximum available capacity from the field.
Annual gas output was more than 100 x 109 m3 Std/year.
The cycling rate during this period fell considerably from
38% in 1997 to 21% in 1999. In 2004, this level increased
to 32%. This low cycling rate gave rise to an accelerated
decline in richness (33 g/m3) and the inflow of water on
the flanks of the field. In addition to this, gas breakthroughs from reinjected gas were observed in some
wells.
The oil rim was produced through some 30 vertical wells, and the first horizontal hole, Well HRZ-1, drilled through reservoir A, was completed at the end of
this period.
Production and reinjection histories are shown in

Figs. 2.38 and 2.39.
Production history of the oil rim is summarized below.
Period 2, 19962004
The new development plan established during this period consisted of
launching an optimized drilling campaign of new vertical and horizontal wells
to reduce the problems of coning of water and gas, and thus increase oil output. Cumulative oil output for the period was 5 x 106 m3 (Fig. 2.39).
Water breakthroughs, however, have persisted even within the horizontal
wells.
Problems and solution techniques used

Compression
Following the continuous decline in pressure of the
reservoir and the constraint in terms of the minimum processing pressure for the modules (102 kg/cm2), compression units were fitted upstream from the modules. This
compression project was subdivided into two stages.
The first stage of compression was completed in 2003
with the installation of a number of turbines. This first
stage made it possible to produce from wells with adequate head pressures.
28
During the production and development of the gas cap and the oil rim, several
problems have been encountered:
Water breakthrough has been localized at the north and south of the field.
Wells producing in the oil rim encountered plugging problems due to salt
deposits.
Formation damage has been observed as indicated by the elevated skin factors they give rise to.
Beyond water shut-off techniques, the following techniques may be used:
Acidification
Reentry
Review of the tests showed major plugging of reservoirs A, B, and C, giving

rise to high skin factors. As a consequence, an acidification campaign was
run in 1998 in an effort to increase the potential of the wells.3
Reentry into two gas wells through deviated drilling has

yielded good results, mainly a gain in output of approximately 40%. In addition, a program of reentry into oil
wells is currently under investigation in the case of lowperformance and abandoned wells.
An acidizing technique consisting of three phases yielded an increase in productivity between 30% and 50%, accompanied by an improvement of the
wellhead pressure on the order of 5 bars.
Gas lift installation

To optimize oil production from the Hassi Rmel field, the gas lift technique
was implemented for wells having low pressure, high water cut, and low GOR.
At present, five wells are in production with gas lift and are giving encouraging results. Around 40% of the potential of these wells has been recovered.
120
14
To provide better gas recovery, reduce water coning, and

effectively manage reservoir pressure, the first horizontal
well was drilled into the gas zone at Hassi Rmel in 2005.
Reservoir drive mechanisms
80
10
8
60
40
4
20
0
0
1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002
Condensate and LPG, x 106 metric tons
12
Untreated gas and dry gas, x 109 Stm3
The first horizontal hole drilled in Algeria, Well HRZ-01,

was drilled in the oil rim of the Hassi Rmel field in 1991.
Most of the wells drilled are medium-radius wells with
a 500-m long drainhole.
16
100
The Hassi Rmel field is regarded as a gas and condensate gas field with the presence of a peripheral aquifer.
Two mechanisms of drainage have been identified:
expansion of the gas cap coupled with a partial cycling
of the dry gas
expansion of the dissolved gas in the oil rim.
Conclusions
Year
Dry gas
Condensate
LPG
The Hassi Rmel field has reached maturity in terms of

development. Therefore, addressing existing problems
will require the introduction of appropriate technologies.
Figure 2.38: History of produced gas, LPG, and condensate from Hassi Rmel fields.
900
10
800
700
Improving reservoir performance will require a more

refined characterization of the geological model. To this
end, a 3D seismic survey is planned.
600
500
300
200
100
1
0
0
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
Cumulative oil, x 106 m3
400
Oil production, x 103 m3
Horizontal wells
Addressing the severe water breakthrough problems will

also require the deployment of technologies more adequate to control water arrival than conventional water
control techniques.
In terms of reservoir performance, gas cycling has been
the key to success. Therefore, the focus will be on monitoring and managing this cycling.
Year
Production
Cumulative production
Figure 2.39: History and cumulative data for oil production.
29
Rhourde Nouss
Rhourde El Hamra
Rhourde Chouf
Rhourde Nouss
246
Rhourde Adra
213
Algiers
Meksem
El Assal
A l g e r i a
500 km
Introduction
The Rhourde Nouss (RN) region is located 850 km southeast of Algiers and
230 km southeast of the Hassi Messaoud field (Fig. 2.40). The first well,
drilled in 1961, revealed a series of gas and condensate reservoirs down to
2,685 m.
This region is marked by the presence of 13 accumulations that make up
approximately 10 reservoirs (Fig. 2.41). These reservoirs can be subdivided
into three main groups: TAGS, intermediate-Triassic clay sandstone lowerSilurian (infra-TAGS), and Ordovician. Gas with condensate is the most
important fluid and makes this the second most productive gas-bearing
region of Algeria. Oil is represented mainly in the form of rims, with thicknesses varying from a few meters to tens of meters.
Figure 2.40: Location of the Rhourde Nouss reservoirs.

3,320
h
Rhourde Hamra
ar
fag
Tro
ug
TAGS
TAGI
Rhourde Nouss
3,300
3,280
Rhourde Hamra Southeast
TINT 2
TINT 1
TAGS
TAGI
B2
B1
A2
A1
Q. Hamra
TAGI
Rhourde Chouff
TAGS
Rhourde Nouss Southwest

TINT 2
Q. Hamra
TAGS
Rhourde Adra
Dra Allal
TAGS
3,260
El Mouilah
TAGS
Meksen
Ramade fault
TAGS
Q. Hamra
Hamra
3,240
Rhourde Adra South

TAGS
Q. Hamra
Rhourde Nouss Southeast
TINT 2
Q. Hamra
TAGS
TINT 2
TINT 1
TAGS
TAGI
A2
A1
Q. Hamra
Ektaia
TAGS
D. MKratta
3,220
240
260
Figure 2.41: Reservoir structures in the Rhourde Nouss region.
30
TAGS
TINT 2
TINT 1
TAGI
A2
A1
D. MKratta
Q. Hamra
280
300
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsRhourde Nouss
Geology
The Rhourde Nouss region is located on the southern edge of the Triassic
basin and culminates on the Rhourde NoussEssaoui Mellane Horst, which
is an extension of the Amguid High to the east. The boundary of the latter is
RN-108
the Ramade fault, which has a throw of 2,000 m.

Rhourde Nouss is located to the northwest of the Illizi
basin, to the west of the Berkine basin, and to the southeast of the Marfag trough.
Structure
The structural history of the Rhourde Nouss1,2 region is
directly related to that of the Amguid High, which is one
of the major features of the Saharan platform. It has
also undergone intense transformation through geologic
time and has in turn formed a large part of the Saharan
platform. This area is marked by great mobility and has
become vigorously reactivated during various tectonic
phases, particularly in the course of the Austrian event
of the Cretaceous.
Two structural trends dominate the region:
the N-S trend, which corresponds to the orientation of
the Ramade fault and the Hamra structure to the south
the dominant NE-SW trend, which is emphasized by a
series of faults that reach as far as the Berkine basin
to the northeast.
Figure 2.42: Random line seismic section showing the structure of the Rhourde Nouss center.
These two trends recur in the area studied where the N-S
trend can be seen in the Rhourde Adra Sud and Rhourde
Nouss SE anticlines, and where the Dra Allal, Rhourde
Nouss SW, and Rhourde Adra structures are associated
with NE-SW faulting. The very sharply delineated
Rhourde Nouss center structure is located at the intersection of faults trending in both directions, which probably explains its exceptional size, with a structural closure
of more than 1,000 m. Figure 2.42 shows, via its seismic
map, the type of structural complexity of the Rhourde
Nouss region.
N
Rhourde Nouss Central

In the course of the Tertiary, a major deformation (the Atlas

event) affected the sector, especially along the NE-SW axis
of Rhourde Adra. Submeridional faults were then reactivated as sinistral tear faults, and the geometry of the
Cretaceous traps was altered (Fig. 2.43).
Draa Allal
Rhourde Adra
It is assumed that the main oil-producing system is linked

to the association of source rocks in the basal Silurian. A
secondary oil-producing system is associated with the
deep reservoir of the Hamra quartzites.
Figure 2.43: Rhourde Nouss center, south, east, and southeast structures with the same contacts.
31
Age
Depth
Lithology
Res.
Type log
Miocene-Pliocene
0
GRCN ( API)
Senonian
500
TINT II
TINT IIA reservoir
TINT I
TINT I reservoir
TAGI
TAGI reservoir
Silurian reservoir B1
Silurian A2
Silurian reservoir A2
Cretaceous
Salt
Turonian
Cenomanian
Albian
Aptian
200
TAGS
Carbonate
Anhydrite
Horizons
1000
Barremian
Silurian A1
Silurian reservoir A1
Silurian M2
1500
Neocomian
Horizon H
Malm
Jurassic
Triassic
Liassic
Dogger
Clay
Dalle MKratta
Gara Louki drift
Oued Saret shale
Oued Saret sand
H
B
Salt
2500
Clay
Argilo
Sandstone
Superior
Interm. II
Middle clay
Top of Silurian A2
Azel shale
3000
Ouargla sand
TINT II
TINT I
TAGI
Hamra quartzite
B2
B2
Lower Hamra quartzite
B1
3500
B1
A2
A1
4000
D. MK.
A2
TAGS
Interm. I
TAGI
Silurian Argilosandstone
Top of TAGS
2000
Lagoonal
A1
M2
Top of Ordovician
M1
Silurian
Clay
Ordovician
Microclay
Oued Saret sandstone
Azzei clay
Ouargia sandstone
Q.H.
Hamra sandstone
El Atchane sandstone
4500
El Gassi sandstone
TAGS
Cambrian
De Miribel sandstone
Hassi Lella
sandstone
The strata in the study area produce oil and gas rich in condensate from different reservoir intervals that are grouped into three assemblages. Figure 2.44
shows an important number of reservoirs in one structure, subdivided into a
sedimentary complex with a vertical depth of more than 2,000 m.
The upper TAGS reservoir that forms the main reservoir has a thickness
between 100 and 200 m in the sector.
5000
Basement
From a petroleum perspective, the upper TAGS reservoir is subdivided into

three groups (Fig. 2.45):
the basal part, comprising the basal sandstone and basal clay
the main reservoir, because of its depositional, braided fluvial environment,
which is the most productive part of the reservoir and has the best petrophysical characteristics and the best hydrocarbon saturations
the upper part, which is the most shaly part and generally the least
interesting from the point of view of reservoir characteristics.
Sand
Shale
Salt
Limestone
Anhydrite
Dolomite
Figure 2.44: Typical stratigraphic section through the Rhourde Nouss region.
32
Moved water
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
Moved water
Gas
Moved
hydrocarbon
Quartz
Water
Bound water
Gas
Illite
MD
Water saturation
Gamma ray
ELAN volumes Volumetric analysis
1:500
(m3/m3)
0 0.5 (V/V)
(gAPI) 200 1
0 1
(V/V)
0
(m) 0
2,370
2,380
Summit area (50-60 m)
2,360
2,390
2,400
2 410
2,420
2,440
2,450
2,460
Main area (80-100 m)
2,430
2,470
2,480
2,500
2,510
2,520
Basal area (20-30 m)

Sand
BShale
2,490
2,530
2,540
Figure 2.45: Oil subdivisions of the TAGS reservoirs of Rhourde Nouss.
33
Petrophysical characteristics
The TAGS is represented by interbedded sandstones and clays. The net
to total thickness varies between 50% and 60%. These medium to coarse
sandstones have crossbedding with good petrophysical characteristics.
Porosity varies from 15% to 20%, and permeability varies from 200 to 500 mD.
Water saturation varies from 10% to 12%.
PVT characteristics
The gas in the Rhourde Nouss TAGS structure has an initial condensate content on the order of 160 g/m3. The dewpoint pressure is 300 kg/cm2, which is
the initial field pressure. The initial GOR for the oil is 200 m3/m3, with a
volume factor of 1.7 and a bubblepoint pressure of 300 kg/cm2, which is also
the initial pressure. Viscosity and density are 0.2 cP and 0.81, respectively.
Fluid contacts
Interpretation of reservoir section logs, RFT, and/or MDT logs and
formation tests have made it possible to identify the various contacts. The
three main structures of the Rhourde NoussRN center, RN southeast, and
RN southwesthave revealed the presence of an oil rim whose contacts are
not the same. The maximum thickness is in the western block of the central
structure and has a value on the order of 30 m. Table 2.8 shows the gas/oil
and oil/water contacts. The table shows a great number of fluid contacts
because of the Rhourde Nouss compartmentalization into several structural
blocks.
Fluid contacts
(m subsea)
Structures
Gas/Oil
Oil/Water
West Block
2,445
2,476
East Block
2,451
2,476
2,445
2,475
Extension RN3
2,462
2,466
Northern Sector
2,445
2,465
Central Sector
2,445
2,455
Southern Sector
2,442
2,451
Table 2.8: Structures and fluid contacts.
34
Production mechanism
Development of this region began in 1966 when the oil rim of the TAGS
reservoir in the western block of the central Rhourde Nouss structure was
brought on to production with some 10 vertical wells located on the periphery of the structure. At first, all the wells produced oil without difficulty.
However, the operation resulted in the production of a great deal of gas due
to coning. The facilities at that time were restricted to an oil separation and
dispatch unit. With this in mind, investment has been made in recent years
to recover gases that were flared. The development of this reservoir oil
rim has been optimized through the horizontal drilling campaign that
started in 1997.
1.00
In 1988, the gas cap was brought on to production with

partial gas reinjection.4 The injection system is mainly
peripheral. This injection brings about better recovery of
the liquids. The field pressure at that time was slightly
lower than the initial pressure. This drop was mainly due
to production of the oil rim with a high GOR.
About 60 production and injection wells exist with
almost a third as injectors. At the beginning of the
operations, some problems were resolved, such as
the recompletion of producers with chromium tubings
because of frequent piercing of carbon steel tubings,
even with the low CO2 concentration (< 1%) in the gas.
0.90
Average production from these three structures

(Fig. 2.46) is on the order of 30 x 106 m3/d, and it is
processed in facilities on site together with gas from
other structures to extract condensate and LPG.
0.80
0.60
0.50
0.40
The change in the average field pressure shows a regular decline in each structure (Fig. 2.47). The annual drop
does not exceed 10 kg/cm2, mostly because of partial
gas injection.
0.30
0.20
0.10
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
0.00
1988
Normalized production and injection
0.70
Year
Future performance
Gas production
Injected gas
Figure 2.46: Oil production and gas injection history (RN Center, RN Southeast, and RN Southwest).
300
275
250
225
Pressure, kg/cm2
200
175
150
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
Gas injection is one of the most important activities for

optimizing the future development of this structure in
particular and of the entire region in general. The
Rhourde Nouss sector alone has reinjection capacity on
the order of 30 x 106 m3 STD/d. This capacity has been
the subject of an optimization3 study to determine the
best way of using this gas. The simulation study
revealed that the ultimate recovery of condensate is
dependent mainly on the injected pore volume. An
injected pore volume value on the order of 1.5 has
proved to be an optimum value. The simulation has provided a way to evaluate injection time and the production plateau, which could extend over several years. The
rest of the structures from the region have been integrated through the global optimization of the development process.
Year
Figure 2.47: Field pressure history (RN Center, RN Southeast, and RN Southwest).
35
Krechba Reservoir
Introduction
The Krechba reservoir is located in the northern part of the In Salah region
(Fig. 2.48). The reservoir was discovered in 1957 during drilling of Well KB-1,
which encountered the Tournaisian reservoirs of the Carboniferous and
Siegenian-Gedinnian of the lower Devonian at a depth of 1,700 to 3,350 m.
The various wells produced gas from the three reservoirs.
With the reservoirs of Teg and Reg, and those further south in the In Salah
region (Hassi Moumen, Garet el Befinat, Gour Mahmoud, and the In Salah
structure), this reservoir constitutes a major gas zone exploited as part of the
Sonatrach-BP-Statoil joint venture. Following treatment, the gas produced is
transported to Hassi Rmel, located 450 km north of Krechba (Fig. 2.49).
Algiers
A l g e r i a
345
0
500 km
Krechba
326
Teg
344
Figure 2.48: Location of the Krechba reservoir.
36
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsKrechba Reservoir
Geology
Structurally simple, the Krechba reservoir is a major closed anticlinal body.
The current architecture of the Krechba reservoir was modeled toward the
end of the Carboniferous during the Hercynian orogenesis. It is an anticline
that developed following a series of deep compressions in the basal complex. These were accompanied by a N-S fault network on the west of the
reservoir, cutting through the Ordovician and Silurian formations.
The location of the paleovalley, in which the Tournaisian

sandstone was deposited, was almost certainly influenced
by these faults. The Krechba structure has undergone
post-Hercynian structural readjustments. The structural
map of the Krechba reservoir was drawn up on the basis
of 3D seismic interpretation completed in 1998, the
Hassi Rmel
Algiers
Hassi Rmel
A l g e r i a
El-Golea
346
ECF
345
BJ
Timimoun
326
Export pipeline
New facilities
Figure 2.49: Project zone location.
Krechba
344
Teg
Reg
30
2
BTA
El Befinat
343
342
341
339
In Salah
340
In Salah
Gour Mahmoud
337
336
AOI 6/94 exploration
District 3
Fields
Track of pipeline
37
three reservoir horizons having been mapped in detail.

Interpretation shows a plunging NNW-SSE stretching
anticline with abrupt flank closure (Fig. 2.50). Figure 2.51
shows the stratigraphic column as well as the nomenclature adopted in this series.
The Carboniferous
The Carboniferous sandstone, deposited in a paleovalley
environment, is located at a depth of 1,700 m. This sandstone is well developed (up to 24 m thick) on a large part
of the reservoir but is absent in some western and southern parts of the field. The Carboniferous sandstone is of
good quality, with porosities up to 22%, and permeabilities up to 200 mD. The gas/water contact in the
Carboniferous level is at an altitude of 1,330 mss, giving
a closed surface of 130 km2. This contact has been confirmed by pressure measurements and recorded tests.
Well tests and reservoir fluids

Test results from the Carboniferous and lower Devonian reservoirs follow:
Reservoir C10.2
Drillstem tests for existing wells, despite their short durations, show a variation in productivity depending on the well. This output variation depends on
reservoir properties and is an indication of its heterogeneity.
Results show maximum production in undamaged wells, which ranges from
300,000 m3/d on the flanks to 700,000 m3/d in the center of the structure.
Analysis of collected fluids indicates a variation in the gas composition, with
a maximum condensate content of 11.2 m3 / m3 x 106 obtained on Well KB-9Z.
The maximum output of condensate obtained was 1.4 m3/d.
The Devonian
The Devonian reservoirs are located at depths between
2,850 and 3,350 m; they occur as alternate layers of
sandstone and clay. This sandstone has a shallow to
marginal marine origin. The Gedinnian sandstone
(D30 to D10) has a significant lateral extension and is of
average quality, with porosities up to 15% and permeabilities up to 150 mD. The Siegenian sandstone (D40) is of
poorer quality due to diagenesis; porosities are generally
less than 10%. In the Devonian levels (D40, D30, and
D20), the trapping mechanism is complex.
The surface at the closure of D40 is 100 km2 with structural closure of 65 m. However, for reservoirs D40 and
D30-20, the gas column interpreted from the logs rises
above the height of the structure closure. For the D40, the
trapping mechanism is probably mixed, structural, or
stratigraphic/diagenetic. The water/gas contact has been
confirmed at 2,420 mss by tests and recorded pressure
measurements. For the D30-20, trapping is conditioned by
the superimposition of several sandstone sections presenting different contacts (each sandstone structure acts
as an independent reservoir).
Figure 2.50: Structural map of the Krechba reservoir.
38
Hydrocarbon ReservoirsKrechba Reservoir
Development plan and CO2 reinjection
Reservoir D30
Test results indicate a variation in production output. The outputs obtained
from wells in the north of the field have been higher. Some wells have produced appreciable outputs. The variation in output is directly linked to the
properties of the reservoir and indicates its heterogeneity. The water production observed during some tests confirms the complexity of the aquifer in
this reservoir. A high concentration of CO2 (9%), obtained on the outflow of
Well KB-10, was noted.
Carboniferous
106 yr
Age
Mapping unit
Visean
C20
349.5
Major systems
tracts
HST
C15
Tournaisian
C10
LST/TST
HST
362.5
Strunian
Famennian
D70
?
LST
Frasnian
377.4
HST
D65
Givetian
TST
Couvenian
HST
Devonian
380.8
386
D60
Emsian
LST-Early TST
HST
D50
390.4
Siegenian
D40
CO2 reinjection in the Krechba reservoir is part of the overall

project for In Sallah Gas (IGS), which must extract the CO2
from the gas produced in order to meet contractual specifications. CO2 emissions into the atmosphere is not an
option, given that one of the objectives is to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases. Consequently, CO2 has
been injected into the Carboniferous aquifer located to
the north of Krechba. Three injectors (KB-501, KB-502,
and KB-503) have been used for this purpose. Their position optimizes both their injection capacities and the
risks linked to the distribution of CO2 in the reservoir.
LST/TST
Infra barre
Gedinnian
408.5
Silurian
The Devonian and Carboniferous reservoirs will be

developed as part of the first phase of activity in the integrated project for In Salah. The design of treatment
installations allows for compression, which will enable
abandonment pressure to be reduced to 17 bars.
367
396.3
Production in the Krechba reservoir began in 2004 with

an output on the order of 6.6 x 106 m3 /d. Initial production came from the shallower Carboniferous formation
drilled with four horizontal wells. Devonian production,
initially planned for two wells, will be progressively
increased, with 6 wells after 4 years, and will be used to
support the Krechba production plateau. During the
Krechba exploitation period, up to eight horizontal wells
have been planned to exploit the Carboniferous formation, while 11 wells are planned for the deeper Devonian
reservoir.
D30
Late HST
D20
D10
Early HST
LST/HST
HST
Gothlandian (zone of passage)
S20
02152361
Potential reservoir intervals

Not preserved
HST: Highstand systems tract
LST: Lowstand systems tract
TST: Transgressive systems tract
Figure 2.51: Stratigraphic column of the Krechba reservoir.
39
This chapter was written by the following Sonatrach experts:

Youcef AZOUG, Cherif BAKHOUKHE, Abdesslem BAMOUN, Khireddine BEDJAOUI, Fatima BOUCHENAK, Noureddine BOUNOUA, Nadia BOURENNANE,
Nour-eddine BRAHMI, Abdelaoufi DRAOU, Fella GHENNAI, Aziza GRIBI, Mehdi HABIB, Naima KHERFI, Hamid MAMMERI, Farid MEZALI, Zohra NENNOUCHE, Safia YAHIA-OUAHMED.
We thank Mahieddine TOUAMI (Sonatrach) and Abdelkader DELHOMME (Schlumberger) for their revisions to the text.
References
Hassi Messaoud
1. Mazouzi A, Azzouguen A, Bellah S, Hammad K, 2001: Well test analysis of horizontal and deviated wells in the presence of cross-flow phenomenon and
nonuniform depletion application to a field case: Hassi-Messaoud oil field Algeria, CIPC Paper 2001-96, June 12-14, 2001, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
2. Gribi A, Hammouche Z, 1996: tude sdimentologique des grs du Cambro-Ordovicien du Gisement de Hassi Messaoud, Journes scientifiques et techniques de Sonatrach, Alger, Algrie.
3. Azzouguen A, Mazouzi A, Delhomme A, Deghmoum A; Sonatrach, Inc.: Horizontal well performances in Hassi-Messaoud oil field Algeria, SPE-CIM
65496, 4th International Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, 68, November 2000, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Hassi Berkine Sud
1. valuation rgionale (dcembre 1991), BEICIP, Franlab.
2. valuation des champs satellites du bloc 404 du bassin de Berkine/juin1999/ BEICIP, Franlab.
3. Rapport Annuel, 2001, Groupement Berkine.
4. tude du Groupement Berkine; HBNS WAG pilot Test Results and Phase II.
Ourhoud
1. Sedimentological review of the trias argilo-greseux inferieur within the Ourhoud Field, Berkine basin, Algeria, Badley, Ashton, 2005.
2. tude de l'influence du compartimentage sur les schmas de dveloppement cas ELA et cas A, BEICIP, Franlab, 2000.
3. Geological integration of ORD and RKF fields, nloc 406A, Algeria, Rossi, C., Kalin, O. and Elez, J., Facultad de Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad
Complutense de Madrid and Teresa Bartina, T., Alaminos, A. and Salvadores, J., Cepsa E&P, 2005.
4. Mise jour du plan de dveloppement, Organisation Ourhoud, 2004 et rvision 2005.
40
References
Haoud Berkaoui
1. Interprtation sismique, PED 2001.
2. Modle gologique, PED-Schlumberger 2005.
3. tude des accumulations Rgion de lOued Mya, BEICIP, aot 1992.
4. tude sdimentologique et diagntique des rservoirs argileux grseux de la Srie Infrieure du champ de Haoud Berkaoui, CRD mai 1997.
5. Reservoir simulation study, Haoud Berkaoui, SSI 1984.
6. tude de simulation du rservoir du champ de Haoud Berkaoui, PED 1998 et 2002.
Edjeleh
1. Maintien de Pression par Jouver CREPS, aot 1966.
2. tude Prvisionnelle Edjeleh, DGEP, juin 1970.
3. Dveloppement du Champ dEdjeleh (MPDL), PED, juillet 2001.
Hassi Rmel
1. Hamel A: tude gologique des grs triasiques du gisement ptrolier de Hassi Rmel Algrie. Caractrisation, extension et milieux de dpt, Thse de
Doctorat d'Etat, Universit de Besanon, France,1988.
2. Permis d'exploitation du champ de Hassi Rmel, Document interne de Sonatrach.
3. Bencherif D et Boussa M: Optimisation de la production des puits gaziers de Hassi Rmel par acidification. Utilisation de l'interprtation des PLT,
Sonatrach, Division PED, 2004.
Rhourde Nouss
1. tude gologique et structurale du champ de Rhourde Nouss, BEICIP, 1990.
2. tude gologique et structurale du champ de Rhourde Nouss, BEICIP, 2002.
3. tude rservoir du gisement de Rhourde Nouss, SSI, 1995.
4. tude de rservoir du gisement de Rhourde Nouss, Degolyer and MacNaughton, 1997.
Krechba
1. Projet In Salah: Plan de dveloppement initial, Document Sonatrach-BP, 1999.
41
Oued Djerat (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Engravings dating from the Bubaline period, of approximately 9,000 years ago. Masked hunters attempt to capture an ancient form of buffalo
(Pelorovis antiquus). Unlike the Round Heads people, these men are White.
3. Reservoir Definition and Evaluation

Overview
Reservoir ImagingSurface Seismic
Reservoir ImagingBorehole Seismic
18
Borehole Imaging
28
Petrophysics of Tight Sands
67
Standard Logging Measurements and Uncertainty
69
Advanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Measurements
80
Advanced Pressure Measurements
92
Advanced Borehole Sonic Measurements
106
Reservoir DynamicsWell Testing
120
Value of Reservoir Characterization and Modeling
136
Real-Time Decisions Add Value to Oil Field Data
144
Algeria WEC 2007 / Reservoir Definition and Evaluation
Overview
eoscientists are constantly challenged to unravel the distribution of
structural and petrophysical properties of the reservoir in order to
understand and predict the dynamics of the fluids trapped within.
Beginning with information gathered from well logging, geoscientists try to
reconstruct the reservoir first by correlating the events observed locally and
then by structuring the relationship between locally derived information and
seismic and geologic studies performed on a larger scale.
This chapter covers the technologies used to acquire this information, the
interpretation methodologies applied to understand and structure it, and the
recent advances made in both domains as they pertain to Algerian formations. Selected case studies illustrate the importance of these technologies
and methodologies.
The Reservoir Imaging section of this chapter (pages 3.6 to 3.27) covers imaging
from surface seismic and borehole seismic. Surface seismic, described first,
highlights the challenges linked to the acquisition of quality data in land seismic and presents recent advancements brought about by the introduction of
Q-Technology. A pilot acquisition project performed in the Hassi Messaoud
field demonstrates the innovative approach of this technology for gathering
and processing high-resolution data. In addition to providing a good-quality
structural interpretation, the pilot study allowed geoscientists to map the
andesites filling the depressions left in the Hercynian unconformity and identify the complex fault network by means of the ant-tracking technique.
Geoscientists were also able to observe the effects of gas and water injection operations in the pilot zone and the dynamic reservoir qualities near the
faults. On advances in inversion techniques, two case studies are presented.
In these studies, geoscientists delineated the gas reservoirs by following a
workflow that integrated well data with a seismic inversion based on combining and contrasting compressional and shear wave imaging sensitivities.
Overview
With borehole seismic (pages 3.18 to 3.27), the zone around the well
is illuminated to estimate local structural characteristics such as fractures, faults, and their orientation. Several examples of multioffset
VSP are presented that demonstrate the detection and positioning of
faults in the vicinity of a well to assist in a sidetrack operation. An
innovative example of a walkaround VSP study in the CambroOrdovician reservoir of the Oued Zine field is also presented. In this
study, the use of shear waves and their separation in fast and slow
formations allowed the determination of the orientation of a network
of aligned natural fractures that were in agreement with results from
FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager logs recorded in the same well.
sented is a multiwell analysis in an Illizi basin field using

FMI images that indicate the presence of unpredictable
structural changes.
In the next section, borehole imaging technology is discussed (pages

3.28 to 3.65). The FMI tool, OBMI Oil-Base MicroImager, and UBI
Ultrasonic Borehole Imageressential tools in current well evaluation practicesallow for a precise display of the stratigraphy, dip,
layer textures, fractures, and sedimentary facies distribution, and
provide information for determining stress distributions. These applications are presented through several field examples. Borehole
images are contrasted to formation cores to demonstrate their complementarity for mutual calibration and validation. Wells in the
Berkine and TFT fields illustrate the use of OBMI and FMI imaging to
show sedimentary dips and passage of fracture brecchia that are confirmed by core observation.
In fractured and stressed environments, borehole imaging is a particularly efficient tool. A model of conjugate
fracture networks is presented with an evaluation of
their azimuths. An analysis of breakouts exhibited on
UBI images and their relation to the lithology is illustrated in a case from a well in the Timimoun basin. A
remarkable model of stress rotation in the neighborhood
of fractures is also presented from a well in the Hassi
Messaoud field.
Today, borehole imaging enables geoscientists to differentiate sedimentary and structural planes. Crossbed stratifications and bed limits are illustrated, and the modeling of structures in the neighborhood
of wells is described using OBMI data in an example in an Ourhoud
well with a fracture crossing a structural reconstruction. Also pre-
In addition to providing images of the borehole wall, FMI

measurements can yield a physical quantification of the
rock texture by means of a resistivity log or can provide
information about borehole wall geometry with ultrasonic transit time and amplitude logs. In an example
from the Berkine basin, a count of thin beds and an
analysis of texture are presented.
The Petrophysics of Tight Sands section (pages 3.67 to

3.119) tackles well measurements from a petrophysics
perspective and focuses on tight (low-porosity, low-permeability) reservoirs. The importance of potential
reserves trapped in these reservoirs highlights the need
to assess the validity of the information necessary for
their evaluation. First, the limitations and uncertainties
linked to measurements from conventional logging tools
are discussed. Conducting reliable interpretation and quantification of logging data from tight reservoirs represents an enormous challenge; measurements of porosity, fluid saturation, rock acoustic velocities, and formation
fluid pressure and type are all affected by reservoir compaction, well conditions, and the presence of fractures, which constitute the common environment in such reservoirs. The basic measurementsdensity, neutron, gamma
ray, resistivity, and sonicare analyzed and the various uncertainties
described. These uncertainties are also considered within an ELAN integrated interpretation, and an example is used to describe the methodologies.
Practical recommendations are formulated for effective measurement programs that mitigate the limitations of conventional tools in these tight reservoirs. These suggestions concern the domain of new nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), sonic, and pressure measurements and advanced methods
of interpretation. The main characteristics of these advanced measurements
as they pertain to tight reservoirs are presented in three sections.
NMR constitutes a unique measurement in the domain because it responds
only to reservoir fluids. A thorough introduction of the principles of the measurement and its interpretation for porosity, permeability, and fluid characterization are illustrated through several log examples from wells in Algeria.
The use of the CMR-Plus combinable magnetic resonance tool, notably in
tight reservoirs, is described, and log examples from deep wells in the
Berkaoui and Takouazet demonstrate its application for reservoir characterization and fluid identification. Recent developments have also been made
with the MR Scanner tool, which can provide radial investigations of fluid
saturation due to the coexistence of rock native fluids and mud filtrate in the
near-wellbore region of wells drilled with oil-base mud or due to the effects
of hole geometry. The tools high-resolution mode is particularly well suited
in tight sands and for gas detection.
Second, the use of wireline formation testers for several applications ranging
from pressure and fluid mobility profiling to fluid sampling is presented.
Selected case studies from the recently introduced PressureXpress tool as well
as the MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester with the dual packer illustrate
their effectiveness in obtaining adequate answers in tight reservoirs. In exam-
Overview
ples from exploration wells in the Hassi Guettar west and Takouazet areas,
complex positioning of the oil/water contact is observed with the
PressureXpress tool in one well, while efficient fluid sampling is achieved in a
fractured zone via the combined use of the MDT dual packer and borehole
images in another well. An example from a development well in the TFT field
shows, beyond saturated oil and gas zones, the presence of a gas/oil transition
zone due to reservoir depletion and movement of the gas/oil contact.
several exploration wells. Finally, the experience

acquired on wells in the Rhourde Nouss field is presented. In addition to quantifying flow parameters, integrated well testing technology, as applied in the Hassi
Messaoud and TFT fields, is discussed to demonstrate
how it can be used in the recognition of various geologic
models.
The Advanced Borehole Sonic Measurements section (pages 3.106 to

3.119) discusses the use of Sonic Scanner measurements. This tools
advanced applications, not only for the petrophysist but also for the geophysicist and the geomechanic, are illustrated via data recently acquired in
an exploration well drilled in a tight reservoir of the Bahar El-Hammar field.
The effects of the large density of fractures and the concentrations of the
stress field around the well are observed through the strong anisotropy of
dipole flexural shear waves. The azimuthal direction of the fracture plane and
maximal horizontal stress, and the nature of the dominant mechanism of the
anisotropy, are determined through processing that takes into account the
dispersion curves of these waves and the geometry of the wellbore derived
from UBI data. In well sections that are not very damaged, Stoneley waves
allow quantification of the effective permeability and the aperture of fractures intersected by the well. This analysis provides information about the
intervals of interest for productivity purposes and aids in the optimal design
of a completion program. The section also describes advanced methods for
dealing with the geomechanics of the welltechniques that can surely be
applied to numerous formations in Algeria.
The technologies and interpretation methodologies

described in this chapter are to be considered within an
integrated, mutually complementary framework that
serves geoscientists in their efforts to reach a comprehensive characterization of the reservoir that can be
used to design optimal reservoir development strategies
to enhance performance and minimize risk. For instance,
characterization of natural fracture networks in tight
reservoirs can be effectively conducted seamlessly from
the reservoir scale, using Q-Land and VSP acquisitions,
to the vicinity of the well, using sonic logging and borehole images. Data integration, interpretation, modeling,
and simulation are performed within the Petrel software
workflow. An example of the Petrel workflow used to
construct a reservoir model for the south Hassi R'mel
field is presented in this chapter. The model integrates
structural and petrophysical data with sedimentological
information to generate facies and property maps populating the interwell reservoir volumes.
Well testing, covered in the Reservoir Dynamics section (pages 3.120 to 3.133),
reflects upon the evaluations covered by the characterization technologies
discussed in the preceding sections and brings together the various parameters controlling flow in the well drainage area. The interpretation of pressure
responses can be efficiently and effectively conducted when combined with
information derived from various characterization technologies. The problems encountered when acquiring data in tight sand reservoirs are recounted
first. They can arise from problems inherent to operational management such
as well cementing and completion as illustrated via case studies from
The chapter concludes with a section on the critical role

IT technologies play in enabling appropriate access to
data and timely decision-making by experts. The benefits reaped by operators from real-time systems and
processes in terms of performance efficiency, cost containment, and safety and environment improvements are
tangible. The section clarifies the key elements of a
real-time solution.
Oil and gas companies are responding to ever-growing

demand by focusing their E&P efforts on exploring deeper,
more complex reservoirs and enhancing production from
existing assets. Accelerated production can be achieved
by identifying bypassed oil and gas and by optimal positioning of production and injector wells. Reservoir fluid
movement can be proactively monitored over time to
take remedial action before it affects production. In all
these applications, the geophysicist, geologist, and
reservoir engineer depend on having very high-resolution, repeatable data that can be fine-tuned to a specific
reservoir objective.
Seismic technology plays a key role in minimizing risk and
uncertainty during every stage of E&P activity. In addition
to generating structural images of the subsurface for well
placement, seismic data have become indispensable for
monitoring reservoir properties such as fluids, temperature, and pressure changes, as well as for rock characterization and identification of pore fluid types. The seismic
data quality enabling these applications onshore has
recently been boosted in resolution, reliability, and
repeatability thanks to a recent and significant leap in
technology.1,2,3 To best understand the benefits brought
about by this new technology, one must also appreciate
the challenges of acquiring quality data on land.
Challenges in acquisition
and processing of land data
The principle of acquiring seismic data on land is simple.
A controlled-frequency sourcea vibrating plate on a
truck or an impulse source such as dynamitesends
acoustic energy into the earth. Electromagnetic sensors
or geophones on the surface record the traveling
acoustic energy as it is reflected and refracted upward.
This energy is converted into an electrical impulse and
displayed as a seismic trace. Each trace consists of one
recording corresponding to a single source-receiver pair.
The measurement from a controlled-frequency source
called signalis a true representation of the actual
reflection that corresponds to changes in rock structure
and characteristics such as lithology and porosity. All other measurements

recorded by the receiver are considered noise. The goal of seismic acquisition
and processing is to minimize the noise while maintaining the signal.
In land acquisition the following types of noise are observed:
Coherent noise, which is unwanted seismic coherent energy that shows a
consistent character from one seismic phase to another. Along with the signal, land sources typically transmit horizontal energy, which travels at or
near the surface and therefore does not provide information about the reservoir itself.
Noncoherent noise, which is noise typically from nonseismic sources such
as oilfield installations or wind.
Undersampling (aliasing) noise, which occurs when the sampling rate of the
signal is inadequate to capture the higher frequencies in the signal.
Information is lost and thus incorrectly represented. This produces the
aliasing effect, which can occur in both the time and space domains.
Absorption of higher frequencies, which happens as the signal passes
through the earth. This attenuation is most prominent for high frequencies
such that the true nature of the signal may be obscured.
Subsurface (interbed) multiples, as a result of multiple reflections of
acoustic energy within the subsurface layers.
Conventional acquisition employs spatially distributed arrays of geophones to
combat the noise. The basic assumption underlying this technique is that the
signal travels as plane waves in the vertical direction whereas the noise travels
in horizontal directions. For filtering, the output of all traces from the geophone array is summed to increase the signal level and attenuate the noise.
In reality, however, this does not produce optimum results because topography, heterogeneities of the ground, and variations in the coupling generate socalled perturbations that reduce the efficiency of the noise attenuation.
Instead, side effects such as substantial attenuation of high frequencies and
sampling artifacts are observed, which may degrade the signal. This effect is
known as the array effect.
While useful results can be obtained from various forms of processing, the basic
integrityhigh resolution and high signal-to-noise ratioof the raw seismic
dataset determines the ultimate quality of the reservoir description. The challenges of land seismic data acquisition are particularly acute as the offshore
(marine) seismic data do not exhibit such highly irregular geometries, complex
azimuthal distribution, and poor signal-to-noise ratios. Therefore, WesternGeco
began in the early 1990s to take a fresh look at how data are acquired and
processed in order to overcome the problems associated with existing land seismic technology.
Quality data acquisition,

quality data processing
Sensors
Receiver lines 200 m apart
1,824 receivers per line
Digital signals
from individual
sensors
Source line
Sources
Receiver line
Field
acquisition
system
Digital
group forming
Hard disk/
processing
Figure 3.1: The Q-Land acquisition and processing system. A line of receivers is laid out perpendicular to a line of sources, and every source point is recorded by every receiver point. The example
shows 10 receiver lines that are 200 m [656 ft] apart, with 1,824 point receivers per receiver line that
result in 18,240 live receivers (top). In digital group forming, the seismic traces from individual geophones have perturbation corrections made to each geophone. Data-adaptive filters are then applied
over a number of traces to suppress coherent noise. An output trace from a number of sensors can
The Q-Land system integrates the single-sensor acquisition with a new processing methodology that enables
the system to acquire unprecedented quality data. In the
Q-Land acquisition geometry, one source line and one
receiver line that are orthogonal to each other form a
cross-spread. These are repeated spatially within the
acquisition area (Fig. 3.1). These cross-spreads provide
single-fold subsets of the continuous wavefield, which is
finely sampled to prevent aliasing of the coherent noise.
Then, sophisticated algorithms are applied using the digital group forming (DGF) processing technique. DGF is
completed in three main steps:
1. The first step is perturbation correction, applied to
each geophone before the seismic traces are grouped.
2. In the second step, noise is suppressed with dataadaptive filters based on the Alternating Projections
Onto Convex Sets (APOCS) method.
3. In the final step, spatial resampling is performed on the
output data according to the desired group interval.
With DGF, any output sampling is possible down to the
granularity of the single sensors themselves, whereas
analog arrays, once laid out in the field, have almost no
flexibility to adjust the output sampling interval.
then be produced at the desired spatial sampling.
Change in acquisition and processing philosophy

Extensive early research indicated that the dominant effects on the signal-tonoise ratio were the result of variations in source and receiver statics, coupling
of the geophone to the ground, geophone tilt, amplitude and phase distortion,
and the position of the source and sensor. Errors in static, which had the largest
impact on the quality of the signal, were caused by elevation and velocity differences in the surface layer. These errors typically occurred with a conventional
analog receiver group. To overcome this, a new acquisition and processing
philosophy, the Q-Land system, was developed. It is based on point sources
and point receivers, and the signal is digitized by each sensor at the recording
location. To avoid spatial aliasing in the shot domain and properly sample the
spurious ground-roll signal, a fine spatial sampling is implemented through a
spatial array with a minimum of 20,000 live channelsmore than five times
the number used in conventional systems. Recording seismic data through
point-receivers rather than analog receiver arrays that average out signals from
hard-wired geophones has several advantages:
better static solution
improved velocity estimation
amplitude preservation
bandwidth retention
noise attenuation.
Q-Land pilot in a challenging geological

and geophysical environment
Sonatrach was one of the early adopters of the Q-Land
technology through a pilot feasibility cube survey carried
out in 2002 over zones 2 and 4 of the Hassi Messaoud oil
field.2,4 Covering an area of 2,000 km2 [772 sq miles] and
with more than 1,000 wells drilled since its discovery in
1956, Hassi Messaoud remains the largest producing oil
field in Algeria. Considered a seismically challenging area,
it has strong Hercynian erosion directly on top of the reservoir units, faulting and fracturing of the reservoir units, and
fluvial deposition of the reservoir units (see the corresponding geological and reservoir characteristics in Chapter 1,
pages 1.11 to 1.15, and Chapter 2, pages 2.4 to 2.7). The
fault pattern controls the architecture of the reservoir
units. In addition the paleotopography created by incised
valleys is often filled with Triassic eruptive rocks.
From a seismic perspective, the small velocity and density contrast at the top of the reservoir and within the
reservoir units, and the influence of strong interbed multiples obscure the seismic signal, whereas the volcanic
rocks that fill the paleovalleys of the Hercynian unconformity cause signal attenuation, particularly of the higher
frequencies, which results in a poor signal-to-noise ratio.
On the other hand, because of the rapid lithological variations and fault compartmentalization, full-field reservoir
characterization from the well data alone is difficult.
With these challenges and other problems related to
boosting or maintaining production from horizontal wells,
an accurate reservoir description was critical.
From previous seismic acquisition, the maximum usable
frequency obtained from the target reservoir was typically
around 40 Hz to 50 Hz. This translates into a vertical resolution of greater than 40 m [131 ft], which is inadequate
for mapping the reservoir units with confidence and
poses a challenge when trying to tie in with higher resolution well data.
Apparent acoustic impedance mapping

Figure 3.2 shows a direct comparison over the same section of the reservoir
between the Q-Land dataset (final processing) and a high-resolution 2D line
acquired over the survey area. With the much higher resolution displayed by
the Q-Land data, it is possible to pick out the Hercynian unconformity and
internal reservoir architecture (ID and D1 units) and to observe that they
reflect the acutely erosional surface of the unconformity. These features were
not apparent on the 2D line; only the top and the base of the reservoir were
shown, although these, upon closer inspection, did not match the high-resolution Q-Land data.
After depth conversion by way of a linear transform calibrated on a well log
densityacoustic impedance (AI) crossplot, the Q data were transformed to an
apparent impedance volume (Fig. 3.3). These data were still essentially seismic datanot a geological modelthat served, in a 3D display, as a guide
away from the wells as well as showed channelization, gas front, and opacity,
indicating high-porosity trends by playing with thresholds (orange bit). This
well-calibrated, seismic-guided porosity model honored the well data but
showed a stronger, more uniform seismic influence away from the wells.
Survey characteristics
S
A pilot survey with the Q-Land system was initiated to

help address these geophysical and geological challenges. Integration of borehole seismic data and surface
seismic data was envisioned at the onset of the project,
and the acquisition parameters were optimized through
presurvey planning and testing.
Results of surface seismic processing testing were compared with the well data at key stages in the processing
sequence, so that the processing parameters were optimized to tie the final seismic data to the wells. The bandwidth obtained6 Hz to 80 Hzwas nearly double than
that of previously recorded high-resolution 2D seismic and
led to a higher spatial resolution (Fig. 3.2). At a frequency
of 80 Hz with interval velocities of about 4,500 m/s
[14,760 ft/s], this equates to a thickness resolution on the
order of 15 m [46 ft]a degree of resolution never before
achieved in this geological environment.
N
Q-Land
Hercynian
ID
D1
R2
0
-10
100 m
-20
S
Well A
Power, dB
Q-Land seismic was acquired over an area covering

44 km2 [17 sq miles], with 20,000 sensors per km2.
Borehole geophysical data included measurements of
zero-offset VSP, a two-dimensional walkaway VSP with
154 geophone positions in the borehole using the VSI
Versatile Seismic Imager, and sonic measurements using
the DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager. The Q-Borehole integrated borehole seismic system (see page 3.22) aided in
well-driven, surface-seismic processing to ensure that all
steps in the processing sequence, from group forming
through final stack migration, were optimally calibrated.
Well A
-30
-40
High-resolution 2D
0
20
Frequency, Hz
40
Signal
Noise
60
80
100
120
Hercynian
ID
D1
R2
100 m
Figure 3.2: Acoustic impedance cross sections from high-resolution 2D (below) and Q-Land data
(above) through one of the wells encompassed by the data. The level of detail, achieved with the
higher spectral bandwidth (up to 80 Hz) and high signal-to-noise ratio of the acquired data (see plot
in insert), provides a superior interpretation of Q seismic. The Hercynian unconformity is shown, as
are reservoir zones and possible sand bodies. Note that the interpretation also ties the well data.
perform petroacoustic analysis (wells and seismic)

resample the seismic attributes into the cell framework
populate the interwell cells
evaluate predictability and estimate against the
measurement
conduct 3D seismic property analysis and geocellular
analysis
perform lithology discrimination
map the rock properties (porosity and permeability)
characterize faults and fractures
generate a distance-to-fault map.
Figure 3.3: Apparent porosity cube. This 3D visualization shows random tracks within the inverted
Q seismic volumes. Colors range from black ( = 2%) to red ( = 12%). Geobodies were enlarged to
show possible channelization, gas front, and opacity indicating high porosity (orange). Note that this
is not a geological model; rather it is essentially data after inversion and porosity transform.
Several advanced products, including maps of the

Hercynian unconformity and andesite, resulted from this
processing. Figure 3.4 shows the map of the andesites
that fill the depressions left in the Hercynian unconformity.
Using a global residual correction (infinity radius to spread
Extracting more value through comprehensive processing

A comprehensive processing workflow was designed and executed to further
determine the impact of Q seismic on reservoir characterization. It included
better structural definition, more precise lithological discrimination within the
reservoir units, mapping of the rock properties (porosity, saturation, and fractures, for example), hydrocarbon distribution, fault delineation, and fault-fracture permeability. The processing chain followed these steps:
refine the structural analysis and horizon interpretation
enrich any desired phase during sampling
conduct time-to-depth conversion
build a geocellular framework
upscale the well logs into a cell framework
Figure 3.5: High acoustic impedance below the Hercynian unconformity

reveals possible channel architecture often associated with glacial
paleo outwash fans.
-3,060
-3,080
-3,100
-3,120
-3,140
-3,160
-3,180
-3,200
-3,220
-3,240 m
Well B
Figure 3.4: Hercynian unconformity final depth map (left) and andesite infill mapping (right).
the error) to snap the depth-converted horizons to

Sonatrach stratigraphic markers yielded a more precise
picture of the paleovalley. This DC method was subsequently used to build the model. One further independent
consistency check was made to determine whether the
wells located in the paleovalley were covered by
andesites, and it was found to be the case in at least two
of the locations shown. Once confidence was gained in
the structural model, attributes throughout the reservoir in
the AI volume highlighted areas of high acoustic contrast
immediately beneath the Hercynian unconformity. These
areas were identified as possible channel architecture
often associated with glacial paleo outwash fans (Fig. 3.5).
Q seismic provides a clearer picture of the top reservoir surface and paleovalley definition.
Sands near a gas injector well
Well D
One region, analyzed with Petrel workflow tools by varying the thresholds, revealed a low AI/density geobody
near injector Well C (Fig. 3.6). It was assumed that this
geobody was related to gas migrating in two directions:
toward the north and Well D (API of 6,000 as a result of
gas injection in Well C) and toward the west of the Ra
reservoir (R2 grid). This result suggested that gas-bearing
sands were present and could be mapped via seismic AI.
Well A
15.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
With the same method, geobodies in the R2 reservoir (first

80 m) were also isolated via high-impedance thresholding
of AI > 14 AMO (Fig. 3.7). In fact, a large-scale seismic
cluster, which intercepted more than three wells, was
identified and corresponded to lithological, fluid, porosity,
or permeability features captured by well data (core, log,
etc). For this data, the higher seismic impedance seemed
to concentrate on the northern part (confirmed by the average seismic AI map) and the surrounding water injector
Wells E and F at the base of these two wells. If the higher
AI was related to a brine effect, it suggested that the
reservoir was highly compartmentalized since the water
did not extend far beyond these two wells.
9.0
8.0
7.0
Figure 3.6: A low acoustic impedance region around injector Well C. The highlighted geobody could
be related to gas migrating in two directions: toward the north and Well D (API of 6,000 as a result
of gas injection on Well C) and toward the west of the Ra reservoir (R2 grid). This picture was generated by using Petrel workflow tools and changing the thresholds.
tinuities in the seismic data that indicated the presence of faults. In addition,
distance-to-fault (D2F) attributes were generated from filtered sets of faults
from the ant-tracking cube and mapped onto the 3D geocellular grid. A strong
inverse relationship could be observed between core permeability and the distance to faults on about 70% of the wells.
Extraction of faults and fractures

To assess the relationship between the porosity and fault
proximity generally associated with a higher fracture density, several seismic attributes were computed. Among
the edge-enhancing attributes are variance, chaos, dip,
and deviation that highlight discontinuities. The anttracking technique was used to map faults and fractures.2 The algorithm mimics the behavior of ants when
they find a common path to food (Fig. 3.8). In this case, the
focus of the ant-tracking approach was to look for discon-
Well E
The D2F attribute provided insight into zones that are highly fractured but
could not indicate whether those fractures and small-scale faults were actually
enhancing or deteriorating permeability. To answer this question, grid cells
were extracted in the vicinity of seismic faults with larger length (intercepting
both the basement and the Hercynian unconformity). Seismic AI was then
mapped onto these cells to determine whether seismic impedance could indicate the plumbing nature of each faultwhether sealing or draining. If the
cell-average AI was higher in the vicinity of a fault, it might suggest that the
fractures were acting as flow barriers due to cementation with pyrite or shale.
Well F
Average seismic AI
15.0
14.5
14.0
13.5
13.0
12.5
12.0
11.5
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
Figure 3.7: A thresholding of higher acoustic impedance (AI > 14.2 AMO) in the R2 reservoir (first 80 m). The geobodies are concentrated in the northern part (confirmed by average
seismic AI map) and surround water injector Wells E and F at their base.
10
Figures 3.9a, 3.9b, and 3.9c show the AI mapped along the ant-tracking contours. Conversely, if the AI was lower in the vicinity of a fault, the proportion
of open fractures filled with fluid having a lower density than rock was probably higher. This could suggest that tectonically induced fractures were
enhancing the hydrocarbon drainage. Using this application of seismic interpretation could have a potential impact on field development.
Enhanced attribute
Combined acoustic impedance and distance to faults attributes

15.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Ant-tracking
Figure 3.9a: Seismic acoustic impedance along major discontinuities.
Fault attributes
Figure 3.8: Ant-tracking workflow.
Structural geology editor,

interaction with extracted
surfaces, and comparison
with seismic data and
interpreted horizons
High acoustic impedance along faults

Interpreted faults
Conclusion
The most obvious benefit of using single-sensor seismic data in the Hassi
Messaoud field is structural. Indeed, the resolution achieved with Q seismic
showed a significant improvement over 2D and decimated 3D seismic, and
these improvements helped geologists interpret the horizons more confidently.
Faults were also better identified and defined.
Within the reservoir, changes in lithology (the proportion of shale and silt in
consolidated sand) did not generate an acoustic signature large enough on the
seismic and were therefore mapped using well data alone. However, above the
reservoir sandstone, andesite infill could be predicted through seismic classification.
Seismic brought improvement to effective porosity mapping between wells as it
reduced uncertainty in virgin areas. Overall, however, the gains regarding porosity, lithology discrimination, and quantitative permeability were marginal. After
careful petroelastic analysis on the well scale, this was attributed to the physical nature of the actual rock physics. There was not enough acoustic impedance
contrast within the reservoir to predict rock properties directly from seismic.
On the other hand, the weak acoustic response generated by lithological contrasts in this area of the Hassi Messaoud favored the extraction of fluid saturation information from the seismic data. In short, seismic acoustic impedance
was more sensitive to fluid saturation than to the intrinsic nature of the rock.
Fluid effects were clearly visible on the seismic (low-density gas lit up the sand
while there were indications of fluid substitution near the water injectors).
Finally, seismic proved to be an ideal tool for locating highly fractured zones
(in the vicinity of seismically derived faults) and to indicate whether they were
open or sealing faults. The highly constrained nature of the ant-tracking output (filtered based on geometry discrimination) suggested a commensurate
15.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Flow barriers
Figure 3.9b: High acoustic impedance along major discontinuities, which

is related to fracture networks that may act as flow barriers.
Low acoustic impedance along faults

15.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Fractures enhancing
permeability
Figure 3.9c: Low acoustic impedance along major discontinuities, which

is related to fracture networks that may enhance permeability.
reliability for estimating faults and fractures. In view of

its evident quality, it was reasonable to assume that low
impedancecombined with proximity to seismically
derived faultscan indicate potential drilling targets.
11
Q-LandThe Evolution of a Technique
The Q-Land single-sensor, integrated seismic acquisition

and processing system prototype by WesternGeco was
mobilized to the Hassi Messaoud in 2002 to acquire
the worlds first point source/receiver 3D survey for
Sonatrach. In 2006, the latest version of the Q-Land system was used in Algeria to acquire exploration data for
BP in the southeastern Illizi, Bourarhet, and Hassi Mat
Mat concessions. Since its first use in Algeria in 2002,
the Q-Land system has evolved into a robust methodology
for taking technically superior data and delivering it in
ways that meet the needs of seismic exploration,
appraisal, and development surveys. Progress has been
made in three key areas: hardware development, data
processing, and interpretation techniques.
Hardware
From the 9,600-channel beta system used on the first
Hassi Messaoud survey, progress has been made on virtually every component of the Q-Land system toward a
viable, high-channel system of 20,000 channels at 2 ms (or 30,000 channels at

4 ms). Adoption of the Schlumberger geophone accelerometer (GAC) in an
integrated electronics package (iDMC) allows the acquisition of high-fidelity
vibroseis data. The central system uses a state-of-the-art Sun workstation
linked to a series of large disk arrays and a multinode recording/data processing truck similar in scale to a medium-sized data processing center capable of
quality control and storage of data volumes up to 2 TB in a 24-hr period.
Data processing
The digital group forming (DGF) process is the major differentiator of the
Q-Land system over previous-generation technology. By combining static,
dynamic, and spatial corrections on the pre- and postcorrelated data, the raw
seismic measurements (RSM) are faithfully converted into DGF data with
excellent suppression of both coherent and ambient noise without compromising the true relative amplitude of the signal. Perturbations are corrected,
and then spatial filters, designed by the proprietary Alternating Projection
Onto Convex Sets (APOCS) process, provide coherent noise suppression and
spatial anti-alias filters, reducing RSM to DGF data of sufficient sampling and
signal-to-noise ratio for the onward needs of the signal.
Laying out receiver lines (right) and planting geophones (left) in a desert environment. Geophones need to be planted, rather than simply laid on the ground, to ensure good coupling
with the earth and to reduce wind noise. The geophones are so sensitive that a gentle wind will cause noise on the recorded traces. This survey featured a 72-geophone-per-group
layout in a trapezoid pattern. A more typical layout is 6 or 12 geophones in a straight line.
12
Five vibroseis units at a shotpoint in a Middle East survey. These source vehicles are examples of the Desert Explorer family of land seismic vibrators developed by WesternGeco.
The proprietary design includes safer walkways, a desert-light kit and a zero-leak refueling system. These and other improvements provide safety and reliability and minimize environmental impact. A source vehicle with an articulated chassis, allowing stable operation in rough terrain, is shown on the right.
DGF provides a solution analogous to the enhanced P-wave processing

methodology offered by state-of-the-art multicomponent acquisition systems.
The primary difference is that the rigorous Q-Land design process ensures
adequate sampling of the noise in a spatially contiguous sense in the presence of direct, subhorizontal, and scattered arrivals without respect to the
mode or phase. The process has been used successfully with typical Middle
East and North African data.
Techniques
Overall, DGF has not changed much from the 2002 Hassi Messaoud pilot survey
acquired at a 5-m spatial sampling, but significant change for the better has
been achieved in the area of macrogeometry, which is comparable to the conventional template used in previous survey designs for signal capture. In 2002,
carpet geometry was adopted whereby the individual shots were recorded
into a geophone patch 200 m and 20/40 elements wide. This led to perfect shot
gather spatial sampling but reduced the macrogeometry to virtually an inline
template. Clearly, the aspirations of different targets and advanced reservoir
characterization techniques would require a more radical approach.
At this point the actual spacing of the source and receiver

macrolines is independent of the requirements of the signal. Final post-PreSTM fold is determined by the requirements of the survey: sparse (approximately 500 m) for
exploration work on deeper targets and dense (approximately 200 m) for development work or shallower targets. These techniques have been validated on numerous
production surveys since 2002, including projects in
Algeria, where the actual carpet of phones every 5 m for
the whole surface area of the Hassi Messaoud field was
replaced by a virtual carpet of source-and-receiver pair
traces in the cross-spread domain. This revolutionary
approach to survey geometry also implements the VIVID
technique, whereby exploration class surveys are recycled into development class variants by interleaving a
second pass of a similar survey with offset source-andreceiver lines.
2 TB (terabyte) of data represent the size in IBM IEEE data of a recording

from 3,000 VP using a 12-s long, 5-s listen time sweeps from 20,000
receiver channels, which are sampled at 2 ms (uncorrelated data). For
Traditionally, the template is designed to balance the conflicting requirements

of noise, fold, and footprint efficiency, depth and geometry of the target,
and data usage. The Q-Land design conveniently reduces the last three issues,
since noise is dealt with in DGF.
comparison, a conventional survey using the same parameters but analog geophone arrays and correlated recording, would record just above
1% of the Q-Land data (or 15 GB).
13
Advances in processing: using

compressional and shear waves to
better image gas sand reservoirs
Discipline
Petroleum
geology
Stratigraphy
Tectonic
history
Surface
Challenge
Structure
depth
Reflectors
converters
Anisotropy
scattering
Noise
attenuation
Integrated
survey design
Creating a logical workflow

In Algeria, the delineation and characterization of tight
gas sand reservoirs is of particular importance in light of
increased interest in gas production. Seismic technology
can provide imaging information about the reservoir
structure and attributes such as fractures and faults.
WesternGeco and Schlumberger generated case studies
to assist Sonatrach and its associates in optimizing gas
production from gas sands. The following cases focus on
the application of offshore-tested techniques that rely on
adding the power of shear seismic waves to the traditionally used P-waves to achieve better imaging and characterization of onshore gas reservoirs.
An integrated workflow from design to data processing
is essential to preserving the attributes of the seismic
wavefield and to attenuating the noise to generate a
good signal-to-noise ratio. Figure 3.10 shows the key elements of such an integrated workflow where surface
seismic is integrated with borehole seismic and well
data. The examples included here adhere to this philosophy for better quantification of reservoir parameters.
These case studies are based on conventionally acquired
data using geophone arrays. The introduction of point
sourcepoint receiver techniques with the Q-Land system offers improvements of the resolution through
enhanced signal fidelity (true amplitude, true phase
acquisition) and noise filtering.
Case study 1: Imaging through gas

Structural imaging of thrusted gas reservoirs is problematic with P-waves alone because of attenuation and scattering. Converted shear waves are less affected by the
presence of gas than are P-waves, and this fact is used
to image complex gas-invaded zones. This case study,
based on a 2D-3C survey, confirms that PS data can help
recover structural delineation across gas in formations
above a thrusted clastic reservoir.4
Geologic setting, seismic

challenges, and data acquisition
From the reservoir, a Cambro-Ordovician sandstone layer
more than 2,000 m below the surface, gas was leaking
into a thrust structure (Fig. 3.11).5 Intense tectonic movement resulted in faulting and fracturing of the reservoir
14
Technology
Surface seismic
Borehole
seismic (VSP)
Data
acquisition
P- or/and S-wave
anisotropy
Data
processing
Fracture delineation
and reservoir
structure imaging
Well-driven seismic
Inversion for
reservoir parameters
Solution
Interpretation
Figure 3.10: Workflow for seismic characterization of fractured tight gas sands.
and the seal, which allowed gas to migrate into the overburden. Due to the
presence of gas and the complex geology, the images generated from
PP-wave data are not always of sufficient quality for interpretation.
Based on offshore examples, converted waves were expected to supply better imaging through gas.6,7 Thus, in addition to a dense 3D P acquisition, a 2D3C survey was designed: five lines and two intersections focusing on the two
main gas traps. Data recorded from single-point receivers comprising one vertical and two horizontal components were processed. The raw field data
showed substantial levels of wind noise associated with ground roll and surface multiples. Processing with coherent and random noise filters successfully
attenuated most of the noise.
Quaternary
Cretaceous
Hercynian unc.
Carboniferous
Gas leaks
Devonian
Gas reservoir
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Basement
Figure 3.11: Geologic setting.
500
850
1,200
1,550
1,900
2,250
2,600
2,950
3,300
3,650
4,000 m/s
Figure 3.12: Shear interval velocity model before well data integration (left) and after (right). The new model was built by populating the geologic layers with shear sonic velocities.
The arrow indicates the well location.
Well data integration in

converted-wave processing
Vp
1,000
5,500
Vs
1,000
5,500
Vp
Vs
Figure 3.13: PS stack before well data integration into migration (left) and after (right).
Well data, VSP data, and sonic measurements were used

to constrain the existing velocity models. The main
improvement was the use of shear sonic logs to build a
more accurate shear-wave velocity model (Fig. 3.12).
Migration with the new model produced enhancements
at target level of the final stacked image (see the region
noted by the arrow in Fig. 3.13).
Using horizon matching between PP-wave stack and
PS-wave stack and well data, a Vp/Vs (gamma zero) field
was derived. This field, used in the PS migration, also
allowed a squeezing of the PS stacks to PP-wave traveltime.
Comparison of the P-wave stacks and PS-wave stacks
confirmed the results that converted waves can produce
better stacks than PP-waves in the shallow layers and
gas-invaded areas (Fig. 3.14). In shallow layers, it is difficult to observe continuous events on PP-wave stacks,
whereas PS-wave stacks show more continuity.
Compressional (Vp) and shear (Vs) sonic logs are shown in the middle track.
Figure 3.14: A 2D extract of the 3D PP cube (left) is compared to the merger of the 3D PP and 2D radial PS data (right). The integration of PP and PS data improves shallow
resolution and reservoir delineation below gas.
15
Well 3
Well 2
Well 1
Tournaisian clays
x 1,800
Tournaisian
Tournaisian clays
Visean
Tournaisian sandstones C103
?
N
E
Tournaisian clays
x 1,800
Tournaisian sandstones C103
Figure 3.15: Autotracking the base reservoir using relative acoustic impedance volume indicates a complicated channel system and the presence of a deltaic fan.
This study showed that converted shear-wave data can

image structures within a deep gas-invaded zone where
PP-waves fail to produce interpretable stacks. Well and
VSP data enabled the building of more accurate velocity
models and contributed to improved imaging.
sands.8,9 Gas sands and shale have approximately the same AI (soft) but have
good separation in Vp/Vs space (2.0 for shales and 1.66 for gas sands). The relative AI volume was also found to be appropriate for mapping the base reservoir. Rendering AI and Vp/Vs onto the structure mapped using the relative AI
volume showed the presence of a complex channel system and deltaic fan with
associated prospects.
Case study 2: Mapping sand

channel boundaries
Erg Chouiref is a gas field located in the Grand Erg/Ahnet
basin 430 km to the southwest of Hassi Rmel (see
Chapter 1, page 1.3). The field is immediately north of the
Bejouen gas field and close to the In Salah gas pipeline.
Three wells have been drilled. Two (Well 1 and Well 3)
have hit gas-charged channel sands 26 to 42 ft [8 to 13 m]
thick. The second well (Well 2) did not encounter the reservoir. The purpose of the inversion project was to determine
the areal extent of the reservoir using a recently acquired
158-sq-mi [405-km2] seismic survey and to get an indication of the type of pore fill (brine or gas).
Rock physics analysis suggested that a combination of
acoustic impedance and Vp/Vs was required to separate
a dominantly shale-prone facies from brine and gas
16
Workflow
The study used a five-stage approach:
Integrated sonic and density log editing and time conversion of well sonic
data to produce reliable impedance logs in the time domain for the optimal
well-to-seismic tie required for calibrating the seismic-to-well response.
Petroacoustic analysis carried out on well data to identify attributes suitable
for lithology and pore-fill discrimination. A theoretical rock physics model
(interactive, random pore-shape model, which is a modification of the KusterToksoz model10) was used to reconstruct the missing shear velocity logs over
the zone of interest for Well 1 and Well 3. The reconstructed Vp, Vs, and density at well Well 2 using the rock physics model showed good agreement
with the measured logs, considering the limited data available. The calibrated
petroelastic model of Well 2 was subsequently used to reconstruct the
missing shear logs of the other two wells (Well 1 and Well 3).
Summary
The detailed interpretation enabled identification and accurate mapping of the

zone of interest. Furthermore, the interpretation was essential for validating
the results of each phase of the reservoir characterization study. Figure 3.16
shows an intrareservoir map obtained by isopaching 16 ms up from the base
reservoir. The attribute displayed is absolute AI and suggests the presence of
a complex channel system and deltaic fan. The Vp/Vs random track shown
below the map suggests that the channel and deltaic fan are gas charged. In
addition, a prospective faulted reservoir is revealed to the north.
The increasing demand for delineating complex oil and

gas reservoirs and the need for detailed reservoir characterization requires tools that provide high-resolution 3D
information about the reservoirs. Although the only tool
capable of providing a 3D data volume is 3D surface seismic technology, data from conventional surface seismic
acquisition often show acquisition artifacts such as aliasing and perturbations, which may render inversion for
rock physics properties impossible. Q-Land seismic acquisition and processing technology meets these requirements and provides nonaliased recording of the signal
and efficient attenuation of the noise while preserving
the signal and providing improved velocity estimation as
well as frequency bandwidth retention. The accurate estimation of the compressional and shear wave properties
at higher resolution allows inversion to acoustic impedance and spatially corrected interpretation for rock
physics parameters. The superior quality of Q-Land data
enables reservoir engineers and drillers to more accurately
place wells and plan the production of reservoirs.
AVO feasibility and inversion to verify whether the prestack data were suitable for AVO inversion. Later, AVO inversion was performed on prestack data
to obtain reflectivity contrasts in S- and P-wave.
Wavelet processing and inversion to relative impedance via amplitude inversion of the full offset stack data and the reflectivities generated through
AVO inversion. The relative AI volume was found to provide excellent mapping
of the base reservoir. The base reservoir can be autotracked as a zero crossing throughout the entire survey to result in a base reservoir map (Fig. 3.15).
Integrated calibration of relative impedance to absolute impedance.
Absolute P impedance and S impedance were generated from relative
impedances by integration with background models from well data. A Vp/Vs
ratio volume was subsequently generated from seismically derived absolute
impedance data.
N
Acoustic impedance mapped to intrareservoir
Gas-filled channel
Well 3
Well 1
Well 2
Vp/Vs ratio
1,400
1,500
Base reservoir
1,600
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
4 km
Figure 3.16: The top map is absolute acoustic impedance, and the bottom section shows the Vp/Vs ratio along the random track.
17

OKJ-50
OKJ-40
T2
T1
Andesite
Borehole seismic delineates the subsurface structure and characterizes the

physical properties of the reservoir surrounding the well. It helps provide
answers to questions and interpretation challenges that are critical to the
exploration and development phases of a field:
Where are the wells located with respect to nearby faults?
What are the orientations and types of these faults (normal or reverse)?
At what depth should the next casing string be set?
Is the reservoir fractured, and what is the fracture orientation?
What is the optimum placement for the next welll?
What is the best direction and reach for the sidetrack?
Many recent applications of the Schlumberger Q-Borehole Technology (see
pages 3.22 to 3.23) have been documented in Algeria. A selected number of
these are discussed below. The first section, Multioffset imaging VSPs, discusses structural delineation using a set of conventional rig and offset source
VSPs.1,2,3 The next section, Walkaround VSP, discusses the advanced
Q-Borehole approach to reservoir characterization where the spatial orientation of critical fractures is determined.4,5,6
Srie Infrieure
N
OKJ-41
3,230
3,250
OKJ-40
Offset-1
Multioffset imaging VSPs
OKJ-50
Offset-2
3,210
3,190
OKN-47
3,2
50
OKJ-60
10
3,2
30
3,2
3,173
OKN-46
OKN-561
50
3,1
OKN-63
OKN-46
30
3,2
To complete a peripheral scheme in the northeastern quadrant of the Haoud

Berkaoui field, Sonatrach drilled two wells, the OKJ-40 and OKJ-50, in a
relatively unexplored area (Fig. 3.17). After a careful review of the drilling and
reservoir results, Well OKJ-40 appeared to be a producing well with high
productivity, whereas Well OKJ-50 was a candidate for water injection.
In terms of the stratigraphy of these two wells (Fig. 3.17), T2 and T1 are two
shallow reservoir units, and the main reservoir, Srie Infrieure is separated
by andesite in the form of a localized feature (intrusive volcanic rock). In addition, the main reservoir and the upper layers (T2 and T1) are brought into contact by faults in some areas. Pressure tests revealed that the two wells were
not in communication.
OKN-45
Figure 3.17: Location map and stratigraphic columns of Wells OKJ-40 and
OKJ-50 in the Haoud Berkaoui field.
In the initial interpretation, the eastern portion of the reservoir was thought to
be truncated by a fault around these two wells. The questions were:
Does the fault really exist?
If it does, what is its distance from the wells?
What is its orientation?
A borehole seismic VSP program in Well OKJ-40 was designed to investigate
the presence of the fault and to map its orientation in the vicinity of the well.
The orientation of the fault was important to determine the placement of any
future injection wells. A rig VSP and two offset VSPs were recorded. Data
18
were processed for imaging and for a full three-component (3C) wavefield
analysis. The 3C analysis of the rig VSP provided additional information for
quantifying the fault distance from the well. The ultimate objective was to
map the extent of the reservoir and the placement of an injection well with
respect to the fault.3
Acquisition planning and scenario

The position of the fault was expected to be 400 to 500 m [1,312 to 1,640 ft] to
the east of the well. A rig source VSP and two offset VSPs were chosen to delineate the fault and map its orientation. Ray-trace modeling, utilizing a representative velocity model, was required to optimize source-receiver geometry, but
because a representative velocity model was unavailable prior to the survey, the
acquisition plan was set as a step-by-step process. According to the plan, the rig
source VSP was acquired first, which provided time versus depth and, therefore,
the velocity model for ray-trace modeling. Ray-trace modeling was performed for
various offsets and receiver ranges. Based on the modeling results, a source offset of 1,800 m [5,905 ft] and source azimuths of 60 and 135 degrees were chosen. The receiver range was selected from TD to 1,200 m [3,937 ft].
component pointing to the source, which is labeled as

HMX-Projection. Further processing was carried out on
Z and HMX components.
In offset VSP data, there are a minimum of four different
wave modes controlled by eight parameters. Therefore, it
is important to clearly separate the wave modes to obtain
the best possible structural picture. The parametric wavefield decomposition technique was used to separate the
various wave modes.1,7,8 In this approach, four wave modes
are modeled in terms of their polarization angles and
apparent slowness, the best fit to the real data being
obtained by a nonlinear least squares minimization
approach. The four wave modes may then be obtained
from their polarization angles and slownesses by solving a
linear problem at each frequency and transforming it back
to the time domain. Using this technique, true amplitudes
of four decomposed components are retained. The technique also inverted an optimum velocity model (Vp, Vs).
Data processing and analysis

Two vibroseis units were used for each offset shooting. Data were acquired
using a three-component downhole tool. Horizontal X and Y components were
randomly oriented in the XY plane because the tool can spin along its vertical
axis from level to level. A preprocess run prior to the wavefield decomposition
was required to project the X and Y data to the in-line and cross-line to the
source azimuth. The in-line projected wavefield provides a horizontal
A depth index velocity model is required for the migration

of VSP data. The velocity model, created using the rig
VSP time-to-depth relationship, was further tuned with
the optimum velocity model resulting from parametric
decomposition. A reflection point mapping technique
was adopted to obtain VSP migrated images.
At the foot of the Afara plateau and the Adrar volcano (the Tassili of the Ajjer), an immense cultural monument with a 150-m long antenna oriented toward the east was erected in blocks
of sober basalt by the Proto-Berbers, who worshipped the moon and sun (6,000 to 7,000 years ago).
19
Well
Both offset VSPs were migrated providing 2D images of

about 750 m [2,460 ft] in their respective azimuths. These
images revealed the presence of a fault whose positions
were picked at about 400 m and 500 m [1,312 and 1,640 ft]
along the northeast and southeast directions, respectively.
Based on these picks, the orientation of the fault was
estimated as 359 degrees. Up- and down-thrown sides of
the fault were mapped on the southeast VSP section,
whereas the northeast section showed clear truncation of
the seismic event at around 1.970 s but did not image the
down-thrown side of the fault. Possible explanations
could be either the presence of a more complex structure
to the northeast or that the down-thrown side of the fault
is dipping away with minimal reflection coverage. The
fault interpretation on the seismic map and its estimated
orientation are shown in Figs. 3.18 and 3.19a.
NE
SE
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
RVSP
(provided the scattering occurs in the vicinity of the well). This scattered
wavefield may not be obvious in the presence of strong downgoing and upgoing wavefields. In that instance, 3C analyses to filter out downgoing and
upgoing fields can bring up the hidden scattered feature (Fig. 3.19b).
Other examples of structural delineation using VSPs

The first example is from a mature field where a number of wells had been
drilled and were in production.5 The availability of seismic was limited; hence,
the structural mapping of the reservoir and other major formations was based
mainly on well log measurements. The complexities of the structures, ranging
from faults, structural dips, and unpredictable intrusive volcanic features, are
Offset-1 (azi = 60 deg): Fault picked at ~400 m

Offset-2 (azi = 135 deg): Fault picked at ~500 m
N
m
OKJ-40
0m
50
Calculated azimuth of
the fault is 359 deg.
Calculated shortest distance from
the fault is 363 m.
Figure 3.19a: Fault delineation and its verification with rig VSP 3C analysis.
20
-700
Figure 3.18: Mapping of fault on NW and SE VSP images.
Shortest distance (D) to the fault:

V x t = 3,750 x 0.097 = 363 m
400
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
12
112
212
312
412
512
CDP
offset, m
612
2.4
712
Time, s
Detailed analysis of the rig source VSP was also attempted

to identify and quantify the fault distance from the well.
Rig VSP data were processed to search for possible scattering or diffraction patterns from the fault. This is based
on the idea that if there is a fault in the vicinity of the
well, the source signal may scatter or diffract from the
edge of the fault. The likelihood of scattering coming
toward the well depends on the position of the fault and
its acoustic contrast with the surrounding layers. The
position of a nearby fault could be such that the downgoing wavefield scatters when it reaches the fault. This
scattered event appears as a hyperbolic feature on the
VSP data in Fig. 3.19b. The apex of the hyperbolic feature
represents the shortest distance between the scattering
point (the fault) and the well. Knowing the local velocity
and the delta-T between direct arrival and the time of the
apex, the distance of the fault from the well can be calculated as indicated in the geometrical sketch of Fig. 3.19a
0.8
Figure 3.19b: Scattering/diffraction from the edge of the fault recorded by rig VSP.
OMM-702
3,000
Offset-2 (azi = 299)
NW
SE
3,100
3,200
common challenges. Due to this, dry wells by nearby good

holes were occasionally found. While these dry holes
were candidates for short-radius sidetracks with the best
possible structural knowledge, detailed structural mapping around them was suboptimal and, therefore, reduced
the likelihood of a successful sidetrack.
3,300
RA
3,400
-575
-450
-325
-200
-75
37
162
422
297
GR
3,600
512
Depth, m
3,500
Offset, m
OMM-702
3,000
Offset-1 (azi = 72)
SW
NE
3,100
3,200
3,300
RA
3,400
350
225
100
-12
-387
-512
-137
GR
3,600
-262
Depth, m
3,500
Offset, m
M54
M532
M33
W1F M741
N24
M632
N332
N13
M731
M822
OMN3
N322
M422 RO2
M32
M413
M412
M31
M522
M512
M62
M72
M823
M612
Off-1
N12
N22
N212 N312
N21
Off-2
OMM-71
M41
MB1
M502b
M402
M502
M30
M503 OMM-702
M40
M50
403
438
A
W1F
41
243
Off-3
Off-4
N202
OMM-80
N10
131
x510
Off-5
439
452
RO1
283
175
150
336
388
51
OMM-702, an old dry hole, was a candidate for sidetrack.

It is located close to two good holes, OMM-71 to the
northeast and OMM-80 to the east at about 800 m and
1,000 m [2,625 and 3,280 ft], respectively. The VSP technique was chosen for detailed structural mapping around
the candidate well. Three types of VSP surveysfixed
source offset, walkaway, and 3D VSPwere considered.
All three options were carefully studied in light of the surface and hole conditions. The star pattern multiazimuth,
multioffset VSP survey was selected as a cost-effective
and operationally feasible option that would meet the
imaging objectives. Five offset VSPs at various different
azimuths and offsets, four of which (offsets 1, 2, 3, and 5)
are are shown in Fig. 3.20, were recorded in the well to
delineate the structure along their respective directions.
145
HA8
52
214
374b
Continuous structure
NW-SE fault
W1C
125
1B
Data were processed using parametric wavefield decomposition, providing P-to-P and converted wave P-to-S
(shear) reflections. The shear reflection data were found
more inherently consistent and higher in resolution compared to the compressional (P), possibly due to different
energy absorptions for PP and PS. Therefore, the shear
VSP images were used for structural interpretation. The
NW-SE VSP section (out of NW and SE offsets) and the
SW-NE VSP section (out of SW and NE offsets) are shown
in Fig. 3.20. As the structural sketch in Fig. 3.20 shows, the
OMM-702 well appeared to be in the middle of a host
structure flanked by two faults, one to the southwest and
the other to the northeast. The NE fault lies between
OMM-702 and the good holes (OMM-71 and OMM-80). It
was picked at about 120 m [390 ft] from OMM-702 and
interpreted as the cause of OMM-702 being a dry hole.
In the next example, Sonatrach drilled a new well, ACH-4,
on a structure where an existing dry well, ACH-3, was
thought to be on the down-thrown side of the fault. A rig
source and dual offset VSPs were planned and acquired
in the new well. The objectives of the offset VSPs were
to understand and delineate the fault to the northeast
59
234
Figure 3.20: Structural delineation with multioffset shear VSPs.
21
Q-Borehole Technology
The Q-Borehole integrated borehole seismic system optimizes all aspects of borehole seismic operations. It includes
survey designing/planning, data acquisition, real-time
quality control (QC), processing, and interpretation. It
ensures proper delineation of the subsurface structure and
characterization of the physical properties of the reservoir.
Q-Borehole components
The Q-Borehole system comprises downhole and surface
hardware and a suite of software packages that are
selectively employed to satisfy a wide range of informational needs. The application of these integrated components yields answer products that address specific interpretation tasks. All components have been engineered to
ensure that the Q-Borehole system can be configured to
address conceivable survey needs with high standards
for data fidelity and acquisition efficiency. Fig. 3.A shows
various components of the Q-Borehole system.
shuttle body provide the means of removing tool-harmonic noise and tube waves
from the seismic response. The tool can be anchored in hole sizes ranging from
312 to 22 in. in diameter. Spacing between shuttles can be set from 3 to 30 m.
The VSI array can be combined with other wireline tools, such as a gamma ray
and CCL (casing collar locator) for accurate depth control. Each shuttle has a
relative-bearing sensor to measure tool orientation in deviated wells. The VSI
sensor package contains three orthogonally mounted accelerometer geophone sensors. The accelerometer response is flat from 3 to 400 Hz, which
provides excellent sensitivity within the borehole seismic frequency band.
BorMod 2D or
Gemini 3D
Anisotropy modeling
and survey design
VSI Tool
Multiarray
Versatile Seismic
Imager
Survey design
and planning
Vibroseis
(Sercel/Pelton),
gun controllers,
SWING
Navigation system
Downhole VSI tool

The key component of the Q-Borehole system is the
new VSI Vertical Seismic Imager. The VSI tool uses
Q-Technology three-axis, single-sensor seismic hardware
in an advanced modular configuration. The VSI tool consists of up to 40 lightweight three-component sensor
modules, called shuttles, whose sensor packages are
acoustically decoupled from the main body of the tool
(Fig. 3.B). Each sensor package is pressed against the
borehole wall with a force of at least 10 times its weight.
This ensures that all components of particle motion in
the formation are faithfully recorded with an improved
signal-to-noise ratio. Strong anchoring, diminutive size,
and effective decoupling of the sensor package from the
22
Integrated surface
equipment and
navigation source QC
Survey
acquisition
WAVE
Wellsite Acquisition
Validation and
Evaluation
software package
Real-time QC
and processing
BorSeis
Q-BorSeis
Full 2D/3D processing
software
Answer
product
Figure 3.A: The Q-Borehole system optimizes all aspects of borehole seismic operations from problem
definition to the answer product.
Its ability to record frequencies as low as 3 Hz is important for constraining VSP acoustic impedance inversions
for lookahead applications.
1 shuttle
Sensor package is decoupled once clamped
Telemetry gamma
ray electronic cartridge
20.4 ft
[6.2 m]
Furthermore, an embedded shaker for each sensor provides in situ QC of formation-to-sensor coupling, which
ensures the high 3C-vector fidelity for compressional (P)
and shear (S) wavefields. Figure 3.C shows high-quality
extracted compressional (P) and shear (S) wavefields
from an offset source VSP survey.
7.2 ft
[2.2 m]
VSI high-fidelity 3D vector analysis characterizes the fractured reservoir with shear (S) wave-splitting phenomena
from the walkaround seismic profile (WAVSP) survey.
This survey is acquired with the VSI sensor positioned
inside or above the reservoir and the sources placed in a
circle at a consistent angular spacing (typically every 5 to
10 degrees). VSI acquisition is augmented by WAVE
Wellsite Acquisition, Validation and Evaluation software
for in situ QC and real-time processing. WAVE processing
enables instant validation of the recorded data. Bad shot
records are detected and rejected so that immediate
remedial action can be taken, and only high-quality data
are seamlessly integrated into ongoing interpretation
and report-generating programs.
Z
Flexible
interconnecting
head
X
Y
Decoupled
sensor package
with GAC-B
sensor
Figure 3.B: The VSI sensor package is acoustically decoupled on anchoring and can be built with up
to 40 shuttles with 30-m intershuttle spacing (shown on the right with one shuttle only).
Downgoing S (parametric decomposition)
1,500
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,500
2,500
3,000
3,000
3,500
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Depth, m
Depth, m
Downgoing P (parametric decomposition)
Time, s
3,500
0.8
1,500
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,500
2,500
3,000
3,000
3,500
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Depth, m
Depth, m
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.6
2.8
Upgoing S (parametric decomposition)
Upgoing P (parametric decomposition)
Time, s
Time, s
3,500
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
Time, s
Figure 3.C: Processed offset source VSI data show excellent compressional (P) and shear (S) wavefields, preserving 3C rectilinearity.
23
and to map the extension of the reservoir to aid in placing a future well to the south of the field (Fig. 3.21a).
Following modeling and design, an offset of 1,300 m
[4,265 ft] along 60- and 135-degree azimuths was chosen. Processing of the 3C VSPs was carried out for Pp
reflection images. Two faults, one at the reservoir level
and the other cutting the basement, were mapped on the
NE offset image (Fig. 3.21b), but the question remained
whether the two faults observed on the NE were the
extension of the same fault or two different faults. The
pre- and post-VSP migration data were thoroughly analyzed. The fault at the reservoir appeared to be a normal
fault, whereas the fault cutting the basement was a
reverse fault, suggesting that they were two different
faults. It was also confirmed from the wider mapping of
basement faults in this area that most of them are
reverse faults oriented NW-SE.
Walkaround VSP
In June 2005, Schlumberger performed walkaround (circular) and offset VSP surveys for Well ODZ-4 in the Oued
Zine field in Algeria. The operator, Gaz de France, wanted
to determine the fracture orientation in the Ordovician
and Cambrian reservoirs and to measure the various
azimuthal attributes related to seismic anisotropy.
approximated by shear-wave splitting phenomena, also known as birefringence. When an incident P-wave reflects from or transmits through a vertical
fracture layer at any angle other than 0 or 90 degrees to the fracture direction,
it splits into two shear wavesfast and slow. The fast shear wave polarizes
along the fracture, and the slow wave polarizes at a right angle to the fracture
direction.3,4,5 Application of this concept is depicted in Fig. 3.22. It shows three
cases of an offset VSP setup. When a P-source (indicated with the incidence
plane of the P-wave) is parallel or perpendicular to the fractures, only one P-to-S
wave conversion occurs. This shear energy is then detected by the radial (R)
component of the receiver placed in the borehole; the transverse (T) component
records no shear energy. On the other hand, when the P-source is between the
fracture orientation, both fast and slow shears occur. In this case, both R and T
components record and contain shear energies in proportions determined by the
relative angle between incident P and the fracture direction.
When applying this concept, a borehole seismic survey can be designed in
walkaround or circular geometry to excite multiple shear waves. By placing the
receivers deep enough inside the fractured reservoir, data are obtained to analyze shear splitting and derive the fracture orientation. Theoretically, the P-to-S
transmitted wave is minimal (zero) on the transverse component (when the
P-source is parallel or perpendicular to the fractures). When the walkaround
data (360 degrees) are processed, the minimum P-to-S energy on the transverse
component is observed at four azimuths 90 degrees apart. The transverse-toradial ratio (T/R) is then plotted to determine the fracture orientations.
0
SE
Offset, m
Offset, m
NE
Carb
West+NAM
200
400
Shear wave splitting

and fracture orientation concept
600
The physical properties of an anisotropic materialin

this case the rockdiffer when measured from different
directions. The fracture-induced anisotropy can be indirectly and effectively observed in rock and its orientation
800
Carb. Visean
1,000
1,200
1,400
Offset-1
1,600
ACH-4
2,000
2,200
2,400
2,600
600
525
450
375
300
225
150
75
0
5
20.
-1,7
Figure 3.21a: Fault delineation with dual offset VSPs.
Depth ref.to SRD (MSL), m
10
-1,7
90
-1,6
0
70
-1,
ACH-3
Fault
Extent of imaging
24
Dev. Inf. Argi

Sil. Inf. Unit VIII
Amb. Ordo.
Unit IX
1,800
Offset-2
Carb. Tour_A
GR
GR
DT
DT
Basement
Formation Tops
CDP offset, m
Figure 3.21b: Example of structural delineation with dual offset VSPs.
0
75
150
225
300
375
450
525
600
ACH-1
-1,693.8
T
T
R
T
R
Above
reservoir
Transverse (T))
Radial (R)
P source
P-wave
Slow
S-wave
Fractured
reservoir
Slow
S-wave
F
S-wast
ave
F
S-Wast
ave
S-wave
Wellbore
VSI
VSI
VSI
Souce-to-well plane in between

strike and normal to fractures
Souce-to-well plane
normal to fractures
Souce-to-well plane
parallel to fractures
Figure 3.22: When applying the shear-wave splitting concept to determine fracture orientation, the P source position is moved to varying positions in a circle: normal to the fractures to obtain
slow P-to-S conversion; at an oblique angle to the fracture plane orientation to obtain both slow and fast P-to-S conversions; and parallel to the fractures to obtain fast P-to- S conversion.
Data acquisition in Well ODZ-4

The Schlumberger VSI tool was used to acquire data in Well ODZ-4. For the
purpose of evaluating and choosing the source offset (radius) of the walkaround survey, the 2D velocity model from nearby Well ODZ-3 was utilized. The
amount of P-to-S transmitted amplitudes was studied via ray-tracing and synthetic computation. Based on these analyses, an optimum source offset of
1,100 m [3,609 ft] was chosen to obtain sufficient P-to-S transmitted energy
data. A total of 72 shotpoints or vibroseis points at every 5 degrees in a circle
of a 1,100-m [3,609-ft] radius (with respect to the wellhead) was surveyed and
each marked with a flag. The acquisition was carried out

using three vibroseis units simultaneously. The first
vibroseis acquired data from VP 124; the second and
third vibroseis acquired the data from VP 2548 and
4972, respectively. In addition, a rig source and two
offset VSPs from PAD-A and PAD-C (Fig. 3.23) were
acquired.
Washout
Gamma ray
0
3,112,500
Vib-1
70
(gAPI)
150
Bit size
MD
1 : 500
(m)
3,112,000
(in.)
14
Hole diameter
4
(in.)
14
10
2,300
ODZ-5
PAD-C
3,111,500
Cambrian
2,320
PAD-B
RVSP
VSI station
TD
PAD-A
2,340
3,111,000
20
ODZ-4
2,360
50
Vib2
-3
Vib
VSI level 1
3,110,500
VP walkaround
(Point measures)
VSI level 2
2,400
30
3,110,000
2,420
40
Y UTM
2,380
235,500
236,000
236,500
237,000
237,500
2,440
VSI level 3
VSI level 4
X UTM
Figure 3.23: Produced from data obtained in Well ODZ-4, the survey and well geometry diagram shows the location of walkaround vibroseis points 1 through 3, positions of the rig VSP,
and two offset VSP surveys. The gamma ray and borehole caliper are shown at the right with the VSI receiver positions.
25
Walkaround data were acquired at four levels in the well

(Fig. 3.23). The highest level was at a measured depth of
2,376 m [7,795 ft], 71 m [233 ft] below the top of the
Cambrian. The 6-arm EMS caliper log showed that the
hole shape below the Cambrian was poor and the probable cause of the gradual degrading signal-to-noise ratio
of downhole data with depth. Data obtained at level 4
was deemed poor and was discarded from the processing and analysis. On average, five good shots were
acquired from each vibroseis point position and were
stacked to increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
The nongimballed X-, Y-, and Z-component data were processed in three
stepspolarization analysis, computation of the relative bearing of the tool,
and computation of the radial and transverse componentsto the required
true vertical reference frame. In step 1, a polarization analysis of the threecomponent data was used to compute the dip (elevation) and arm azimuth
angles, which were saved in the X, Y, and Z data headers. In step 2, the angles
were used to compute the relative bearing of the VSI tool. The angle and relative bearing were used to rotate the X, Y, and Z data to the desired reference
frames (in this case, E-W, N-S, and V). In step 3, the E-W and N-S horizontal
components were reoriented to compute the radial and transverse components, named HMX and HMN projections, respectively.
Compiling and reconciling VSP data
The derived projection angle provided an independent quality check and validated the various steps taken to orient the data so that it was, in fact, equivalent to the surveyed source azimuths.
All the raw three-component data were loaded into the

Schlumberger BorSeis VSP borehole processing and
interpretation package. A unique record number was
assigned to each vibro-point and its clock-time and
recording sequence. Well ODZ-4 is deviated along a
32-degree azimuth. Well deviation data were used to
compute the true vertical and horizontal positions of
each receiver. These data were then quality checked and
the headers updated so that a local coordinate system
could be derived to compute the absolute source offset
and its azimuth in relation to the downhole receivers. All
three components were quality checked again. Bad shots
were deleted before stacking the X, Y, and Z data for
each of the three levels. Transit times from the source to
the first compressional arrival were computed with an
automatic picking algorithm that makes use of the 3C
first-peak amplitude of the downhole data. These data
were aligned at 0.0 s.
Analyzing shear-wave splitting

The computed radial (R) and transverse (T) components derived from step 3
were the inputs for analyzing shear-wave splitting. First, the amplitude within
a small window around the converted shear-wave event was measured on the
R and T components. In theory, the T component should show no converted
shear wave at the walkaround source azimuths that are either along the fracture or normal to it. The sources in between (the strike and normal to the fracture) record the combined amplitude of the two shears, depending on the time
separation at the receiver level. The R component contains constant P energy
plus the combined amplitude of the two converted shear-wave energies. In a
360-degree walkaround acquisition, the minimum P-to-S energy and polarity
reversal on the T component should be noticeable at 4 azimuths that repeat
roughly every 90 degrees. Figure 3.24 depicts data for the radial and transverse components at level 1.
Radial component (level 1 at 2,376 m), aligned at 0.0 s
Transverse component (level 1 at 2,376 m), aligned at 0.0 s
Polarity reversal
100
Polarity reversal
200
Source azimuths, deg
Polarity reversal
300
Polarity reversal
-0.1
Radial, R
0.1
0.2
0.3
-0.1
0.1
0.2
Transverse, T
Figure 3.24: The T and R components were computed at level 1. The T data show four minimas and polarity reversal repeating roughly every 90 degrees.
26
0.3
Two axes of minima T:R ratio represent

fracture parallel and normal directions
0
T:R ratio analysis at level 1 (237 m MD)

1
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.4
-0.2
0.3
90
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
T:R ratio
0.1
0.0
-0.8
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
360
Azimuth
-1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2 -0.4 -0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 3.25: Rose plot (right) from Cartesian data (left). Four obvious minima are observed, repeating at roughly 90 degrees and indicating fracture orientations of
approximately 353 or 83 degrees. The latter orientation, selected on the basis of further reasoning, was found to be consistent with FMI data analysis from the same well.
The amplitude within a small window after the first break was computed on
the T and R components. Then the T-to-R ratio was calculated on all shots of
the walkaround at each level. This computed ratio was converted from polar
coordinates to Cartesian coordinates to produce a Rose plot that would make
it easier to visualize and interpret the azimuth variations (Fig. 3.25).
Because of the ambiguity of as much as 90 degrees in determining the strike
of the fractures, additional information was required to resolve the uncertainty.
Azimuths of the two offset VSPs acquired from PAD-A and PAD-C were 81 and
358 degrees, respectively, which were close to the walkaround fracture
angles computed for Well ODZ-4. To determine the directions of the fast and
slow shears, the downgoing shear times were picked on P-to-S converted
events from the tops of both the Ordovician and Cambrian along both offset
VSPs. In a deviated well such as ODZ-4, the source-to-receiver angles are not
in a perfect 2D plane; therefore, the quantification of the fast and slow shear
waves may not be accurate. However, the picked shear moveout along PAD-C
appeared to be relatively greater than along PAD-A, which meant the fast
shear direction was along PAD-A, or at approximately 80 degrees.
Conclusion
New advanced surface and borehole seismic technologies have played an important role in landing high-quality
seismic data for structural imaging of faults and natural
fracture networks, monitoring reservoir properties,
characterizing the rock, and identifying pore fluid types.
As these examples have demonstrated, Algerian geophysicists, geologists, and reservoir engineers have
learned to depend on the high-resolution, repeatable
data to meet their specific reservoir objectives
whether exploring deeper, more complex reservoirs,
accelerating production, enhancing production from
existing assets through optimal positioning of injector
wells, or taking other remedial actions.
In summary, two offset and walkaround VSP surveys were made in Well ODZ-4
to compute the orientation of fractures in the Ordovician and Cambrian reservoirs. The 80-degree fracture strike determination was confirmed by FMI
Fullbore Formation MicroImager analysis (not shown here).
27
Borehole Imaging
Borehole imaging became available in 1986 when
Schlumberger introduced the Formation MicroScanner.
A step change from earlier dipmeter tools, the technology
extended a high-resolution resistivity measurement
around the borehole, which greatly improved the geological characterization of the reservoir. Borehole imaging
rapidly proved indispensable in exploration and delineation wells and in the development of geologically complex reservoirs.
regular basis in Algeria. In the mid 1990s, Schlumberger introduced loggingwhile-drilling (LWD) borehole images. Images from the resistivity-based
geoVISION tool are similar to FMI images although they are of lower resolution. The VISION Formation Evaluation and Imaging While Drilling tool provides density images that have the lowest resolution of all borehole images
but can be used successfully for structural analysis in horizontal wells. These
LWD borehole images can be transmitted in real time to an analyst and used
in geosteering decisions when drilling a horizontal well. Chapter 4 provides
examples of these images.
The precise and near real-time information provided by

borehole imaging includes reservoir structure; the presence, type, and distribution of fractures; sedimentary
features; and vertical facies distribution. These data
allow the geologist to make a timely estimate of the
hydrocarbon potential of a well so that appropriate economic decisions can be made without delay. Although
the contribution of borehole imaging to the structural and
sedimentological characterization of the reservoir can be
critical at the time of drilling, borehole images contain
information that can be used throughout the life of the
reservoir. Petrophysical, geophysical, and geomechanical
interpretations, in addition to the overall geological
description of the reservoir, all benefit from the information provided by borehole images. Some image featuresfor example, fracturesare easily recognized
even by a casual observer, but a complete structural, sedimentological, and geomechanical analysis requires
expert interpreters.
A borehole image is analyzed in three different but complementary ways.

First, a borehole image represents a virtual outcrop, comparable to a 25-cm
wide continuous section along a quarry wall that is studied by the geologist
with as much eye for detail as a real rock outcrop. Second, a borehole image
corresponds to a cylinder that is precisely oriented. Each bed crossing this
cylinder is therefore perfectly located in space, which, for example, allows
derivation of accurate dip data. Third, since the image is based on a physical
measurement, quantitative data analysis techniques can be applied to
describe reservoir characteristics such as rock texture, fracture aperture, and
the shape of the borehole wall. The comparison of these quantitative descriptors across a reservoir can greatly improve the permeability map, which is
used as input for reservoir modeling and simulation.
Schlumberger provides three wireline tools for borehole

imaging: the FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager, the
OBMI Oil-Base MicroImager, and the UBI Ultrasonic
Borehole Imager. The FMI tool requires a conductive
mud, while the OBMI tool is run in boreholes drilled with
oil-base mud. Both tools provide a resistivity image of
the formation surrounding the borehole. In contrast, the
UBI tool uses an ultrasonic beam, which is reflected from
the borehole wall. The recorded signal describes the
borehole wall surface rather than the surrounding formation. This tool can be used in conductive or resistive mud,
but the image shows only the geological features that
affect the borehole surface. All three tools are used on a
28
This chapter covers these three levels of interpretation, as well as a few less
common uses of borehole imaging. All the examples come from Algerian fields.
Virtual outcrop imaging

Detailed analysis of a borehole image allows identification and classification of
a multitude of geological features that define the tectonic style, depositional
environment, and, for example, the fracture network of a reservoir. In the past,
dipmeter logs were used for this, but a detailed geological analysis was not
only extremely difficult but generally based on a chain of assumptions.
Borehole image analysis uses the same observational methods applied in outcrop studies. The geologist compensates for the narrow strip of this virtual
outcrop by using image manipulation software tools, available on a GeoFrame
workstation, such as scale compression and customization of the color tables.
Analogous to a geological study based on outcrops, the integration of these
individual observations allows the building of sedimentary and structural
models and provides a better understanding of the fracture network in the
vicinity of the borehole. This type of geological reasoning is illustrated by
various examples.
Borehole Imaging
Characterizing a depositional environment

from sedimentary structures
Sedimentological interpretation requires the description of sedimentary
facies, which combines lithological and paleontological criteria with sedimentary structures. These criteria aid in the interpretation of the sediment origin,
its age, and the depositional process. Facies associations and their vertical
and lateral successions are then analyzed, resulting in an interpretation of the
environment of deposition. This interpretation is critical because the depositional environment is key to the external and internal reservoir geometries and
fluid flow properties.
The virtual outcrop provides useful clues to the lithology and sometimes even
fossil content of the rock. More importantly, since this virtual outcrop is continuous and perfectly oriented in space, borehole images are ideal for defining the geometry of sedimentary structures. From the accurate dip picking of
sedimentary surfaces (bedding, laminations, and erosional surfaces), a structural dip is derived, which is removed by placing the sedimentary structures in
their configuration at the time of deposition. With data from several wells, the
sediment transport direction can be mapped, the depositional processes and
settings can be determined with confidence, and the shapes and orientations
of the sedimentary reservoir bodies can be modeled.
The study of whole cores remains a cornerstone of subsurface geological and
petrophysical analysis. Available measurements and descriptions from whole
as well as sidewall cores from a particular reservoir should always be used as
a calibration tool for logsincluding image logs. After an initial calibration,
well logs are used with confidence to characterize lithology, pore space, and
grain size, and with the addition of borehole imaging, an enhanced geological
understanding of the reservoir can be reached shortly after logging.
Gamma ray
(0-300 gAPI)
Calipers
(8-14 in.)
CMR
Lithology identification and a description of sedimentary structures provide

the initial hypothesis on the depositional process. However, the same process
Static
image
Dynamic image + sinusoids
GR
(15-55)
Dips
(0-90 deg)
50 cm
Erosive surfaces
Parallel
laminations
Grainy texture
Figure 3.26: Sandstone with Swaley cross stratification (SWS).
can occur in different environments. Current ripples

found in ephemeral streams build alluvial fans along a
desert mountain range but also in deep marine turbidite
fan feeder channels. The vertical and lateral facies succession, therefore, provides critical clues for the interpretation of the depositional environment.
Figures 3.26 through 3.33 illustrate how FMI images are
used to interpret the depositional setting of an
Ordovician sandstone from the Tin Fouye Tanbankort
(TFT) field. The high-quality images were acquired in two
vertical wells. With their excellent quality, FMI images
allow the direct measurement of pebbles (> 4 mm), and
sometimes granules (24 mm) can be identified by the
conductive molds created when the grains are plucked
from the borehole wall during drilling. Sand grain sizes
range from 0.0625 mm (the cutoff between coarse silt
and very fine sand), to 0.25 to 0.5 mm (medium sand), to
2 mm (the upper limit of very coarse sand). These grain
sizes cannot be measured directly from FMI images, but
a good estimate can be derivedespecially when calibrated with core databy using other logs, including the
NMR, GR, and SP, and by analyzing the resistivity distribution of the FMI data. Sedimentary structures also provide clues to grain size because crossbedding tends to
occur in medium- and coarser-grained sand and not in silt
or fine-grained sand. The grain-size descriptions provided in the examples here represent a reasonable estimate
but not a quantitative measurement.
Figure 3.26 shows a sandstone (from GR and local knowledge) containing a drilling-induced fracture. The granular
texture with the conductive (dark) spots indicates the
likely presence of granules as part of a generally coarsegrained sandstone. Easily recognizable are two types of
planes. The sinusoids on these unrolled images represent the intersection of a plane with the wellbore. One type
of plane occurs parallel to each other forming sets of about
20 cm in thickness. These sets are separated by planes that
cut off the underlying laminations, while the laminations
above a cutoff plane tend to follow its shape. There is no
evidence of sorting such as fining- or coarsening-upward
either within or between sets. The cutoff planes represent
erosional surfaces, with up to 10 cm of relief, that cut and
erode the previously deposited sand laminations. The
laminations deposited directly above an erosional surface have more or less the same dip as that surface. The
orientation of the sets is extremely variable, with dip
29
Gamma ray
(0-250 gAPI)
FMI dynamic image
Dips
(0-90 deg)
Fine
layers of
sandstone
alternating
with clayey
layers
50 cm
Erosive
surfaces
Parallel
laminae
Sandstone
interval
Decimetric
siltstone
layers
alternating
with
centimetric
clay layers
Figure 3.27: Sandstone with hummocky cross stratification (HCS).
Gamma ray
(0-250 gAPI)
FMI dynamic image
Dips
(0-90 deg)
50 cm
Decimetric
siltstone
layers
alternating
with
centimetric
clay layers
is typical for hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) deposited by storm-driven

waves. The remaining sets are most probably swaley cross-stratification (SCS),
a sedimentary structure produced under oscillatory flow conditions. The erosive
surfaces, the laminations draping them, and the unidirectionality (same dip and
dip azimuth) of the laminations within a set characterize SCS. It is, however,
possible that some crossbed sets with high dips were deposited by unidirectional flow such as onshore currents. Overall, the sedimentary structures in this
clay-free sandstone suggest a marine environment with a water depth above
the fair weather wave basemost likely middle to upper shoreface.
The image in Fig. 3.27 consists of interbedded sandstone and shale. The sandstone layers range from 10 to 50 cm in thickness, while the mudstone layers are
about 1- to 5-cm thick. The sandstone is likely fine grained (by association with
mudstone), and there is no evidence of grading within an individual bed. The
thick sandstone in the middle of Fig. 3.27 contains low-angle laminations. The
laminations are arranged in parallel sets 10- to 30-cm thick. The erosional surfaces at the base of these sets have a relief of at most a few centimeters. The
difference in dip between sets is very small. Dip direction varies from west to
northeast. Most sandstone beds have sharp lower surfaces interpreted as erosional with thicker beds containing internal surfaces of erosion and low-angle
crossbedding.
The occurrence of sandstone with mudstone beds indicates a depositional
environment with alternating high- and low-energy conditions, and the sedimentary structures in the sand layers are characteristic of hummocky crossstratification (HCS). The sand layers are deposited during storms when the
wave base reaches the sediment and creates a high-energy condition. During
fair weather, the wave base is above the water sediment interface, and clay
Upturned
laminae
with balland-pillow
structures
Gamma ray
(0-250 gAPI)
Calipers 1 - 2
(5-10 in.)
Slowness
(140-40 s/ft)
Medium
sandstone
(grainy
texture)
Dynamic image
Dynamic image
+ sinusoids
Dips
(0-90 deg)
Figure 3.28: Sandstone with ball-and-pillow structures.
Some parallel lamination sets have a low dip magnitude

and are slightly oblique to their surface of deposition (top
of Fig. 3.26), while other sets show dips of 10 degrees
with one set reaching about 25 degrees. The low dip set
30
Claystone
Siltstone
50 cm
azimuths ranging from west over north to east. The lack

of vertical sorting, the wide variability of the dip direction
(more than 180 degrees) between sets, and the high frequency of erosional surfaces indicate that this unit was
deposited in a high-energy environment.
Figure 3.29: Siltstone with ball-and-pillow structures.
Upturned laminae
with ball-andpillow structures
isolated in a
muddy matrix
Gamma ray
(0-300 gAPI)
Caliper
(8-14 in.)
CMR
Borehole Imaging
Static
image
GR
(15-55)
and silt sedimentation resume producing the mudstone

layers. The depositional environment of this unit is lower
shoreface.
Dips
(0-90 deg)
Massive
sandstone,
coarse to
very coarse
50 cm
Conglomerate
with rounded
decimetric
clasts
Gamma ray
(0-300 gAPI)
Caliper
(8-14 in.)
CMR
Figure 3.30: Coarse sandstone with conglomerate layer.
Static
image
GR
(15-55)
Dips
(0-90 deg)
50 cm
Breccia with
decimetric clasts
supported by a
coarse to very
coarse sandstone
matrix
Angular
decimetric
clasts
Figure 3.31: Breccia supported by a coarse sandstone matrix.
Gamma ray
(0-250 gAPI)
Calipers 1 - 2
(5-10 in.)
Slowness
(140-40 s/ft)
Dynamic image
Dynamic image
+ sinusoids
Dips
(0-90 deg)
50 cm
Fine to medium
sandstone with
aggrading wave
ripples
Figure 3.32: Sandstone with wave ripples.
The sedimentary analysis done so far identified facies 1

and 2, which indicates that deposition took place in an
open marine environment close to the shoreline and was
subject to the action of waves and storms. The facies
shown in the following examples are associated with
facies 1 and 2.
The image in Fig. 3.28 contains parallel laminated
sand/mudstone layers at the top and bottom but is dominated by completely disrupted bedding in the center. On
closer examination, the disrupted bedding consists of the
same sand/mud laminations visible at the top of the
image but upturned with a convex baseknown as a
ball-and-pillow structure. This structure does not characterize a particular sedimentary environment. The deformation occurs soon after deposition and is caused by in
situ liquefaction of the sediment. The alternation of sandstone with mudstone beds indicates the same depositional environment as that of facies 2namely lower
shoreface. In Fig. 3.28 the sand volume within the balland-pillow structure is greater than the mud volume.
When mud dominates, the ball and pillows of sand float
in a muddy matrix (Fig. 3.29).
The image in Fig. 3.30 shows a sandstone. A reasonable
estimate of its grain size based on image texture is
coarse to very coarse sandstone. This is supported by the
presence of clasts in the lower part of the image that
reach apparent diameters exceeding 10 cm. Although the
facies appears massive, it does contain some faint horizontal laminations. This is a coarse-grained sandstone
with conglomeratic lenses; it is not characteristic of one
specific depositional environment but is common in alluvial fans. The association of this facies with facies of
clear marine conditions, however, suggests that it was
deposited close to the shore and may actually be part of
the beach with some hard rock exposures within reach of
storm-driven surf. The same depositional setting applies
to Fig. 3.31, which presents a heterogeneous breccia
with boulder-sized clasts supported by a heterogeneous
sandy matrix.
The rock shown in Fig. 3.32 is estimated to be a fine- to
medium-grained sandstone. Bedding thickness is about
20 to 50 cm. Internally, each bed contains numerous
wavy-looking laminations. The sedimentary surfaces
31
described in the previous images fit a single sinusoidal

shape, which is the intersection of a planar surface cutting the borehole. Here, the laminations show double
crests that are symmetrical and in phase with each other.
They are characteristic of wave ripples with vertical
aggradation only and no lateral migration. Such wave ripples are produced by purely oscillatory motion. The recognition of this facies might point to a marine environment
dominated by the wave processes and storm swells, but
this is not the case here. The example comes from a different field in Algeria although from rocks of the same
geological age. This facies does not present a near-shore
depositional environment dominated by storm-driven,
high-energy processes as do the examples in Figs. 3.30
and 3.31. The wave ripple facies of Fig. 3.32 were also
deposited in the marine middle to upper shoreface environment but in a protected setting such as a coastal bay.
Deposition system profile

5
Examples 6
7
2
3
4
Base of fair weather
Wave action
Base of storm
Wave action
Shoreface
Sandstone and
conglomerate
Transition zone
Offshore
Alternating sandstone
and clay
Clay
Figure 3.33: Possible facies distribution along a depositional profile.
ambiguities, but when associated facies can be related to a single depositional

system, the interpretation stands on firm ground.
It is worth noting that automatic processing cannot identify or interpret the
double-crested shape shown by the wave ripples on the borehole wall. And in
general, the classification of observable surfaces into geologically meaningful
observations (erosional surfaces, for example) requires a careful analysis of
the image data by an experienced geologist.
The identified facies types can now be placed into a

larger scale, the depositional setting (Fig. 3.33) of which
forms the conceptual background for mapping the reservoir facies and their geometries, often from few well penetrations. This first-pass analysis is not exempt from
Additional facies identified from borehole images run in Algerian reservoirs

are shown in Fig. 3.34.
C
GR
(0-150 )
GR
(0-150)
Dynamic FMI image
Dynamic FMI image
X,X72
Tamadjert Fm, Unit IV

In Tahouite Fm, Unit III-3
X,X80
Banquette Fm,
Hamra quartzite
X,X73
X,X81
B
1m
X,X74
1m
X,X82
X,X75
X,X83
Figure 3.34: Erosional contact between the In-Thaouite and Tamadjert formations (A) with detail of chaotic glacial valley fill (B) in the Iherir valley (Tassili NAjjer, South of Algeria),
and FMI images (C) showing similar facies in the Ordovician IV-3 formation (subsurface equivalent of Tamdjert formation) in a well in the Illizi basin.
32
Borehole Imaging
Periglacial facies
Banquette
Fm
High fracture
density
Sedimentary
structures
destroyed by
bioturbation
Vire du
Mouflou
Fm
Very low
fracture density
Medium scale
cross-bedding
preserved
Figure 3.35: The upper highly bioturbated part of the Banquette formation (subsurface equivalent to
the Hamra quartzite) has a high fracture density. The lower part with a very low degree of bioturbation (note the preserved crossbedding) has a very low fracture density.
Formation analysis of periglacial valley fill is one of the

big challenges encountered in the characterization of
Ordovician reservoirs. These paleovalleys contain a
chaotic assembly of rocks resulting in extremely heterogeneous porosities and permeabilities. These differ significantly from the adjacent rocks, which are difficult to
interpret because of syntectonic sedimentation. Figures
3.34 and 3.34 show a glacial paleovalley with its basal
contact and a detail of this valley fill, showing a chaotic
breccia-like facies with slump structures in the Tamajert
formation (Tassilis NAjjers, Valley of Iherir). The FMI
images in Fig. 3.34 show an analogous facies of the
same age in a well drilled in the Illizi basin.
Dynamic FMI image

A
X,X20.5
X,X21.0
0.5 m
X,X21.5
Figure 3.36: Intensely bioturbated facies (Daedalus bioturbation) at the top of the Banquette formation in the Iherir valley (A) and corresponding FMI image facies (B) of the Hamra quartzite formation
(subsurface equivalent of Ordovician III-2) in the Illizi basin.
Bioturbated facies
The heavily bioturbated layers observed in outcrops of the
Banquette formation of the Tassilis NAjjers region
(Figs. 3.35 and 3.36) as well as on FMI images logged in
the Hamra quartzite (subsurface equivalent of Ordovician
III-2), show that this facies contains few fracturesin
contrast to layers with no bioturbation that have a high
fracture density. This observation suggests an inverse
relationship between the intensity of bioturbation and
fracturing. The bioturbated facies is interpreted as shallow marine and can be correlated between wells, helping
to establish the stratigraphic sequence of this area. The
FMI image in Fig. 3.36 shows a highly bioturbated facies
in the Hamra quartzite, which occurs in the same well as
the chaotic valley fill shown in Fig. 3.34.
320 m
A
Half-graben
Micro- and megastructures

in the Hassi Messaoud field
Half-graben
B
Fault
2m
Figure 3.37: A) Cross section derived from dips interpreted as a half-graben; B) core-like presentation of a detail of the UBI image showing a small-scale half-graben; and C) unrolled UBI image of
the same detail on which the microfaults are difficult to interpret.
Figure 3.37 illustrates the importance of identifying tectonic microstructures on borehole images in order to
understand the structure of the entire reservoir.
Microstructural geology is based on the concept that
similar structures occur at all scales. The studied well is
a horizontal, 350-m long borehole, oriented NW-SE and
located at the edge of the Hassi Messaoud field. Lacking
seismic data, the structural dip was estimated as subhorizontal by extending correlations between neighboring
vertical boreholes. During drilling, it became obvious that
the structure was more complicated than expected. The
cross section reconstructed from the beds picked on the
UBI image indicate that structural dip is 11 to 13 degrees
33
FMI dips
(0-90 deg)
Static FMI image
X,X24.5
X,X25
Figure 3.38: Microfault oriented NW-SE with drag fold indicating reverse fault movement.
This is particularly important for propagating the porosity and permeability

analysis performed on core plugs with the help of borehole images.
Figure 3.39 shows a fullbore core image that was oriented using an OBMI
image in a TAGI (Triassic) fluvial reservoir. This comparison also illustrates the
advantage of having a resistivity image when studying sedimentary structures.
More often than not, sedimentary structures are more visible in a resistivity
image than through observation of a rock sample under visible light. Figure 3.39
shows features visible on OBMI images in the upper part of the interval that
are not detected by the photographic core image.
Oriented
core images
Core dips
RHOB/NPHI
Strati
Another example from the Lower Paleozoic section of a

vertical well logged in the TFT field shows two steeply
dipping planes crossing the borehole and striking NW-SE
(Fig. 3.38). These two planes are spaced 10 cm apart, and
between them a microdrag fold is present, indicating
reverse movement. Such a microstructure cannot be
detected automatically, yet the identification of this
microreverse fault is critical to understanding the structure of the field. This example illustrates once again the
need for a careful study of the images by an experienced
geologist.
Dyamic FMI image
X,X24
Calip-GR
Microfault in the Devonian
CGR
SGR
(0-300)
0.5 m
to the west in most of the section covered by the borehole (Fig. 3.37). Several geological scenarios could
explain this dip, but close examination of the image suggests a half-graben interpretation. Despite its mediocre
quality due to poor borehole conditions, the UBI image
shows repeatedly half-grabentype microstructures
(Fig. 3.37) causing tilts of dip-azimuth and dip very similar to the ones measured at the entire wellbore scale.
No other type of microstructure was detected on the
image, which makes the half-graben interpretation the
most likely structural setting. Furthermore, geologists later
confirmed the validity of the half-graben hypothesis. It
should be noted that during the quick initial examination
of the unrolled images, these structures were missed by
the interpreter. They became clearly visible only when
the image was displayed in 3D using the core-like image
presentation capability of the GeoFrame image analysis
software.
OBMI image
Core gamma ray
OBMI dips
Lithofacies
OBMI Rxo
Core calibration
34
X,X37
Speckled OBMI
image fabric due to
the presence of
anhydrite patches
confirmed by core
0.5 m
Even when interpreted with increasingly sophisticated

image analysis techniques, borehole images cannot
replace cores, particularly with respect to petrophysical
measurements. Although whole cores also supply very
detailed geological data, their analysis is not without
problems. Coring and core analysis are expensive, interpretation of cores is very time consuming, and cores are
generally not oriented. Borehole images and cores are
actually highly complementary when acquired in the
same well because each has information to calibrate the
other. This reciprocal calibration of images and cores is
an essential step that propagates core studies to wells
that have not been core sampled, and it allows the quantification of facies and textures from borehole images.
When the fullbore images of the cores are available,
borehole images permit precise orientation of the core.
X,X38
Figure 3.39: Core image (unrolled outer surface) and OBMI image.
Borehole Imaging
The FMI image in Fig. 3.40 shows a fault breccia of about 20 cm in thickness
from an Ordovician sandstone in the TFT field. The fault plane is oriented
NE-SW and dips 71 degrees toward the southeast. The core confirms the presence of the fault breccia at this depth and also verifies that the conductive
(dark) spots within the breccia on the image correspond to large connected
pores. This information from the core, together with the orientation of the
fault plane from the FMI image, was critical to understanding the breakthrough of deep pressurized fluids in
this well. It also provided a better understanding of a particular episode of the structural evolution of the TFT field
as well as present-day fluid circulation in this reservoir.
Identification and classification

of geological surfaces
Dymamic FMI image
(0-90 deg)
Breccia with
large angular
clasts
0.5 m
Fault plane
71 deg N55E
Bottom of the
brecciated
fault
Figure 3.40: Breccia at a fault plane seen on both the core and the FMI image.
Automatic dip
Differentiation of sedimentary dips

When a borehole image, even of mediocre quality, is available, an attentive geologist can classify the various planes
identified on the image so they can be used in different
interpretations. Figure 3.41 presents an FMI image of a fluvial sandstone where, despite the presence of a major
synsedimentary deformation and extensive breakouts, it is
possible to clearly differentiate bed boundaries, crossbedding, and even more shaly laminations overturned by the
current. A mean square dip (MSD) dipmeter processing run
in the same interval provided only a few meaningless dips
because the processing was affected by these three plane
types. In Fig. 3.41, despite a very low-resistivity contrast
and the presence of numerous conductive fractures, the
FMI image enabled bed boundaries, crossbeds and slumps
to be differentiated with confidence by an experienced
interpreter, while the conventional MSD processing
method delivered no results.
2m
Before the introduction of borehole imaging tools,

dipmeter tools provided formation dip obtained by automated correlation of the microresistivity curves recorded
by pad-mounted electrodes. This method requires a certain parallelism of the beds inside the correlation window. It provides an estimate of the dip of bed boundaries
but fails to correlate planes representing fractures,
faults, and erosional surfaces. Excellent results are
obtained in parallel bedded or laminated formations, but
when there are complex sedimentary structures and fractures in addition to bedding, the average dip from this
cross-correlation technique is meaningless. Such dips
can cause erroneous interpretations. This is where the
differentiation and accurate measurement of sedimentary and structural planes provided by a geologist using
borehole imaging is particularly important.
Bed boundary
Crossbed
Unconformable bed boundary
Slump
Once these surfaces are identified, they can be used for

various interpretations. The bed boundaries give the
mean structural dip, while the sedimentary surfaces indicate the direction and size of the sedimentary bodies.
Figure 3.41: Automatically computed dips versus dips manually picked by a geologist.
35
In some cases, it is possible to generate sedimentary

cross-section models from previously differentiated
planes (Fig. 3.42). These geometrical reconstitutions are
based on the similarity of certain sedimentary structures
with respect to structural dip. Such a similarity relative to
the paleohorizontal plane exists when a structure progrades in a current: sand dunes, crossbeds in fluvial or
deltaic channels (Fig. 3.43), etc. However, not all sedimentary structures can be reconstructed in this way. Before
using this method, the depositional environment must be
identified. Such reconstitutions make the size of sedimentary structures and the obliqueness to structural dip easily accessible, while these parameters are difficult to
quantify using conventional dip representations. The
cross-section model in Fig. 3.42 shows, from bottom to
top, an increase in bed thickness and the obliqueness of
these beds to the local structural dip, which does not
change. The shape of these laminae is sometimes flat,
sometimes sigmoidal. At X,X07 m one can even notice an
overturned lamina due to the effect of current. The current
paleodirections, presented after structural dip removal in
the form of dip vector plots, provide essential information
for paleogeographical reconstitutions.
Structural modeling around boreholes

Borehole images allow accurate identification of each
individual bedding plane, which enables image interpreters to go beyond a simple dip statistical survey. From
the collection of individual dips it is possible to model
structures around the borehole in the form of cross sections or even 3D models. This modeling is based on an
integration of the individual measurements guided by the
basic principles of structural geology. Inside the GeoFrame
NNW
SSE
A
B
C
00.0
05.0
22
10.0
2
15.0
Sand
Silt
Shale
Structural dip
20.0
Figure 3.42: A) Sedimentary cross section reconstructed from bed boundaries and crossbeds manually
picked by a geologist; B) details of the FMI image: 1) stacked crossbeds and 2) laminations overturned by water flow; C) dip vector plots showing the orientation of the different sedimentary structures after removal of the structural dip.
system, the StrucView cross-section software is dedicated to such modeling.

The geologist creates on the screen structural reconstructions similar to those
that could be made in the field. Much higher density of surfaces and greater precision of the measurement compensate for the narrowness of the virtual outcrop. A model can be calculated for each borehole, but multiple borehole reconstitutions are preferable because the coherences of the overall model place strong
constraints on individual well interpretations. Similarly, a good-quality seismic
survey provides useful input data for selecting the appropriate structural model.
Two examples of such modeling based on borehole images follow.
Single-well structural modeling in the Lias of the Ourhoud field
Structural
dip
Figure 3.43: Outcrop illustrating the sedimentary reconstruction technique used in Fig. 3.42. Note the similarity of the lamination with respect
to the structural dip.
36
In this example, the OBMI tool was run in a deviated borehole of the Ourhoud
field to determine the depth at which a fault identified by the seismic survey
would cut across the borehole in an evaporitic section of Lias age. This fault
could not be avoided because the well had to be moved away from the planned
location due to the presence of a large sand dune at the surface. The vertical
evolution of the dips picked on the OBMI image (Fig. 3.44) indicates a progressive deformation of the beds reaching two maximaone at X,X00 m and the
other at X,X27 m. At each of these depths, the OBMI image shows a highly conductive plane of approximately 70 degrees dip to ESE (NNE-SSW strike). These
two planes are interpreted as clay-filled fault planes that bound the fault identified by the seismic survey. The derived structural cross section provided a 2D
model of the fault drag in these highly plastic evaporitic formations. Despite low
borehole coverage (21% in 12.25-in. hole), OBMI imaging allowed accurate
identification of the depth, strike, and dip of the fault, which contributed to optimizing the calculation of hydrocarbon reserves in underlying TAGI reservoirs.
Borehole Imaging
NO
SE
OBMI static
Wellpath
Dips
OBMI dynamic
-150 m
x954
X,X04
-100 m
x955
X,X05
x956
X,X06
-50 m
x957
X,X07
0
330
X,X00
15%
300
60
10%
Fault zone
5%
270
5% 10% 15% 20%
90
120
240
+50 m
210
Structure type: Normal fault

Fault plane dip: 70 deg
Fault plane azimuth: 130 deg
Cross section direction: 140 deg
Viewer position: 230 deg
30
20%
180
Well A
target
150
Well A
surface
Strike of fault planes

from OBMI image
+100 m
Figure 3.44: Hand-picked dips from the OBMI image interpreted as a normal fault using StrucView software.
Multiwell structural modeling in the Devonian of the Illizi basin
Correlations
This case presents the summary of a structural study that was based on four
vertical wells and one horizontal well. An accurate structural model was
obtained by combining the dips of the five wells with correlations from
gamma ray logs. This structural reconstitution aided in the analysis of fracturing in the horizontal borehole presented in Integration of fractures with production data, page 3.46.
The four vertical wells, numbered 1 through 4 in Fig. 3.45,

show apparent dips that are sufficiently low to establish
correlations without having to recompute the logs in true
bed thickness. The sketch made with these correlations indicates a simple structure with, only in Well 2, two missing
sections. The corresponding Formation MicroScanner
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
F1
C
X,200
m2
m2
X,300
X,300
X,300
m7
m8
F1
m1
Fault-1
m1
m3
X,300
m3
?
X,300
m7
m8
9m
X,300
X,300
F2
X,300
F2
Fault-2
m4
m5
m6
X,400
X,400
m4
m5
4m
X,400
X,400
m6
Figure 3.45: Well-to-well correlation scheme used to determine fault throws. A) Actual situation: Note the thinning of the series in Well 2; B) determination of the throws by flattening on the markers; C) fault planes observed on Formation MicroScanner images of Well 2. Because there is no image at the top of Well 4, the thinning observed in this zone cannot be
linked to a particular fault.
37
Radius of
curvature
A
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Plane
(ancestor of the FMI tool with 4 images instead of 8)

images clearly show a fault at the depth of each missing
section. The first fault dips 53 degrees to the south with
a 9-m throw. The second fault, conjugated from the first,
dips 52 degrees to the north with a 4-m throw. No additional fault is identified on the images of the other wells.
The reservoir model cannot therefore use hypothetical
faults to facilitate the structural correlations between
the boreholes.
F1
Throw
Above the fault
Structural dip: 1.9
Azimuth: 14.6
?
F1
Structural model of Well 2
Rl = (Displacement * 360) / (Rotation * 2) =

(11 * 360) / (5 * 2) = 126 m (10 m) .
The center of rotation is necessarily close to the perpendicular of the fault plane observed on the image. A fault
with such a radius and curvature does not affect the reservoir located deeper. The fault detachment plane would
be located above the first sandstone bed (Fig. 3.46).
Structural model of the horizontal well

Well 2, a 650-m long horizontal well, was drilled in the
N-10 direction. A relatively simple structural model
comes from the interpolation of the bed boundaries identified on the FMI image (Fig. 3.47). Over the first 200 m,
the structure appears horizontal, as expected from vertical Well 2. Unfortunately, the well then enters into a
fault zone beyond which the structural dip changes, leading the structure into a dive toward the north and a premature exit from the reservoir. The structural connection
between the two wells shows a 4-m throw that can be
attributed to numerous subseismic faults of the central
zone. There is still an uncertainty because no borehole
image was acquired between these wells. It is worth
noting that this cross section is built from apparent dips
38
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Plane
The two faults found in Well 2 have different effects on

the structural dip. The deepest shows a 4-m throw but is
not accompanied by a structural dip change between the
upper and lower fault compartments. Because there is no
rotation, the fault plane is flat. On the other hand, the shallowest fault leads to a tilt of approximately 5 degrees of
the upper fault compartment with respect to the lower
one (Fig. 3.46). This tilt means that the fault is necessarily curved. It is easy to estimate the curvature of the fault.
As the tilt is 5 degrees for 11 m of displacement along
the fault, the radius of the local curvature, estimated
using the following equation, is approximately 125 m.
Below the fault

Structural dip: 4.3
Azimuth: 224.5
Figure 3.46: Curved fault whose geometry is computed from the FMI image, correlation data, and
structural dip change.
in a direction imposed by the borehole trajectory, which may differ significantly from the main structural orientations. Only cross sections perpendicular to
the structural axis provide the full geometry of the structure. However, the
same result may be reached by combining an oblique cross section with a full
determination of the structural dip using other methods.
In this particular case, the GeoFrame SediView module was used (Fig. 3.47).
The structural dips computed with this approach are very precise, with a margin of error averaging 1 degree. Their magnitude remains low, never exceeding
6.5 degrees. The maximum magnitude of the true structural dip corresponds to
the flat part of the cross section, as it is oriented perpendicular to the section.
Actually, the azimuth of the structural dip varies progressively from southwest
to north, indicating that this borehole crosses the periclinal closure of a lowangle antiform structure.
Conclusion
The trajectory chosen for the horizontal well was in agreement with the structural analysis of the vertical borehole from which it was drilled. Unfortunately,
a structural change, which was unpredictable given that a good seismic survey did not exist, caused the borehole to exit the reservoir early. Acquisition
of an image during drilling, combined with the approach described here,
would have enabled the trajectory to be altered in time. In this example, the
transversal component of the dip with respect to the well indicates that a
structural high exists to the east of the current trajectory.
Borehole Imaging
300
200
1m
100
100
B
300
400
Fit: 0.6 deg

Structural dip: 6.8
Azimuth: 303.2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
+ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fit: 0.6 deg

Structural dip: 6.2
Azimuth: 326.8
600
700
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
800
Plane
Fit: 1.8 deg

Structural dip: 1.8
Azimuth: 245.6
500
Plane
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
+ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Plane
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
200
Plane
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Fit: 0.6 deg

Structural dip: 4.6
Azimuth: 356.7
Figure 3.47: Structural delineation of the reservoir. A) Cross section in the direction of the horizontal well based on both vertical and horizontal images; B) structural dip in the different
parts of the reservoir.
Fracture types
Effect on the reservoir

Continuous
1. Natural open fractures
Discontinuous
Increase of permeability
Drilling-enhanced
2. Cemented (sealed) fractures
Permeability barrier
3. Drilling-induced fractures
No effect (very shallow)
Fractures and fractured environments

Fracturing is another area in which borehole imaging is
indispensable. No other tool can offer as much information on fracturing as an imaging tool. When studying fractured environments, two steps must be considered. Step 1
corresponds to the fracture dip picking and the qualification of each fracture individually; step 2 assesses the
fracturing layout.
Fracture types and their

identification on borehole images
Open fracture
Cemented fracture
(quartz cement)
Drilling-induced fracture
Figure 3.48: Fractures in outcrop, core, and borehole, and their classification and effect on reservoir
permeability.
The table in Fig. 3.48 summarizes the three fundamental

types of fractures that can be identified on borehole
images: natural open fractures, which increase formation
permeability; natural cemented fractures, which on the
contrary act as permeability barriers; and drilling-induced
fractures caused by the present-day stress and of which
the effect is limited to the immediate surrounding of the
borehole. All imaging tools enable identification and
39
Estimation of the
fracture aperture
Open fracture
(natural, enhanced,
induced)
Fracture cemented
with a tight nonconductive cement
(calcite, quartz...)
Fracture cemented
with a tight
conductive
cement (pyrite...)
Fracture cemented
with a soft
conductive cement
(clay...)
OBM and WBM Yes (by comparing

the TT image with
the amplitude
image)
No
Black trace
on both amplitude
and TT images
White trace on
amplitude image;
no trace or white
trace on TT image
White trace on
amplitude image;
no trace or white
trace on TT image
Black trace on
amplitude image; no
trace or black or white
fuzzy trace on TT image
FMI tool
WBM
No, but
differentiation
of conductive
(possibly
open) fractures from
resistive (sealed)
fractures
Yes
Black trace
White trace
Black trace
Black trace
OBMI tool
OBM
No
No
White trace
White trace
Black trace
Black trace or no
trace if the
resistivity contrast
is too low
Imaging tool
Mud system
UBI tool
Differentiation of
open from closed
fractures
Table 3.1: Interpretation of fracture traces with respect to acquisition tool type.
orientation of natural and induced fractures with more

or less confidence. The identification of the fracture type
(open or closed) and the nature of the cement (clay, calcite, etc.) filling the sealed fractures are directly
dependent on the tool used. Table. 3.1 summarizes the
signature of each type of fracture with the different
imaging tools. This comparison shows that complete
characterization of a fracture cannot be achieved with
only one tooleven the UBI tool, which provides the
most comprehensive information for fractures.
Calibration to a core is, therefore, an important step, but
even without it, the combination of several imaging
toolsthe UBI and OBMI tools in oil-base muds and the
FMI and UBI tools in water-base mudscan help
resolve most uncertainties about fracture characterization (see Chapter 5 on tool combinations).
Estimating fracture aperture in a vertical

well in the Ordovician of the TFT field
In this example, the FMI image, logged in a sandstone
reservoir of the Ordovician IV section of the TFT field,
shows steep conductive planes that correspond to natural fractures oriented in the NW-SE direction (Fig. 3.49).
The method outlined by Stephan Luthi and Philippe
Souhait1 can be used to estimate the aperture of these
fractures. Luthi and Souhait demonstrated that the
amount of current leaking through fractures can be computed using FMI images, and that it depends on two
40
parameters: the width of the fracture and the conductivity of the material
infilling the fracture. This material can be either the drilling fluid or minerals,
such as clay or pyrite, that have a similar conductive signature. The FMI image
alone cannot determine whether the conductivity of the fractures is due to
drilling mud; other methods using cores, production data, the DSI Dipole Shear
Sonic Imager in Stoneley mode, and packer tests must be used to characterize
the fracture opening. Once the fractures are confirmed to be open, the image
processing method described by Luthi and Souhait provides the mean width
for each fracture by integrating the width of each fracture segment visible on
the borehole image. The color scale of the computed fracture aperture is displayed in the header.
Quantification of fracturing
The parameter most commonly derived from borehole images is fracture orientation. Other equally important parameters for reservoir models, however,
are also available: the relation of fractures with the stratification, the fracture
type (open or sealed), the relation between sets of fractures, the relation of
fractures with structures and in situ stress, and even their average height in
horizontal boreholes. The following section presents examples from different
wells that illustrate the benefit of quantifying some of these parameters for
reservoir characterization.
Fracturing parameters derived from borehole images in

a horizontal well in the Devonian of the Illizi basin
Fracture geometry is highly dependent on bed thickness. The vertical fracture
extension depends on the bed thickness, but in a vertical well where each bed
is sampled only once, a statistical study does not make much sense, except by
grouping together the beds having the same mechanical properties. In hori-
Borehole Imaging
RXOZ
Caliper 1
(g/cm3)
(ohm.m)
0.2 2,000
5 (in.) 10
1.95 2.95
RHOZ-NPHI
HLLS
Neutron
HART
Density
Dynamic FMI image

120
240
(ohm.m) Resistive
NPHI-RHOZ 0.2 2,000
GR
MD
1:20
(m)
(m3/m3)
(ohm.m)
0.45 0.15 0.2 2,000
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
150 0
PEFZ
HLLD
( )
(ohm.m) -5
10 0.2 2,000
FMI image
Caliper 2
360
5 (in.) 10
Conductive
Conductive fractures
(trace)
Reference: North
Apertures
(10N mm)
-4 -3 -2 -1
0
Bit size
5 (in.) 10
Static FMI image

Orientation north
Conductive fractures 0
True dip
120
Resistive
1
-10
(deg)
240
FMI image
360 Borehole
drift
Conductive
100
0 (deg) 5
3D view
1m
X,X35
X,X36
X,X37
X,X38
X,X39
Figure 3.49: Estimation of fracture aperture from FMI conductive traces. The numbers on the scale
0
for fracture aperture (color bar in Track 4) represent powers of 10. Yellow means an aperture width
between 10 mm [0.001 mm] and 10 mm [0. 01 mm].
3
330
30
20%
15%
300
60
10%
5%
270
zontal wells the situation is very different since the sampling of each bed is
much better. Borehole imaging provides sufficient data for statistically
characterizing the fractures. In the Multiwell structural modeling in the
Devonian of the Illizi basin section, page 3.37, the horizontal well crosses
23 m of a thick reservoir in the Illizi basin, in which 678 fractures have been
identified and classified. A comprehensive fracture study based on such an
amount of data is significant at the reservoir scale.
5%
10%
15%
20%
90
120
240
210
The color scale used for the

fracture aperture (Track 4)
corresponds to the power
of 1 mm. For example, yellow
means an aperture between
10-3 mm [0.001 mm] and
10-2 (0.01 mm].
150
180
Strike rosette of
conductive fractures
41
0
330
30
80%
330
W
30
20%
70%
300
Rosette diagram
60%
Schmidt plot
60
50%
40%
30%
20%
270
20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
240
90
120
210
15%
300
60
10%
5%
270
5%
10%
15%
240
150
20%
90
120
210
180
150
180
Cemented fractures
Fault zone
2,050
2,000
1,950
1,900
1,850
1,800
1,750
1,700
1,650
1,600
1,550
The standard plots, dip azimuth rosette, and Schmidt

stereonet projection plots (Fig. 3.50) highlight a very
conventional distribution of the fractures. They are
organized in two conjugate sets striking N-75 and N-155.
The N-155 family is both dense (1.15 m2/m3) and regularly distributed along the borehole (Fig. 3.50). The N-75 is
globally less dense, and it includes both open (0.57 m2/m3)
and cemented (0.16 m2/m3) fractures. The fractures of
set N-75 are also less regularly distributed, especially
the cemented fractures that exist only in the immediate
vicinity of the faults.
1,500
Basic statistical data
0.16 m2/m3
0.57 m2/m3
Borehole imaging also highlights an important point for

chronology: the N-155 fractures generally abut the N-75
fractures, which indicates that they are probably posterior to them (Fig. 3.50). Finally, another important piece of
data concerning the fracture aperture can be deduced
from the image. Of the 620 fractures found, 50 exhibit an
aperture wider than 1 mm on the borehole wall, all
belonging to the N-155 set. This is not surprising
because this direction is close to the orientation (N-165)
of the present-day maximum horizontal stress (Fig. 3.51).
Open fractures
1.15 m2/m3
C
Relation of fractures to structures

When a structural model based upon seismic data or
borehole images exists, it is important to examine the
fracture distribution with this model in mind. In this horizontal well, the 678 fractures identified on the image
were placed on the computed structural cross section
shown in Fig. 3.50, which highlighted several characteristics of this reservoir. First, the central zone affected by
numerous vertical faults oriented N-75 concentrates the
majority of the cemented fractures, all of which are parallel to the faults. This confirms the observations made
in most vertical wells of the reservoir, in which all the
faults are cemented even if only a little sliding occurs.
This also suggests that the N-155 family is posterior to
the movement of these faults, because none of the fractures of this family is cemented. Figure 3.50 also highlights a different density of the N-75 fractures on both
sides of the fault zone. They are dense to the south of the
fault zone (downthrown block) and tend to disappear to
the north. This fault zone does not affect the density of
the N-155 fractures.
42
Mega Green
TADip = 5.6
TAAzi = 325.3
CSDir = 8.6
Fractures striking N-155

Shale
Sand
Mega Green
TADip = 5.6
TAAzi = 325.3
CSDir = 8.6
Fractures striking N-75
Mega Green
TADip = 5.6
TAAzi = 324.8
CSDir = 8.6
Resistive fractures N-75
Figure 3.50: Statistical analysis of fractures in the horizontal well. A) Sorting in three sets based on
aperture and orientation on a stereonet. Red: open fractures striking N-155; dark blue: open fractures
striking N-75; light blue: cemented fractures; B) fracture density in m2/m3 for each set along the well;
C) details of the FMI image showing fractures N-155 abutting fractures N-75; D) distribution of the
fracture sets with respect to the main structures (note the cemented fractures in the vicinity of faults).
Borehole Imaging
Average size of fractures in horizontal wells
The suggested method for estimating the average fracture length of a particular set is based on the ratio of the number of continuous fractures (i.e., the
ones crossing the entire circumference of the wellbore) to the number of interrupted fractures. On the image, these fractures are respectively represented
by continuous and partial sinusoids. A fracture appears interrupted when the
borehole crosses its edge (Fig. 3.52A) or when the fracture stops at a bed
boundary or at the contact with another fracture (Fig. 3.50C). Depending on
whether the interruption is parallel or perpendicular to the beds, the interpreter
can get information on the height or the length of the fractures. The bigger the
extension of the fracture, the lower the probability that the borehole crosses
its edge. Based on a paper by La Pointe et al. (1993), an internal Schlumberger
report by Ekatarina Grishchenko established, in the form of charts, the relation
that links the average size of the fractures to the ratio between the number of
interrupted fractures and the total number of fractures (Fig. 3.52B).
Fracture aperture
Bed thickness places a major constraint on the vertical extension of fractures.

By adjusting a breakdown of the beds to the visible fractures, it becomes possible to obtain reliable information on the fracture height. On the other hand,
nothing clearly restricts the horizontal extension of fractures, especially
because it depends on the chronological relationships between fracture systems. Therefore, no direct method can be used to measure the length of the
fractures. However, in a horizontal well, the average length of each fracture
system can be indirectly estimated.
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2 m
Azimuth
180
90
h
From N. Bashir
0
A
Fracture
length in
borehole
diameters
200
180
160
Truncated
Figure 3.51: Fracture aperture with respect to present-day stresses. A)
140
Crossplot of the aperture with respect to its strike orientation. All the
120
widely open fractures are striking close to maximum horizontal stress; B)

schematic representation of the open fracture aperture relative to stresses.
100
14.1 m
80
N-75 set
60
40
20
N-155 set
1.63 m
0
0.01
0.024
0.1
0.24
Truncation index
Figure 3.52: Average length of fractures for each open set. Deduced from the truncation index given
by the relationship between the number of truncated fractures and the total number of fractures.
This technique has been applied to the two fracture sets,

N-75 and N-155, of the previously described horizontal
well in the Devonian of the Illizi basin. The N-75 family has
7 interrupted fractures out of 290 for a ratio of 0.024. The
N-155 family has 92 interrupted fractures, most of which
are interrupted by the N-75 fractures, out of 327, for a
ratio of 0.28. Transferred to the curve shown in Fig. 3.51B,
these ratios correspond respectively to the average length
of 14.1 m for the N-75 set and 1.63 m for the N-155 set.
The importance of these lengths, combined with the high
43
density of fractures, indicates a large intersection

between the two fracture sets and confirms the anteriority of N-75 fractures with respect to the N-155 fractures.
In this borehole, which crosses the entire thickness of the
reservoir, no fracture shows a clear stop on the stratification. It is therefore logical to assume that most of the fractures cross the entire reservoir. Note that because the
cemented fractures are part of the N-75 fractures, they
have not been treated separately from this set.
Slightly open fractures

N-75
Open fractures
N-155
Cemented fault
and fractures
N-75
Conclusions for reservoir characterization

The study clearly shows a very strong anisotropy of fracture permeability in this reservoir. The vertical permeability is very good along the fractures striking N-155. These
fractures are numerous, open under the effect of the
present-day stress and neither cemented nor interrupted
by the stratification. Based on the same arguments, the
horizontal permeability should be very good in the N-155
Gamma ray
Orientation top of hole
Caliper 1
Caliper 2
8 (in.) 10
FMI dynamic image
120
240
360
Conductive fracture
(sinusoid)
OBMI image
Bit size
8 (in.) 10
MD
1 : 20
(m)
direction. However, these fractures are short and abut the N-75 fractures that
are closed due to present-day stress and cementation. The N-155 fractures,
therefore, are not connected horizontally. This permeability anisotropy justifies the use of horizontal wells in this field but poses serious production
problems if the fractures reach the oil/water contact.
FMI static image
(gAPI)
0 150
8 (in.) 10
Figure 3.53: Block diagram of the fracture network in the reservoir.
Resistive fracture
(sinusoid)
Stratigraphic
-10
(deg)
100
Conductive fracture
True dip
Fracture
aperture
FVAH
Conductive fracture
Fracture
Fracture
(trace)
(cm)
-10 (deg) 100 density
porosity
Reference: Top of hole
0.001 10
Sedimentary
Apertures
Density
FVA
FVPA
True dip
(10N mm)
FVDC
(cm)
(m3/m3)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-10 (deg) 100 0 (1/m) 10 0.001 10 0 0.002
FVA: Electrical fracture aperture

FVAH: Hydraulic fracture aperture
FVPA: Apparent electrical fracture porosity
X,X66
1m
0
330
30
20%
15%
300
60
10%
X,X67
5%
270
5%
10%
15%
20%
90
Well path
120
240
210
X,X68
150
180
H N-155
X,X69
N
90
180
90
S
Figure 3.54: In Well A the open fractures are subparallel to the maximum horizontal stress. This well is a good gas producer.
44
Borehole Imaging
Relation of fractures to stress in two horizontal

wells in the Ordovician of the TFT field
Two horizontal wells were drilled in the Ordovician IV sandstone reservoirs of
the TFT West gas field. These sandstones have an average porosity of 5 to 6 p.u.
and, most importantly, low to very low permeability values (10 to 0.01 mD).
To maximize the fractures enhanced permeability (that is, the number of open
fractures intersected by the well), Well A was drilled in the west part of the
field in the N-290 direction, obliquely to the direction of the main horizontal in
situ stress oriented N-155 (H) that was determined in a vertical pilot well.
As expected, the FMI image of Well A showed a large number of potentially
open conductive fractures striking in a direction close to that of H. The aperture calculation of these fractures indicates good fracture enhanced permeability (Fig. 3.54). The good gas production obtained in this well supports this
interpretation.
In view of the results in Well A, Well B was drilled a few kilometers away to
the east in the same N-290 direction. Unfortunately, this well did not produce
Gamma ray
FMI static image
(gAPI)
0 150
Caliper 1
8 (in.) 10
Caliper 2
8 (in.) 10
FMI dynamic image
120
240
360
Conductive fracture
(sinusoid)
OBMI image
Bit size
8 (in.) 10
MD
1 : 20
(m)
even after an acid treatment. The FMI image shows that,

unlike Well A, the majority of the conductive fractures
have a much smaller aperture and are oriented N-45
(NE-SW). This direction is perpendicular to the direction
of H (Fig. 3.55), which means that these fractures are
closed by the local stress. The explanation of this anomaly is not fully understood, but it is possibly linked to the
presence of a nearby fault oriented WNW-ESE (N-300)
identified with the 3D seismic survey. The bayonet-like
shape of the fault is thought to have locally created,
when it was active, a transpressive zone leading to fractures oriented in the NE-SW direction. When the tectonic activity corresponding to this fault ceased to exist, the
regional state of stress took over. This caused the fractures to close.
Resistive fracture
(sinusoid)
Stratigraphic
-10
(deg)
100
Conductive fracture
True dip
Fracture
aperture
FVAH
Conductive fracture
Fracture
Fracture
(trace)
density
(cm)
-10 (deg) 100
Reference: Top of hole
0.001 10 porosity
Sedimentary
Apertures
Density
FVA
FVPA
True dip
(10N mm)
FVDC
(m3/m3)
(cm)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-10 (deg) 100 0 (1/m) 10 0.001 10 0 0.002
X,X62
0
1m
330
30
20%
15%
300
60
10%
5%
X,X63
270
5%
10%
15%
20%
90
Well path
240
120
210
150
180
X,X64
H N-155
90
90
S
Figure 3.55: In Well B the open fractures are aligned with the minimum horizontal stress. This well did not produce even after an acid treatment.
45
Integration of fractures with production data
Caliper
In the Hassi Messaoud field, the horizontal wells drilled

in the NW-SE direction increase the chances of intercepting the fractures oriented parallel to the major faults
that strike perpendicular to these wells. These fractures
contribute significantly to the hydrocarbon recovery in
this field. However, although these wells are placed an
average of 40 m above the regional water table, a fracture
can lead to early water breakthrough when connected to
the water table. To evaluate this risk and choose the
appropriate completion scheme to isolate water production zones, a combination borehole imaging and induction resistivity tool is logged systematically with the
standard suite of openhole logs. A significant number of
wells affected by early water breakthrough actually
show low-resistivity anomalies in the fractured zones
identified on the borehole images (Fig. 3.56).
4 (in.) 12
B. drift
UBI dynamic
20
100 UBI
static
image
Gamma ray image
Dip track
0 (gAPI) 180
TH
BH
TH 0 (deg) 90
AIT
MD
(m) resistivities
(ohm.m) 0
Dip track
(deg)
4,049
Low
amplitude
fractures
4,050
4,050
4,100
Fracture density
0
330
4,051
30
20%
300
60
10%
5%
NW
270
SE
5% 10% 15% 20%
0 (m/min) 5
Oil
Water
3,350
Water rate
Oil rate
3
3,380 0 (m /h) 15 0 (m3/h) 15
90
0
150
Fracture strike
Well path
high density of open fractures on the UBI image.
100
Increase in oil holdup clearly indicates

entry of majority of oil in well.
Hole deviation
4,100
4,200
Low-resistivity anomalies and DST tests indicate water

coming from fractures.
4,200
4,100
4,000
3,900
3,800
3,700
3,600
3,400
UBI
Oil holdup probably due

to hole deviation
Figure 3.57: Oil production and water breakthrough as a function of fracture density. About 75% of the production comes from the uppermost highly fractured interval.
46
Figure 3.56: Interval affected by water breakthrough correlates with a low-resistivity anomaly and a
3,500
WFL velocity
180
90
AHT10
2 (ohm.m)20,000
AHT20
2 (ohm.m)20,000
AHT30
2 (ohm.m)20,000
AHT60
2
20,000
AHT90
2 (ohm.m)20,000
STRC-UP-800
210
3D view from south
90
80
MD
1 : 3,000
(m)
ELAN
Oil flow coming from

fractured/fault zone
Moved water
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
Oil
Quartz
Silt
Bound water
Kaolinite
Volumetric analys
1
(V/V)
0
AIT
RC-Up
STRC-UP-2000
2
()
0.2
90
120
Water velocity in well possibly due to water

coming from the fractured/fault zone.
Oil holdup
Water holdup
TVD
(m)
(m)
PSP
Production Services Platform
Two intervals3,700 to 3,750 m and 4,040 to 4,080 m

of the horizontal well presented in Fig. 3.57 are characterized by a resistivity drop that is not associated with
the presence of clay or silt as shown by the low gamma ray
log reading. This well produced 8 m3/h of oil and 1.8 m3/h
Fracture density
FVDA
1
(1/m)
50
Partly open fracture
Tadpoles
True di p
Quality [5,15]
Quality [15,20]
0
(deg)
100
Open fracture
Tadpoles
True di p
Quality [5,15]
Quality [15,20]
0
(deg)
100
Fault
Tadpoles
True di p
3,490
Quality [5,15]
Quality [15,20]
0
(deg)
100 3,520
15%
240
90
Borehole Imaging
of water with a drillstem test tool shortly after drilling. To confirm the depth
of the intervals affected by water breakthrough, a production log was run with
the PS Platform tool. Between 4,100 and 4,150 m, the fluids are slowed due to
the U shape of the well (Fig. 3.57, top right insert). Only a small fraction of the
oil seems to flow. After this zone the water holdup increases, which indicates
that part of the water is produced around 4,050 m (Fig. 3.58A). This water production is confirmed by a temperature increase shown by the temperature log and by
the positive speed detected by the WFL Water Flow Log of the PS Platform tool.
Another temperature rise is observed between 3,710 and 3,730 m (Fig. 3.58B).
The small oil holdup indicates that this zone also produces water. On the other hand, the combination, at
3,427 m, of the presence of fractures, a temperature
increase, and the reduction of the water holdup, while
the well deviation is constant, indicates that this zone
produces mainly oil (Fig. 3.58C). It is worth noting that in
this interval the local reduction of the resistivity correlates
with an increase in the percentage of shale and silt as
shown by the gamma ray log.
WHP (12D)
200
Fracture
density
RC-Up
STRC-UP
2,000
Water
Caliper 1
Silt
Run1
Run 2
8 (in.) -2
Bound
water
SUWI
Run 1
Caliper 2
-2 (in.) 8
GR
(gAPI)
GR TVD
0
150 1 : 500 (m)
Kaolinite 1 (m3/m3) 0
Volumetric SUWI
Run 2
analysis
0.1
(mD)
Oil
Quartz
KINT
BS
8 (in.) -2
( ) 0.2 0 (1/m) 50
STRC-UP Partly open
800
fractures
0 ( ) 0.2
RC-Down
Open
STRC-DN
fracture
2,000
1,000 0.2 ( ) 0
STRC-DN
KINT
800
(mD)
1 (V/V) 0 1 (m3/m3) 0 0.1 1,000 0.2 ( )
Fault
0 0 (deg) 100
700
3,600 (psi) 4,150
FVDA
WTEP (12D)
120.5 (C) 123

Water holdup - Image (12 D)
Hole shape
(psi)
WPRE (12D)
WHP (7D)
Holdup
200 (psi) 700

WPRE (7D)
Gas
Oil
WFL
velocity
Borehole
salinity
3,600 (psi) 4,150 Water
Oil holdup
Water holdup
(ppk)
WTEP (7D)
YW 0 400
120.5 (C) 123 0 ( ) 1 Inelastic 3,490
ratio
WPRE (22U)
YG
( )
1 3,600 (psi) 4,150 1 ( ) 0 0.5 1.5 3,520
TVD
(m)
3,350
(m)
3,380
(m/min)
0
5
Water
Oil
Water
Oil rate rate
(Rm3/h) (Rm3/h)
0
15 0
15
4,040 3,473.4
4,050 3,473.7
4,060 3,474.5
4,070 3,475
4,080 3,475.5
Water breakthrough zone 4,040-4,070 m MD
B
3,710 3,463.8
3,720 3,464
3,730 3,464.2
Water breakthrough zone 3,710-3,730 m MD
3,420 3,411.7
3,430 3,418.8
D4
3,440 3,424.9
Oil production zone around 3,427 m MD

Figure 3.58: Correlation of intervals of water breakthrough and oil-producing zones with high fracture is confirmed by production data.
47
59184linD10R1.en.p48.ps
12/5/06
5:05 PM
Page 48
GR
Depth
UBI static image UBI dips Core description OH logs
0
330
20%
30
15%
X,X28
300
60
10%
5%
270
X,X30
5% 10% 15% 20%
240
90
120
210
X,X32
180
Point bar accretion
150
Channel
Crevasse splay
Overbank flood plain

96
ll 19
X,X34
From
Mia
Flow direction
X,X36
Lateral accretionary macroforms
X,X38
Migration direction. Note cross-beds/flow direction is near perpendicular to this
X,X40
X,X42
flow out of page
Figure 3.59: Sedimentary analysis from UBI imaging in the TAGI formation showing lateral accretionary macroforms that indicate high-sinuosity channel fills. Note the presence of
breakouts in the shales and the subvertical traces of the UBI centralizers on the mudcake in the sandstone that both adversely affect dip picking.
Use of the measurements

for purposes other than imaging
GR
(gAPI)
OBMI
formation dips
(deg)
OBMI
static Caliper
image
(in.)
UBI
dynamic
amplitude
image
UBI
formation dips
(deg)
X,X37
0.5 m
Whatever the type of physical measurement used to create

a borehole image, the image is the focal point of the interpretation, while the measurement itself also provides useful information to the geologist. The FMI and OBMI tools,
for instance, provide high-resolution measurements of the
formation resistivity that, after calibration, deliver unique
information on rock texture. Unlike these resistivity
measurement tools, the acoustic UBI tool does not directly
measure specific rock properties; rather, it provides information about the surface reflectivity of the borehole used
to create the image. But in addition to the image, this tool
provides the precise topography of the borehole wall,
which can be used to quantify the present-day stresses and
the mechanical properties of the reservoir.
OBMI
dynamic image
X,X38
Texture analysis from resistivity imaging
Resistivity imaging with the OBMI

tool in TAGI fluvial sandstones
In the TAGI fluvial sandstone reservoirs of the Ourhoud
field, sedimentary models have been developed with
facies and geometries based on UBI images calibrated
with core data. This approach has enabled geologists to
48
X,X39
Figure 3.60: Comparison of OBMI and UBI images in a porous channel sandstone in the TAGI formation. Note the traces on the UBI image of the UBI centralizers on the mudcake.
Borehole Imaging
GR OBMI dynamic OBMI dips OBMI static image

image
OH logs
Cal-dev
characterize, with high confidence, the fluvial channels in the different TAGI
units. Figure 3.59 shows a high-sinuosity channel characterized by the presence
of a transport direction in the channel axis, as well as another perpendicular
direction corresponding to lateral accretion. The precision of these models
AIT (blue)
and OBMI Rxo
(black)
resistivities
3D view
Erosive
contact
at base
of channel
0.5 m
X,X98
X,X99
Figure 3.61: Sharp erosional contact at the channel base in a TAGI reservoir on an OBMI image.
is linked to the quality of the UBI measurement, which, in

turn, is highly dependent on the condition of the borehole. In the presence of a thick mudcake or a borehole
affected by ovalization or washouts, the geological
information provided by the UBI image is poor. OBMI
measurements are related to the rock itself, not just the
surface of the borehole wall. As a result OBMI images
enable high-quality dip picking of sedimentary and structural beds in intervals where the UBI image provides little or no geological data. In Fig. 3.60 the OBMI image
shows a higher number of high-quality sedimentary and
stratigraphic dips than the UBI image whose quality is
degraded by the traces of the UBI centralizers on the
mudcake. This comparison also shows that the OBMI
measurements can pick up much more subtle low-angle
structural dips than the UBI tool, which is particularly
important in Algeria where structural dip is usually low.
Lastly, the high resistivity contrast of the OBMI image
makes it easier to identify channel-erosive basal contacts that are sometimes difficult to see on a UBI image
due to the lower acoustic contrast (Fig. 3.61).
2m
Calip-GR
dev.
Sand count
OBMI dips
RHOB/NPHI
Static OBMI
image
OBMI Rxo (blue)

MSFL (cyan)
0.2
2,000
Core photo
OBMI sand
count
X,X29
0.00 0.00 6.86 0.23
X,X30
0.00 0.00 7.62 0.46
X,X31
0.00 0.00 8.38 0.69
X,X32
0.00 0.00 9.37 0.69
X,X33
0.00 0.00 10.21 0.84
X,X34
0.00 0.00 10.59 1.45
X,X35
0.00 0.08 10.61 1.45
X,X36
0.00 0.30 12.27 1.45
X,X37
0.00 0.38 12.50 2.21
X,X38
0.00 0.46 12.73 2.90
X,X39
0.00 0.53 13.64 2.90
OBMI sand count

Shale
Silt
Sand
High resistivity sand
Sand count is performed on the OBMI Rxo curve with resistivity

cutoffs (vertical red lines on track 4) calibrated in the cored
intervals. The high-resistivity sand cutoff accounts for the
presence of anhydrite cement or high-porosity/permeability
sands invaded by oil base mud.
Figure 3.62: Sand count based on core-calibrated cutoffs on the OBMI high-resolution Rxo resistivity curve.
Each of the high-resolution (1-cm vertical resolution)

resistivity curves provided by the OBMI tool corresponds
to a true Rxo-type measurement of the formation, which
(contrary to the FMI synthetic resistivity curve) facilitates
an accurate sand count without calibration in thin-bedded sand-shale formations immediately after acquisition
(Fig. 3.62). This technique aids in quickly identifying
reservoirs that would not be revealed by the lower vertical resolution of standard openhole logs.
Textural description of clastic formations

from electrical images
Principle
The new GeoFrame SandTex module, developed by B.
Newberry et al.,2 captures textural information from
borehole electrical images for clastic environments. This
method is based on analysis of the resistivity image
spectrum circumferentially around the borehole over a
short sliding window (1 to 3 in., depending of the type of
electrical images used). An image heterogeneity index
is calculated from the percentile resistivity distribution of
the image resistivity histogram. Calculation of this curve
uses a relatively simple function of the percentile distribution comparable to that used for grain-size sorting in
clastics:
Heterogeneity index =
(75th Percentile 25th Percentile) / 50th percentile
49
This heterogeneity index is independent of the absolute

resistivity values and has a similar response in low- and
high-resistivity formations. The resistivity spectrum is
divided into a median fraction, which represents the
well-sorted fraction, and fractions that are either more
resistive or more conductive (Fig. 3.63). The resistivity of
each of these three fractions can then be calculated.
These outputs, heterogeneity index, fractional resistivities, variability, and the density of dips and associated
openhole log data can be combined to compute a facies
description that captures the textural content of the
borehole image in a semiquantitative manner in these
clastic environments. Contrary to core analysis, which
usually takes weeks or even months to complete and
covers only a small part of the logged interval, the
SandTex approach generates a continuous high-resolution heterogeneity index curve and textural facies
description over the entire logged interval shortly after
data acquisition. This new technique provides reservoir
engineers and geologists with a quick decision-making
tool and minimizes the cored intervals, both of which
help lower costs.
Example in a Triassic sandstone

of the Berkine field
Figure 3.64 shows an example of the results obtained
with this method using OBMI data logged in a fining
upward interval of a TAGI fluvial sandstone reservoir in
the Berkine field. Comparison with the corresponding
core data shows good agreement between SandTex electrofacies (Track 8) and core facies (Track 9). The shape of
the mean grain size curve from the core data also correlates well with the peak of the resistivity histogram
(Track 10) (that is, of the mean fraction). However, correlation of the SandTex heterogeneity index with the core
grain size sorting is average, probably because the core
analysis was carried out visually, which implies a degree
of subjectivity (Track 5). An optical measurement of the
core grain size sorting would have provided a more reliable comparison.
Heterogeneity index
The heterogeneity index based on
electrical images depends only on the
relative spread of the resistivity, not
on the absolute value of the resistivity
Conductive
fraction
This curve compares with the sorting

index based on core grain size in
sand/shale formations
Matrix
The shape of the peak resistivity

curve compares with the shape of
the mean grain size curve
Resistive
fraction
Peak
Upper bound
Lower bound
Percentages of points
that are conductive
(blue) and resistive (red)
Heterogeneity index =
VDL presentation with curves

showing peak upper, and lower
bounds of resistivity histogram
75th percentile - 25th percentile

50th percentile
Figure 3.63: Grain size and heterogeneity index estimates based on a resistivity spectrum analysis
of the OBMI and FMI electrical images in clastic formations.
to characterize the present-day state of stressthe orientations as well as the

magnitudes of the main stresses. One of the richest methods to estimate the
stresses involves analyzing the borehole damage. This is possible because the
transit time measured by the UBI tool provides a very detailed borehole topography, and because the dedicated HoSAna module of the GeoFrame system differentiates damage due to stress from damage caused by drilling.
Stress-related wellbore damage

The most common borehole damage is from induced fractures and breakouts,
for which the HoSAna module provides the orientation, length along the borehole, depth, and width. This software also identifies and measures less common features related to stresses such as shearing on preexisting planes that
occurs during drilling. In Algeria shears are scarce because the normal stress
on preexisting planes is huge and inhibits shear displacement. For the same
reason, breakouts are extremely frequent. Three examples of stress analysis
are detailed below. The first comes from quartzites in the Hanet basin. The
second comes from the Timimoun basin, which is well known for its breakouts
following Beghouls work in the previous WEC Algeria.3 The third example
illustrates the noteworthy case of a vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field
which crosses a fault that induces a very important rotation of the stress in its
vicinity.
Borehole wall topography for

in situ stress analysis
Quartzites of the Hanet basin
Algeria is certainly one of the oil and gas provinces of the

world where in situ stresses are the highest. This leads to
borehole or perforation stability problems. It affects the
producibility of the fractures as described in Relation of
fractures to stress in two horizontal wells in the
Ordovician of the TFT field on page 3.45. Because it also
constrains the way to produce a reservoir, it is necessary
Although the matrix properties of Hanet basin quartzites are poor, they produce from natural fractures. Production varies significantly from one well to
another. For example, Well BH-4 produces well when the neighboring BH-5
does not produce. Borehole images exhibit similar fracture density and orientation in both wells. They also show a main difference: Well BH-4 exhibits
many induced fractures and only few breakouts, when it is the opposite in
Well BH-5. This means that horizontal stresses vary from one well to the
50
Borehole Imaging
Wells of the Timimoun basin
othernot in orientation but in magnitude. Many induced fractures indicate

a low-amplitude minimum horizontal stress, when many breakouts indicate a
high-amplitude maximum horizontal stress. From this basic concept it is clear
that globally the horizontal stresses are much greater in BH-5 than in BH-4.
Because of this difference, BH-4 fractures are much more open and therefore
produce better. The borehole images confirm that the fracture apertures are
much wider in BH-4 that in BH-5. Even if the relationship between stresses
and production is not very well known, it is clear that UBI images offer rough
but very valuable information on present-day stresses.
SRES-A
(ohm.m)
OBMI
0.2
2,000
image
C
R
Matrix
SRES-R
Conductive
(ohm.m)
Static
2,000
OBMI image Resistive 0.2
SRES-S
SRES-CE
Sedim. dips
(ohm.m)
2,000
-10 (deg) 90 1(ohm.m) 0 0.2
0
Bad
hole
MD
1:40
(m)
360
SandTex
heterogeneity
index and
core sorting
index
SRES-SOR
0 (ohm.m) 1.5
CFLA1 CF
0
()
1.5
Grain size
(g/m3)
1.95
2.95
Grain size
(g/m3)
1.95
2.95
CPOR 2
(m3/m3)
0.45
0.15
TNPH L
(m3/m3)
0.45
0.15
Overall, the Timimoun basin is a very low-porosity gas

reservoir zone. Such reservoirs generally require hydraulic
fracturing, which itself requires a precise knowledge of
the minimum horizontal stress. One method for assessing
this stress uses borehole wall topography analysis provided by the UBI tool. The following example discusses
two vertical wells that cross a 500-m interval of a horizontal sequence of sandstones and shales.
SandTex
facies
AMP DISTA
SRES
10
Fm
150
(ohm.m)
0
Lamination
(1/m)
Core
facies
0 150 (gAPI)
0
0 15
()
CGSZ
()
100
1
X,X50
X,X52
Sorting
Good-mod
Moderate
Poorly
Chaotic
Very well
X,X54
Well
Good-mod
Moderate
Well
Poorly
Poorly
Very well
Shale
X,X56
SandTex
generic facies
display
Track 1: OBMI LQC-Depth
Track 2: OBMI static image and sedimentary dips
Track 3: Percentage of points falling in the 3 fractions (grey: conductive, beige: matrix, red: resistive)
Track 4: Calculated resistivities of the 3 fractions
Track 5: Core grain size sorting (hollow circles) versus SandTex Heterogeneity index curve
Track 6: Core porosity (red dots) and core density (black dots) versus TNPH porosity log (red dashed curve) and RHOB density log (black dashed curve)
Track 7: Formation
Track 8: SandTex facies and lamination index from OBMI dips
Track 9: Core facies description
Track 10: Variable density log display of continuous resistivity histogram versus mean grain size from core
Figure 3.64: SandTex outputs vs core results in a fining upward channel sand reservoir of the Berkine field.
51
The first well indicates neither the presence of faults nor

fractures. The sandstone beds of the second well are
slightly fractured. In both cases, the UBI tool provides a
good-quality borehole topography of which the most
remarkable feature is the presence of extensive breakouts. In the first well, the breakouts yielded clear yet surprising results (Fig. 3.65). The breakout orientationthat
is, the direction of the minimum horizontal stressis
constant to N-35 from the top to the bottom of the well
with the minor exception of small variations linked to
lithology changes (Fig.3.65A). On the contrary, the breakout depth is highly variable, from none in most of the
interval to as much as 2.5 in. in placesalmost as deep
as the borehole radius. The angular width of the breakouts shows the same evolution as the depth but with a
A
GR
0
200
(gAPI)
0
UBI image
Breakout azimuth
north
much greater degree of variability, suggesting that the depth is a more reliable
measurement than the width.
The relationship between breakouts and lithology in this well is unexpected.
Contrary to the norm, the breakouts show maximum development in the cleanest sandstones and are totally absent in the more shaly beds (Fig. 3.65B). The
gamma ray displays a linear anticorrelation with the depth of the breakouts
(Fig. 3.65C).
Where the gamma ray exceeds 160 API, there are no more breakouts, and the
borehole remains perfectly circular. Because the resistance to rupture of the
sandstone is much greater than that of shale, this anomaly in breakout distribution most likely originates from a very strong variation of the state of stress
in relation to lithology. One possible explanation for this stress distribution
could be that shales have a plastic behavior over geological time. If shales dis-
Breakout
Breakout
magnitude
width
0
(in.) 2.5 0
(deg) 60
360 170 (gAPI)
20 170 (gAPI)
20
180
160
X,X60
140
2 1
120
100
X,X70
3
80
4
5
60
X,X80
40
20
X,X90
GR
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Breakout magnitude
B
1
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
B
1 in
1 in
1 in
Figure 3.65: Breakout analysis using HoSAna software on UBI images. A) Result of the BO interpretation layer by layer. Track 1 gamma ray defines three facies; Track 2 transit time
image and BO orientation (pink dots); Track 3 BO magnitude against the gamma ray curve in a reverse scale (170 to 20); Track 4 BO width against the gamma ray curve; B) examples
of borehole sections deduced from transit time analysis; C) crossplot of the BO amplitude against the gamma ray (note the clear and unusual anticorrelation).
52
Borehole Imaging
Improving Imaging Data Quality from an Old Friend

Logging tool conveyance in the horizontal wells of the Hassi Messaoud field
is generally a tough job. The severity of this task had been increased in previous years due to changes in drilling practices toward short-radius slim (6 in.)
wells and underbalance drilling.
rotating transducer. This is particularly useful in underbalance wells that are commonly affected by a lot of
debris in the mud.
Figure 3.E: Condition of the UBI tool after logging in a tough horizontal
well. The UBI, in cleaner conditions, is shown on the right.
Figure 3.D: Running the UBI tool in tough logging conditions in a 6-in. short-radius well is a difficult
The new sub was introduced commercially in Algeria in

2004 and since then has replaced the standard sub. This
change has resulted in delivering continuous image logs
in the buildup sections of these wells, which has significantly helped geological evaluation of the Cambrian
reservoirs of the Hassi Messaoud field (Figs. 3.71, 3.72
and 3.73).
job. The UBI rotating sub may stall, which can result in gaps in the image data. The effect is more
severe in the deviated and landing sections of the well.
Under these conditions the UBI UltraSonic Imager image quality can suffer, and
the UBI rotating subassembly may stall, which can cause gaps in the image data.
This effect is most severe in the deviated and landing sections of the well and
can make data acquisition in these intervals a real headache (Figs. 3.D and 3.E).
Since the UBI tool is the primary fracture evaluation tool in the HassiMessaoud field, it has been a priority to extend its operating range. The engineering work for the new sub was performed by a rapid response engineering
team in the Schlumberger-Riboud Product Center. The modification of the
standard UBI tool involved a comprehensive redesign of the ultrasonic transducer housing and rotation subassembly (Fig. 3.F):
The length of the subassembly was reduced, and its shape was modified to
provide less chance of contact with the borehole wall.
The empty space needed for the rotation of the subassembly was minimized
to prevent rock debris from being trapped between the frame and the
Figure 3.F: Standard and modified UBI subassembly.
53
h V H
Decreasing
gamma ray
V
Sand
Figure 3.66: Theoretical evolution of the state of stress with respect to lithology assuming plastic
deformation in shale. A) Mohr representation of the change in horizontal deviatory stress that
decreases in shales due to plastic deformation and increases in sands to balance the decrease in
shales; B) block diagram of stress-induced damage induced by the new states of stress: huge breakouts and/or induced fractures in sands, but nothing in shales.
Borehole crossing a fault in the Hassi Messaoud field

Because numerous faults pass through the Hassi Messaoud field, vertical and
horizontal wells often cross at least one of them. The borehole described here
crosses a major fault, dipping 58 degrees to N-146 and causing a massive and
spectacular stress perturbation, as shown on the UBI image.
The borehole is affected by numerous breakouts oriented NNE-SSW outside
the disturbed zone (Fig. 3.68). These breakouts are fairly deep, which indicates
a strong stress deviator in the horizontal plane. The gamma ray log does not
Keyseat
magnitude Orientation north
0 (in.) 1
SW
NE
Bit size
1 in
1 in
X,675
52/228
X,675
2
1 in
1 in
X,676
X,676
3
1 in
1 in
FMI
Key seat
UBI
X,677.67
X,677
1 in
1 in
3
Reverse
4 Fault 5
X,678
(Throw x 2)
X,678
1 in
1 in
K
54
V
Boundary conditions
The second well, located a few kilometers away from the

first, shows a similar relationship between the lithology
and the depth of breakouts. With identical mud weight
and formation facies, however, the depth of the breakouts
is less, which suggests that local stresses are lower in
this well. The wall topography displays another deformation mechanism that is fairly rare in Algerian reservoirs:
the movement of a preexisting fault during drilling. Both
the UBI and FMI images clearly show that the fault plane
plunges with a 52-degree dip toward N-228. The fault
movement is highlighted by an increase in the keyseating
effect in the upper block. While the effect does not
exceed 0.2 in. [5 mm] in the rest of the well, it reaches
0.6 in. [15 mm] at the fault location. Figure 3.67 shows
that a reverse fault movement of the upper block during
the drilling of the lower block is the most credible explanation for such an increase in the keyseat effect. The fault
strike is oriented in the N-138 direction, which is nearly
parallel to the main horizontal stress (N-125). Therefore
this stress had little effect on the fault movement. This
reverse fault located in the more plastic shales has therefore moved under the effect of the minor horizontal
stress, which implies that, at least in these shales, the
minor stress is the vertical one. Under these conditions, a
hydraulic fracture intended to stimulate the reservoir
would most likely end up spreading horizontally.
Shales
play long-term plastic behavior, the three main stresses

will tend to counterbalance each other around the one
that cannot vary: the vertical stress. In Algeria, the
Palaeozoic craton is subject to a strike-slip stress regime
in which the vertical stress is the intermediate one
(Fig. 3.66). Therefore, the main horizontal stress will
decrease in the shales, while on the opposite side the
minor horizontal stress will increase until it equals the
vertical stress. In sandstones, the opposite occurs. As the
shales do not hold the regional stress deviator, it is entirely supported by the sandstones. This condition brings
about an increase of the main horizontal stress and a
reduction of the minor horizontal stress, which results in
a strong increase of the stress deviator in the horizontal
plane and leads to deep breakouts. Confirmation of this
hypothesis requires an exhaustive study of the rock
mechanics, although the DSI sonic measurements are
already in agreement. These data show a strong
anisotropy of the Vp/Vs ratio in sandstones, with a maximum value reached in the southeast direction, but nothing in shales. If this hypothesis is confirmed, breakout
geometry would be a good way to predict the stress conditions continuously along the wellbore.
X,678.42
Figure 3.67: Shear movement during drilling at a pre-existing fault plane. A) FMI and UBI images of
the fault plane; B) HoSAna analysis of the UBI image; Track 1 keyseat amplitude increasing at the
fault plane; Track 2 transit time image; C) theoretical block diagram of the shear movement that
explains the increasing keyseat; D) borehole cross sections.
Borehole Imaging
outs progressively rotate within a 90-degree angle,

changing from a NNE-SSW direction to a WNW-ESE perpendicular direction. Below the fault, the breakouts return
to their original direction within approximately 30 m.
2
X,360
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
X,370
3
4
X,380
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
3
4
X,390
Main fault
X,400
1 in
1 in
1 in
1 in
X,410
C
330
0
80%
X,420
30
70%
60%
300
60
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
270
240
90
120
210
180
150
Figure 3.68: Stress perturbation in the vicinity of a main fault. A) Transit time UBI image showing BO
evolution in magnitude and azimuth in the fault zone (note the rotation by more than 90 degrees);
B) borehole sections showing the BO evolution in azimuth; C) fault plane on a stereonet.
provide enough variation to show a possible relationship between shaliness

and breakout geometry. In contrast, the UBI image clearly shows that within
the 50 m around the fault, both the width and depth of the breakouts progressively decrease until they disappear altogether, while, as shown by borehole
images and cores, a great number of widely open fractures shows up in a direction parallel to the fault. This indicates a transition from a clearly compressive
state of stress to a distensive one in the vicinity of the fault. However, the most
remarkable change concerns the direction of the breakouts and therefore the
direction of the stresses. Within the 25-m interval above the fault, the break-
A stress perturbation of this scale is uncommon. It fits

the pattern of perturbations described by Vincent Auzias
(1998) in the vicinity of strike-slip fault planes with lack
of planarity (Fig. 3.69). Depending on the geometry of
these nonplanar defects, stresses can increase or
decrease considerably in the immediate area surrounding the fault. In this borehole, breakouts indicate that the
horizontal stresses have greatly decreased in the vicinity
of the fault. However, as the fault is not vertical, it most
probably induces, in the three dimensions, more complex
perturbations than those caused solely by a strike-slip
movement. This being said, the fault almost certainly
moved with a strong dextral strike-slip component. This
example highlights that stress perturbation in the vicinity
of a fault depends more on the lack of planarity of the
fault plane than on its general orientation. It is therefore
very difficult to foresee these perturbations without
acquiring borehole images during drilling. Finally, these
perturbations correspond to that expected from an active
fault. However, since there is no seismicity in the Hassi
Messaoud field at the present time, this means that the
perturbation of the state of stress observed in this well
has been fossilized, and contrary to what happened to
the shales of the Timimoun field, no creep has occurred
to release it. Only the particularly stiff rheology of the
quartzites can explain the permanence of this perturbed
state of stress.
Highly stressed zone
Widely open fractures
2m
Modified from Vincent Auzias 1982

Figure 3.69: Actual example of stress perturbation along a dextral strike slip fault (from Vincent Auzias et al., 1998). The fractures exhibit the maximum horizontal stress path (red
arrow). Note that the perturbations are due not to the fault plane itself but to the defects of its surface.
55
The occasional necessity

of combining images
The measurement principle of UBI acoustic imaging is fundamentally different from FMI and OBMI resistivity imaging, and the advantages and limitations of each imaging
principle differ significantly. Resistivity imaging corresponds to a true measurement of the electrical properties of the formation with a depth of investigation of a few
centimeters. Because this measurement is acquired by
pad-mounted buttons, borehole coverage of resistivity
images is only partial. Acoustic imaging is obtained by
reflecting a rotating acoustic beam off the entire circumference of the borehole wall. Each of the 180 measurements
of the reflected beam provides information on the acoustic
impedance of the formation and on the borehole radius.
The geological capability of the UBI tool thus depends
directly on the quality of the borehole wall, which is often damaged during
drilling. However, this detailed borehole geometry provides invaluable data on
the state of stress and the type of fracture filling, which is often complex in
Algeria. In some cases, it is advantageous to combine both types of images.
Wells logged with water-base mud

The FMI tool provides the best quality image for identifying geological bedding
and formation facies. It is also the only borehole imaging tool that provides an
estimation of the fracture aperture. Figure 3.70 highlights the superiority of an
FMI image over a UBI image for the determination of bedding and facies in a
Silurian shale interval of the Timimoun field. The exceptionally clear structures
seen on the FMI image, which indicate soft sediment deformation possibly
due to slumping, are totally invisible on the UBI amplitude image. This is
most likely due to a lack of acoustic contrast of the UBI image in these shales.
RLA1
(ohm.m)
0.2 2,000
DEV
NP HI-RHOM
0 (deg) 5
Bit size
4
(in.)
PEFZ
8
Caliper 1
4
(in.)
FMI dynamic image
UBI dynamic amplitude image
Bed boundary
Horizontal scale: 1:7,540

Orientation north
Amplitude
Caliper 2
4
(in.) 8
MD
1 : 10
(m)
RLA2
(ohm.m)
RHOM-NPHI 0.2 2,000
Stratigraphic
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
0
Low
120
240
UBI Image
Bed boundary
True dip
( )
0
RHOM
-10
360
(deg) 100
Stratigraphic
True dip
High
-10
(deg)
RLA3
(ohm.m)
5 0.2 2,000
RLA4
(m3/m3)
(ohm.m)
0.45
0.15 0.2 2,000
Density
RLA5
(g/cm3)
(ohm.m)
100 1.95
2.95 0.2 2,000
FMI
image
3D views
UBI
image
2055
1m
X,X55
2056
X,X56
Figure 3.70: Soft sediment deformation (SSD), shown here by beds folded by slumping down the paleoslope, is clearly visible on the FMI image but not on the UBI image.
56
Borehole Imaging
Note gaps in image data over the buildup section of this well and scarcity of either geological or geomechanical data (erratic caliper)
Structural dip
Sedimentary dip
Stratigraphic dip
Low-amplitude continuous (open) fracture
Low-amplitude discontinuous (open) fracture
Wellpath
Fracture
density
Stratigraphy
Cambrian D3
Cambrian D2
Cambrian ID
Intrusion
Dip track
No UBI data
X30
X20
X10
X00
X90
X80
X70
X60
X50
X40
X30
Caliper
X20
UBI ampl.
image
Figure 3.71: Fracture analysis compromised in build and landing sections due to erratic UBI data acquisition with the standard UBI subassembly transducer.
The parallel inclined stripes visible on the UBI image correspond to the trace
of the UBI centralizers on the borehole wall. Another application of the UBI tool
is related to its unique capabilities concerning the evaluation of stresses and
borehole stability (as demonstrated in the well in Fig. 3.67 described in the previous section related to in situ stress). No tool other than the UBI tool would
have been able to detect the fault movement during drilling and establish a link
between breakout depth and shaliness.
Wells logged with oil-base mud

Before the introduction of the OBMI tool in 2004, all the available borehole
images of the oil-base mud wells of Algeria in the Trias and CambroOrdovician formations were logged with acoustic imaging tools such as the
UBI tool. The main objectives of borehole imaging interpretation in these two
formations are fundamentally different: orientation of sedimentary structures
and facies characterization in the TAGI fluvial sandstone reservoirs, and fracture network characterization and evaluation of structural dip in the low-permeability reservoirs of Cambro-Ordovician age. Combining the UBI and OBMI
tools met these specific objectives.
Triassic reservoirs
As noted in Resistivity imaging with the OBMI tool in TAGI fluvial sandstones
on page 3.48, the quality of OBMI imaging makes it the most appropriate tool
for analyzing the sedimentary structures of the Triassic reservoirs and characterizing the quality of these reservoirs through their texture. The UBI images
provide data on stresses and their changes in orientation in the vicinity of faults.
These data are valuable for determining the direction of

horizontal boreholes and for planning production and
hydraulic fracturing programs.
Cambro-Ordovician reservoirs
Fracture characterization is the primary objective in the
low-permeability sandstone reservoirs of CambroOrdovician age. The UBI tool provides a full-coverage
image of the borehole surface, which allows easy identification of subvertical fractures that are difficult to see
on OBMI images due to the incomplete borehole coverage. UBI images also enable the differentiation between
open and closed fractures by comparing the amplitude
with the transit time image. In contrast, structural and
sedimentary dips are often of poor quality or completely
invisible on UBI images, which is especially problematic
when modeling geological structures in horizontal wells.
Another limitation with UBI imaging manifests itself
when imaging the buildup section of short-radius horizontal boreholes. Imaging these sections is often impossible because the UBI subassembly transducer comes
into contact with the edge of the borehole, causing it to
stall and consequently leading to gaps with no image
data in the logged interval.
57
3,180
Fault
Fracture
D5
3,240
3,180
3,200
3,200
3,220
3,220
D3
3,240
MD
278
3,240
D2
3,260
3,260
SE
3,260
NW
3,320
D5
True dip
Fault
Continuous low-amplitude fracture
Beb boundary
Discontinuous low-amplitude fracture
3,350
D3
D2
No
UB
Ia
cq
is i
ti o
Depth, m
3,450
3,500
3,550
3,600
3,650
3,700
3,750
3,790
Figure 3.72: UBI interpretation displayed in 2D and 3D (Note the absence of UBI data in the buildup section of the well). A) 3D display of the UBI image with the fracture and fault
planes along the wellbore path; B) structural cross section based on UBI-derived bedding dips.
The modified UBI subassembly provided a continuous image log in the deviated and landing sections of the well
Structural dip
Sedimentary dip
Stratigraphic dip
Low-amplitude continuous (open) fracture
Low-amplitude discontinuous (open) fracture
Wellpath
Fracture
density
Stratigraphy
D3
D2
ID
Dip track
X60
X50
X40
X30
X20
X10
X00
X90
X80
X70
X60
X50
Caliper
X40
UBI ampl.
image
Figure 3.73: Acquisition of high-quality UBI images in the horizontal as well as the buildup section of the well made possible by a specifically modified UBI sub (compare to Fig. 3.71).
58
Borehole Imaging
Recent introduction in Algeria of a more compact UBI subassembly transducer

has proved to significantly minimize this limitation. Figures 3.71 and 3.72A
show the partial results obtained with a standard transducer in a 6-in. shortradius horizontal well logged in the Cambrian of the Hassi Messaoud field.
The derived structural cross section model is presented in Fig. 3.72B. The new
UBI transducer provided a continuous log of fractures and geological dips covering the entire logged interval (Fig. 3.73), thus enabling borehole shape
analysis to be performed in the buildup section of this horizontal well for geomechanical studies (see the Borehole wall topography for in situ stress
analysis, page 3.50).
Good hole
A
GR
OBMI
image
OBMI
dip
UBI
image
Despite the improved quality of the UBI image provided

by the new transducer in the buildup sections in these
horizontal wells, dip picking of fractures and geological
dips is often difficult and sometimes impossible in the
horizontal sections of these wells due to poor borehole
quality caused by underbalanced drilling.The comparison
of the two images shows that dip data derived from the
OBMI image is consistent with that of the UBI image in
the good-quality sections of the borehole (Fig. 3.74A),
while it largely compensates for the low-quality UBI
image in the affected intervals (Fig. 3.74B). The number
Bad hole
B
UBI dip Caliper
Resistivity
GR
OBMI
image
OBMI
dip
UBI
image
UBI dip Caliper Resistivity
X,340
X,440
X,342
OBMI Rxo
X,344
X,442
Resistivity
curves
OBMI Rxo
Resistivity
curves
X,444
X,346
X,446
X,348
X,448
X,350
X,450
Figure 3.74: In this horizontal well logged in a Cambrian sandstone reservoir of the Hassi Messaoud field, the UBI image did not provide geological data in places due to borehole
and mud conditions, in contrast to the OBMI image that remained clear throughout.
59
B
TOP
C
TOP
TOP
1 in.
1 in
1 in.
1 in.
1 in.
1 in
Long axis of OBMI calipers (red) corresponds to ovality

from breakouts.
Borehole ovalized to high side of well.
Asymmetrical deformation due to the intersection of the

borehole with a bed of weaker mechanical characteristics.
Figure 3.75: Borehole cross sections based on UBI transit time images allow the accurate descrip-
C3
tion of the breakout shape for geomechanical analysis. The long axis of OBMI diameters does not
always indicate the breakout direction.
C2
C4
C1
Location of linked OBMI arms and calipers in an ovalized borehole
of fractures and bedding dips identified on the OBMI

image of this well is almost double that obtained with
the UBI image. However, in the sections of the well
where borehole quality is good, only the UBI image
allows differentiation of open and sealed fractures as
well as assessment of the borehole shape. Examples of
the borehole sections in this horizontal well (Fig. 3.75A)
illustrate the superiority of the UBI images compared to
borehole ovality information provided by the two diameters of the OBMI pads. Without a UBI image, correct
determination of borehole geometry would have been
possible only in sections of the well where borehole
ovality corresponds to the breakout direction (Fig. 75A).
low acoustic impedance fracture. The corresponding OBMI image indicates a

facies change that correlates to a drop in the OBMI Rxo resistivity curve. This
abrupt double transition can best be explained by the presence of a subvertical
fault at this depth. Despite the poor borehole conditions, which seriously affected the UBI image quality and the geological interpretation above X,590 m,
the OBMI image remained interpretable throughout this interval. As a result,
GR
OBMI
image
OBMI dip
UBI
image
UBI dip
Caliper
deviation
Resistivity
curves
X,560
OBMI Rxo
X,570
Resistivity
curves
X,580
X,590
The comparison of UBI and OBMI images shown in Fig. 3.76

illustrates another advantage of OBMI imaging in horizontal wells with regard to fault identification. At X,593 m,
the UBI acoustic image shows a dark trace with low
apparent dip, suggesting the presence of a subvertical
Fault
X,600
X,610
Figure 3.76: Fault identification from the OBMI image in a Cambrian sandstone reservoir of the Hassi
Messaoud field.
60
Borehole Imaging
a continuous log of dip and fracture data could be generated in this well,
which would have been impossible with the UBI data alone.
The examples of vertical wells described below come from the Ordovician sandstone reservoirs of the Hassi Messaoud field, mainly in the Hamra quartzites.
Open fractures
The UBI amplitude and transit time images in Fig. 3.77 both show black traces
fitting high-amplitude sinusoids, which is the signature of steep open fractures.
The corresponding discontinuous white resistive traces

on the OBMI image enable the identification and orientation of some of these fractures. However, this type of
image does not permit the determination of whether the
fractures are open, since the resistive traces can either
indicate open fractures filled with resistive oil-base mud
or fractures cemented by a resistive material such as
quartz or calcite. The corresponding core confirms the
presence of small-aperture open fractures.
Orientation north
SGR
(gAPI)
amplitude
0 200
0
120 240 360
MD
Low UBI image High
1:20
Orientation north
(m)
Orientation north
centered radius
Low-amplitude
0
Inclin
360 Low amplitude fracture
UBI fracture
Borehole 0
120 240 360
0
120 240 360
(sinusoid)
OBMI
True dip
drift
Orientation north
OBMI image R C image R
Low UBI image High
C
0 (deg) 5
-10 (deg) 100
(s/ft)
140
40
PEFZ
0
10
Density
(g/cm3)
1.95 2.95
Neutron
AIT resistivity curves (heavy)

OBMI Rxo curves (light)
Slowness
(m3/m3)
(ohm.m)
0.45 0.15 0.2 2,000
Core photo
1m
X,X67
X,X68
X,X69
X,X70
Dynamic
OBMI
Static
Amplitude/dynamic
Transit time/dynamic
UBI
Figure 3.77: Identification of open fractures from OBMI and UBI images in the Hamra quartzite (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
61
Orientation north
SGR
(gAPI)
Amplitude
0 200
0 120 240 360
MD
Low UBI image High
1:10
Orientation north
Low(m)
amplitude
Orientation north 0
Low amplitude
Centered radius
Inclin
360
UBI fracture
fracture
Borehole 0 120 240 360
0
120 240 360
True dip
(sinusoid)
OBMI
drift
Orientation
north
UBI
image
image
OBMI
image
Low
R C
R
High
C
0 (deg) 5
-10 (deg) 100
(s/ft)
140
40
PEFZ
0
10
Density
(g/cm3)
1.95 2.95
Neutron

Slowness
(m3/m3)
(ohm.m)
0.45 0.15 0.2 2,000
3D view of UBI
amplitude image
Core photo
1m
X,X53
X,X54
Dynamic
OBMI
Static
Amplitude/dynamic
UBI
Figure 3.78: Identification of a pyrite cemented fracture with UBI and OBMI images in the Hamra quartzite (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
Cemented fractures
Figure 3.78 shows a steep fracture on both the UBI amplitude and transit time images. On the amplitude image,
the corresponding trace is black, while the same trace
appears sometimes black, sometimes white on the transit time image. This signature clearly indicates the presence of a partially cemented fracture. The OBMI image
shows a black trace, which indicates the presence of
highly conductive cement. Only from the combination of
the three images can the interpreter conclude that this
fracture is partially filled with highly conductive cement.
This interpretation is confirmed by the corresponding
core, which shows a fracture partially cemented by pyrite.
62
In Fig. 3.79, numerous fractures can be identified from their black signature on
the UBI amplitude image. Contrary to the previous case, however, the UBI transit time image does not display corresponding black traces, indicating that
these fractures are cemented by a material with low acoustic impedance. On
the OBMI image, only the widest of these fractures can be identified by a white
trace that indicates a nonconductive filling material. In this way, the combined
use of the three images provides evidence to conclude that these fractures are
cemented by a nonconductive, low acoustic amplitude material such as clay.
The UBI amplitude image in Fig. 3.80 displays a subvertical white trace resulting from the presence of a fracture cemented by high acoustic impedance
material. Core analysis confirms the presence of a quartz-cemented fracture.
Borehole Imaging
SGR
Amplitude
(gAPI)
OBMI
0 120 240 360
stratigraphic
0 200
UBI
OBMI
MD
image
Low
High Orientation north
sedimentary
1:17
Centered radius
(m)
UBI lowLow amplitude
0 120 240 360
Inclin Orientation north 0
360
amplitude
fracture
Borehole 0 120 240 360
fracture
OBMI
UBI
(sinusoid)
drift
True dip
C OBMI image R C image R Orientation north Low image High
0 (deg) 5
-10 (deg)100
(s/ft)
140 40
PEFZ
0
10
Density
(g/cm3)
1.95 2.95
Neutron

Slowness
OBMI
structural
(m3/m3) (ohm.m)
0.45 0.15 0.2 2,000
UBI
image
OBMI
image
1m
X,X75
X,X76
Fractures
traces
X,X77
X,X78
Dynamic
Static
OBMI (2 runs)
Amplitude/dynamic Transit time/dynamic

UBI
Figure 3.79: Identification of clay-cemented fractures from OBMI and UBI images in the Hamra quartzite (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
OBMI
dynamic image
UBI dynamic
amplitude image
OBMI
structural
AIT resistivity
curves (heavy)
Density - Neutron
SGR
OBMI
(gAPI)
stratigraphic
Orientation north
0
200
UBI highCentered radius
Orientation north
Inclin
amplitude
Borehole 0
120 240 360
120 240 360 0
fracture
drift
True dip
OBMI image
(ohm.m)
R Low UBI image High
C
0 (deg) 5
-10 (deg) 100 0.2
2,000
3D view
UBI image
Core photo
Core section
X,X75
X,X75.5
0.2 m
0.5 m
Silicified zone
Quartz cemented fracture
X,X76
Note the light color on each side of the fracture that
indicates silicification of the rock matrix (the darker
color is due to hydrocarbon staining). This fracture
creates a permeability barrier in the reservoir in a
direction perpendicular to its strike (NNE-SSW).
X,X76.5
Figure 3.80: Identification of a quartz-cemented fracture from an UBI image in the Hamra quartzite (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
63
SGR
Amplitude
(gAPI)
OBMI
0 120 240 360
structural
0 200
UBI
OBMI
MD
image
Low
High Orientation north
stratigraphic
1 : 18
Centered radius
(m)
UBI lowLow-amplitude
0 120 240 360 amplitude
Inclin Orientation north 0
360
fracture
Borehole 0 120 240 360
fracture
OBMI
UBI
(sinusoid)
drift
True dip
C OBMI image R C image R Orientation north Low image High
0 (deg) 5
-10 (deg) 100
(s/ft)
140 40
PEFZ
0
10
Density
(g/cm3)
1.95 2.95
Neutron

Slowness
(m3/m3) (ohm.m)
0.45 0.15 0.2 2,000
OBMI image at expanded scale
X,X16.5
Bed 3
0.5 m
0.5 m
Bed 3
Bed 2
Bed 1
Bed 2
Bed 1
X,X17
X,X17.5
Dynamic
OBMI (2 runs)
Static
Amplitude/dynamic
UBI
Figure 3.81: Identification of a microfault from OBMI images in the zone of alternating shales of Ordovician age (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
This fracture is not visible on the corresponding OBMI

image, possibly because of the partial borehole coverage
of pads and the low-resistivity contrast between the
fracture and the formation. Sedimentary dips, however,
are clearly identified on the OBMI image, contrary to the
UBI image that shows no bedding dip information.
UBI image and that are affected by a normal vertical displacement of about
10 cm. With a UBI image alone, this feature would have been interpreted as
a fracture. The OBMI images enabled the identification of a microfault with a
normal throw. Without the OBMI image, this important piece of information
for the structural modeling of this reservoir would have been missed.
Structural dip
Faults
OBMI imaging allows the identification of faults that are
sometimes impossible to differentiate from large fractures
on UBI images. The UBI amplitude image in Fig. 3.81
shows a clear steep black trace, but there is nothing on
the corresponding transit time image. This suggests the
presence of a fracture filled with a nonconductive, low
acoustic amplitude cement such as clay. The corresponding OBMI images, of which the coverage is doubled
thanks to an additional pass oriented with a 45-degree
offset, clearly show thin beds that are not visible on the
64
In Algeria structural dip magnitude is usually low (often less than 5 degrees).
As a result, accurate determination of both structural dip magnitude and its
azimuth are often difficult and sometimes impossible with UBI imaging due to
a generally low acoustic impedance contrast in shaly formations. In the
absence of clear bed boundaries, occasional noise artifacts showing up as
bands perpendicular to the wellbore can easily be misinterpreted as bed
boundaries on UBI images, which makes structural dip determination even
more challenging with this tool. This problem becomes critical in the Hassi
Messaoud field when structural dip must be determined from a vertical well
to optimize the trajectory of a horizontal well. As illustrated by the UBI and
OBMI image combinations previously discussed, OBMI imaging compensates
Borehole Imaging
MD
1 : 18
(m)
Inclin
Borehole
drift
0
UBI amplitude dynamic
Orientation north
120
240
Orientation north
Centered radius
120
240
360
OBMI image
UBI image
High
(deg) 5
360 0
R Low
OBMI
static
OBMI
Pad Rxo curves
OBMI dynamic
OBMI structural
OBMI sedimentary
UBI breakout
-10
(deg)
(ohm.m)
C
100 0.2
2,000
Orientation
north
360
OBMI
image
Hole shape analysis

cross-section
from HosAna software
Bit Size = 6.0 in
N
X,X91
1 in
1 in
1m
Hole Azimuth = 165.5 deg

Hole Deviation = 1.0 deg
Depth = 3441.903 m
X,X92
Green dots: bit size

Black dots: UBI radii
(180 measurements)
Breakout orientation
(NNE-SSW) corresponds
to the minimum in situ
horizontal stress.
Figure 3.82: Identification of structural dips (green), sedimentary dips (red), and breakout (black strike symbol) in the Hamra quartzite (vertical well in the Hassi Messaoud field).
for this weakness of UBI imaging, thanks to a much greater resistivity contrast
that allows the identification of a more reliable structural dip in most of the
cases where the UBI image is ineffective for this purpose.
Sedimentary dips
In the Cambro-Ordovician sandstone reservoirs, OBMI imaging enables the
identification of sedimentary dips that are invisible on corresponding UBI
images, either because the bed-to-bed acoustic amplitude contrast is too
weak (Fig. 3.79) or breakouts (Fig. 3.82) or borehole damage such as corkscrew
traces of the drilling bit are present. However, unlike in TAGI reservoirs, signal attenuation due to a much smaller mudcake thickness is negligible in the
Cambro-Ordovician reservoirs.
Conclusions
The applications of borehole imaging to the modeling of oil and gas reservoirs
are highly diverse. Recent developments of this technology have allowed
better characterization of a wider range of geological features, and new
developments are bound to appear in the future. The use

of these images, however, remains mostly confined to
the time corresponding to drilling. Because real-time
decision-making and rig-time costs are critical, interpretation of borehole images is performed over a short time
span and often without a full understanding of the geological context. Such constraints may force interpreters
to consider only the essential data rather than extracting
all the information contained in the images. Although the
reuse of images is rare, a coordinated reexamination of
all the reservoir images greatly improves reservoir interpretation as well as the analysis of each image. Finally,
in one domainproductionborehole images are not
used to the full extent of their value. Re-analysis of the
images after an initial production period makes it easier
to understand the images and therefore modify the geological model to bring it in line with the dynamic data.
65
Big rounded paving stone, Dider tile (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Superb bulls head from the Bubaline period. The Bubaline people were from the Neolithic era and had begun the process
of domesticating wild animals.
66

69
80
92
106
67

Tight gas sand exploration targets in Algeria present a
range of formation evaluation challenges that make conventional logging, coring, and interpretation methods
problematic. Formation evaluation issues present a
notable contrast to conditions where porosities are 15%
or higher:
Intergranular porosities are in the range of 5% to 10%.
Sands are predominantly quartz (80% to 95%), but the
old sandstone formations have occasional feldspathic
grains with illite/kaolinite clay, up to 5% mica, and up to
1% heavy minerals such as zircon. Pore morphology is
dominated by the extensive diagenesis that has resulted
in porosity reduction by predominantly silica cementation, but also with some clay, carbonate, and pyritic
cements. Conventional density-, neutron-, and sonicbased porosity calculations suffer from relative uncertainties associated with the log responses in these tight
sands. Total systematic uncertainties of a few percent,
which would not be noticeable in a high-porosity sandstone, can materially affect hydrocarbon-in-place estimates when the reservoir is perhaps a hundred meters
thick but of only 5% to 10% mean porosity. Fast
acoustic compressional and shear speeds, and low
porosities coupled with borehole breakout mean that
acoustic logs of both first motion detection and waveform coherence processing are challenged to provide
reliable traveltimes and robust estimates of porosity.
Formations are highly stressed from tectonic forces
which vary highly from region to region and well to
well. Borehole stress causes breakout from the long
axis of the borehole along a significant vertical interval (around half or more)
of the reservoir sands. Borehole breakout and induced rugosity significantly
impact pad-contact logs such as density and, to a lesser extent, most logs
that require borehole correction.
Low-porosity, hydrocarbon-bearing zones result in high resistivities, generally
around 300 ohm.m but occasionally reaching 1,000 ohm.m or more. When
drilling with oil-based muds, induction logs are challenged in this low-conductivity environment, so alternatives to conventional Archie-based saturation
analysis such as magnetic resonance are the subject of active development.
Natural fracture conductivity typically dominates well production. Evaluation
of open fractures near the wellbore is, therefore, a high priority. Currently, a
combination of high-resolution borehole images and array acoustic logging
is used. Special fracture evaluation is challenging and labor-intensive,
relying heavily on expertise and visual analysis of processed images.
Core analysis results from the past appear to have been significantly affected
by stress relief between in situ and laboratory conditions. Recent work by
Sonatrach has shown that cores in the laboratory expand by the opening of
microfractures, which may not be fully closed unless care is taken during
core analysis to apply the correct confining pressure. While in situ porosity
may be quite robustly corrected, considerable uncertainty remains for permeability.
Low-permeability formations make determination of reliable formation pressures and fluid gradients difficult. Supercharging and seal failures in
stressed rugose boreholes frequently make reliable fluid contact determination difficult with conventional wireline formation testers.
In summary, porosity, saturation, fluid contacts, acoustic velocities, fracture
conductivity, and core permeability, when evaluated with conventional log
and core programs, currently suffer from significant uncertainties, which are
the subject of current studies.
Tin Tedit. Tadrart. Seminomadic men lived in protected rock shelters near water sources. In these shelters, archaeologists have unearthed their tools and weapons, animal and human bones,
and other traces of their existence several meters under the sediment. These relics have enabled archaeologists to reconstruct the environment and culture of these prehistoric people.
68
Petrophysics of Tight SandsStandard Logging Measurements and Uncertainty

Applications and issues in tight sands
Quantification of the uncertainties of petrophysical reservoir parameters such
as porosity and saturation is essential for evaluation and reserves calculations.
In numerous cases, uncertainty estimation on reservoir parameters can have a
huge impact on field development decisions, particularly in tight reservoirs and
heterogeneous formations. Uncertainties are generally associated with
physics of tool measurements
signal processing and interpretation methods.
They can also be due to other parameters, such as1
effect of logging speed and tool sticking
calibration procedures
depth matching
input to environmental corrections
borehole conditions
systems failure.
Before- and after-survey calibration information provides indications of acquisition quality and can be related to measurement uncertainties resulting from
system drift. An indication of tool uncertainties can be estimated by comparing
the main logging answers with answers from the repeat section. While a perfect match between the main and repeat sections indicates tool reliability, it
does not necessarily mean an absolutely accurate measurement. Conversely, a
reasonable difference may not indicate an inaccurate measurement.
Standard porosity evaluation is mainly based upon density analysis with
breakout detection based upon differential caliper, long- and short-spaced
density difference, and sonic porosity comparison. Uncertainty exists mainly in
the breakout rugosity borehole density correction and to a much lesser extent
in the sand grain density prediction, which is generally close to 2.65 g/cm3.
For sonic porosity, however, no studies appear to be currently under way to
determine the fundamental, empirical acoustic velocity-porosity relationship in
tight sands.
Work is under way to increase the use of matrix-independent porosity from
magnetic resonance methods. A complementary approach uses an accelerator neutron porosity measurement, which generally has a much smaller
remaining borehole correction and fewer matrix uncertainties. In addition,
multidetector inversion could allow direct correction for borehole geometry
and breakout effects. Although core porosity remains the independent laboratory reference for volumetric calculation, Sonatrach is actively engaged in
refining core measurements that are significantly affected by the stress relief
between in situ and ambient conditions.
Uncertainties in formation
evaluation measurements
All measurements are subject to uncertainty. Where the
amount of uncertainty relative to that needed to make a
satisfactory decision is small, measurement uncertainty
can be reasonably ignored, and this is routinely practiced
in the oil field. For example, most petrophysical analysis
programs do not explicitly mention measurement uncertainty; they rely instead on the implicit assumption that
log measurement uncertainties on such quantities as
porosity can be neglected. By contrast, the ELAN petrophysical log analysis system explicitly uses uncertainty in
all input measurements as an inherent part of the inversion process. In most analyses, the default values of log
uncertainty are assumed to be correct by the analyst
unless it is known that a particular log may be more uncertain than normal. In the case of a challenging environment
such as tight sands, it is good practice to reexamine
default uncertainties and modify them where needed so
as to obtain the optimum log inversion.
A proposal for uncertainty

estimation using the repeat section
The metrological principle of traceability and the ISO definition of uncertainty in measurements2 have been proposed
within the industry3,4,5 as a basis for the use of logging
measurement uncertainties in formation evaluation. The
main difficulty, however, in the quantitative use of log
uncertainty is that the active measurement environment,
the logging borehole, is essentially uncontrolled and often
poorly characterized. With modern logging tools that have
well-controlled calibration procedures and digital electronics,
the primary response uncertainty due to calibration is
normally much smaller than the uncertainty due to uncontrolled borehole effects. It is this difficulty that accounts for
the general reluctance of most log analysts to incorporate
quantitative uncertainty in routine formation evaluation.
Logging a repeat section has been a part of good oil field
practice since 1928. The typical use of the repeat has
been to check that sensitive downhole measurements
are stablethat is, not suffering random noise of an
electrical nature or drifting with time due to changes in
69
temperature or pressure. Early analog nuclear tools were

particularly susceptible to large amounts of Poisson
noise as a result of low count rates, random electrical
noise spikes, and detector voltage and sensitivity drift.
Modern digital logging tools, however, are much more
stable. An indication of tool uncertainties can be estimated by comparing the main logging answers with
answers from the repeat section. System failures can
create gross discrepancies between the two runs, but
generally differences are caused by uncontrolled factors
such as the borehole environment. Often, the repeat
interval is not chosen by the end user of the data, and it
is often located where it is operationally convenient,
such as immediately below the casing shoe and, hence,
in a nonreservoir and poor hole quality interval.
To better estimate the uncontrolled aspects of log uncertainty in open holes, the practice of running a repeat
section over the full reservoir whenever possible or at
least over a statistically representative section should
be adopted. In critical situations, special methods may
be employed to obtain repeats under different conditionsfor example, by employing two pad tools oriented
90 degrees to each other.
Theoretically, it can be argued that a simple repeat misses systematic borehole

effects; for example, if the borehole is elliptical but the correction algorithm
assumes the borehole is circular, a repeat will not quantify the systematic
borehole correction uncertainty. The pragmatic repeat-section approach
acknowledges this theoretical limitation but argues first that some variation in
borehole position or shape may still occur, even if it is not full magnitude, and
second, that the remaining systematic effects are part of the metrological
approach to the quantification of uncertainty. Where these effects can be estimated, they should be included; if, however, they cannot be quantitatively
estimated, there is not a practical approach to their use.
Although this approach is proposed as a pragmatic technique based upon
established oil field practice and sound metrological principles, it has not been
extensively applied and is subject to modification or enhancement. Detailed
research investigations should be conducted to test the range of validity in
well-controlled case studies and to derive more generalized, rigorous methods.
Cable tension
3,000
(N)
Density main pass

4,000
Differential caliper
-1
(in.)
1.95
MD
1:200
9 (m)
(g/cm3)
2.95
Density repeated pass

1.95
(g/cm3)
2.95
3,300
The justification for this approach is that there will always

be some variation in borehole conditions and/or tool orientation between the two runs, and that this variation then
appears directly in the measured quantities under relevant downhole conditions. To quantitatively compare two
runs, there obviously cannot be a remaining uncorrected
overall depth difference; but due to irregular tool movement, variations in cable tension, and other effects such
as resolution of nonhomogeneities, there will always be
some remaining depth-related uncertainty. This component of the measurement uncertainty should be explicitly
included in the quantification. A measurement made of a
formation property at a specific depthfor example, a
rock feature identified from an image log or slabbed
coremust be compared to the log measurement made
at an interpreted equivalent depth. This depth can only
be matched to the remaining run-to-run depth match
uncertainty, which is inherent in the repeat section
analysis.
3,310
3,320
3,330
3,340
Figure 3.83: Repeatability of density log: left track shows difference between caliper and bit size in
red, and cable tension in blue. Note the stick/slip events. Right track shows main density pass in
green and repeat in red.
70
40 years since the original work of Tittman and Wahl

(1965) and, in addition to the two conventional forwardscatter detectors, uses a third backscatter detector with
very high count rates (up to 106 cps), which, therefore,
reduces the statistical imprecision to approximately the
inverse of the square root of the count rate, or about
0.1%. This high count rate is then used as part of the density inversion algorithm using all three detectors. Because
there is not a simple direct relation between counts and
density, a repeat section made in downhole conditions for
a deep exploration well should be examined (Fig. 3.83).
40
30
20
Frequency, %
10
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
Density difference error, g/cm3

Figure 3.84: Histogram of density difference main-repeat.
Uncertainty in density logs

The default ELAN density log uncertainty is 0.027 g/cm3. Until the introduction of the three-detector density (TLD) log, it was standard petrophysical
practice to assume that, in high-porosity sands (> 25%), the imprecision of a
long-spaced/short-spaced gamma-gamma density tool was approximately the
equivalent of 1% porosity, but because of the lower count rates, the value
would be increased in dense (or low-porosity) rocks. For older generation tools
this was true, and the imprecision would normally double in dense rocks
(2.6 to 2.8 g/cm3), compared to more porous rocks (1.8 to 2.0 g/cm3).
For tight sands and the new generation of TLD tools, these assumptions should
be reexamined to verify the appropriate uncertainty to use in ELAN inversions.
The TLD gamma-gamma density measurement has evolved over a period of
Cause
Characteristics
Uncertainty
Poor pad contact and

borehole effects
In good hole, repeat section analysis

shows better than
0.02 g/cm3
In average hole but with some rugosity,

approximately
0.04 g/cm3
Rugose hole, on the magnitude of
0.1 + ? g/cm3
Tool calibration
Typical variation between nominal and

actual values in the aluminium calibration
block is
~ 0.002 g/cm3 (negligible)
Tool response
Cannot be estimated from the repeat

section; requires independent
measurements, probably ~ 0.005 g/cm3
~ 0.005 g/cm3
The lefthand track in Fig. 3.83 shows the differential

caliper, or difference between caliper and bit size on a large
scale in red next to the cable tension in blue. The main
track on the right shows the two density log passesmain
and repeaton standard scales which are shown in red
and green. It is immediately apparent that the difference
between the two logs is affected by the hole condition
and regularity of tool movement. The two large excursions on the cable tension correspond to stick/slip events
which are very common in deep wells, and which generate
unavoidable differences between main and repeat sections. With regard to the borehole size and shape, it can
be seen that the effective hole rugositynot simply hole
sizeas seen by the density measurement pad is the
most important parameter. Analysis of a stable in-gauge
hole section shows the histogram presented in Fig. 3.84.
This histogram shows an effective repeatability close to
0.02 g/cm3. Even when choosing this stable interval, it
is not certain from the data that the pad of the tool is
tracking in exactly the same path, as the caliper shows
that the hole is not perfectly in gauge. For a better
experiment of this nature, several repeat passes should
be run. Table 3.2 draws categories of uncertainty together
to show how a total effective density log uncertainty can
be derived depending on the choices made in the inversion process.
The magnitude of these components can be compared
with the typical ELAN density uncertainty value of
0.027 g/cm3. In a perfect hole with absolutely known
responses, this value is probably pessimistic and could
be decreased to as low as 0.015 g/cm3. In typical circumstances, however, it seems reasonable; adding
0.02 and 0.02 in quadrature (square root of the sum of
the squares) gives 0.028 g/cm3.
Table 3.2: Categories of uncertainty.
71
Uncertainty in neutron porosity logs
Cable tension
(N)
3,000
The conventional chemical source thermal neutron

porosity measurement historically has been difficult to
accurately calibrate and correct for various borehole
effects. This technology is being replaced by the APS
Accelerator Porosity Sonde measurement with improved
metrological properties. This example well, however, has
a standard compensated neutrontype measurement
(Fig. 3.85). Examining the repeat section over the same
depth interval as the density log, we observe significant
amounts of borehole-shape-related effects as well as
large lithology changes.
4,000
-1
(in.)
0.45
MD
1:200
9 (m) 0.45
(m3/m3)
-0.15
Neutron repeated pass

(m3/m3)
-0.15
3,300
3,310
The corresponding histogram in Fig. 3.86 shows an

80th-percentile width of 2 p.u. This is a reasonable estimate of basic repeatability in normal conditions which
include environmental effects. This can be compared
with the ELAN default value for normal rocks of 0.015 v/v,
or 1.5 p.u.
A pragmatic way to derive the NPHI uncertainty for lowporosity sands could thus be to add the statistical variance
and the systematic uncertainty of 1 to 2 p.u. directly, thus
giving a total of 2 to 3 p.u. More rigorous estimates could
be made using core plug cutoffs to estimate the variation
in response parameters by modeling of the lithology
response and applying borehole chart correction sensitivities. It is expected that the modern APS measurement,
when compared with this, will show better repeatability
and smaller remaining borehole correction effects, of
approximately half this magnitude or less.
Neutron main pass
3,320
3,330
3,340
Figure 3.85: Repeatability of neutron porosity (CNT) log: left track shows difference between caliper
and bit size in red, and cable tension in blue. Note the stick/slip events. Right track shows main neutron pass in green and repeat in red.
30
Uncertainty in the gamma ray logs
72
20
10
Frequency, %
Simple and robust, the total natural gamma ray (GR) measurement is generally used for qualitative correlation and
an approximate shaliness determination rather than a
quantitative clay evaluation. In favorable environments,
there can sometimes be excellent agreement between the
GR and either clay or radioactive mineral content, but the
ELAN manual considers that the GR response to minerals
is so variable that a default response should not be
assumed. This is in contrast to the HNGS spectral
gamma ray, which has been calibrated to quantitative
values of thorium, potassium, and uranium. Overall, the
GR log section presented in Fig. 3.87 shows some
stick/slip tool-motion events as well as large lithology
changes. Rather than include all effects, a 10-m stable
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
Neutron porosity difference, V/V

Figure 3.86: Histogram associated with the difference between the repeat neutron porosity logs
shown in Fig. 3.85.
Cable tension
3,000
(N)
Gamma ray main pass

4,000
-1
(gAPI)
MD
1:200
9 (m) 0
(in.)
200
Gamma ray repeated pass

(gAPI)
200
3,300
3,310
interval was chosen to generate the error histogram presented in Fig. 3.88 which shows a variance of 5 to 10 gAPI
(GR API units).
It is interesting to note that a variance of 6 gAPI is
the value used as the ELAN uncertainty. In ELAN usage, a
linear GR response model is normally used; therefore, the
shales probably appear more variable than they actually
are. This apparent variability in shaly sections is probably
also increased by the general trend of bad hole conditions due to washouts in shalier sections.
In summary, the GR measurement is hardly affected by
borehole size variations, which means that the repeat
uncertainty is dominated by depth match discrepancies
and purely statistical Poisson noise in the count rate.
3,320
Uncertainty in induction resistivity logs

3,330
3,340
Figure 3.87: Repeatability of gamma ray log: left track shows difference between caliper and bit size
in red, and cable tension in blue. Note the stick/slip events. Right track shows main gamma ray pass
in green and repeat in red.
50
40
Uncertainty in deep resistivity is important in evaluating

tight sands when the primary method of estimating
water saturation is the use of the Archie saturation relation to derive an undisturbed formation saturation away
from the wellbore. Deep resistivity is also used as an
independent check when other methods of hydrocarbon
saturation estimation such as magnetic resonance are
available. The fundamental measurement limit of induction logging is given by electrical noise and the finite signal sensitivity to the low-magnitude conductivity
response in high resistivities. This limit is typically on the
order of 1 mmho, corresponding to 1,000 ohm.m, a value
that can often be encountered in tight rocks. This limit,
however, assumes the presence of homogenous and
isotropic rocks with a cylindrical borehole or a near-infinite resistive borehole, so that the borehole conductivity
is negligible.
30
20
Frequency, %
10
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
100
Gamma ray API units, gAPI

Figure 3.88: Histogram associated with the difference between the repeat gamma ray logs shown in
Fig. 3.87.
Unlike the previous examples, the AIT Array Induction Tool

measures conductivities simultaneously over a complete
array of receivers. This overdetermined array is then
inverted to a radial conductivity forward model. In the case
of such an array tool that measures many borehole
diameters into the formation, the pass-to-pass variability
is not significantly affected by the borehole environment.
What will be apparent, however, is incoherence between
the data and the simplified inversion model. These
incoherencies arise from the formation heterogeneous
response and effects due to the borehole and other
aspects of the logging environment.
73
Generally, resistivities in the range of 10 to 100 ohm.m

(or conductivities from 100 to 10 mmho) are quite robust.
It is in the higher resistivity decade above 100 ohm.m
(below 10 mmho conductivity) that significantly large uncertainties impact resistivity analyses. In the plot shown in
Fig. 3.89, conductivities derived from the AIT inversion for
1, 4, and 10 ft are shown in the right track on a linear scale.
1-ft conductivity 90 in.
3,500
(N)
4,500
-1
(in.)
500

(mS/m)
MD
1:200
9 (m) 0
In the lowest conductivity areas (corresponding to high

resistivities and, hence, hydrocarbon- bearing zones), one
can note that the CO FT variation gives an uncertainty estimate of around 4 mmho, which is comparable with the
intrinsic measurement uncertainty of 1 mmho. The estimation of a best array inversion uncertainty and a robust
general method for the choice of spatial frequencies in different circumstances would be a valuable research project.
It seems reasonable that the uncertainty due to heterogeneous environmental effects is several times larger than
the intrinsic homogenous signal-to-noise limit of the tool.
Uncertainty in sonic logs and

enhanced t estimation
(mS/m)
0
Cable tension
500

(mS/m)
500
3,260
3,270
3,280
3,290
Figure 3.89: Repeatability of the AIT Array Induction Tool: left track shows difference between caliper
and bit size in red, and cable tension in blue. Note this is a different logging run to the previous exam-
Estimating the transit time, or slowness (reciprocal of the

wavespeed), of the P-wave in tight (low-porosity) formations is affected by two main factors: low signal-to-noise
ratio for the P-waves, arising partly from weaker coupling
into the rock [a result of the high acoustic contrast between
wellbore fluid and rock (Figs. 3.90a and 3.90b)], and the frequent presence of fractures and spatial heterogeneities in
the passage of the P-wave between the transmitter and
receiver, which accentuates the attenuation of the
P-wave amplitude and, more importantly, reduces the
coherence of the P-wave across the receiver array.
Estimation of the P-wave slowness for sonic array tools is based on a slownesstime coherence (STC) method (see STC Concept for Slowness Estimation,
page 3.76). The uncertainty in P-wave slowness results from various sources
that include environmental parameters, such as borehole shape, rugosity, and
processing. The uncertainty associated with the processing algorithm can be
estimated from the spread of the STC function at the peak associated with the
P-wave slowness.6,7 The environmental source of uncertainty can be treated in
a fashion similar to that described above for other measurements.
Stoneley
S
1
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
Waveform No.
Time, s
Stoneley
Waveform No.
ples. Right track shows deep conductivity at 90 inches with 1-, 4- and 10-ft vertical resolution.
1
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
Time, s
Figure 3.90a and 3.90b: Examples of DSI sonic-array-recorded waveforms in a) a tight (acoustically-fast) formation (left), and b) in an acoustically-slow formation (right).
74
4,500
Compressional
spectrum
Compressional
spectrum
0
(Hz)
40,000
4
Tension
(N)
0 10,000
MD
1:500
(m)
(in.)
(in.)
Gamma ray
STC coherence
Center frequency
14 for compressional 40
Caliper 1
4
Washout
(Hz)
-20,000 20,000
Bit size
0
14
(Hz)
40,000
Center frequency
for shear
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
40
240
Tension
(N)
0 10,000
240
MD
1:500
(m)
Monopole P
X,X00
Monopole S
(in.)
(in.)
Gamma ray
STC coherence
Center frequency
14 for compressional 40
Caliper 1
240
Shear slowness
(s/ft)
(Hz)
-20,000 20,000
Bit size
Compressional slowness
(Hz)
(gAPI) 150 -20,000 20,000 40
X,X00
40,000
Shear spectrum
Shear spectrum
Washout
(Hz)
0
14
(Hz)
40,000
Center frequency
for shear
(s/ft)
240
40
240
(s/ft)
Shear slowness
(Hz)
(gAPI) 150 -20,000 20,000 40
(s/ft)
240
Monopole P
Monopole S
X,X50
X,X50
Y,X00
Y,X00
Figure 3.91a: Standard semblance processing for DSI P- and S data in a 6-in. diameter
Figure 3.91b: Coherence results after applying multiple-shot processing and noise
borehole in a fast section through a fast (Ordovician) formation. Note the poor coherence
filtering. Note the high coherence and the good continuity of the slowness logs.
of the slowness log.
Enhancement in tc estimation
Sonic logs of tight formation zones tend to exhibit low compressional
(P) coherence zones (a log from the example well used in the sections above
is shown in Fig. 3.91a). This is believed to originate from two factors: 1) low
signal-to-noise ratios for the compressional (P) headwave (as mentioned
above in connection with Figs. 3.90a and 3.90b); and 2) axial variations across
the full length of the sonic receiver array (measuring 3.5 ft for the 8-receiver
DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager tool), such as the presence of a high density of
fractures as is the case in this well. Both factors cooperate to decrease the
semblance as estimated with the standard STC processing algorithm.6
To address these problems, an advanced processing techniquemultishot
STC processing (MSTC)is used. The principle of this approach is to combine
the STCs estimated for the subarrays from different source firings that span
the same depth interval (Fig. 3.H) (see STC Concept for Slowness Estimation,
page 3.76). It results in an improvement in both the vertical resolution of the
slowness logs and the accuracy of the slowness estimation. The presence of
fractures along the pathway of the sonic signal propagation in the formation
results additionally in extraneous events due to scattering at these fractures. To deal with unwanted interference from these events with the signal of interest, filtering has been employed in both the temporal and spatial
domains. Temporally, a higher filter band of 8 to 16 kHz,
rather than the standard 4- to 16-kHz band, has been
used. Spatially, a 5-m median filter has been used.
Application of MSTC processing on the same sonic data
from the example well (Fig. 3.91a) provides the enhanced
compressional slowness (tc) log as shown in Fig. 3.91b.
There is also improvement in the shear slowness (ts) log
when compared to the logs in Fig. 3.91a. The improvement
in the estimation of tc and ts from MSTC processing helps
reduce the uncertainty in the estimation of the sonic-based
petrophysical characteristics. Additionally, it yields better
sonic-seismic tie-up for spatial placement of seismic events.
75
STC Concept for Slowness Estimation
8
8
Waveform number
Compressional Shear
wave
wave
Stoneley
wave
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
STC Coherence
Slowness
40
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
(s/ft)
340
Time, s
300
Slowness, s/ft
200
100
1,000
Time, s
Varying moveout
Slownesses can be estimated in a robust way with minimal human intervention using a signal processing technique that looks for similarityknown mathematically as
semblance, or coherencein waveforms across the
receiver array.6 The method starts with an assumed arrival
time and slowness for each wave type and searches the
set of waveforms for the time and slowness that maximize
coherence (Fig. 3.G). The graph of coherence for different
values of slowness and time is called a slowness-timecoherence (STC) plot, from which local maxima of the
coherence contours can be identified (Fig. 3.G). Maxima
corresponding to compressional-, shear-, and Stoneleyslownesses plotted for each depth create a slowness
log. The two dimensions of an STC plot are compressed
into a single dimension by projecting the coherence
peaks onto the slowness axis. This vertical strip of colorcoded coherences, when plotted horizontally at the appropriate depth, forms an element of an STC projection log,
a standard sonic-logging output. The slowness of each
mode is plotted on top of the STC projection.
Varying time
Figure 3.G: Slowness-time-coherence (STC) processing for monopole-source-generated arrivals.
Waveforms at a given depth (top left) are scanned over time windows and over a range of angles
Subarrays used to compute
the multiple-shot processing
called moveouts, which are related to slowness (see insert top right). When the signals on the wave-
(bottom left) displays color-coded coherence in the slowness-time plane, with maximum coherence
in red. The coherence values are projected onto a vertical strip along the slowness axis and then
forms within the window are best correlated, coherence is maximum. An STC plot for that depth
displayed as a thin horizontal strip at the appropriate depth on the STC projection log (right).
A slowness log for each wave is generated by joining the coherence maxima at all depths.
Receivers axis
The method described above applies monopole-source-generated signals

used to estimate compressional slowness in all formations and shear slowness in fast formations. It is, however, inadequate for dipole-source-generated
borehole flexural signalsused to estimate shear slowness in all formations.
For the dipole signals, the STC method is adapted to dispersive STC (DSTC) to
handle the dispersion inherent in the flexural modes.8
Transmitters axis
Figure 3.H: Sonic tool acquisition positions used in multiple-shot STC processing (MSTC) to enhance the compressional slowness estimation. The
algorithm combines the STCs estimated for subarrays from different
source firings that span the same depth interval.
76
Multishot STC
The principle of this approach9 is to combine the STCs estimated for subarrays
from different source firings that span the same depth interval (Fig. 3.H).
ELAN analysis uncertainties

In a conventional acquisition, answers integrated in a petrophysical reservoir
evaluation are usually generated from the following measurements: GR spectrometry, density, neutron, sonic, and resistivity (laterolog or induction log).
Corrections for environmental effects may introduce significant uncertainty due
to borehole conditions. Uncertainties on the computation parameters (matrix,
clay, and fluids) and petrophysical variables (cement exponent factor m, saturation exponent n, and formation water salinity) should be added to this set of
measurement errors.
Analytical deterministic approach

An analytical deterministic approach considers output uncertainties as a calculation focused mainly on porosity and water saturation with sensitivities to
input parameters and variables. Using the propagation-of-errors method with
first-order Taylor expansion, we can calculate output uncertainty for the
expected input uncertainties. The partial derivatives of water saturation, Sw,
to each of these parameters are easily determined using a saturation equation (for example, the Archie equation for clean formations and Simandoux for
shaly laminated formations).
The error propagation in the calculation of water saturation can be expressed
as a function of porosity, wettability exponent, cement exponent, formation
resistivity, water resistivity, shale volume, and resistivity.
To illustrate this analytical approach applied to a particular reservoir layer, an estimation of water saturation
uncertainty is about 15% for the Simandoux equation.
Probabilistic approach
Multimodel ELAN elemental analysis is frequently used for
tight reservoirs evaluation; it is an inverse solver that performs an evaluation through optimization of simultaneous
equations built from interpretation models. These models,
supplied by the user, instruct the program on how to
relate parameters with their associated response equations and log measurements of tools to solve for volumetric constituents of the formation called volumes.10
T = R * V ; V = T * R -1.
where
is the tool measurements,
is the response equations,
is the formation mineral and fluid volumes obtained by

matrix inversion computation.8
Sw = f (n, m, , Rt, Rw, Vsh, Rsh).

The uncertainty of Sw, written Sw, can be expressed as:
(Sw)2 = [(Sw/n).n]2 + [(Sw/m).m]2 +

[(Sw/).]2 + [(Sw/Rt).Rt]2 +
[(Sw/Rw).Rw]2 + [(Sw/Vsh).Vsh]2 +
[(Sw/Rsh).Rsh]2.
As estimates for the expected uncertainties in the key parameters and
variables, the following values can be used:
1 2% (considering an error on neutron readings of 2%, and

density of 0.02 g/cm3)
Rt/Rt
20% of the measurement (considering 1-mmho conductivity error for

induction tools)
tc
3 s/ft (compressional sonic transit time)
Rw
0.04 ohm.m
Vsh
3%
Rsh
5 ohm.m
0.15 and 0.25
The quality of the multimodel elemental analysis results

may be provided by a comparison of log and modelreconstructed curves obtained from the forward problem.
The standard deviation calculated from the incoherence
function indicates the reconstruction quality and could
highlight the consistency of the model for a set of
acquired data. However, a good match does not guarantee a valid model; in many cases, an erroneous model
and/or errors on tools readings could provide a satisfactory curve match (with reconstructed curves) and low
standard deviation. Uncertainty calculation can be performed by computations using a multimodel elemental
analysis method that provides a variation of water saturation by applying expected uncertainties of the same
parameters and variables.
The total uncertainty of water saturation would be the
sum of computed variations, or the result of input uncertainties used for evaluating this petrophysical parameter,
or the sum of uncertainties obtained for linearly independent input data.
77
Example
A tight sandstone reservoir that is oil and gas saturated
has an effective porosity between 5% and 9%. Water
saturation was computed with separate, different
variables and parameters, and the results were compared to the saturation reference in terms of deviation:
Variation of cement exponent. The cement exponent m
was considered within the range of 0.15 and +0.25,
with a higher value of m = 2.25, which was frequently
encountered, corresponding to quarzitic sandstones,
and a lower value of m = 1.85 related to a moderate
density of fractures (or fissures) in the same type of formation. ELAN computation results showed an increase
in water saturation of 11% for the higher value and a
decrease of 6% for the lower value (Fig. 3.92).
Variation of wettability. For a variation of the wettability
exponent n, from a value of 2 corresponding to 100%
water wet to a value of 3 indicating a partially oil-wet
formation, a change of 2.5% on water saturation was
noticed.
Variation of effective porosity. The effects of density
and neutron readings were combined to simulate an
error of 2% with results of 0.02 g/cm3 on the density
and 2% on the neutron readings. This variation gave a
deviation in water saturation of about 7%.
Variation of formation resistivity. Since formation resistivities in tight sandstones are generally in the range of
200 to 800 ohm.m, induction tool readings having a
conductivity uncertainty of 1 mmho produce an average
minimum error of 20%. This resistivity error yields a
minimum water saturation deviation of 3%.
Variation of formation water salinity. The reference
computation used a formation water resistivity of
0.07 ohm.m and an error of 0.04 ohm.m that yielded
0.03 and 0.11 ohm.m as the variation interval. The effect
on the water saturation absolute error was about 2.5%.
For particular cases of exploration wells where the salinity
estimation is based on general basin information, the
error might be much higher and can change the saturation profile from water- to hydrocarbon-bearing zones
and vice-versawhich may directly influence important
decisions.
If all independent estimated errors occur and are added,
the result in saturation uncertainty is an average value
of 20.5%, which represents the maximum uncertainty
(maximum upper limit).
78
This deviation may have a dramatic impact on reservoir evaluation and

management.
Generally, and except for exploration areas where numerous parameters and
variables are unknown, these errors have a low probability of simultaneous
occurrence. In general, ELAN computation provides lower uncertainty compared to the direct sum of deviations, particularly when combining several
tools that measure the same formation parameter, such as porosity estimation
from density, neutron, and sonic measurements. For this example, the uncertainty associated with porosity was caused by the tool having the highest error.
A weighted multiplier for each tool could be adjusted by the interpreter to
make the resulting uncertainty closer to the more accurate tool.
Moved water
Neutron
0.45
(m3/m3)
-0.15
Density
1.85
(g/cm3)
2.85
(gAPI)
200
MD
1:200
(m)
()
10
Caliper
4
(in.)
Water
(m3/m3)
Oil
0 Moved hydrocarbon
SUWI m= 2.25
1
PEF
0
Moved hydrocarbon
Sw1
SUWI m= 2.00
1
Gamma ray
Sw2
(m3/m3)
Water saturation
SUWI m= 1.85
14 1
(m3/m3)
Water
Quartz
Oil
Bound water
Gas
Shale
ELAN fluid analysis

0 0.5
Gas
(V/V)
0 1
ELAN volumes
(V/V)
1,980
1,990
2,000
2,010
Figure 3.92: Uncertainty of water saturation in relation to cement exponent factor change.
Practical recommendations for

logging programs in tight sands
Judging from the long list of challenges presented by the tight gas sand targets
in Algeria, a conventional triple-combo and standard pressure measurements
may not lead to adequate interpretation. Each well requires a careful analysis
of the objectives and local conditions to choose the appropriate logging tools
and to develop a comprehensive well evaluation program based on logs, cores,
wellbore seismic, and testing. Such an analysis could follow this pattern:
Porosity and hydrocarbons in placeIn addition to conventional density logging, magnetic resonance logging offers a direct measure of effective and
total porosity with no matrix response uncertainty. Currently, the single sample random uncertainty is between 1 and 2 p.u., depending on the acquisition mode; this variance drops as the square root of the number of samples;
so, for typical formations, the variance of the mean is well below 1 p.u. With
Vertical columns of eroded sandstone in the stone forest of the In Tafaghist, which is a subglacial,
open channel formed and then eroded when the Tassili rested under the glaciers of the final
Ordovician era, around 420 million years before.
future improvements, this is expected to further

decrease. Advances in nuclear magnetic resonance
measurements are presented in pages 3.80 to 3.91.
Accelerator neutron porosity logs also offer a significantly better signal-to-noise ratio and smaller environmental effects than conventional chemical source
neutron logs.
Geology and wellbore analysisWellbore imaging
logs are essential for both depositional environment and
fracture evaluation studies. The choice of imaging logs
must take into account whether the mud is oil- or waterbased and other well variables. Image analysis is
addressed in the Borehole Imaging section, page 3.28.
Acoustic loggingThe latest-generation acoustic logging technology, the Sonic Scanner tool, offers significantly better measurements of fast formation velocities
and aids in evaluating open fractures and stress distributions near the wellbore from both Stoneley and shear
wave anisotropy analysis. A major factor in this
improvement is the acoustic design of the measurement
sonde, which additionally allows quantitative modeling
of the tool-to-borehole interactioncrucial in small
boreholes and fast formations. Stoneley measurements
are made simultaneously over the whole range of applicable frequencies by the use of a chirp signal. Work is
ongoing to link better near-wellbore measurements
from acoustic logs with seismic-scale data from complex well seismic profiles. These advances are presented
in the Advanced Borehole Sonic Measurements section, page 3.106.
Wireline rotary core samplingThis technique allows
samples to be taken at low cost from large formation
intervals. Core analysis results from the past appear to
have been significantly affected by stress relief
between in situ and laboratory conditions. The wireline
rotary core sampler can acquire good-quality plugs suitable for further analysis, including special petrophysical analyses when good job preparation ensures suitable hole conditions.
Advanced wireline formation testersThese tools
allow reliable pressure determination for evaluating
fluid gradients and contacts in low-permeability formations. Low-permeability formations are the ultimate
challenge for formation testing; they require a good seal
in adverse conditions and accurate measurements
despite very small flow volumes. Selected case studies
from recent logging in tight reservoirs in Algeria are presented in the Advanced Pressure Measurements section, page 3.92.
79

Principles of measurement
Polarization
The CMR-Plus and MR Scanner tools make pulsed

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements of
hydrogen nuclei (protons) in the formation (Fig. 3.93).
This measurement is unique among well logging techniques because it responds only to fluids in the formation. The rock matrix may also contain hydrogensuch
as hydroxyl groups in claysbut this is completely invisible to NMR logging tools. The NMR signal amplitude is
directly proportional to the amount of hydrogen in the
formation fluids. Since the fluids fill the pore space and
because most formation fluids have similar hydrogen
indices (hydrogen density relative to water), the NMR
signal amplitude is a measure of porosity. Although the
rock matrix does not contribute directly to the NMR signal, it does have an indirect effect by modulating the
decay rate of the signal.
NMR tool
Activation
Measurement
Time
90-degree RF pulse
NMR echoes
Refocusing RF pulses
Figure 3.94: Standard NMR measurement sequence.
pulse, is transmitted from the antenna. The final part of the sequence involves
transmitting a train of equally spaced RF pulses (called refocusing or
180-degree pulses) and acquiring the NMR signal (that is, transverse magnetization) between the pulses. The signal acquired between each pair of consecutive pulses is called an NMR echo, and the entire measurement is known as
an echo train. In NMR literature, the measurement is sometimes referred to as
the CPMG measurementafter its inventors, Carr, Purcell, Meiboom, and Gill.
T2 distributions and inversion
Magnet
Proton
Oil
Antenna
O
Gas
Typically, several hundred to several thousand echoes are acquired in an NMR

measurement. To interpret the measurement, the echo amplitudes are subjected to a mathematical inversion that transforms the echo decay into a T2
distribution (Fig. 3.95). Each component in the distribution represents an NMR
signal with a different decay rate. Short T2 components (left side of the T2 distribution) correspond to a signal that decays quickly (decays to zero after a few
echoes), whereas long T2 components correspond to an NMR signal that
decays slowly (persisting over the entire echo train). The range of T2 in the distribution typically spans from fractions of a millisecond to several seconds.
Water
Figure 3.93: Downhole fluids (gas, oil, and water) and the NMR logging tool.
NMR measurement
All NMR logging tools have a strong permanent magnet
and radiofrequency (RF) antenna, and the basic measurement sequence happens in three stages: polarization,
activation, and signal measurement (Fig. 3.94). The polarization process corresponds to the growth of longitudinal
magnetization, characterized by the relaxation time, T1, and
the antenna remains inactive during this period. At the
end of the wait time, an RF activation pulse, or 90-degree
80
T2 decay
Inversion
T2
Figure 3.95: T2 distribution derived by inversion of measured echo amplitudes.
T2 distribution
Petrophysics of Tight SandsAdvanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Measurements
Applications and interpretation
1,2
Lithology-independent porosity
Because the NMR signal amplitude derives only from the fluids in the formation, the NMR porosity is independent of lithology. The rock matrix makes zero
contribution to the NMR signal amplitude and, therefore, does not affect the
NMR porosity. Assuming formation fluids are the same in each case, an NMR
tool reads the same porosity in a 15-p.u. sandstone, a 15-p.u. shale, or a 15-p.u.
limestone. A log from Well BKP-1 presents a good example of NMR lithologyindependent porosity (Fig. 3.96). At ~3,830 m there is an abrupt change in
lithology which has a dramatic effect on density, neutron, and gamma ray
responses but is essentially transparent to the CMR porosity.
Therefore, in formations containing water and/or oil with

a low gas-oil ratio (GOR), the NMR signal is a direct
measure of porosity. In formations containing gas, the
uncorrected NMR porosity will be lower than the true
porosity because of the low HI of gas. The uncorrected
NMR porosity may also be lower than true porosity in formations containing condensates or light oils with high
GOR. A similar hydrogen index effect is observed on neutron porosity.
Gas detection: Density magnetic resonance
The divergence between uncorrected NMR and density

porosity logs is a simple but powerful indicator of gas or
other light hydrocarbons. This effect is analogous to the
neutron-density crossover commonly used for gas detection. In complex environments such as shaly sands, the
density-magnetic resonance (DMR) technique3 is often a
better gas indicator than the traditional neutron density
method, which is susceptible to shale neutron absorbers.
Figure 3.97 shows an example of the DMR method in a
shaly sand environment.
NMR signal amplitude is directly proportional to formation porosity and the

hydrogen index (HI) of the formation fluids. By definition, water at atmospheric conditions has an HI of 1.0. Most dead oils also have an HI close to 1.
DPHI > TCMR

CMFF
DSOZ
2
(in.)
(m3/m3)
0.2
0
Free fluid
Density
k Timur
Bit size
0
0.01
(mD)
Bound fluid
100
Invasion
T2 distribution
TNPH
(in.) 12
0.15
(m3/m3) -0.02
Caliper
0
(in.) 12
0
PEFZ
AHT90
TCMR
( )
10 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 0.2
(m3/m3)
Gamma ray
AHT10
RHOZ
(gAPI)
VGXO
29
T2 LM
0 0.5
Washout
MD
(m)
( )
200 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 2.32 (g/m3) 2.65 0.5
(ms)
DPHI
Caliper
3,000
T2 cutoff
(ms)
NPHI
0.25
3,000
6
Depth
(m)
(in.)
16
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
TCMR
DMRP
200 0.3
(%)
X,800
X,410
X,420
X,430
X,850
X,440
Figure 3.96: Lithology-independent porosity measurement from Well BKP-1.
Figure 3.97: DMR example in a shaly sand.
81
The DMR method provides a corrected true porosity,

DMRP = CORR, based on NMR porosity, NMR, and density porosity, RHO,
samples and determining the required value of T2 cutoff for consistency with partially desaturated samples (Fig. 3.98).
Pore size
CORR = w RHO + (1-w) NMR .
T2 cutoff
T2 distribution interpretation
Important information is also contained in the form of the
NMR signal decay, which is described by the T2 distribution. The measured relaxation time, T2, is determined by
three terms corresponding to surface relaxation (T2S), diffusion relaxation (T2D), and bulk relaxation (T2B):
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 .
T2S T2D T2B
T2
Water-saturated rocks and water-base mud

For water-saturated rocks in wells drilled with waterbase mud (WBM), NMR relaxation is usually dominated
by the surface effect, and
1
1 = S .
~
2
T2
T2S
V
Amplitude
The optimum value of the weighting factor, w, depends

on factors such as gas density, hydrogen index, and
polarization. For a wide range of environments, however,
a value of w = 0.6 provides good results.
T2
Clay-bound water
Capillary-bound water
Movable water
Figure 3.98: T2 distribution for a water-saturated rock.
Oil and gas

For crude oils, T2 distributions are governed by intrinsic oil properties, in particular viscosity (Fig. 3.99). Quantitative expressions relating viscosity to T2 and
diffusion are available.4 The T2 of gas is generally determined by diffusion,
acquisition parameters, and tool design (magnetic field gradient).5
NMR permeability
The most commonly used NMR permeability transforms are the Timur-Coates
and SDR permeabilities.
The relationship between T2 and pore size can be used to

derive information concerning producibility. A T2 cutoff is
defined such that components in the distribution to the
right of the cutoff (long T2, large pores) are associated
with movable water, and those on the left of the cutoff
(short T2, small pores) correspond to bound water. The
bound-fluid portion of the distribution can be further partitioned into capillary-bound and clay-bound water.
Absolute values for the T2 cutoff depend on several factors, including formation relaxivity (2), pore geometry,
and cementation. In environments where these factors
are not well-known, the measurement must be calibrated
to obtain reliable quantitative interpretation. Calibration
is performed by taking NMR measurements on core
82
Amplitude
Molecular size
This expression indicates that the relaxation rate, 1/T2, is

proportional to the surface-to-volume ratio (S/V) of the
pores. It also depends on the surface relaxivity, 2, which
is governed by mineralogy. The surface relaxivity can vary
significantly from one formation type to another but is
generally well-defined within a single formation.
T2
Tar/
bitumen
Heavy
oil
Intermediate
oil
Light
oil
Viscosity
Figure 3.99: T2 distributions for oils of different viscosity.
The Timur-Coates expression is
kTIM = A B
FFV
BFV
where is the NMR porosity. The free-fluid (FFV) and bound-fluid volumes
(BFV) are computed from the T2 distribution based on the T2 cutoff.
Diffusion NMR and fluid characterization
10-3
10-4
Schlumberger NMR fluid characterization relies on

molecular diffusion measurements to distinguish fluid
properties.4 The methodology involves acquiring multiple
measurements with different acquisition parameters and
performing simultaneous inversion of all the data. The
inversion transforms the series of echo amplitude decays
into a single three-dimensional (3D) amplitude distribution in which the three axes correspond to T1, T2, and D.
To visualize the results, interpreters project the 3D amplitude distributions onto two dimensions, providing D-T1 or
D-T2 maps. To guide quicklook interpretation, overlay
lines corresponding to water, oil, and gas responses are
often displayed on the maps (Fig. 3.100).6
Gas
Water
D, cm2 s-1
10-5
10-6
Oil
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
T2, s
Figure 3.100: A D-T2 map acquired in Well Al-55. Peaks corresponding to water and OBM filtrate are
clearly identified. A small peak due to small pores or shale appears at short T2 .
An example of a D-T2 map with the respective T2 and D

distributions is shown in Fig. 3.100. The map data were
acquired with the CMR-Plus tool in Well Al-55. The well
was drilled with OBM, and the data (MRF station) were
acquired at the low edge of an anomalous low-resistivity
streak that appears in the middle of a hydrocarbonbearing sand (Fig. 3.101).
The SDR permeability transform also includes the NMR porosity but uses the logarithmic mean of the T2 distribution (T2LM), rather than the ratio of free fluid to
bound fluid, to reflect pore size distribution. The SDR permeability equation is
Depth
(m)
Resistivity
(ohm.m)
Caliper 1
6
kSDR = A B (T2LM) C .
(in.)
AHT10
16 0.2
(ohm.m)
16 0.2
(ohm.m)
Caliper 2
6
SDR permeability is applicable in water-saturated rocks. It is not appropriate

in formations containing native hydrocarbon or oil-base mud (OBM) filtrate.
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
The exponents and prefactors that appear in the permeability transforms are
formation dependent and, in general, require calibration (see below).
However, when cores are not available for calibration, default parameters
(sandstone and carbonate) can be applied.
(in.)
AHT20
Caliper 3
200 6
(in.)
2,000
2,000
AHT30
16 0.2
(ohm.m)
2,000
X,625
NMR permeability calibration

The transforms listed above are capable of providing quantitative permeability
estimates, provided they have been calibrated for the environments in which
they are to be applied. Full calibration involves determining the T2 cutoff values,
prefactors (A, A), and exponents (B, B, C, C) from laboratory measurements of
a comprehensive selection of suitable core samples.
Once the NMR permeability calibration has been performed for a particular
formation, the same calibration should be applicable for that formation
throughout the field. However, if core samples are not available or it is determined for any other reason to forego permeability calibration, the NMR permeability logs must be calculated using default parameters. Under such circumstances, the NMR permeability should be viewed as a qualitative indicator rather than a quantitative measurement.
MRF station
X,650
X,675
Figure 3.101: Logs from Well Al-55. The MRF (D-T2 map) station depth is
also indicated.
83
Three peaks are clearly identified on the D-T2 map. The peak at short T2 is due
to clay-bound water. Because of the short T2 value, this small peak is not
resolved in the diffusion dimension and appears as a broad vertical stripe on
the map. The middle peak at T2 ~70 ms is centered close to the water diffusion line and can be attributed to water. The peak at T2 ~800 ms corresponds
to OBM filtrate and lies close to the diagonal oil overlay. The NMR results
confirm the anomalously high water saturation indicated by resistivity.
Magnet
CMR-Plus tool
30 in.
The CMR-Plus wireline logging tool (Fig. 3.102) is a pad-type device that is run
eccentered to obtain a sample volume centered about 1 in. into the formation.7
The antenna is 6 in. long to allow for good vertical resolution.
1.1 in.
6 in.
Sensitive volume
CMR-Plus calibration
The calibration of the NMR signal amplitude in terms of porosity is carried out
in three stages: master calibration, environmental correction, and hydrogen
index correction.
Antenna
For the master calibration, a water bottle is placed over the antenna and the
signal amplitude is measured very precisely. This amplitude corresponds to
100 p.u. and is applied as a normalization factor during logging.
Figure 3.102: CMR-Plus tool.
The second stage of calibration involves a series of corrections that are

applied to account for variations in the NMR signal caused by environmental
factors. Corrections are small when the logging environment is benign (ambient
temperature, low conductivity mud).
Finally, an HI correction is necessary to obtain a true porosity. The HI correction is usually applied as part of the interpretation process (for example, as an
end point in ELAN analysis).
PAP
PAP
PAP
Figure 3.103: Sequential PAP acquisition scheme.
84
CMR-Plus tuning
CMR-Plus tools use an automated tuning procedure that substantially
improves operational efficiency, particularly in challenging environments such
as low-porosity formations where tool tuning has been difficult in the past.8
Precision
In a homogenous formation with uniform porosity and in a smooth wellbore,
the repeatability of NMR porosity is governed by the intrinsic measurement
precision. The main factors that influence precision are
signal-to-noise ratio for the raw echoes
depth averaging (filtering)
acquisition mode and echo spacing
inversion algorithm and parameters.
Echo noise
Repeatability
Noise per echo is the standard deviation of echo amplitude in an echo train.
At standard master calibration conditions, the noise per echo per single echo
train for the CMR-Plus tool is about 1.9 p.u. During logging, the noise level
generally increases because of environmental factors. Occasionally, anomalous
noise spikes can affect the raw NMR data and cause measured noise levels
to exceed expected levels. Fortunately, it is often possible to identify and
remove these noise spikes using a despiking filter.
In a heterogenous formation with rapidly varying porosity

or in challenging borehole conditions, such as a rugose
hole or deviated well, the repeatability between two
separate logging passes is strongly influenced by pad
orientation and contact, and by depth matching of the
separate logging passes.
Accuracy
Depth averaging
The basic CMR-Plus acquisition scheme is illustrated in Fig. 3.103. Successive
acquisitions are made with opposite phase. Pairs of consecutive acquisitions
are combined such that the signal adds and any constant electronic offsets
are cancelled. The summed echo train is known as a phase-alternated pair
(PAP). With the CMR-Plus tool, PAPs are constructed sequentially such that
each individual acquisition (plus phase or minus phase) contributes to two
PAPs. The reduction in echo noise obtained by sequential averaging of N adjacent PAPs is
N =
2N 1
PAP ,
N
The accuracy of NMR porosities is governed primarily by

polarization and the hydrogen index.
Polarization
The CMR-Plus and MR Scanner tools have long magnets
that prepolarize the formation fluids ahead of the antenna
to provide sufficient polarization at acceptable logging
speeds. Nevertheless, in formations containing fluids
with long T1 timessuch as gas, light oil, or water in
vugsit is still important to verify that the acquisition
sequence provides adequate polarization.
and the vertical resolution (LN) of the resulting averaged echo train is
LN = ( N x S ) + LA ,
Long CPMG
Short CPMG
where S is the sample interval and LA is the antenna length.
Acquisition mode
The CMR-Plus enhanced precision mode (EPM) is an efficient way to improve the
statistics on the early echoes and thereby improve the precision of NMR porosity. In EPM mode, a series of repeated short echo trains are acquired with short
wait times immediately following the main long echo train. The short repeat echo
trains are averaged together to reduce noise, and all the echo data (main echo
train and averaged short echo trains) are then submitted to a simultaneous inversion. The EPM sequence and typical echo are presented in Fig. 3.104.
Long WT2
Short WT2
The echo spacing is also critical in determining sensitivity to short T2 components. The CMR-Plus tool has an echo spacing of 0.2 ms.
Inversion parameters
Inversion algorithms transform echo decay data into T2 distributions. Critical
inversion parameters are the minimum T2 value, maximum T2 value, number
of T2 components, and regularization parameter. The CMR-Plus inversion algorithm automatically computes an optimum regularization parameter that provides robust distributions in all typical logging environments. The minimum
and maximum T2 values are typically 0.3 ms and 3 s, respectively.
50
100
150
Echo number
Figure 3.104: EPM acquisition scheme and typical EPM echo data.
85
DPHI > TCMR
Hydrogen index
Because downhole fluid properties are not always known
exactly, estimates are made based on temperature and
pressure. For water and most oils, inaccuracies in HI are
generally small, but for gas and light oils with high GOR,
variations can be significant and could lead to some inaccuracy in the porosity measurement.
CMFF
DSOZ
2
(in.)
(m3/m3)
0.2
0
Free fluid
Density
k Timur
Bit size
0
0.01
(mD)
Bound fluid
100
Invasion
T2 distribution
TNPH
(in.) 12
0.15
(m3/m3)
-0.02 0
Caliper
CMR-Plus tool in low-porosity sands

Low-porosity environments present a number of specific
operational and interpretation challenges for NMR logging.
Operational aspects
Autotuning
The latest generation CMR-Plus tool has an autotuning
capability, which significantly improves operational efficiency and data quality in low-porosity formations, in
salt-saturated muds, and under high temperatures where
the NMR signal-to-noise ratio is reduced.8 An initial
manual Larmor frequency search task (LFST) must still be
performed to verify proper functioning and to determine
the signal phase offsets necessary to initiate the automatic frequency loop. Ideally, the LFST should be conducted downhole in a formation with good porosity. In
very low-porosity formations, it may not be practical to
locate a zone with sufficient porosity to perform the LFST
efficiently. In this case, the recommended procedure is:
1. Perform the LFST at surface using a water bottle. Accept
the
theLFST.
LFST.
2. Run in hole as usual to below casing shoe.
3. Turn on AC AUX. Tool automatically enters Idle mode
(i.e.,
(i.e.,continuous
continuousLFST).
LFST)
4. Select Depth View mode (no DLIS written) and x-plot
depth
depthversus
versusfrequency.
frequency.
5. Near TD perform one LFST.
6. If LFST is good, accept. If not, then discard.
7. Start logging.
Pad orientation
For good data quality it is extremely important that the
CMR tool pad and the formation maintain close contact.
If the tool is not oriented correctly and there is significant
rugosity, pad contact may be lost and the tool will read
mud signal. This is usually easy to recognize in the CMR
log. Mud gives rise to high-porosity streaks with welldefined unimodal signatures in the T2 distribution, typi-
86
PEFZ
(in.) 12
0
( )
AHT90
10 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 0.2 (m3/m3)
0 0.5
Washout
MD
(m)
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
AHT10
( )
29
T2 LM
TCMR
RHOZ
200 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 2.32 (g/m3) 2.65 0.5
(ms)
3,000
T2 cutoff
(ms)
3,000
X,710
X,720
X,730
X,740
Figure 3.105: Example of CMR-Plus log from Well BKP-1 with borehole breakout, which causes mud
signal and an excess porosity at X,721 and X,724 m.
cally centered between 2 ms and 30 ms. Figure 3.105 illustrates a short interval where mud signal appears on a CMR-Plus log from Well BKP-1. In this
example, the mud signal appears at about 2 ms in the T2 distribution.
To minimize mud contamination problems in rugose boreholes, the pad must
be oriented in a direction orthogonal to breakouts. This may be achieved by
running the tool with a single-axis caliper arm oriented at right angles to the
axis of the CMR-Plus pad. During logging, the caliper is opened and the tool
will orient itself with the caliper arm in the breakout; this leaves the pad facing
the in-gauge smooth part of the borehole. Alternatively, a powered multiarm
caliper (PPC) may be used in conjunction with the bowspring to orient the tool.
This approach has been used successfully to orient the CMR tool along the
short axis of ovalized boreholes.
DPHI > TCMR

CMFF
DSOZ
2
(in.)
(m3/m3)
0.2
0
Free fluid
Density
Bound fluid
k Timur
Bit size
0
0.01
(mD)
100
Invasion
T2 distribution
TNPH
(in.) 12
0.15
(m3/m3) -0.02
( )
29
Caliper
0
PEFZ
AHT90
TCMR
( )
10 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 0.2
(m3/m3)
Gamma ray
AHT10
RHOZ
(in.) 12
0
T2 LM
0 0.5
(ms)
3,000
Washout
MD
(m)
(gAPI)
T2 cutoff
200 0.1 (ohm-m) 1,000 2.32 (g/m3) 2.65 0.5
(ms)
3,000
If the CMR-Plus tool is run in combination with the density, neutron, and microcylindrically focused log, the CMR
pad should be oriented orthogonally to the nuclear sensors. In formations where breakouts are anticipated, this
should ensure that at least one porosity measurement
will be unaffected by hole rugosity. However, it must be
recognized that with this unconventional scheme, the different sensors no longer measure the same volume of
rock, which introduces additional uncertainty. In view of
this significant limitation, the orthogonal sensor arrangement should be considered only when other logging procedures fail to provide satisfactory results.
Acquisition sequence and porosity precision

Most CMR-Plus logs are acquired in EPM, and in most
cases, the default acquisition parameters (WT = 20 ms,
30 echoes, and 10 repeats for short echo trains) are used
because these are known to provide good results in a
broad range of environments. In very low-porosity environments, modifications of this scheme may be warranted
to improve the precision of NMR porosity and T2 distribution measurements. Table 3.3 gives examples of potential acquisition modes for low-porosity environments.
X,870
X,880
NMR applications and examples
X,890
Rock quality indicator
Figure 3.106: CMR-Plus log showing good quality rock at X,867 to X,880 m where the gamma ray log
indicates shale.
Logging
speed
(ft/hr)*
Sample
interval
(in.)
Vertical
resolution
(in.)**
10
750
7.5
28.5
30
40
500
7.5
28.5
60
40
650
9.0
33
NECHOMAIN
WTEPM
(ms)
3,000
20
30
3,000
20
3,000
20
NECHOEPM NREPTEPM
The CMR tool provides a simple evaluation of rock quality in the form of T2 distributions. Traditionally, a gamma
ray (GR) log is used to delineate shaliness for quicklook
interpretation. However, the GR response is affected by
many factors that may not relate to shaliness or the presence of clays. The log section shown in Fig. 3.106 from
Well BKP-1 illustrates a short interval (X,876X,880 m) in
which both GR and neutron porosity (TNPH) read high relative to the surrounding formation. In a quicklook analysis, this could easily be interpreted as shale. However,
the CMR T2 distributions indicate a good quality rock
over this interval with significant free-fluid volume. In
fact, this zone shows the highest NMR permeability
encountered over the entire logged interval.
*In all sequences, logging speeds were chosen to provide approximately 95% polarization for a fluid with a T1 of 3 s.
**Vertical resolution computed for three-level averaging of sequential PAPS
Table 3.3: Examples of EPM acquisition sequences.
87
Capillary-bound
Density magnetic resonance

The example shown in Fig. 3.107 was acquired in a lightoil-bearing formation (Rosneft Well TEN-1). Over the
interval shown, there is a clear deficit in CMR porosity
relative to the density plotted on a compatible scale
(matrix density = 2.65 g/cm3; fluid density = 1.0 g/cm3).
Provided that the two measurements are sensitive to
commensurate rock volumes, this deficit can only arise if
either the matrix or fluid density is lower than its nominal value. It is, therefore, important to have a good
knowledge of the grain density and mud filtrate density.
Measurement precision, depth matching, and resolution
matching are also important factors in the application of
the density magnetic resonance (DMR) method.
k Timur
0.1
HSGR
0.1
Gamma ray
0 (gAPI) 150
(mD)
1,000
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000
(in.) 16
HLLS
Moved water
CMRP 3MS
porosity
Moved hydrocarbon
(m3/m3)
Irreducible water
0
Water
Taper free fluid
RXOZ
Bit size
0.4
(m3/m3)
Oil
0
Quartz
Neutron porosity
0.4
(m3/m3)
RHOZ
T2 distribution
0
( )
Silt
29
T2 LM
Bound water
Kaolinite
1.99 (g/cm3) 2.65
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000

0.3 (ms) 3,000
Illite
Total CMR
(in.) 16 MD
HLLD
T2 cutoff
ELAN volumes
porosity
1:200
(V/V)
0
CGR-SGR (m) 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 0.4 (m3/m3) 0 0.3 (ms) 3,000 1
Caliper
1,000
k SDR
0 (gAPI) 150
(mD)
0.4
Small pore
porosity
Although the DMR method is a good indicator of light

hydrocarbon, it is important to understand that the
absence of any DMR effect does not guarantee the
Small pore porosity
X,800
Capillary bound
-2
Free fluid
-3
Gas
Density porosity
0.4
(m3/m3)
-4 Water
-5
(g/cm3)
Taper free fluid

0.4
(m3/m3)
TCMR
0.4
(m3/m3)
Log; D, cm2 s-1
Bulk density
X,810
DCIm
-6
Oil
-7
-3
Log; T2, s
-2
-1
T2 distribution
X,820
Figure 3.107: Comparison of density and CMR porosities in light-oilbearing sand.
absence of hydrocarbon. If invasion has flushed the native hydrocarbon beyond

the depth of investigation of the tool, the DMR approach is not appropriate and
deeper measurements must be used.
Magnetic resonance fluid characterization

The magnetic resonance fluid (MRF) characterization method has been used
extensively to identify hydrocarbons in a wide range of environments. Figure 3.108
shows the results of an MRF station measurement acquired for Rosneft in a lighthydrocarbonbearing sand in Well TAKE-1. The D-T2 map indicates a highly diffusive fluid with long T2 times, which is suggestive of a light hydrocarbon.
Figure 3.108: Example of MRF station measurement from Well TAKE-1.

The measurement depth is indicated by the arrow.
88
Low-porosity formations present a particular challenge for MRF measurements, and current MRF acquisition schemes have not been optimized for low
signal environments.
Recent Advances in NMR Logging

MR Scanner tool
The MR Scanner tool has a main antenna and two high-resolution antennas
(Fig. 3.I). Intended primarily for fluid characterization applications, the main
antenna operates at multiple frequencies. Five different frequencies of operation correspond to independent measurement volumes (shells) which form
Highresolution
antenna
A nte n n a
Main
antenna
Magnet
Figure 3.I: MR Scanner tool.
MD
(m)
Gas (MR)
Gas (D-N)
MRP (2.7 in.)
Density
T2 distribution
T2 distribution
Gamma ray
RES
MRP (1.5 in.) Neutron
(1.5 in.)
(2.7 in.)
(ms)
(ms)
(gAPI)
(ohm.m)
(V/V)
(V/V)
3,000 0.3
3,000
0
150 0.2
20 0.4
0 0.4
0 0.3
X,000
X,050
X,100
Figure 3.J: MR Scanner radial profiling from the Gulf of Mexico.
concentric arcs in front of the antenna. The volumes and

depth of investigation (DOI) are independent of temperature. The high-resolution antennae operate at a single
frequency, corresponding to a DOI of 1.25 in. These
antennae provide rock quality and producibility answers.
The tool is run eccentered so that it can be conveyed on
pipe and run in large holes and deviated wells. It also
ensures that the measurement volumes and depths of
investigation are independent of hole size.9
Analysis of MR Scanner data is performed independently
for each DOI in all logging modes. This ensures that
variations in fluid saturations at different DOIs (due to
invasion or bad hole, for example) are detected. Because
differences in saturations can be significant among the
different shells, the analysis must fully account for them.
Radial profiling
The range of DOI accessed by NMR tools falls in what is
usually regarded as the invaded zone, in which movable
native fluids have been largely replaced by mud filtrate.
Nonetheless, experience has shown that in some environments, most notably in wells drilled with OBM where
invasion is often shallow, NMR tool measurement
volumes include significant proportions of native fluids.
Variation in NMR porosity or free-fluid volume with DOI may
be interpreted in terms of varying fractions of filtrate and
native fluids with different hydrogen indices. Figure 3.J
illustrates the effect of shallow OBM invasion in a well in
the Gulf of Mexico.10 Sand packets containing gas are
clearly defined by a density-neutron crossover. In the
same well, the deeper MR Scanner porosity (DOI = 2.7 in.)
reads mostly beyond the invasion front and is sensitive to
gas, which has a low HI and low NMR signal. The shallower porosity measurement (DOI = 1.5 in.) senses more
OBM filtrate, which has an HI close to 1.
Bad hole is easily detected with radial profiling. If necessary, shallower measurements, which are most affected,
can be omitted from the petrophysical evaluation. In
many cases, the deeper shells are immune to rugosity
and provide usable data.
89
Gas zone
(ft3/ft3)
MRX fluids 1.5 in.
0 0.6
0 0.6
2.7-in. DOI
10-3 Gas
10-3 Gas
10-4 Water
10-4 Water
10-5
10-5
Bound water
Bound water
Free water
Free water
Oil
Oil
Gas
Gas
D, cm2/s
Depth MRX gas sat. 2.7 in.

(ft)
(ft3/ft3)
0
1
GR
MRX gas sat. 1.5 in.
(gAPI)
(ft3/ft3)
0 150 0
1
1.5-in. DOI
MRX fluids 2.7 in.
OBM
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
D, cm2/s
Resistivity SWT
T1, s
10-2
10-1
10-2
10-1
100
Water zone
1.5-in. DOI
2.7-in. DOI
10-3 Gas
10-3 Gas
10-4 Water
10-4 Water
10-5
10-5
D, cm2/s
XX,200
XX,250
10-3
T1, s
OBM
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
T1, s
D, cm2/s
XX,150
OBM
10-6
OBM
10-6
10-3
100
T1, s
Figure 3.K: MR Scanner saturation profiling in a gas-bearing sand from a well in the Mediterranean.
Saturation profiling
Radial profiling indicates variations in fluids as a result of
differences in average hydrogen index, which governs the
NMR porosities. In the MR Scanner saturation profiling
mode, a full multidimensional analysis is made, providing
D-T2 and D-T1 maps at each DOI. Variations in fluids are
observed as variations in the maps.
peak at short T1. At 2.7-in. DOI, the OBM filtrate peak is absent from the map
and a stronger gas signal is observed. Evidently, across this interval, OBM
invasion is less than 2.7 in. deep. Conversely, in the water zone below, the
OBM filtrate is clearly observed at 2.7 in.
High-resolution mode
Figure 3.K illustrates the results of saturation profiling in
a gas-bearing sand from a deepwater well in the
Mediterranean.11 The fluid volumes presented in the depth
logs on the left were derived from D-T1 maps at every
depth for the two DOIs1.5 in. and 2.7 in. The adjacent
maps were computed from averaged data for the gas
zone and the water zone. This well was drilled with
OBM, and the invasion effect is clearly identified from
the D-T1 maps. In the gas zone, the map for the 1.5-in.
DOI shows a gas peak at high diffusion (top right corner
of the map) and an OBM filtrate peak with slow diffusion
and a T1 of approximately 1 s. There is also a broad shale
90
In high-resolution mode, the MR Scanner tool high-resolution antenna is combined with the main antenna operating at a DOI of 2.3 in. A reduced wait time
is used for the main antenna measurement so that light hydrocarbons are not
fully polarized. The high-resolution antenna makes fully polarized measurements at a DOI of 1.25 in., and all fluids present at that DOI are detected. If
the deeper measurement (main antenna at 2.3-in. DOI) reads lower porosity
than the shallow measurement (high-resolution antenna at 1.25-in. DOI), it
could be due to invasion in a gas-bearing zone or to underpolarized fluids in
the main antenna measurement, which is also consistent with gas or other
light hydrocarbons that have a long T1.
The high-resolution example presented in Fig. 3.L was acquired in a gas-bearing

sand/shale formation. High resistivity and a clear density-neutron crossover
indicate a massive gas-bearing sand in the lower section. Above this zone,
however, the interpretation is complicated by the presence of thin shale laminations. Comparison of the MR Scanner free-fluid porosities at XX,275 to
XX,240 ft, especially at XX,270 ft, is a useful starting point for interpretation.
The large difference between the shallow 1.25-in. DOI (high-resolution antenna)
and the 2.3-in. DOI of the main antenna is interpreted as gas. In the zone
above XX,175 ft, the porosities are not as high, but porosity deficits are clearly
apparent on the deep DOI. DMR results also correlate well with SWT on a
reverse scale (Track 1).
Neutron porosity
0.6
Depth
(ft)
GR
0
Density MRX
gas saturation
0
Water
0.6
Free fluid 1.25 in.
MRP 1.25 in.
Clay water
0.25
0 0.6
0
Density MRX Free fluid 2.3 in.
MRP 2.3 in.
Resistivity
fluids
0 0.6
0 0.6
0 0.2 (ohm.m) 20
0 0.25
Resistivity SWT
150 1
Although initial results from the MR Scanner tool used in

low-porosity environments have been positive, optimization of acquisition sequencesspecifically for low-signal environmentsmay improve the interpretation.
In principle, saturation profiling should offer significant
benefits, particularly in OBM wells where invasion could
be shallow and the diffusion contrast between gas and
filtrate is substantial. However, the application of fluid
characterization (saturation profiling) in very low-porosity
environments has not yet been fully established.
Density porosity
Gas
MR Scanner tool in
low-porosity gas sands
XX,150
The high-resolution acquisition mode is particularly wellsuited for low-porosity environments and gas detection.
The reduced sample interval and the use of large numbers of short wait-time repeat measurements from the
main antenna effectively enhance the signal-to-noise
ratio, which is crucial in low porosities. Furthermore, the
simple light-hydrocarbon detection technique (comparing
the main antenna and high-resolution antenna measurements), which is inherently part of the high-resolution
mode, is appropriate for these challenging low-porosity
formations.
XX,200
XX,250
Figure 3.L: MR Scanner high-resolution log in a gas-bearing sand from a well in the Mediterranean.
(Depth is in feet.)
91

The oil and gas industry uses wireline formation testers
to obtain pressure profiles, near-wellbore fluid mobility,
and formation fluid downhole analysis and sampling
information that is crucial to successful exploration and
development activities. New wireline formation testing
and sampling technology, such as the Schlumberger
PressureXpress service and the MDT Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester with a dual-packer module, is providing
improved measurements in tight formations where conventional formation testing tools have more limited capabilities. The application of this technology in Algerias tight
and fractured formations has greatly aided in gathering
better data at reduced operational cost. Following are
selected case studies where these tools have provided
excellent results in tight sands. Also described is a recently
devised method to analyze formation tests taken in lowpermeability reservoirs. The techniqueIMPULSE test
analysisis an alternative to the well-known Horner
transient study for determining reservoir pressure. Finally,
recent advances in downhole fluid analysis are
explainedadvances that are enhancing operators
decision-making processes for well development.
Applying the PressureXpress tool

in a well in the Hassi Guettar field
The Hassi Guettar field is located in exploration Block #427 SSE of the Hassi
Messaoud field (Fig. 2.1). Well A was the first well drilled by Sonatrach in the
area on the local structure of Hassi Guettar west. To identify the hydrocarbon
potential of the field and decide on further field development, the well was
logged to estimate the petrophysical and dynamic characteristics of the formation, to measure the reservoir pressure, and to estimate formation fluid
types by determining the fluid gradient. On the basis of openhole data
acquired during the first wireline run, formation porosity within the depth of
interest was estimated between 4 p.u. and 8 p.u.characteristic of a tight
formation. A decision was made, then, to run the PressureXpress tool.
Density
1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
Formation pressure
6,840
55
(psia)
6,970
In virgin reservoirs, vertical pressure profiles can be combined with geology, core data, seismic, and conventional
logs to develop a static model of the reservoir that includes
identification of the fluid contact level
determination of in situ formation fluid density
characterization of reservoir heterogeneities
development of a completion strategy
optimization of the mud density for infill drilling.
Drawdown mobility
Gamma ray
0.001 (mD/cP) 1,000 0
(gAPI)
0.656 g/cm3 (oil)
55
54
54
X,480
Pressure profiling in exploration wells

A formation pressure measurement is obtained by withdrawing a small amount of fluid from the formation to
generate a short transient test. The pressure response is
then recorded during shut-in until it stabilizes. Analysis of
the recorded transient yields the sandface reservoir pressure. These pressure measurements can be plotted
against true vertical depth to produce a pressure profile.
During a single run, the PressureXpress or MDT tool can
perform an unlimited number of such tests, or pretests, at
different depths. The resulting profile is extremely valuable in analyzing both virgin and developed reservoirs.
1:358
TVD
(m)
X,490
33
33
X,500
34
34
37
39
37
39
X,510
40
40
X,520
41
41
42
42
X,530
43
Oil/water contact at X,535.5 m
45
X,540
47
48
49
X,550
50
1,217 g/cm3 (water)
45
47
48
49
50
51
52
43
X,560
51
52
Figure 3.109: Pressure profile of Well A obtained with the PressureXpress tool.
92
Neutron
150 0.45 (V/V) -0.15
Petrophysics of Tight SandsAdvanced Pressure Measurement s
Thirty-eight pressure points were recorded at 34 different depths along the wellbore. Formation fluid densities and the oil/water contact were derived from the
formation pressure measurements with depth (Fig. 3.109) in the Cambrian interval
logged. In addition to the pressure profiles and their estimated gradients,
Fig. 3.109 shows the drawdown mobility, gamma ray, porosity, bulk density,
and resistivity. The calculated drawdown mobility values were estimated to
range from 0.01 mD/cP to 11.58 mD/cP. The pressure profile and fluid density
calculations indicated an oil-saturated formation in the X,470- to X,535.5-m
interval and a water-saturated formation in the X,535.5- to X,566-m interval.
The free-water level was estimated at X,535.5 m on the

basis of the intersection of the oil and water gradient lines.
Examination of the results from ELAN petrophysical analysis showed that the formation in this well drilled with oilbase mud is preferentially oil-wet due to the differences
observed between the log oil/water contact at X,544.5 m
and the formation test free-water level at X,535.5 m
(Fig. 3.110). The discrepancy between the PressureXpress
KTIM-CMR
0.01 (mD) 1,000
AHO10
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
(gAPI)
150
(in.)
Min. caliper
(in.)
Bit size
(in.)
MD
1:20
(m)
D-N
AHO60
Porosity
PEFZ
AHORT
14 DSOZ 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 0

1 (in.) 0
AHORX
()
Thorium
10 0
Compr. slowness
14 DSOZ 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 140 (s/ft)
40 -30
(ppm)
Uranium
(ppm)
T2 dist
(ms )
T2 cutoff
KINT-ELAN
TCMR
0.01 (mD) 1,000
Oil
Water
Moved water
Water
Oil
Moved
hydrocarbon
kro ELAN
CMRP3MS
29 0.2 (m3/m3)
Density
10,000 (mD) 0.1 Irreducible water
Quartz
0 Irreducible water 10,000 (mD) 0.1
Oil
Bound water
Kaolinite
10,000 (mD) 0.1
ELAN fluid analysis
30 0.3 (ms) 3,000 2.28 (g/cm3) 2.65 0.25 (V/V)
Silt
krw ELAN
Water
CMFF
50 0.3 (ms) 3,000 0.2 (m3/m3)

T2LM
Moved
hydrocarbon
kint ELAN
Small pores
0.2 (m3/m3)
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 0.45 (m3/m3) -0.15
TENS
Density
Potassium
AHO90
(N)
(ppk)
0 0
14 15,000 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95 50
20,000
Moved water
K-XPT
Capillary bound 0.01 (mD) 1,000
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000
150
Max. caliper
4
AHO20
AHO30
SGR
0
KSDR-CMR
0.01 (mD) 1,000
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000
CGR-SGR
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000
01
Swi
(m3/m3)
Volumetric analysis
01
(V/V)
X,525
WOC XPT at X,535.5 m
Saturation
WOC ELAN at X,544.5 m
X,550
Figure 3.110: Water/oil contact from the PressureXpress tool and the ELAN petrophysical interpretation in Well A.
93
depths and those derived from ELAN analysis for the

water/oil contact reflects the rock wettability. Between
these depths, the formation is saturated with both fluids,
although a predominant water gradient indicated that
the water is in a mobile phase whereas the oil is mostly
residual. The magnitude of the gap between the two
depths depends on the degree of wettability and the
capillary pressure.1
Formation MicroImager and the MDT tool with the single-probe module. Using
InterACT real-time monitoring and data delivery, the MDT petrophysical (LDLCNL) and FMI data were transmitted via satellite during acquisition to a Data
& Consulting Services (DCS) processing center for analysis and interpretation.
Petrophysical and geological data processing indicated the presence of natural fractures at some depths in the Ordovician formation (Figs. 3.111a and 3.111b).
Moved water
Moved hydrocarbon
Applying the MDT with dual-packer tool

in Wells B and C in the Takouazet field
The Takouazet field is located in exploration block #245
in the Illizi basin (Fig. 1.1). In 2004, Sonatrach in association with Rosneft-Stroytransgaz drilled two exploration
wells: Well B (Takouazet East) and Well C (Takouazet
West). Well logging and testing revealed oil flows and
confirmed the presence of hydrocarbons in the
Ordovician and Devonian formations. The MDT tool with
the dual-packer module played an important role in
assessing the hydrocarbon potential.
The primary objectives for the first exploration well, Well
B, were to test for possible gas and oil trapped in the
Ordovician and Devonian sandstones and obtain highquality formation fluid samples for PVT analysis. A complete suite of logs was run, including the FMI Fullbore
Water
Oil
Moved water
Gas
Moved hydrocarbon
Calcite
Water
Quartz
Oil
Bound water
Gas
MD
1 : 200
(m) 0.1
KINT
(mD)
Illite
ELAN fluid analysis Water saturation
Volumetric model
0 1
(V/V)
1,000 0.25 (V/V)
(m3/m3)
Zone 1
X,520
Zone 2
X,530
Zone 3
X,540
X,550
Zone 4
X,560
X,570
Zone 5
X,580
At Tin Tazarift, under the overhang rock shelter, prehistoric men created a
millstone on the substratum on which to crush wild and cultivated seeds.
94
Figure 3.111a: ELAN results for the Ordovician formation in Well B.
0 1
Petrophysics of Tight SandsAdvanced Pressure Measurements
Horizontal scale: 1 : 7.540

Orientation north
0
120
240
360
Structural bed
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
MD
1 : 200
(m)
FMI image
FMI image
Stratigraphic bed
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
Major conductive fracs

(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Major conductive fr
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
Minor conductive fracs

(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Minor conductive fr
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
Faults
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
Drilling fracture
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
Horizontal scale:
1 : 10.771
Orientation north
0
360
Faults
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Bit size
4
(in.) 9
Drilling fractures
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Caliper 1
4
(in.) 9
Density
C 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
Neutron
0.45 (m3/m3) -0.15
RHOZ=TNPH
Drilling fractures
Faults
Sedimentary dips
Stratigraphic
bedding
Caliper 2
4
(in.) 9
Inclin
Borehole
drift
Sedimentary dips
Quality ]4.12[
Quality [12.20]
(deg)
90 0 (deg) 5
Structural bedding
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
GR
(gAPI)
0 500
MD
1 : 20
(m)
Stratigraphic bedding
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Sedimentary dips
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
Structural bedding
Inclin
Borehole
drift
(deg)
5
10
1 : 20.944 Caliper 1
North
Major conductive
0
360 5 (in.)10
fracs
FMI Caliper 2
R image C
0
(deg)
90
5 (in.)10
Minor conductive
fracs
X,520
X,538
X,530
X,539
X,540
X,550
X,540
X,560
X,541
X,570
X,580
Figure 3.111b: ELAN results and FMI resistivity images of the Ordovician formation in Well B. A zoom of the fractured interval around X,540 m is shown on the right.
95
Pressure profiling in development wells

Although observed formation pressures may already be
affected by partial depletion or injection for pressure
maintenance, pressure profiling in development wells
aids in understanding fluid movement within the reservoir for enhanced flow simulations. The resulting profiles, combined with the production history, are used to
update reservoir models to optimize recovery.
Quartz pressure MDT-BQP1, psia 4,000.0

0.0
3.0
Motor speed MDT-HMS1, rpm

0.0
2,500.0
MRPS1 pretest volume MDT-PTV1, cm3
The original acquisition program consisted of conventional formation testing using single-probe technology,
but because the device typically cannot seal on fractures,
only the matrix could be tested. In this well, the matrix
proved to be very tight (Fig. 3.112). Given that the petrophyscial logs and images indicated the presence of fractures, the MDT survey was redesigned to sample across
the fractures using dual-packer technology. The operation was successfully performed by retrieving singlephase PVT-quality samples while sampling with limited
drawdowns20 psia (Fig. 3.113)at an interval across
conductive fractures (Fig. 3.111b). Setting the packers
across the fractured zones minimized the pressure drawdown while pumping at the high flow rate required for
quick sampling cleanup. Combining the MDT with the
dual-packer probe and FMI borehole imagingsynergistic technologiesand their data delivery and interpretation in real time, led to more effective and efficient sampling operations in Well B in the fractured Takouazet
reservoirs.
0.0
Mud pressure
after test
Mud pressure
before test
Pressure
buildup
100
200
300
400
500
Time, s
Figure 3.112: The MDT single-probe module was unsuccessful in measuring a representative pressure
or retrieving a sample in a timely manner in Well B at depth X,539.97 m in such a tight, low-mobility
environment.
anticlinorium. The oil extension is bound to the east and to the west by two
major faults, to the north by an aquifer, and to the south by a gas cap.
The depths of the water/oil contact (WOC) and gas/oil contact (GOC) in the Tin
Fouye Tabankort vary (Fig. 3.114). Conventional openhole logs in Well D showed
the presence of three layers within the depth of interest for which the porosity
varied between 3 p.u. and 7 p.u. The well was supposed to cross the gas cap
and the oil leg. To produce oil and avoid perforating the gas zone, relying on the
reservoir neutron porosity and density combination was not sufficient. The
PressureXpress tool, therefore, was run to accurately identify the actual location
of the GOC, if present. A detailed survey of distributed pressures was planned,
sampling every 0.5 m to monitor and image the fluid movement history.
3,575
Furthermore, in developed reservoirs, wireline formation

testers can be used to
determine the thickness of pay zones
characterize vertical and horizontal barriers
assess vertical permeability
identify potential thief zones
determine hydraulic communication between wells
detect fluid contact movement
detect trapped hydrocarbons as residual saturation.
3,565
Formation
pressure
3,555
3,545
Drawdown
pressure
Well D in the Tin Fouye Tabankort field

The Tin Fouye Tabankort (TFT) field is located 360 km SSE
of the Hassi Messaoud field. The Ordovician reservoir is
oil-saturated over most of the north flank of the Tin Fouye
96
Pressure, psia
3,535
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
Time, hr
Figure 3.113: Successful sampling with the MDT dual-packer module in the X,539.5- to X,540.5-m
interval in Well B. During pumping, the drawdown pressure was 20 psia below formation pressure.
1,642
1,7
1,64
1,6
50
00
50
1,6
1,62
50
1,6
1,600
00
1,601
1,6
1,550
1,5
00
1,549
49
Gas/oil contact
1,5
00
00
1,6
Water/oil contact
1,577
1,50
0
0
1,6
1,550
1,545
1,5
50
1,5
1,700
49 1,550
1,5
50
1,5
1,500
1,6
1,450
00
Figure 3.114: Isobaths of the top of Unit IV in the Tin Fouye Tabankort field with gas/oil and water/oil
contact levels.2
Neutron
(V/V)
20 2,000 0.45 -0.15
Drawndown
mobility
Density
1:103
Formation pressure
Gamma ray
Rt
TVD
(mD/cP)
(g/cm3)
(psia)
2,180 (m) 0.1
10 0 (gAPI) 150 20 2,000 1.85 2.85
Rxo
2,150
Figure 3.115 shows the 51 pressure points recorded by the

PressureXpress tool. The calculated drawdown mobility
varied from 0.29 mD/cP to 4.95 mD/cP. The pressure profile indicated that the two top layers within the depth of
interest were saturated with gas having a density of
0.165 g/cm3. Comparison of the pressure measurements
in both gas-bearing layers showed that the bottom
X,991- to X,995-m interval was more depleted than the
X,981- to X,990-m interval, suggesting the presence of
an impermeable barrier between the two layers. This
information also revealed that both sands were being
depleted at slightly different rates.
The pressure profile also showed that the bottom layer
was saturated with oil having a density of 0.67 g/cm3
and rich gas having a density of 0.295 g/cm3 at its top.
The GOC was estimated to lie at X,999 m. Taking into
account that the measured reservoir pressure in this
layer was lowaround 2,160 psiaand that it was
below the bubblepoint pressure, the free gas present in
the layer probably resulted from a secondary gas cap
expansion into the oil leg and was created by initial high
production rates.
X,980
25a
25a
22a
5
7
8
20a
23a 19a
0.164 g/cm3 (gas)
12
13 14
15 24a
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24
21a
25
26
18a
X,982
22a
5
X,984
X,986
X,988
X,990
21a
8
20a
23a 19a
12
14 13
15
24a
17
19 18
21
22 20
23 24
25
26
X,992
0.165 g/cm3 (gas)
28
29
3a 30
30 3a
2a
X,996
4a
4a
5a
0.295 g/cm3 (gas)
X,998
6a
7a
Gas/oil contact at X,999.05 m
8a
10a
X,000
11a
5a
7a
6a
8a
10a
11a
12a
14a
X,002
X,004
15a
0.666 g/cm3 (oil)
Permeability anisotropy with an

interval pressure transient test (IPTT)
18a
X,994
13a
Knowledge of the precise depth of the GOC allowed the

operator to better characterize the reservoir, taking into
account the varying depths of the gas/oil contact and
revealing sealing faults and pressure barriers. The
PressureXpress data also showed partial depletion
among the layers present in Well C, providing additional
information about the pressure-drop levels that could be
expected when draining the oil zone.
12a
Reservoir modeling studies, geostatistical models, and

reservoir simulation grid blocks require measurements of
horizontal permeability from several meters to several
tens of meters into the formation. Corresponding vertical
permeability values are also needed. The lack of reliable
vertical permeability data often results in adjusting gridblock vertical permeabilities as history-matching parameters during reservoir simulation.
13a
14a
15a
X,006
Figure 3.115: Pressure profile in Well D measured with the PressureXpress tool.
97
PressureXpress Tool
The PressureXpress tool (Fig. 3.M) has unprecedented accuracy and faster stabilization gauges that provide accurate
pressure measurements at different depths along the
wellbore. These measurements are then used to determine fluid contacts present in the well. Data provided by
the PressureXpress tool form the basis for accurate pressure profiles and mobility measurements that can be integrated with petrophysical, seismic, and conventional log
data to obtain a more complete picture of the reservoir.
Unlike conventional formation pressure testing tools that
are engineered to take formation fluid samples, the
PressureXpress tool is designed to obtain only pressure
and fluid mobility measurements. The tool quickly generates a survey that provides reservoir pressure for connectivity analysis, a pressure gradient for fluid density and
fluid contact information, and fluid mobility and permeability data to aid in sampling point selection.
The tools design utilizes a dynamically controlled pretest
system that enables precise control of volume and drawdown rates in a wider mobility range. A pressure limit
can also be set as necessary. The enhanced pretest system makes pressure testing possible in formations where
conventional technology cannot function. Multiple
pretests can be performed at a given depth to verify the
accuracy of a pressure measurement without having to
cycle the tool, or they can be performed at multiple
depths to produce a profile of pressure versus depth.
Critical horizontal and vertical permeability measurements can be obtained

with the MDT tool using dual-packer and single-probe modules. This MDT
configuration measures the pressure response at one or more locations in
addition to pressure measurements at the dual-packer module, often called an
interval pressure transient test, or IPTT. Interpreting data from the MDT dualpacker probe configuration provides an evaluation of horizontal and vertical
permeabilities and formation heterogeneity. In addition to anisotropy testing,
the string can provide pressure gradient measurements while sampling.
Samples taken by the dual-packer module go into any of the sampling bottles
or chambers included in the toolstring.
IPTT interpretation starts with an independent look at each test. As with miniDSTs, the first step is to analyze flow regimes. Buildups are preferred to drawdowns because they are less affected by near-wellbore factors such as
cleanup and pressure fluctuations caused by the flow rate source. The heart
of the interpretation is a layered model with horizontal and vertical permeabilities and storativity for all layers. Inputs for the initial layer boundary thickness
and porosity are all taken from logs; compressibility and viscosity come from
fluid saturation and PVT analysis. Initial values of horizontal and vertical permeability are taken from flow regime analyses and other available sources
such as cores, logs, and pretests. Initial estimates of tool storage, the skin
effect around the packer, and the formation pressure at the packer and probes
are also needed. The flow rate during drawdown is also a significant input,
but other interpretation techniques do not require flow rate data.
With these initial estimates, the expected pressure transient responses for
the packer and the monitor probes are computed and compared with the
measured transients during drawdown and buildup. An automatic optimization procedure adjusts the model parameters to minimize the differences over
all the transients. The main goal is to obtain the best horizontal and vertical
permeability values for the layers near the station. The permeability of the layers away from the station may affect results slightly but not enough to require
accurate fine tuning. The flow rate is held closely to the measured rate but is
still computed to compensate for tool storage and the effect of small flow rate
changes on the transients.
When results are unsatisfactory, the geological model is re-examined. Some
layers may be redefined and initial estimates changed. Different weights can
be applied to different time periods and different transients. For example, the
packer drawdown period may receive less weight because, unlike the observation probe pressures, it is affected by the noise associated with production
and variable cleanup or skin effect. The log analyst applies the model to each
test, in turn, until all the tests are interpreted.
The TAGI sandstone of the Hassi Berkine South field
Figure 3.M: PressureXpress tool.
98
Groupement Berkine, while operating in the Hassi Berkine field, wanted to reinject produced gas for reservoir pressure maintenance. The reservoir, as well as
the potential receiving formation, was the Lower Triassic Clay Sandstone (TAGI).
The TAGI is a mainly fluvial deposit with 5- to 15-m thick sands. In the area studied, the Hassi Berkine South field, two major rock types are found: a fine- to very
finegrained sand with interspersed shale laminae and a fine- to mediumgrained braided stream deposit with discrete claystone layers.
Four stations were planned: two in the fine-grained,

lower-resistivity layer and two in the medium-grained
layer, with one station designed to straddle a thin claystone (Fig. 3.116). Because of the high permeabilities, the
test plan had to ensure that sufficient pressure changes
would be seen at the monitor probe. With the MDT dualpacker module, the response at the probe is larger than
0.1 psi except when permeabilities of 1 D are combined
with high anisotropy. The probe response may appear
small, but it is well above the crystal quartz gauge resolution at 0.003 psi and noise of 0.01 psi. These calculations are
based on a constant flow rate of 45 cm3/s from the pumpout
module, the maximum rate it can provide. A higher flow rate
and, hence, a larger pressure response could be obtained
by flowing directly to a sample chamber. This is clearly
Reinjected gas would most likely be taken by the high-permeability layers

where it would remain and block production. The anisotropy, kh/kv, was the
most critical parameter for simulating gas injection. Reservoir engineers had
determined from cores that the anisotropy was approximately 10, which was
rather high for this type of depositional environment and would have to be
confirmed. The claystone layers presented a particular concern, because they
seemed to be present across the field. An IPTT offered an attractive solution
because it would test anisotropy over a much wider area than with cores, and
more significantly, it would provide permeability values at nearly the same
scale as the grid blocks used in the numerical simulation.
Water
Horizontal mobility
from IPTT
1
Gamma ray
0
MD
(m)
(gAPI)
(in.)
3,000
Drawdown mobility
140
1
Probe pressure
(quartz gauge)
Caliper
142
(mD/cP)
Oil
0 5,110
3,000
AIT resistivity
5,150 1
(psi)
(mD/cP)
Anisotropy
kv/kh
Core
(ohm.m)
100
MDT
3,000
Sandstone
Bound water
Clay
Volumetric analysis
100 0
(V/V)
Layer 1
4
X,X30
Layer 2
0 0.1 mm
X,X40
0 0.1 mm
X,X50
Figure 3.116: In the two layers of the 15-m TAGI sandstone, layer 1 is fine grained with shale laminations, and layer 2 is a medium-grained massive sandstone with thin claystone
beds. The two IPTTs in layer 1 both give horizontal mobilities below 100 mD/cP and moderate anisotropy. In layer 2, both tests show high horizontal mobility, but the top test has low
anisotropy, whereas the bottom test has high anisotropy, most likely because of the thin clay (green highlight in track 4) at X,X40.2 m between the packer and probe. The average
core anisotropy is similar but slightly higher.
99
MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester with Dual-Packer Module

The MDT dual-packer module employs two inflatable
packers that are set against the borehole wall to isolate
a borehole interval for sampling and testing (Fig. 3.N).
The pumpout module inflates the packers with borehole
fluid to approximately 1,000 psia above hydrostatic pressure. Packer spacing is adjustable, but the minimum distance of 1 m provides a borehole wall test area many
times greater than the cross-sectional area of a standard
MDT or PressureXpress probe. This allows fluids to be
withdrawn at a higher rate without falling below bubblepoint or dewpoint pressures. The dual packer also
enables flowing tight fractured formations while straddling identified open fractures. This test technique, also
called a mini-DST, provides a radius of investigation for
parameter estimations within several meters to tens of
meters, depending on reservoir parameters and the duration of the test.
average, they are neither located nor quantified. With the help of wireline
logs, the smaller-volume mini-DST can evaluate key intervals and obtain a distribution of measurements along the wellbore. Coupled to other sensors, such
as another probe device, interval pressure transient tests can be performed
where permeability anisotropy is obtained. A robust, bidirectional permeability description may then be obtained on multiple points in the wellbore to better describe reservoir characteristics.
The dual-packer module can take pressure measurements and fluid samples where probe-type tools have
had limited or no success, such as in medium- to lowpermeability and tight, fractured, or vuggy formations.
The module has also been successfully used for testing
unconsolidated sands.
While testing, the MDT dual-packer module does have
some limitations when compared to conventional DSTs: a
smaller volume of formation is investigated because of
the smaller packed-off interval, and the amount of fluid
that can be withdrawn is smaller. While it may be possible to withdraw large amounts of fluid in theory, there are
practical limits to how long the tool can safely be left in
the hole. The actual depth of investigation of the wireline
tester depends on formation permeability and other factors. However, it is on the order of several meters rather
than the tens of meters investigated by a standard DST.
These limitations may not be a disadvantage. A full DST
reveals the average reservoir characteristics and accesses
the initial producibility of the well. Permeability variations are averaged, and although they contribute to the
3 100
Figure 3.N: The MDT dual-packer module.
desirable unless it draws gas out of the solution or causes sanding. After further modeling utilizing the extensive MDT database from previous operations,
the tests were run with the dual-packer module connected directly to the sample chamber.
The interpreters analyzed each test with a single-layer model, treating the
entire 15-m sandstone as one layer. Interpretation is more difficult without a
measured flow rate. The G function was used for initial flow regime identification and analysis. This function combines the two pressure transients in a
way that eliminates the flow rate from the equation. The transient results
then depend on just the formation properties and can be interpreted in a way
that is similar to other diagnostic plots.
The results showed that, with only moderate anisotropy, the injected gas
would rise in the reservoir and oil production would not be significantly affected.
The IPTT provided the reservoir managers with sufficient information to make
an informed financial decision that affected reservoir management as well as
facilities and production engineering.
A proposed new analysis technique for

determining reservoir pressure in tight sands
Wireline formation pressure measurements distributed along the wellbore
have been used to obtain pressure profiles since the early 1970s. Reservoir
pressure is obtained from a buildup test taken over a certain period of time
depending on fluid mobility. This time is reasonable for moderate- to high-permeability reservoirs but might be extremely long for low-permeability reservoirs. Furthermore, in tight formations, supercharging comes into play and the
measured sandface pressures differ from true formation pressures. These
effects have been widely recognized in the literature, and techniques to identify and correct these effects have been proposed and discussed but have had
limited success.
Accurate and quick determination of the extrapolated pressure (initial reservoir pressure if not depleted) is important. A new technique has been devised
to derive these pressure data from wireline formation testers or DST/closed
chamber/slug tests.3,4 These tests are treated as IMPULSE teststhat is,
buildup tests following short producing times.
The well-known Horner method helps determine the initial or extrapolated
pressure, as well as the skin factor and kh (permeability-thickness) product:
pws (t) = po - mr log
tp + t
t
mr = 162.6 qr / kh ,
where qr is the reference flow rate, the log term is the Horner time function,
tp is producing time, and t is elapsed time. Combined with diagnostic derivative plots, the Horner method provides a general interpretation of buildup pres-
sure transient tests. However, the method requires that

the system reach a storage-free radial infinite-acting flow
regime at late time. This requirement is impractical for
IMPULSE tests for which the fluid withdrawal is instantaneous or when the buildup time is limited and partially
reflects only wellbore storage effects. This is often the
case for wireline formation testing during the initial
stages of the tests (pretest).
The applicability of the Horner method also requires that
the sandface flow rate becomes almost zero during the
radial infinite-acting flow regime. This is rarely the case,
and the afterflow can be very long. However, the sandface flow rate decreases exponentially through time as
the afterflow approaches zero. For this type of flow rate
decline, the above equation can be rewritten as
pws (t) = po - mr log
tp + t
1
,
+
t
2.302t
where is a constant afterflow term.

It can be shown that when the buildup time, t, is significantly larger then the producing time, tp, the above equation can be reduced to3,4
pws (t) = po - mr
1
.
2.302t
Hence, a Cartesian plot of pws (t) versus 1 will yield

t
a straight line of intercept po.
The applicability of this expression requires that the system reach storage-free infinite-acting radial flow, but it
is applicable only for a short production time. Similarly, it
can be demonstrated that when spherical radial flow
develops, the pressure buildup can be expressed by
pws (t) = po -
msph 1
2 t 3/2
msph = 2,453 qr c, / (kh kv ) .

This analysis technique is well-suited to wireline formation testing in tight reservoirs where production time can
be limited and buildup time cannot be extended very
long. In these formations, the traditional spherical radial
or flow regimes are not always reached, so the IMPULSE
test analysis provides another means to estimate the
extrapolated, or initial, formation pressure.
3 101
A buildup test was conducted with the MDT packer module in a Middle East field. The packer pretest, which consisted of short drawdown (about 50 s) and buildup (about
80 s) tests, was performed to measure the formation
pressure. In Fig. 3.117a, which presents the Horner
derivative, the derivative first increases and then
declines with a negative unit slope (m1), indicating a
flow period totally dominated by wellbore storage.
100
Pressure derivative, psi
Figure 3.117b presents the spherical Horner plot, which

yields an extrapolated pressure, p*, of 4,543 psi. The
spherical straight line is not developed at all, as shown
in the derivative plot in Fig. 3.117a. Figure 3.117c presents
the spherical IMPULSE plot for the same test. The
IMPULSE plot yields an extrapolated pressure, p*, of
4,532 psi, which is 11 psi lower than that from the spherical Horner plot.
m = -1
m=1
10
0.001
0.01
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.117a: Horner derivative for the example buildup test.
4,540
Minimizing contamination
with the Quicksilver Probe
Contamination from miscible drilling-mud filtrate remains
the biggest risk in obtaining good reservoir fluid samples.
Mud filtrate contamination reduces the sample quality
drastically and makes pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) laboratory analysis unreliable and often inaccurate.
To achieve a clean fluid sample with the current openhole sampling techniques, long pumping times may be
needed, which can be costly and risky in offshore wells.
Additionally, if the mudcake is poor, mud filtrate may
continuously invade the formation during sampling,
negating the effect of pumping and limiting any further
decrease in contamination levels.
4,520
4,500
Shut-in pressure, psi
Recent advances in fluid sampling
p*= 4,543 psi
4,480
4,460
8
Figure 3.117b: Horner plot for the example buildup test.
4,540
p*= 4,532 psi

4,520
4,500
4,480
4,460
2,000
4,000
IMPULSE test time function, 1/hr3/2

Figure 3.117c: IMPULSE plot for the example buildup test.
3 102
12
Spherical Horner time function
Shut-in pressure, psi
An additional buildup test conducted in the same zone

over a greatly extended time period yielded an actual
formation pressure of 4,529 psi and, thus, revealed the
IMPULSE pressure value to be within 3 psi of the actual
value, whereas the Horner value was 14.4 psi off.
It should be pointed out that small deviations, even of a
few psi, from the actual formation pressure may not be
acceptable for deriving a pressure profile.
6,000
8,000
A new generation of fluid sampling is provided by the Quicksilver Probe tool,

which separates filtrate contamination efficiently from the virgin reservoir
fluid, and the fluid sample cleans up much faster than the conventional
approach. In addition to the new sampling method, downhole fluid analysis
techniquesincluding measurements of GOR, composition, and densityprovide real-time fluid property information to obtain representative samples in a
short time and optimize the sampling process.
Figure 3.118 illustrates the differences between conventional sampling and
focused sampling. During a conventional formation fluid sampling operation
with a probe, a downhole formation testing tool makes a packer seal on the
borehole wall that connects the sampling tool to the formation and isolates
Packer
Secondary intake
Mudcake
Filtrate fluid
Virgin fluid
Flowline
Sampling
zone
Downhole
tool
Guard
flowline
Central
area
Perimeter
area
Sample
flowline
Borehole
fluid
Focused sampling probe
Conventional sampling probe
Figure 3.118: Conventional sampling probe compared to a focused sampling probe.
Contamination, %
100
t = tA
t = tB
tA
tB
Time or volume
Figure 3.119: Conventional sampling operation.
the internal flowline in the tool from the borehole. In a

typical overbalanced drilling situation, mud filtrate has
contaminated the formation near the borehole wall.
Figure 3.119 shows the downhole tool withdrawing fluid
from the formation through the probe and into the internal flowline in the tool. The first fluid entering the flowline is fully contaminated with filtrate. To decrease the
amount of contamination in the incoming fluid, the tool
pumps fluid from the formation. After a period of time, the
virgin fluid begins breaking through the borehole wall in
the center of the isolated sampling zone, while contaminated fluid continues to flow in through the periphery.
According to theory and in practice, the level of contamination in the incoming fluid during the pumpout operation
decreases as an increasing amount of virgin fluid breaks
through the borehole wall. The rate of contamination
decrease slows during the pumpout operation, and the
level of contamination in the incoming fluid does not
reach zero in any practical length of time. The inability to
reach zero contamination is caused by filtrate continually
feeding the sampling zone from extended portions of the
formation and, in some cases, by reinvasion of the sampling zone through the surrounding mudcake. To achieve
very low contamination levels in the incoming fluid, the
downhole tool must engage in pumpout operations for an
extended period of time, which can be expensive and
risky in an openhole environment.
A focused sampling operation differs from a conventional
sampling operation in equipment, technique, and results.
In addition to the packer seal, which is used to isolate a
sampling zone of the formation from the borehole, a secondary intake is used to separate the central area of the
sampling zone from the perimeter area. The central and
perimeter areas are each connected to a separate flowline in the downhole tool, referred to as the sample and
guard flowlines, respectively.
Contamination, %
100
t = tA
t = tB
Guard
Sample
0
tA
Time or volume
tB
Figure 3.120 shows the downhole tool pumping fluid from

the formation through the central and perimeter areas of
the sampling zone simultaneously. When virgin fluid
breaks through the central area of the sampling zone during
the pumpout operation, it enters the sample flowline first.
Over time, the fraction of the sampling zone producing
Figure 3.120: Focused sampling operation.
3 103
virgin fluid grows until it completely engulfs the central

area. The contamination level of the fluid entering the
sample flowline decreases much more rapidly than the
contamination level of the fluid entering the single flowline of a conventional sampling tool. In addition, it is possible to achieve zero contamination in the sample flowline, because at some point, all contamination in the
periphery of the sampling zone will be drawn into the
guard flowline only, leaving the sample flowline protected
from contamination.
thus fluorescence provides a secondary measurement for liquid hydrocarbon

detection and helps identify condensation of a gas under a given pressure
drawdown. Finally, gas is detected directly by a gas refractometer, which can
differentiate between gas and liquid.
The combined measurements from these new downhole optical sensors eventually provide compositional measurements, sample contamination estimates,
density, and GOR.
Downhole fluid analysis
Visible
Near infrared
Optical density
Downhole fluid analysis, or DFA, a recently developed

technology to scan fluids in situ, has evolved to become
a key measurement in understanding fluid identity and
distributions in the reservoir. In recent years, numerous
publications have illustrated how to determine whether
fluid samples have been contaminated, how to identify
transition zones and rock wettability, and most importantly, how to recognize variations in reservoir architecture and fluid composition.
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Wavelength, nm
3 104
Diesel
Condensate
Oil-base mud filtrate
Crude A
Crude B
Water
1.5
1
OD, path length = 2 mm
DFA uses the LFA Live Fluid Analyzer and the CFA
Composition Fluid Analyzer, which are two downhole
modules through which fluid from the formation is
allowed to flow. Each module is equipped with optical
sensors that measure visible and near-infrared (NIR)
absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence, and gas. NIR
spectroscopy is used to provide an in situ quantitative
characterization of reservoir fluids during wireline sampling using five representative composition groupings
(C1, C2C5, C6+, CO2, and water). Crude oils show variations in their absorption spectra in the visible and nearinfrared region according to their color and composition
(Fig. 3.121). Water and CO2 have characteristic vibration
peaks at different wavelengths that allow these compounds to be distinguished from hydrocarbons.
Fluorescence spectroscopy is achieved by measuring
light emission in the green and red ranges of the spectrum after excitation with blue light. Visible fluorescence
in crude oils indicates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
0.5
1,600
1,700
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100
Wavelength, nm
Normalized
Methane
Ethane
Propane
n-butane
n-heptane
CO2
Figure 3.121: Optical density spectrum for different liquids and zoom on the hydrocarbon peak
showing how the compositional groups are evaluated.
The distribution of these measurements is grouped by depth to provide a fluid

log instead of unique PVT data, and the measurements are coupled to the
pressure and permeability profile of the wireline tester. From this information,
contact depth, fluid distribution and complexity, reservoir connectivity, and
compartments can be understood. For instance, compartments are revealed
through DFA when fluid differences with depth are noted. A number of factors
contribute to compositional grading or biogradation which, in a uniform reservoir, leads to encountering heavier fluids going down the column. Where fluid
differences cannot be explained by compositional grading, variations are too
large, or fluid density inversions are found, there are possible sealing
barriers that compartmentalize the reservoirs. This would strongly affect field
reservoir development scenarios while significantly breaking through traditional log evaluation.
Conclusions
New technology in wireline formation testing and samplingparticularly the
PressureXpress tool and the MDT tool equipped with a dual-packer module, the
Quicksilver Probe and downhole fluid analysisis markedly improving these
measurements and has gradually addressed many of the limitations of conventional formation testing tools in tight formations. Efficiency, accuracy, and
greater acquisition statistics have already proved valuable in the first jobs com-
pleted with the PressureXpress tool in formations with

porosities between 4 p.u. and 8 p.u. The high number of
pressure points obtained with the PressureXpress tool during a time period equivalent to that required to run a conventional formation tester provides an accurate determination of formation fluid density.
In fractured reservoirs, dual-packer technology has
proved to be a good alternative for sampling across fractures when it is possible to image fractures from prior
geological logs and perform downhole testing to understand flow behaviors and fluid distributions.
Aside from dual-packer technology and single-probe sampling, DFA provides valuable distributed fluid measurements and a means to look at reservoir fluid distribution.
The Quicksilver Probe can analyze and retrieve contamination-free samples. Characterizing the distribution of
downhole fluids and understanding the implications on
reservoir compartmentalization and fluid compositional
gradients has become increasingly important to the successful exploration and development of reservoirs in
tight sands.
In the Tin Abotka stone forest, a Muslim tomb lies in the sandy silence of the Sahara.
3 105

Algerias formations are known to be stressed and fractured. Wells in these formations often exhibit stressinduced effects such as wellbore breakouts, washouts, and
damage, as well as dense networks of fractures revealed
with borehole imaging (see the Borehole Imaging section, page 3.28). Detecting and characterizing these
stress effects and fractures is important to designing and
executing well drilling, completion, and production programs in a cost-effective and efficient way, whether for
vertical or horizontal wells. This is particularly true for
tight oil and gas reservoirs where open natural fractures
provide vital conduits for fluid flow; hence, positioning
max
min
wells and stimulating and fracturing them to take advantage of the favorable
open fractures are important.
The high quality of waveforms acquired with the Sonic Scanner tool and its
advanced hardware, (see The Sonic Scanner Logging PlatformA Significant
Step Forward, page 3.116), help characterize the stress-field effects and natural fracture network around the well. The comprehensive monopole and dipole
measurements, with azimuthal discrimination and radial profiling, permit a
quantification of the slownesses and mechanical parameters of the well. The
interpretation of these data bears directly on a wide spectrum of petrophysical, geophysical, and geomechanical applications (Fig. 3.122).1
Presented below are the benefits of the enhanced data quality and advanced
Sonic Scanner solutions with an emphasis on accurate slowness estimation
and fracture characterization, which then feed into geomechanical and geophysical applications as presented in Chapter 4. Background material is
included to facilitate the understanding of some of these applications, which
are illustrated with a recently acquired Sonic Scanner dataset in Algeria.
Borehole
Accurate slownesses and near-wellbore characterization
Characterization of unperturbed rock benefits

petrophysicists and geophysicists
Characterization of the altered/damaged rock benefits
petrophysicists, and drilling and completions engineers
Slowness variation, probed radially from several centimeters (a few inches)

near the wellbore to a meter [3 to 4 ft] deep into the formation, can be due to
drilling-induced mechanical damage, plastic yielding, fluid invasion, shale
swelling, supercharging of permeable formations, and nonuniform stress distributions.
Figure 3.122: The borehole environment may exhibit near-wellbore

drilling-induced alteration from fluid invasion and mechanical damage or
plastic yielding due to stress concentrations. Beyond this region, far-field
stresses, aligned fractures, and sedimentary layering may be present.
Sonic modes propagating up the borehole are affected by these parameters up to approximately 1 m radially into the formation, typically covering the unaltered zone. Wide-band multimodal waveforms acquired with
the Sonic Scanner tool are processed with advanced inversion algorithms
to characterize this region and provide a host of answers to the petro-
Accurate compressional and shear slownesses that are verified to represent

a reading from deep rock that is not affected by the near-wellbore alteration
enable accurate sonic-porosity estimation, construction of more reliable
mechanical earth models, and time-to-depth conversion for seismic data. For
compressional slowness, slowness-time-coherence (STC) estimation from the
far monopole transmitter waveforms guarantees deep reading. For shear
slowness, however, the direct method to verify sonic deep reading is based on
slowness-frequency analysis (SFA).2
physicist (such as accurate compressional and shear slownesses, representative of the unaltered rock), geophysicist (such as anisotropy of the
formation), and geomechanicist (such as stress direction and magnitude).
3 106
The Sonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform was recently used in a Sonatrach
exploration well in the Bahar El-Hammar field in the Ahnet-Gourara basin,
Petrophysics of Tight SandsAdvanced Borehole Sonic Measurements
located in southwest Algeria. The logged interval spanned the tight Hamra
quartzite formations. Figure 3.123 shows results of the STC processing used to
estimate the compressional (P) and shear (S) slownesses from the monopole
and dipole signals. Track 1 displays the caliper, bit size, and gamma ray. Hole
caliper enlargement is evident from X,692 to X,702 m. Track 2 displays the multishot STC-estimated monopole P and S coherence logs. Tracks 3 and 4 display
the dipole dispersive STC-processed fast shear log and its

slowness-frequency-analysis QC, while Tracks 5 and 6 display the same information for the slow shear log. The last
two tracks show the compressional, fast and slow shear,
and Stoneley slownesses grouped, and the ratio Vp/Vs
with Vs corresponding to the fast shear.
Compressional
40
(s/ft)
240
STC coherence
Gamma ray
Fast shear
40
(gAPI)
Bit size
6
Depth
1:200
(m) 6
(in.)
Caliper
(in.)
150
(s/ft)
240
Compressional
slowness
16 40
(s/ft)
240 40
Shear slowness
16 40
(s/ft)
240 40
40
Coherence
(s/ft)
SFA energy
240 40
Fast shear
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
Coherence
240 40
Fast shear
240 40
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
SFA energy
240 40
Slow shear
240 40
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
240
Slow shear
240 40
Slow shear
240 40
(s/ft)
(s/ft)
240
VPVS
Stoneley
240 40
(s/ft)
240 1
( )
X,700
X,710
X,720
X,730
Figure 3.123: Monopole and dipole slowness coherence logs of the Sonic Scanner tool in an exploration well in the Bahar El-Hammar field. Track 1 displays the mechanical caliper,
bit size, and gamma ray. Track 2 displays the multishot STC-estimated monopole P and S coherence log with the slowness logs indicated by the solid curves. Tracks 3 through 6 display the dipole dispersive STC-processed fast and slow shear logs and their slowness-frequency-analysis (SFA) QC on shear-slowness estimation (see Fig. 3.124). Track 7 shows all
four slownesses grouped, including the Stoneley. The last track displays compressional-to-shear velocity ratio (Vp/Vs). Note the hole caliper enlargement from X,692 to X,702 m.
3 107
Identification and evaluation of near-wellbore mechanical damage from slowness radial profiling in a reasonably uniform lithology interval yield useful correlations
that can assist in completion decisions. Perforation programs can be designed so that perforations avoid weak
or damaged zones to minimize sanding and penetrate
deep enough to reach beyond mobility-impaired regions.
Pressure measurements and fluid sampling can be conducted in mechanically competent intervals that exhibit
3 108
Waveform number
SFA energy X,000
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Shear slowness
100
2,500
5,000
7,500
(s/ft)
10,000
400
X,000
Time, s/ft
400
300
X,020
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
0
8,000
Amplitude, dB
Detecting and quantifying the radial slowness variation

requires comparison and analysis of compressional,
shear, and Stoneley slownesses inferred from deep-reading and near-wellbore measurements (Fig. 3.125). Dipole
radial profiling (DRP) of vertical shear slownesses (fast
and slow) and Stoneley radial profiling (SRP) of the horizontal shear slowness (that is, the Stoneley slowness)
provide estimates of near-wellbore alteration in shear
stiffnesses in the three orthogonal planes.3 The stiffness
is related to the shear slowness through the formation
density. Monopole radial profiling (MRP) of compressional slowness provides a preliminary estimate of nearwellbore alteration at the wellsite. The MRP algorithm
identifies depth intervals that exhibit decreasing compressional slowness away from the borehole wall.4 A
decreasing compressional slowness may be caused by
either near-wellbore stress concentrations or plastic
yielding of the rock.
Waveforms from X,023 m
Slowness, s/ft
Tracks 4 and 6 show the SFA, which indicate whether the

estimated slownesses are representative of the deep rock
or whether near-wellbore alteration has affected this
estimation. Figure 3.124 provides an explanation of dispersion and the SFA scheme. The verification is performed
visually by inspecting whether the shear log represented
by the black curve matches the zero-frequency limit of the
SFA projection. In the SFA logs displayed in Tracks 4 and
6, this appears to be largely the case except over a fewmeter interval about X,700 m, where the fast shear slowness is underestimated (that is, the deep rock is actually
slower than that indicated by the log). The presence of
strong hole enlargement at this interval conceivably
affected the dispersive STC estimation. Depending on the
environmental conditions, lowering the processing frequency band may remedy this discrepancy. That only the
fast shear is affected is likely due to a hole enlargement
occurring principally along the two opposite quadrants
where the fast shear is polarized.
X,040
Frequency, Hz
Figure 3.124: Construction of an slowness-frequency-analysis (SFA) log for controlling the quality of
shear-slowness estimation from flexural waves. Dipole flexural waveforms at each depth (top left)
are analyzed for their slowness at varying frequencies. Resulting data are plotted on a slowness-frequency plot (bottom left) with circle size indicating amount of energy. Energies are color coded and
projected onto the slowness axis. The color strip is plotted at the appropriate depth to create a log
(right). The slowness estimate from dispersive STC processing is plotted as a black curve. If this
matches the zero-frequency limit of the SFA projection, the slowness estimate is good.1
nearly uniform shear slownesses away from the borehole wall. Hence, pressure testing and sampling programs can avoid near-wellbore softening intervals prone to seal failures or that might lead to tight pretests.
Fracture characterization with dipole and Stoneley logging

A network of aligned natural or drilling-induced fractures intersecting a well
affects the propagation characteristics of the borehole dipole and Stoneley
waves. The understanding of these effects is applied to estimate useful characteristics such as the location, density, alignment, and aperture of these fractures.
Shear-wave splitting and fracture alignment plane

Aligned fractures intersecting the wellbore induce shear-wave splitting in
dipole-excited borehole flexural waves (see Borehole Seismic, page 3.18). The
shear anisotropy can be complicated or simple as in the case where the fracture
plane and well trajectory are vertical. The latter configuration represents a
transversely isotropic formation with a horizontal axis of symmetry (TIH). Shear
Slow shear differential
Fast shear differential
MD
(ft)
(%)
Distance from
borehole center
(ft)
25
(%)
25 0
Compressional
differential
(%)
25
Gamma ray
Distance from
Distance from
borehole center
borehole center
(gAPI)
0 10
(ft)
2 0
(ft)
2
110 0
Figure 3.126 shows results of the dipole shear anisotropy

processing from the Sonic Scanner data in the Bahar ElHammar exploration well. The interval considered spans
from X,770 to X,800 m. In Track 1, the large separation
between the minimum and maximum offline energy, from
X,480
Gamma ray
Fast shear t
0 (gAPI) 150
350 (s/ft) 50
Hole
diameter
Offline
energy 5 (in.) 20
X,490
Min.
energy
Slow shear t
350 (s/ft) 50
Anisotropy flag
(%)
Total
azimuth
0 2 4 8 16
0 100 0 (deg) 360
X,500
Figure 3.125: Compressional and shear radial profiles in an anisotropic inhomogeneous formation. The
profile of variation in compressional slowness (Track 4) is created by tomographic reconstruction
t-based
Max. Hole azimuth
anisotropy
Azimuth
energy
0 (deg) 360 uncertainty 0 (%) 100
0 100
Sonde
Fast shear
Time-based
MD deviation
azimuth
anisotropy
1:200
(m) -10 (deg) 90 -90 (deg) 90 100 (%) 0
Processing
window
based on tracing rays through a modeled formation with properties that vary gradually away from
the borehole. The percentage difference between observed slowness and slowness of the unaltered
X,770
NW 40
formation is plotted on color and distance scales to indicate the extent of difference away from the
borehole. In these sandstones, identifiable from the gamma ray log in Track 2, compressional slow-
A
X,775
NW 33
X,780 B
NW 23
X,785
NW 43
ness near the borehole varies by up to 15% from far-field slowness, and the variation extends to
more than 12 in. from the borehole center. The borehole is shown as a gray zone. Shear radial profiles show the difference between fast shear-wave slowness and far-field slowness (Track 1), and
the difference between slow shear-wave slowness and far-field slowness (Track 3). Large differences in shear slowness extend out to almost 10 in. from the borehole center. The radial variation
in compressional and shear velocities is drilling induced.
C
anisotropy also arises in finely layered formations as well as in the presence

of a nonuniform stress distribution in the near-wellbore region due to an
imbalance in the principal stress components transverse to the borehole.
While all three effects may be present in Algerias formations, there appears
to be a high frequency of stress- and fracture-induced anisotropy effects.
In a configuration where anisotropy is dominated by fractures, the received
dipole waveforms from two dipole transmitters shaking the borehole at directions orthogonal to each other can be processed to yield two shear slownesses
different from each other by relative amounts that may reach 20%. The shear
wave with the smallest slowness (fast shear) propagates in the axial plane
aligned with fractures, whereas the second shear (slow shear) propagates in an
axial plane normal to the fractures; the matrix rigidity experienced by the shear
wave is smaller in the latter case. Under a dominant stressed formation regime,
the fast shear aligns with the direction of the largest transverse component (for
instance, the maximum horizontal stress direction in a vertical well). Processing
of the crossed-dipole shear data with the Alford rotation algorithm1 yields a
fracture plane or maximum stress azimuth and slowness anisotropy.
X,790 D
NW 38
X,795
NW 27
X,800
X,805
NW 49
NW 25
Figure 3.126: Dipole shear anisotropy processing from the Sonic Scanner
data in the Bahar El-Hammar exploration well. The large separation
between the minimum and maximum offline energy in Track 1 (left) indicates anisotropy in this interval with different slowness anisotropy levels
highlighted in relative terms in Track 4 on the leftwith the fast and
slow slowness logs to the right. The fast shear azimuth is shown in Track 3.
The fast and slow shear waveforms provide a quality check on whether
these waves (rotated to the fast and shear directions) arrive with a time
delay (an indication of anisotropy). Letters A through D denote depths at
which dispersion curves are shown in Fig. 3.128.
3 109
Homogeneous isotropic
Inhomogeneous isotropic
Fast shear
Slowness, s/ft
Slowness, s/ft
Damaged formation, near failure
Fast shear
Frequency, Hz
Frequency, Hz
Homogeneous anisotropic
Inhomogeneous anisotropic
Stress-induced anisotropy
Slowness, s/ft
Slow shear
Fast shear
Frequency, Hz
Slow shear
Slowness, s/ft
Intrinsic anisotropy: shales, layering, fractures
Fast shear
Frequency, Hz
Figure 3.127: Inspection of the flexural-wave dispersion curves yields a wealth of information on the near-wellbore radial and azimuthal homogeneity and isotropy. In a homogeneous
isotropic medium (top left), observed dispersion curves (red and blue) match modeled flexural-wave dispersion (black solid). In a nonhomogeneous isotropic medium (top right), both
observed curves show greater slowness with increasing frequency than the homogeneous isotropic model, indicating that the near-wellbore has become slower, a sign of damage all
around the borehole. In a homogeneous anisotropic medium (bottom left) such as one with intrinsic anisotropy, the fast and slow flexural-wave dispersion curves have the same shape
as the homogeneous isotropic model but are translated with respect to each otherthe slow one translated to higher slowness from the fast. In a nonhomogeneous anisotropic
medium (bottom right), the two observed dispersion curves cross. This phenomenon is the result of near-wellbore stress concentration and indicates stress-induced anisotropy.
the Alford rotation of the crossed-dipole waveforms,

indicates shear anisotropy in this interval. The amplitude
of the slowness anisotropy is indicated in Track 4 in relative terms, while the fast and slow slowness logs are
plotted to the right of the same track. The estimated fast
shear azimuth is shown in Track 3.
ference in the anisotropy processing. An inspection of the mechanical caliper

in Track 2 and, more critically, of an acoustic caliper from the UBI UltraSonic
Borehole Imager is important in the interpretation to account for any marked
deviation from a circular shape; gross geometrical deformations, such as borehole ovality, also affect shear anisotropy.
Dispersion and dominant mechanism behind shear anisotropy

When interpreting these results, care must be taken to
evaluate the consistency with additional data that are
typically plotted beside these results. For instance, the
fast and shear time waveforms in Track 5 provide a quality check on whether these waves (Alford-rotated to the
fast and slow shear directions) arrive with a time delay
(an indication of anisotropy). The time-windowed band
for the azimuth processing is highlighted in yellow; later
arrivals, such as Stoneley, are gated out to reduce inter-
3 110
Dispersion, or the variation of slowness as a function of frequency (Fig. 3.124),

contains valuable information about how formation properties vary away from
the borehole because short-wavelength, or high-frequency modes, propagate
only near the borehole, while long-wavelength, or low-frequency modes,
propagate deep into the formation. When compared with the responses modeled for a homogeneous isotropic medium, flexural-wave dispersion curves
suggest the nature of near-wellbore conditions. The different idealized cases
of interpretation are depicted in Fig. 3.127.
Considering Fig. 3.127, in a homogeneous isotropic formation (top left), flexural

waves do not split into fast and slow components, so the two observed flexural-wave dispersion curves have identical slowness-versus-frequency signatures and overlie the modeled curve. In cases of intrinsic anisotropy, such as
in shales or fractured formations (bottom left), the fast and slow shear-wave
dispersion curves are separate everywhere and tend to the true slowness at
zero frequency. In formations that have undergone drilling-induced damage
and are near failure but are otherwise homogeneous and isotropic (top right),
the two dispersion curves are identical but show much greater slowness at
high frequencies than the modeled dispersion for a homogeneous isotropic
formation. In formations with stress-induced anisotropy (bottom right), the
fast and slow shear-wave dispersion curves cross. This characteristic feature
is caused by near-wellbore stress concentrations.5,6

These simplified relationships between dispersion
curves are valid when only one physical mechanism controls wave behavior. When multiple mechanisms are
involved, such as the presence of both stress-induced
and intrinsic anisotropy or when the hole shape deviates
strongly from cylindrical, the curves can be different.
To gain further insight into what causes the anisotropy in
the depth interval of Fig. 3.126, the dipole dispersion
curves are plotted in Fig. 3.128 at the depths specified with
letters A to D in Fig. 3.126. The flexural-wave dispersion
A Slowness dispersion plot (depth = X,773.3 m)
C Slowness dispersion plot (depth = X,787.7 m)

300
250
300
250
250
250
200
200
200
200
150
150
150
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
0
8,000
Frequency, Hz
100
50
50
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
Frequency, Hz
B Slowness dispersion plot (depth = X,780.0 m)
D Slowness dispersion plot (depth = X,789.9 m)

300
250
300
250
250
250
200
200
200
200
150
150
150
150
100
50
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
Frequency, Hz
Fast dipole
Slow dipole
Stoneley
Mud slowness
7,000
0
8,000
100
50
50
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
0
8,000
Amplitude, dB
50
Slowness, s/ft
100
Amplitude, dB
Slowness, s/ft
100
0
8,000
Amplitude, dB
50
Slowness, s/ft
100
50
150
100
Amplitude, dB
Slowness, s/ft
100
Frequency, Hz
Slow shear slowness
Fast shear slowness
Stoneley slowness
Figure 3.128: Dispersion information from the cross-dipole, Stoneley, and P and S signals at specific depths as highlighted on the logs in Fig. 3.126. Inspection of the cross-dipole
dispersion curves (red and dark blue dots) reveals that shear anisotropy may be dominated by stresses at depths A and B and by intrinsic means (likely fractures, on inspection of
UBI images) at depths C and D. Inspection of the hole shape from the UBI data is needed to reach a confident interpretation.
3 111
N
MD
(m)
Low
S
UBI amplitude
N
MD
(m)
High
Low
S
UBI amplitude
N
High
X,771
X,787
X,772
X,788
X,773
C
X,789
N
TO
X,774
TO
1 in.
1 in.
X,790
1 in.
1 in.
X,775
X,791
Figure 3.129: UBI-derived borehole amplitude images and transit timebased cross-sectional shape at depth A (left) and C (right) (also indicated in Fig. 3.126). High-dipping fractures
aligned along approximately an azimuth of 40 degrees NW intersect the borehole. While the hole remains more or less cylindrical around X,773 m (A), it deviates from a cylindrical
curves (red for the fast and blue for the slow) appear to
cross each other distinctly at depth A and mildly at B,
while they appear to be shifted and nearly parallel to
each other at C and D. Assuming the hole is cylindrical in
these intervals, the interpretation is that stress effects
dominate in the interval from X,873 to X,780 m, encompassed by A and B, whereas intrinsic effects dominate in
the interval from X,787 to X,790 m, encompassed by C
and D. The intrinsic effects can be either aligned fractures or thin layering. The fact that one mechanism dominates does not mean other mechanisms are absent.
As a consistency check of the interpretation, the amplitude
images and acoustic caliper provided by the UBI data are
considered. The hole cross-sectional plots and amplitude
images (see Borehole Imaging, page 3.28) are plotted in
Fig. 3.129 at depth locations A and C. The images in the left
and right parts of Fig. 3.129 reveal the existence of high-dipping fractures (with dip at approximately 82 degrees) intersecting the borehole and aligned along approximately an
azimuth of 40 degrees NW. While the hole remains more
or less cylindrical around X,773 m (Fig. 3.129 left), it deviates
3 112
Flaking at fracture plane
shape around X,788 m (right) due to flaking at the plane of the fractures (see Fig. 3.130). The fracture plane is also aligned at approximately 40 degrees NW.
Figure 3.130: High-dipping open fractures intersecting the borehole and creating hole enlargements
due to flaking along the fracture planes. Although flaking is shown on only one side of the hole, it
actually occurs on both sides of the hole as shown in Fig. 3.129 (depth C).
from a cylindrical shape at around X,787 m (Fig. 3.129 right) due to flaking from
the fractures (Fig. 3.130). In this interval and elsewhere where fractures can
be observed, the fracture azimuth remains more or less aligned in the same
direction as in Fig. 3.129 left.
The estimated fast shear azimuth, observed from the anisotropy processing in
Fig. 3.126, is aligned with the direction of fractures in the interval considered.
The Sonic Scanner tool and UBI data led to the conclusion that stresses and
fractures are both present in the A-B interval but that stresses dominate the
shear anisotropy mechanism. Away from this interval, a confident conclusion
on the dominant mechanism cannot be attained because the hole geometry is
degraded so substantially that it dominates the nature of the anisotropy information in the near wellbore. For instance, the parallel flexural-wave disper-
N
MD
(m)
Low
S
UBI amplitude
N
High
P
TO
Breakout
direction
1 in.
X,810
1 in.
X,811
P
TO
X,812
1 in.
1 in.
sion curves at depth C in Fig. 3.128 result from the noncylindrical hole geometry rather than from stress or fracture
anisotropy. However, the far-field slowness anisotropy is
less affected by the near-wellbore condition and thus is
a reliable estimate as long as the shear slownesses are
verified via the SFA scheme (Figs. 3.123 and 3.124).
Considering the dipole dispersion curves at depth C in
Fig. 3.128 and the hole geometry at this depth, shown in
Fig. 3.129, it is suggested that the fast shear (in red in
Fig. 3.128) is polarized along the quadrants where the hole
conserves its cylindrical curvature, whereas the slow shear
(in blue in Fig. 3.128) is polarized along the quadrants where
the hole is damaged from flaking at the fracture planes.
Below this interval, the UBI data reveal the presence of
breakouts due to rock failure under a large enough differential horizontal stress (Fig. 3.131), thus confirming the
existence of a nonuniform near-wellbore stress distribution contributing strongly to the shear anisotropy
observed from the sonic data. Additionally, the breakout
direction, aligned with the minimum horizontal stress,
indicates that the maximum horizontal stress is in the
direction of the fracture plane. In summary, both the
deviatory horizontal stress field and fractures, aligned
along the maximum horizontal stress, are responsible for
the shear anisotropy. Additionally, stresses dominate the
sonic shear anisotropy, clearly identified from the fast
and slow flexural-wave dispersion crossover, in intervals
where the hole is cylindrical. They are likely to dominate
in other intervals. However, with the extensive breakouts
and damage present in the other intervals, this effect is
masked by the dispersion effects due to the hole geometry. The azimuth of the fast shear aligns with the direction of the maximum horizontal stress and fracture plane.
X,813
P
TO
X,814
Maximum horizontal
stress direction
(approximately)
1 in.
X,815
1 in.
Figure 3.131: Breakouts and extensive damage are present slightly below the interval analyzed in
Figs. 3.126, 3.128, and 3.129. The breakout direction is orthogonal to the direction of the maximum
Anisotropy due to shear-wave splitting has been known and

practiced in relation to fracture plane or stress direction
determination with preceding sonic logging technologies
such as the DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager. What the
enhanced quality of the Sonic Scanner tool data has allowed
is resolution of small amounts of slowness anisotropy (down
to 2%, whereas previous generation tools are known to have
a limit of 5%7) as well as construction of an accurate and
valuable dispersion-based interpretation, as discussed
above, for the mechanism of anisotropy.
The higher dipole waveform quality arises from a better
modal rejection by the 8 azimuthal sensors at each axial
station and lower-frequency resolution due to the longer
axial receiver aperture (13 axial receiving stations).
horizontal stress.
3 113
Gamma ray
Fast shear t
0 (gAPI) 150
Hole
diameter
5 (in.) 20
Offline
energy
Total
azimuth
Min.
energy 0 (deg) 360
0 100
Hole
350 (s/ft) 50
Slow shear t
Anisotropy flag
(%)
NW 38
X,755
NW 32
X,760
X,765
X,770
X,775
X,780
NW 27
X,825
0 (cm) 0.5 0
0.25 0 (s) 20,440
W
S
UBI
amplitude
Low
High
Fracture
strike
E Fracture
density
(1/m)
0 20
NW 23
X,795
X,820
Fracture
width
N
Stoneley
variable
density log
NW 33
NW 38
X,815
107
Stoneley
measured
reflection
coeff.
NW 40
X,790
X,810
Stoneley
aperture
-10 (deg) 100
0.25
NW 30
NW 43
X,805
Fracture
NW 24
X,785
X,800
Stoneley
model
reflection
coeff.
0 2 4 8 16
t -based
Bit size
anisotropy
Max. azimuth
Azimuth
Fracture
energy 0 (deg) 360
uncertainty 0 (%) 100 16 (in.) 6
permeability
0 100
Washout
Fast shear
Sonde
Time-based
(mD)
(caliper 1) 1,000
MD
azimuth
deviation
anisotropy
1:200
Washout
Stoneley
0 (caliper 2)
(m) -10 (deg) 90 -90 (deg) 90 100 (%)
permeability
X,750
Borehole
effect
350 (s/ft) 50
NW 49
NW 25
NW 49
NW 30
NW 53
NW 25
Figure 3.132: Sonic Scanner dipole and Stoneley-derived fracture characterization in the Bahar El-Hammar exploration well. The Stoneley results are displayed in Tracks 5 through 9.
The UBI amplitude image and processing results are shown in Tracks 10 through 12 to enable a comprehensive characterization with the two tools. Where the caliper shows moderate
to no hole damage (such as from X,765 to X,780 m), the Stoneley data inversion provides fracture permeability (Track 5) and aperture (Track 6) that are consistent with UBI-derived
fracture density (Track 12). The shear anisotropy (Track 1) below X,805 m, is established by a horizontal stress differential, which is consistent with the breakouts revealed by the UBI
amplitude image (Track 10).
3 114
However, the damaged borehole shapes (deviation from circular geometries)

introduce noise that at times leads to complications in reaching confident interpretations.
Stoneley fracture permeability and aperture

Open fractures and faults intersecting the wellbore tend to slow down, scatter, and attenuate the Stoneley wave propagating up the hole (see Stoneley
Waves and the Quantification of Fluid-Flow Properties of the Formation, page
3.118). Figure 3.132 shows the results of the Stoneley analysis for the Bahar
El-Hammar exploration well in the interval from X,745 to X,825 m (which
includes the intervals analyzed above). The Stoneley results are displayed in
Tracks 5 through 9. The figure also shows the dipole anisotropy (Tracks 1, 3, 4,
and 5) and the UBI processing results (Tracks 10 through 12), in addition to the
caliper, gamma ray, and bit size (Track 2) to allow for an integrated interpretation of the characteristics of the fracture network intersected by this well.
The mechanical hole caliper in Track 5 shows hole enlargements due to breakout and damage as well as to fracture flaking, and on the Variable Density log
in Track 9, strong scattering of the Stoneley wave (most apparent via the
chevron patterns) results from the effect of cavities noted in the UBI image in
Track 9 and more easily in Figs. 3.129 and 3.131. The Stoneley-derived fracture
permeability (Track 6) responds on a first order to the borehole geometrical
effects as they correlate well with hole damage/cavities and the large
permeability amplitude. This is also indicated in the modeled borehole effect
(red-filled curve in Track 8), which matches the measured scattering strength
of the Stoneley wave (noncolored curve in Track 8).8
Where modeled borehole effects are minimal, as in the case in the interval
from X,765 to X,780 m, the fracture permeability track indicates that the fractures are open (as deduced from the Stoneley wave attenuation due to fluid
flow within the open fractures). The fracture aperture, also quantified in Track 7
in this interval, is effectively between 1 and 2 mm wide. This sonic-derived
result is consistent with the UBI indication that the fracture plane is aligned
with the maximum horizontal stress. Additionally, where the UBI log shows little fracture density (blue-filled curve in Track 12), as in the interval below
X,805 m, the Stoneley results indicate vanishingly small fracture permeability
and aperture width with the exception of spurious variations occurring at
depths where the borehole geometry is damaged enough to scatter the
Stoneley wave (at X,812 m, for example).
Advanced geomechanical applications
3D anisotropy
Time-to-depth conversion of seismic surveys requires
borehole sonic data with accurate compressional slowness estimates as a function of depth. Recent studies
have highlighted the importance of using anisotropic
velocity models in generating AVO gathers for accurate
target locations. Anisotropic velocity models require
anisotropic moduli for calculating plane wave velocities
as a function of propagation direction. Borehole sonic
data from the Sonic Scanner tool in a vertical or deviated
well has the potential to provide up to four anisotropy
parameters for an assumed orthorhombic formation. The
model relies on the 3D anisotropy algorithm, which
transforms the compressional, fast shear, slow shear,
and Stoneley slownesses measured with respect to the
borehole axes to anisotropic moduli referred to the earth
anisotropy axes. This requires known well deviation from
the vertical and true stratigraphic dip from borehole
imaging. The anisotropic moduli can be combined with
the VSP-derived moduli to obtain seismic velocities as a
function of propagation direction. In addition, these
anisotropic moduli help in classifying formation
anisotropy into effectively isotropic, transversely
isotropic (TI), or orthorhombic. They also help in identifying the following formation attributes: microlayering or
thin bedinduced TI anisotropy, relative magnitude of
principal stresses, and fluid mobility in porous rocks.3
Formation stresses and strengths

Inversion of the Sonic Scanner data can provide estimates of formation stresses and strengths under suitable
conditions.10,11 Estimates of these parameters are
obtained by inverting cross-dipole sonic data together
with 3D-anisotropy output and radial profiling of the
three shear slownesses outside the near-wellbore
altered annulus. Additional independent input parameters include the overburden stress, pore pressure, and
minimum horizontal stress as a function of depth typically obtained from leakoff or minifrac tests. The maximum and minimum horizontal stresses can also be
obtained from a multifrequency inversion of cross-dipole
dispersions in the presence of stress-induced crossovers.
Thanks to the advent of the higher quality waveforms acquired with the Sonic
Scanner tool, several advanced sonic-based geomechanical and geophysical
applications have been developed.9 Two in particular are pertinent to Algerian
formations.
3 115
The Sonic Scanner Logging PlatformA Significant Step Forward

The new sonic logging tool was developed to enable a
3D acoustical characterization of the borehole and formation environmentwith the unprecedented capability
of achieving radial probing.13,14 Two requirements had to
be addressed: first, acquisition of quality monopole and
dipole waveforms over a wide range of spacing and covering a wide frequency band, and second, processing
workflows to integrate all the data and invert for the
desired applications.
Geometry and receiver section

The tool features 13 axial stations separated by 6 in.
for a total aperture of 6 ft for the receiver array. Eight
Upper monopole
Electronics
the tool and are regularly calibrated. Figure 3.O shows the tool geometry. The
monopole measurements are indicated in blue, and the dipole measurement in
red. The two-dipole transmitters generate a dipole mode aligned to the tool reference for the first transmitter, and at 90 degrees to it for the second.
Enhanced monopole transmitters

The three-monopole transmitters have the same design and are optimized for
the excitation of the Stoneley mode at low frequencies and to acquire a
cement bond log measurement at high frequencies through the standard frequency of the monopole P and S modes. They provide much more pressure
than did previous technology, and their tuning to compensate for the monopole compressional excitation function ensures good generation of the typically low-amplitude monopole P mode in extremely fast formations.
Lower monopole
Far monopole
Receiver section
R13
Isolator
R1
Far transmitter section
X and Y dipole
10 ft
Figure 3.O: Configuration of the Sonic Scanner tool.
azimuthal receivers are located every 45 degrees around

the tool for each of the 13 stations, providing a total of
104 sensors for the whole receiver array. The highfidelity receivers provide a stable response over the
whole pressure and temperature-operating envelope of
Wideband frequency for dipole

Each of the dipole transmitters consists of a shaking device with an electromagnetic motor mounted in a cylinder suspended in the tool. This design enables a
wide-frequency excitation of the flexural borehole mode with a linear flat
1.0
100
80
0.5
60
40
-0.5
-1.0
0
Time, ms
10
12
14
16
18
20
Magnitude, dB
Normalized amplitude
20
0
100
Frequency, Hz
Figure 3.P: Frequency sweep (chirp) drive waveform (left) corresponding to the transmitter pressure output (right).
3 116
101
Summary
Empty hole flexural

dispersion curve
Slowness, s/ft
Dispersion with the tool
0
Frequency, Hz
Figure 3.Q: Effect of a sonic tool presence on dipole dispersion.
response over the targeted frequency range. The latter feature permits the
device to be activated by a frequency sweep, or chirp, as depicted in Fig. 3.P.
The chirp pulse sustains each frequency during a much longer time than narrow-band pulses and therefore provides much more dipole energy than they
do. The frequency coverage of this dipole drive, between 300 Hz and 8 kHz,
ensures that flexural energy is provided to the surrounding formation regardless of the conditions. The flexural excitation is maximal at the Airy phase frequency, and is 10 dB lower at half and twice the Airy phase frequency. Using
the chirp source for dipole logging ensures that the dipole signal-to-noise
ratio is maximized in all cases.
Tool effect and implications on accurate quantification

In general, the presence of a sonic tool inside the hole affects the characteristics of the borehole modes. This is true for dipole-flexural, Stoneley, or monopole logging. For monopole logging, the effect pertains to the leaky-P mode
that can be excited under certain conditions. The tool effect must be taken into
account to ensure a precise estimation of the formation properties. The Sonic
Scanner tool uses a simple embodiment featuring predictable acoustical
effects on the measurements that in turn can be included in the processing to
obtain accurate answers. As an example, Fig. 3.Q shows the effect of the tool
presence on the flexural dispersion curve that must be taken into account during the computation of the answers based on the analysis of this dispersion
curve. The simplicity of the tool embodiment allowed the development of a
simple and computationally light model that can be used for real-time tooleffect corrections to provide accurate real-time answers at the wellsite.
Recent Sonic Scanner results from an exploration well in

the Bahar El-Hammar field illustrate the benefits of highquality sonic acquisition and processing for characterizing
natural fractures and stress fieldstwo parameters that
are critical to optimizing the recovery of hydrocarbons in
tight sand reservoirs. Because of extensive alteration of
the hole geometry of this well, verifiable formation
anisotropy and slownesses representative of the unaltered deep rock are essential to accurately estimating
sonic-derived reservoir parameterswhether petrophysical, such as porosity, geophysical, such as formation
anisotropy, or geomechanical, such as mechanical earth
models. Data obtained from the acoustic caliper of the
UBI Ultrasonic Borehole Imager are used to reach a confident advanced interpretation of the sonic inversion
results in this well.
In intervals where the hole is not grossly damaged,
Stoneley data are inverted to quantify fracture permeability and aperture. This sonic evaluation can be integrated with acoustic data from the UBI tool and electrical
data from the FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager or
OBMI Oil-Base MicroImager to construct a clear picture
of the attributes of the natural fracture network. From the
Sonic Scanner and UBI data of the Bahar El-Hammar
well, the high-dipping open fractures are found to be
aligned with the direction of maximum horizontal
stressreinforcing shear splitting along the same direction but also revealing a dominant stress mechanism
present in intervals where the hole shape is not strongly
altered and likely present throughout the rest of the
anisotropic interval. In intervals where the hole shape
does not deviate markedly from cylindrical, the dispersion information embedded in the dipole flexural and
monopole Stoneley waveforms can be inverted to extract
additional characterization of the fractured formation
rigidity and mobility and magnitude of its 3D stress field.
These attributes are required to design optimized
cementing and stimulation jobs that would protect and
maximize the reservoir potential.12 Going forward, these
applications will undoubtedly be put to great use in
Algeria as more experience with Sonic Scanner data
inversion and interpretation is gained.
3 117
Stoneley Waves and the Quantification of Fluid-Flow Properties of the Formation

A borehole Stoneley mode is an azimuthally symmetric
guided wave whereby the acoustic energy is concentrated in the vicinity of the borehole and decreases exponentially with distance therefrom (Fig. 3.R). The simplest
example of a Stoneley mode occurs when the formation
may be presumed to be perfectly rigid and impermeable
to flow. In this case, all the Stoneley energy lies within
the borehole mud; the mode is simply a pressure wave
propagating up the borehole, at the speed of sound in the
mud, independent of frequency.
If the formation is not perfectly rigid, then as the borehole
acoustic pressure swings first positive, then negative, etc.,
Condition
Effect
Receiver
Attenuated
the borehole wall will bulge outward, then inward, respectively. The borehole
mud sees a more compressible environment with the result that the Stoneley
wave speed always becomes slower than the borehole mud. Moreover, the
speed of the wave is dispersive: The slowness depends upon the frequency.
If, in addition, the formation is porous and permeable, then during a positive
acoustic pressure swing some of the fluid squirts into the formation. This makes
the borehole environment seem even more compressible than before with the
result that the Stoneley mode becomes slower still. Moreover, because it is a
viscous fluid that is being forced in and out of the formation, the Stoneley mode
becomes attenuated, or damped, as it propagates up the borehole (Fig. 3.R).
Thus, measurements of Stoneley slowness and attenuation, as a function of
frequency, can be used to deduce a measurement of the formation mobility.
Analogously, where well-separated open fractures intersect an otherwise
impermeable formation, some of the acoustic energy propagates into the fracture as a Stoneley mode propagates across each fracture, some is reflected
back toward the transmitter, and the rest propagates up the borehole (Fig. 3.R).
By measuring the reflected amplitude of the Stoneley at each frequency, relative to the upgoing amplitude, the effective width of each open fracture can
be deduced.
Reflected
ure
Measuring permeability with the Stoneley mode
t
Frac
Permeable
formation
Attenuated and
slowed down
Stoneley wave
The calculated properties of the Stoneley mode in permeable formations are

based on the Biot theory, which is the extension of elasticity theory to porous
and permeable media.15,16 This calculation requires knowledge of the borehole
diameter, the density and sound speeds of the mud and the formation (as in the
case for impermeable media), as well as the porosity, density, and compressibility of the solid and fluid components, and the mobility of the pore fluid.
Fortunately, all but the last of these can be deduced from standard logging
measurements. Thus, by finding the value of the mobility for which the forward
calculation of Stoneley slowness and attenuation best matches the measured
values, one may deduce an approximate value of the formations mobility.
Transmitter
Figure 3.R: The Stoneley wave traveling at the interface between the
borehole and the formation. The Stoneley wave is dispersive, and its particle motion is symmetric about the borehole axis. At low frequencies, the
Stoneley wave is sensitive to formation permeability. Waves traveling
past permeable fractures and formations lose fluid, and viscous dissipation causes attenuation of wave amplitude and an increase in wave slowness. At open fractures, Stoneley waves are both reflected and
attenuated. Black arrows in the center of the borehole symbolize
Stoneley-wave amplitude.
3 118
An example of forward-model calculations is shown in Fig. 3.S. The example is

for a small-diameter hole in a fast formation with a porosity of 25% and permeability of 200 mD (the pore fluid is assumed to be water) and pertains to two
situationsone with no sonic tool in the hole and the other with the Sonic
Scanner tool in the hole. In the upper panel the blue and red curves show the
additional slowness due to permeability of the formation (that is, relative to an
impermeable formation) for the case of no tool (in blue) and the Sonic Scanner
tool (in red), respectively. In relative terms, the scale ranges from 5% to 10%
in the low-frequency range. Similarly, a permeable formation induces addi-
Additional attenuation, dB/ft
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
Frequency, Hz
Sonic Scanner tool
No tool
Additional slowness, s/ft
30
20
10
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
known to within a few s/ft and the mud attenuation to

within 1 dB/ft. This accuracy is generally achievable
within a module specific to the software itself. Second,
Stoneley-derived permeability cannot be expected to
work well in slow formations, because in a slow formation, one for which the formation shear slowness is
larger than that of the mud, the Stoneley slowness is
dominated by that of the formation shear and so is less
affected by the permeability of the formation.
Additionally, in fast formations, if the porosity is less
than 10%, say, the computed Stoneley characteristics
are rather insensitive to the permeability. This means
that the inverted permeability values are not reliable
when the porosity is so low.
Under ideal conditions, then, when the formation is fast
and the porosity exceeds 10%, the Stoneley-derived permeability is reliable for mobility values in the range of
10 mD/cP to 10 D/cP.
Frequency, Hz
Sonic Scanner tool
No tool
Quantifying fracture apertures

with the Stoneley mode
Figure 3.S: Computed Stoneley mode dispersion and attenuation characteristics for a 200-mD permeable formation relative to an impermeable one. The permeability induces additional slowness
(bottom; between 5% and 10% in relative scale) and additional attenuation (top; nearly 50% in the
high-frequency range) as computed for the Sonic Scanner tool (red curve) and for a transparent tool
simulated with no tool (blue curve). The Sonic Scanner tool exhibits a higher sensitivity to permeability than previous-generation tools that attempted to mimic transparent tools.
tional attenuation of the Stoneley, which is plotted as blue and red curves in the
lower panel. In relative terms, this amounts to up to 50% in the highfrequency range. Because of its design, the Sonic Scanner tool features more
sensitivity to permeability than tools that approximate the transparent tool case.
Examples from several comparisons between the Stoneley-derived mobility
log and mobility measurements taken with MDT Dynamics Formation Tester
have been published to show generally good agreement between the
Stoneley-derived and MDT-based mobilities, in high-mobility sand zones as
well as sometimes in low-mobility shale zones.1
The method has several caveats. First, although the effects of permeability on
Stoneley are computable from a first-principles theory, the effects are rather
small (Fig. 3.S). In a fast formation this means that the mud slowness must be
The previous discussion presumed a permeable zone

whose properties were more or less uniform over a
depth at least as large as the receiver array length,
which is several feet. An isolated fracture is a permeable zone, in a sense, but is much smaller than the
receiver array or the wavelength of any relevant component of the Stoneley mode. Thus, the effect of an isolated fracture on the Stoneley wave must be treated
differently. As previously discussed, the signature effect
of an isolated fracture is that it generates a reflected
Stoneley wave (Fig. 3.R). The basic theory applied to
very fast formations, as well as the validation with
experimental results in the laboratory, is described by
Homby et al.17 Obviously, a larger fracture generates a
larger reflected Stoneley than does a smaller one. The
theory has been extended to include the finite rigidity of
the formation as well as the effects due to borehole
washouts that generally accompany a fracture.18,19
Additionally, the effects of multiple fractures can be handled straightforwardly.20
3 119
The determination of flow capacity kh (k = permeability;

h = reservoir thickness) derived from a Horner plot established the first approach to reservoir characterization on
the scale of a drainage area. Since then, the use of well
testing has evolved remarkably. Today, data from highprecision sensors, integrated with other technologies
such as borehole imaging, borehole sonic logging, borehole seismic, and surface seismic, constitute a wealth of
information that can be combined to render remarkable,
high-quality reservoir imagery.
Well testing has many important uses: to confirm the presence and type of hydrocarbons in place, and to determine
the productive capacity of the wellP, kh, skin factor, and
productivity index (PI)and the characteristics of the
drainage area (k, Ri, fractures, barriers, channels, limits).
Well tests can also be used to solve relatively complex
problems, such as the spatial distribution of permeability and its anisotropy, and to determine crossflow. Well
test interpretation can be applied to the scale of both the
well and the reservoir at large.
This section highlights well test interpretation challenges and lessons learned in Algerias tight sand reservoirs, which are encountered at depths from 3,000 to
4,000 m, and down to 5,000 m, as in the case of the Brides gas field. These tight
sands are formed of very hard rock with low porosity and low permeability,
and productivity from these sands, when decent, is related essentially to fractures. Tight sand reservoirs are found in the Oued Mya oil region (Berkaoui and
Hassi Messaoud periphery) and in the southwest gas region of Algeria (Ahnet
and Reggane). They form a major gas play in the deep reservoirs of the
Berkine basin, and to the west of the Berkine in fields of the Gassi Touil and
Rhourde Nouss areas.
These tight sands include the Cambro-Ordovician sandstones (Cambrian and
Hamra quartzites) and those of Emsian and Gedinnian age in the southwest.
Chlorite cement and the associated secondary silicification are the main
causes of deterioration in these sands, whose permeabilities are generally
less than 1 mD and sometimes at the microDarcy level.
The lower Devonian section has a low density of fractures, both open and
closed, as noted from core studies. Mud losses associated with these fractures are indicative of conductive fractures.
Levels of permeability and porosity in these tight sands sometimes fall below
the ability of conventional permeability tools to measure (see Petrophysics of
Tight Sands, page 3.67). Because the presence of gas in these cases cannot
be confirmed by conventional formation tester samples, dynamic data are
required for interpretation.
The Tin Tazarift (the Tassili of the Ajjer) shelter protects one of the finest paintings of the Round Heads period. This location was riddled with the sanctuaries of prehistoric men, who
decorated it with paintings of their religious beliefs 8,000 to 10,000 years ago.
3 120
The interpretation of well tests conducted in horizontal wells is also covered in

this section, as it constitutes an important challenge in Algeria where wells are
generally drilled in complex reservoir environments. Particular cases from the
Hassi Messaoud and TFT fields are presented to illustrate how well testing is
used to overcome some of the challenges in these wells.
uncemented 412-in. diameter mixed liner. After log and

test recording, a bridge plug was fitted in the 7-in. casing
at the base of the infra-TAGS reservoirs and at the top of
the 412-in. liner head. The wells were completed with a
412-in. 13% chrome tubing because of the high CO2 content.
Initial drillstem testing (DST) during drilling
Well testing in tight sands

Tight gas reservoirs can be complex; they produce through natural fractures
from multiple layers with relatively low permeabilities. Some have productive
gross intervals exceeding 300 ft, thus making it difficult to determine from
where the gas is produced. These problems are often compounded by the
effects of completion operations.
This section describes experience gained to date through case studies that
illustrate the particular difficulty of interpreting well tests conducted in vertical exploration wells traversing tight reservoirs. Theoretical background on
testing in vertical wells may be found in the previous proceedings of the
Algeria Well Evaluation Conference.1
Well A in the Rhourde Nouss field

prolific, fracture-based productivity
The Rhourde Nouss field includes the Ordovician reservoir in addition to the
main reservoirs of the TAGS and infra-TAGS. This reservoir harbors large quantities of gas that is not fully vaporized. Several wells drilled in this field have
been tested. Among these, four have been drilled in the Ordovician, and two of
these were put on production. Well A produces gas.
These wells were generally tested for a short period during drilling. Flow of gas varied between 0.5 and 0.02 million m3/d. On some wells, gas shows were observed only
in the counterflush mud.
Buildup analyses
The interpretation of pressure buildup in these wells
often suggested wellbore storage with a model more
appropriate to a homogeneous reservoir than one with
multiple porosity values. Closure times were generally
very short (about 10 hr) with a radius of investigation
between 50 and 100 m. Interpretation also led to an estimation of flow capacity kh and well skin factor s.
The estimated kh values remained low (< 30 mD-m) for
most of the wells except for Well A, where it reached
150 mD-m (Table 3.4). These kh values were not very different from those measured on cores (with matrix permeability < 0.1 mD), with the exception of Well A, for which
Gas flow, 106

(m3/day)
Wells
kh
(mD-m)
Geological and petrophysical characteristics

The Ordovician, the deepest reservoir at approximately 4,000 m, has revealed
very large accumulations, mainly of gas. The petrophysical characteristics are
very low, with permeabilities less than 0.1 mD and porosities from 3% to 5%.
The presence of fractures may contribute significantly to the reservoir productivity. Fluid samples collected from this reservoir revealed highly rich gas condensates (250 to 300 g/m3) and high CO2 content (8%). These parameters have
significant bearing on well testing and its interpretation because trapped fluids
may change during testing from single phase to multiple phase.
Well 1
0.244
16
Well 2
0.067
13
Well 3
0.022
Well 4
0.087
12
Well A
0.149
142
Well 6
Based on previous drilling experience in the region, the standard drilling and
completion program involved 6-in. drilling of the Ordovician after fitting a
7-in. casing shoe at the top of the Ordovician. This part was covered by an
kh
(mD-m)
Oil flow
(m3/day)
Wells
92
25
Table 3.4: DST buildup analysis results for several wells in the Rhourde
Nouss field.
3 121
Test type
DST
kh
(mD-m)
Buildup analyses
Pskin
(psi)
Skin
factor
Distance
to fault
(m)
Reservoir type
Radius of
investigation
(m)
Shut-in
time
(hr)
Buildup 3
118
66
2,514
Storage + skin
Homogeneous + infinite acting
68
12
Final buildup
142
88
3,700
Storage + skin
126
35
Buildup 1
63
12
1,237
Storage + skin
37
14
Buildup 2
90
23
2,195
Storage + skin
50
14
Buildup 3
90
25
2,714
Storage + skin
53
14
Buildup 4
88
24
3,035
Storage + skin
52
14
Final buildup
292
20
1,717
Storage + skin
107
13
Test after 25 months of

production (April 2002)
Buildup 1
337
12
Storage + skin
Homogeneous + fault
66
(Figure 3.136)
Buildup 2
162
Storage + skin
90
Buildup 3
393
31
1,390
Storage + skin
141
Buildup 4
331
28
1,813
Storage + skin
149
Homogeneous + fault intersect
149
520
(Figures 3.133a and 3.133b)
Test after frac

(Figures 3.134a and 3.134b)
Test after 17 months of

production (August 2001)
(Figure 3.135)
Table 3.5: DST buildup analysis results of Well A.
Well A was put on production in March 2000, and production parameters were
monitored continuously. Measurements of flow and pressure showed that the
well maintained stable production. This well was tested several times over a
period of four years. Testing, in general, was carried out during short and long
periods (from 9 hr to 20 days). Figures 3.133 through 3.136 show the response
1010
1010
109
109
108
108
107
106
0.001
0.01
0.1
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.133a: Test 1Analysis of buildup 3.
3 122
10
100
m (p) and m (p), psi2/cP
m (p) and m(p), psi2/cP
the value was about seven times greater. The

larger kh value for Well A indicated the presence of more
significant (open) fractures than anticipateda deduction corroborated by fracturing observed on borehole
imaging logs and cores.
107
106
0.001
0.01
0.1
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.133b: Test 1Analysis of final buildup.
10
100
1020
1020
1019
1019
1018
1018
1017
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
m (p) and m (p), Pa/s
Elapsed time, hr
1017
0.001
10
100
Well BThe role of well completion
curves of some of the recorded pressure buildups; Table 3.5 lists the pressure
buildups and corresponding interpretation results.
Well B is a good example of how an inadequate well

architecture, design, and testing program may result in
the failure of a promising formation to flow and, hence,
in the loss of the potential reserve.
Figures 3.133a and 3.133b show the well condition in its initial and final states
and confirm the derived value of kh of ~142 mD-m. Figures 3.134a and 3.134b
show the buildup analysis after fracturing. Note that the tests did not reach
radial flow. The match was essentially based on wellbore storage, so kh is low.
The effect of fractures, however, was observed on tests conducted subsequently (Figs. 3.135 and 3.136). In general, the repeatability of the test responses
validated the results.
The well was drilled with polymer mud of density 1.18 g/cm3.
The 7-in. casing shoe was set 116 m above the top of the
target formation, and the top of the 412-in. cemented liner
was set 227 m above the top of the target formation.
109
1020
108
1019
107
1018
0.001
0.01
0.1
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.135: Test 3Analysis of final buildup.
10
100
0.1
Figure 3.134b: Test 2Analysis of buildup 2.
Figure 3.134a: Test 2Analysis of buildup 1.
106
0.0001
0.01
Elapsed time, hr
1017
0.0001 0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1,000
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.136: Test 4Analysis of long final buildup.
3 123
Gas
Sandstone
Gamma ray
Bound water
Porosity
0 (gAPI) 200 NP (3%)
Clay
NP (5%) Water saturation 0.3 (m3/m3) 0
Caliper
MD
1 : 500
(m) 4 (in.) 14 NP (4%) 1
(m3/m3)
Gas
Volumetric analysis
1
(V/V)
1338-in. casing
Shoe at X42 m
958-in. casing
Shoe at X,294 m
PCT at X,984 m
Recorders at X,988 m
X,400
Packer set at X,993 m
7-in. casing
Top liner at X,142 m
Shoe at X,253 m
3-in. extension tubing
EUE at X,233 m
Negative passage
38-in.
X,369.5X,374 m
X,392X,411 m
X,430X,435 m
X,437X,439 m
X,450
412-in. shoe liner at X,484 m
Figure 3.137: Well B.
Figure 3.138: Petrophysical ELAN log for Well B.
The 412-in. cemented liner was perforated overbalance

on wireline with a 278-in., 6-spf HSD High Shot Density
gun system (Fig. 3.137). Prior to drillstem testing, the mud
weight was pumped on a 1.7 psi/m gradient to reach a
hydrostatic pressure of nearly 4,000 psi at the top perforation. The packer was set 376 m above the top perforation with a 250-psi cushion above the downhole tester
valve and nearly 890-psi hydrostatic pressure at the top
perforation. Openhole logs showed a promising formation with 25 m of total play in the tight/naturally fractured Ordovician section (from estimated porosity,
= 6%) (Fig. 3.138).
of 1,635 psi (including hydrostatic pressure below the packer). The main drawdown showed very weak inflow from the perforated interval, and the final
shut-in was similar to the initial one, with lower pressure buildup.
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
Pressure, psi
The well test pressure plot (Fig. 3.139) shows a sequence

of initial flow, initial shut-in, main drawdown, and final
shut-in. The initial shut-in determined a response pressure
4,500
500
0
16/12/00
0:00
16/12/00
12:00
17/12/00
0:00
Date and time, hr:min

Figure 3.139: Pressure versus time for Well B.
3 124
17/12/00
12:00
18/12/00
0:00
18/12/00
12:00
19/12/00
0:00
Several factors may have contributed to the unexpected low flow:

Too low a permeability for the formation to flow naturally
Gas
Water
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
150
Caliper
MD
1 : 500
(m)
(in.)
Water saturation
100
(%)
0 50
Sandstone
Net pay
Clay
ELAN fluid
ELAN volume
(%)
0 100
Fracture flowlines blocked because of

too heavy a mud weight during drilling (overbalanced
drilling), causing filtrate invasion and blocking of
potentially producing fractures
cement fluid (slurry) loss to fractures and faults (circulation loss)
overbalanced perforations leading to damaged perforation tunnels
Too high a mud column above the perforationsowing
to setting the packer too far above (376 m) the perforationsresulting in a mud pressure too high to overcome
Lack of nitrogen-assisted kickoff for formation flow.
(%)
X,660
X,680
The well test performance of Well B contrasts with that

of two nearby wells, C and D. These two wells had
positive tests with good flow rates at the surface that
qualified them as discoveries despite extremely high skin
values caused by heavy drilling mud (density 1.2 g/cm3).
Furthermore, Well B featured better petrophysical characteristics than Wells C and D:
Well B cores presented subvertical and subhorizontal
open fractures rarely filled by shale, the presence of
stylolite joints, and a porosity of 6%.
Wells C and D featured cores with subvertical fractures
often filled by shale, the same presence of stylolite joints,
and porosities ranging from 1% to 5%.
X,700
X,720
X,780
X,800
X,820
X,840
Figure 3.140: Petrophysical ELAN log of Well E for the upper sand section (X,660-X,740 m) and lower
sand section (X,770-X,860 m).
However, one difference between Well B and Wells C

and D had to do with completion. Wells C and D had
a barefoot test design
well architecture where the casing shoe was set close
to the tested reservoir
a packer that was set less than 30 m from the top of the
formation.
Well Eeffect of well completion

and cementation
4,500
Well E has two hydrocarbon reservoirs with the characteristics presented in Table 3.6 (Fig. 3.140). A barefoot test
was carried out in the X,590- to X,862-m interval covering
both reservoirs (Fig. 3.141). This test yielded 89,000 m3/d of
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
Pressure, psi
1,000
Reservoirs
500
Depth
(m)
Thickness Net pay NTG Average Sw

(m)
(m)
ratio porosity (%)
(%)
0
5/9/03
0:00
5/9/03
12:00
6/9/03
0:00
6/9/03
12:00
7/9/03
0:00
7/9/03
12:00
Date and time, hr:min

Gas rate: 3,705 m3/h; WHP: 700 psi through a 3264-in. choke
Figure 3.141: Global openhole test response for Well E.
8/9/03
0:00
8/9/03
12:00
9/9/03
0:00
Ordovician
(Unit III-3) X,668X,689 ht = 21
6.0
0.29 7.0
30
Cambrian
(Unit II)
12.0
0.22 3.5
35
X,808X,862 ht = 54
Table 3.6: Petrophysical characteristics of Well E.
3 125
ration operation appeared to have impeded the small amount of productivity

the well had initially displayed. Formation damage during the cementation
operation and lack of connectivity of the perforations at the bottom of the well
with the fracture network caused tangible impediments to the productivity of
this well.
109
107
Well testing in horizontal wells
106
0.001
0.01
0.1
1,000
100
10
Horizontal drilling technology was introduced in the mid 90s in the Hassi Rmel,
Hassi Messaoud, and Stah fields, and later in the TFT. The objective was to
reach a high well productivity in reservoirs with weak characteristics and in
gas-cap reservoirs. Current development, most notably in the Hassi Messaoud
field, has focused on secondary recovery techniques (see Horizontal Wells
Experience of the Hassi Messaoud Field, page 4.6).
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.142: Modeled openhole test response for Well E yields a dualporosity model with = 28%; = 7.31x10-7 ; kh = 56.9 mD-ft (k 1 mD).
gas at a wellhead pressure of 700 psi. Interpretation of

the test revealed a dual-porosity model (Fig. 3.142), with
kh = 57 mD-ft (k 1 mD), = 28%, and = 7.31x107.
Numerous problems were identified at the outset of horizontal drilling,

especially those linked to well productivity, well integrity, and well performance
in the presence of injection fluids. Reservoir quality around the wellbore, of
course, was the fundamental cause.
After setting and cementing the liner, two selective tests

were conducted, perforating the hydrocarbon intervals
with the aid of the PowerJet deep-penetrating shaped
charge with 6 spf (19 strokes/m). The result of both tests
was the same: zero wellhead pressure and no surface
production (very slight flow of gas with counter-flushing)
(Figs. 3.143A and 3.143B). Analysis of the pressure diagram
showed low permeability and low reservoir pressure,
which completely contradicted the results of the barefoot test that had indicated gas-producing reservoirs
with a very good flow rate, good permeability, and a
reservoir pressure of 3,444 psi.
Analysis of data obtained in the first horizontal wells was invaluable to understanding the challenges that would have to be met to optimize the development of these fields. Among the available techniques, analysis of transient
flow in these wells was an important step in the approach taken within this
domain.
The description of the various flow regimes in an idealized configuration looks
rather simple (see Interpreting Well Tests in Horizontal Wells, page 3.127)
but becomes more complicated in the presence of geologic or dynamic features that sometimes characterize reservoirs.
For example, the presence of a fractured environment modifies the linear flow
observed in the second regime into a bilinear regime (in t1/4) characteristic of
the double linear flow: matrix to fracture and fracture to well. Some wells of
the Hassi Messaoud field2 illustrate this behavior.
These results strongly suggested that the type of completion utilized was unsuitable for the conditions of the well.
The cementation of the liner pipe followed by the perfo-
Pressure, psi
4,500
4,000
4,000
3,500
3,500
3,000
3,000
2,500
2,500
2,000
2,000
1,500
1,500
1,000
1,000
500
0
0
Elapsed time, hr
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
4,500
Pressure, psi
108
500
0
0
10
20
30
40
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.143: Test results of the upper sand section (X,660X,740 m) (A) and lower sand section (X,770X,860 m) (B) after casing and cementing of Well E.
3 126
50
60
Interpreting Well Tests in Horizontal Wells
Pressure and
pressure derivative, psi
Pressure transient behavior in a horizontal well test is considerably more complex than in a conventional vertical well test because of its three-dimensional
nature. In a horizontal well, instead of the radial flow regime that develops for
a conventional test, three flow regimes may occur after the effects of wellbore storage disappear.3
A
B
Elapsed time, hr
A
B
C
D
Pressure
Pressure derivative
Wellbore storage
Early-time pseudoradial flow
Intermediate-time linear flow
Late-time pseudoradial flow
Figure 3.T: Phases in a horizontal well transient test. After wellbore storage effects have disappeared, the flow is radial toward the well in the vertical y-z plane (first plateau in the derivative
curve). The next phase is linear flow in the y-z plane (straight line with half-slope in the derivative
curve). Finally flow is radial in the x-y plane (second plateau in the derivative curve).
Figure 3.T shows the different phases in a horizontal well

transient test. Initially, flow occurs radially in a vertical
plane toward the well, indicated by a plateau on the
derivative curve of the log-log plot. This regime is termed
early-time pseudoradial flow because of the elliptical
flow pattern resulting from the vertical to horizontal permeability anisotropy. The second flow regime begins
when the transient reaches the upper and lower boundaries of the producing interval and flow becomes linear
toward the well within a horizontal plane. This intermediate-time regime is characterized by a half-slope trend
in the derivative curve. The third flow regime occurs as
the transient moves deeper into the reservoir and the
flow becomes radial again but in the horizontal plane.
This late-time regime is indicated by a second plateau in
the derivative curve.
The first radial flow regime yields the mechanical skin
factor and the geometric average of the vertical and horizontal permeabilities. The intermediate-time linear flow
regime can be analyzed to estimate the length of the producing interval, as long as the horizontal plane can be
considered isotropic. The late-time radial flow yields the
average permeability in the horizontal plane and the total
skin factor (mechanical and geometrical skin factors).
Pressure and pressure derivative, psi
The geometrical skin factor is important for horizontal

wells drilled in thick formations or in formations that
exhibit a high contrast between kh and kv. Furthermore, in
these circumstances, neither the early-time nor linear
flow regime develops (Fig. 3.U).
Elapsed time, hr
High h/Lp or high kh /kv
Typical horizontal well response
Figure 3.U: Theoretical pressure response of a horizontal well drilled in a thick reservoir or in a reservoir with high vertical to horizontal permeability anisotropy. h/Lp = ratio of reservoir height to length
of the horizontal well perforated interval.
The identification of the first pseudoradial flow is crucial

to a complete interpretation because it provides the formation damage. This regime is often masked by the
unavoidably large wellbore storage effects in horizontal
wells. The key to successful horizontal well testing is full
control of the downhole environment. Full control can be
achieved by using simultaneous measurements of flow
rate and either pressure or downhole shut-in, or both.
Moreover, identification of all three flow regimes is not
always possible from one transient. Combining drawdown tests in which the flow rate and pressure are
measured simultaneously with buildup tests using downhole shut-in maximizes the likelihood of identifying all
three flow regimes.
3 127
Supplementing the transient test data with flow profiles

along the trajectory of the horizontal well facilitates the
identification of the producing zones and the determination of the effective flowing interval. To derive this
parameter from the transient data is more complicated
because, in addition to the inherent wellbore storage difficulties, other parameters may also be determined from
a horizontal well test: wellbore storage coefficient, vertical permeability, maximum and minimum horizontal permeabilities, standoff from the nearest bed boundary,
effective flowing length, and skin effect. This list can be
reduced by running tests in the pilot hole before going
horizontal to determine the geometric means of kh and kv.
These parameters are essential for estimating horizontal
well productivity and have a major influence on the decision whether to drill the well.
Flow profiles are also valuable for pinpointing possible
crossflow. Crossflow is more likely to occur during
buildup tests and may seriously jeopardize the interpretation. Therefore, drawdown tests are recommended for
developed fields in which pressure differentials have
already developed and may induce crossflow.
The interpretation of horizontal well test pressure measurements involves the same three stages used for vertical well test analysis. First, the pressure response and its
derivative are analyzed to diagnose the characteristic
behavior of the system and to identify specific flow
regimes. Second, specialized plots are used to extract
the effective parameters for each flow regime, typically
the values of k and s. Third, these reservoir parameter
estimates are refined by history matching the measured
transient response to that predicted by a mathematical
model for the well and reservoir system.
As always, history matching is expected to produce more
accurate results because the features of the various flow
patterns are rigorously taken into account. Moreover, the
match involves the entire set of transient data, including
transition periods between specific flow regimes, whereas
direct analysis uses only the data subset of identifiable
flow regimes. This stage also offers the possibility of
simultaneously matching more than one transient, which
further constrains the model to accurately represent the
well and reservoir system.
3 128
The presence of crossflow, notably in reservoirs with weak lateral and/or vertical continuity, leads to complex behaviors for which the analytical solutions
remain generally too uncertain. In these cases, numerical simulation is very
helpful for understanding the influence of every characterization parameter
and reaching the most appropriate corresponding model. Beyond identifying
crossflow problems, numerical simulation is a powerful tool for understanding
complex flow phenomena. Examples from the Hassi Messaoud field have
been reported4 in which reasonable matching of measured test responses in
the presence of crossflow were obtained. Other cases as complex can appear,
such as the presence of multiphase flow, the presence of a variable skin effect
along the wellbore, or the sinuosity of the drain.
The direct application of transient flow analysis in horizontal drains remains
challenging though. While it may supply essential reservoir characteristics
such as the spatial distribution of permeabilities at the drainage-area scale,
other techniques may provide these characteristics, sometimes at different
scales. Integrating these technologies can produce a complete image of the
reservoir as well as strengthen the retained models.
Two cases illustrate this approach. In the first case, from the Hassi Messaoud
field,5 several tens of well tests were reviewed to consolidate the basis of a
global reservoir characterization. In the second, from a fractured reservoir in
the TFT field,6 several technologies were integrated to reach an appropriate
reservoir model.
Hassi Messaoud field caseusing transient test analysis

for reservoir characterization and development
Transient well test analysis is paramount to characterizing the reservoir on a
drainage-area scalean area that generally cannot be investigated by well
logging technologies. The method can be used to determine the distribution of
large-scale permeability for confirming the nature of the reservoir. In the
Hassi Messaoud field, more than 30 tests were analyzed. In addition to characterizing the reservoir, the study also aided in the assessment of several correlations at the field scale.
Thirty-three horizontal wells and reentry wells were tested in the study through,
for the most part, drillstem tests. These wells generally had high productivity,
which increased the interest in applying horizontal well technology. For
instance, on reentry wells with short radius, the average flow after workover
was widely superior to that before in the vertical; the well productivity index
after workover was, on average, 20 times superior to the productivity index
before workover.
The weak investigation of the DSTs associated with their short duration was
compensated for by a better quality owing to the downhole shutoff. The various flow regimes in the horizontal well were generally identified on the interpreted tests, and from their analyses three typical tensor models were derived
that corresponded to
Y
Z
Z
X
Model 1: Z < Y = X
Permeability in laminated beds
Case of MD-443
Anisotropy index = 0.016
(kx, ky, kz) = (2.76, 2.76, 0.046)
Model 2: Y > X > Z

Permeability controlled by sedimentation or layering
Case of OMPZ-812
Anisotropy index = 0.033; hu = 45 m
(kx, ky, kz) = (1.85, 33.5, 0.500)
Model 3: X < Y = Z
Permeability for oriented natural fractures
Case of MDZ-105
Anisotropy index = 4.3; hu = 90 m
(kx, ky, kz) = (7,432,236)
Figure 3.144: Three permeability configuration models developed for the Hassi Messaoud field.
a depositional environment with ky > kx > kz (the most widespread model in

the field)
laminated beds with kx = ky > kz
a fractured environment with kx < ky = kz.
100
Horizontal productivity index, STBD/psi
10
Figure 3.144 illustrates a typical example of each tensor. A vertical anisotropy on

the order of 0.015 is observed in the absence of fissures, thus indicating a weak
vertical flow of the fluids. The low vertical anisotropy, generally characteristic of
the field, is explained by the presence of silts, of many-centimeter thickness,
impermeable, and of an extent one to several tens of meters in the reservoir,
which reduces drastically the vertical flow. In this case, water entries are
reduced. This weak anisotropy is clearly illustrated in Fig. 3.145, which shows the
vertical and horizontal permeabilities derived from the interpretation of the tests.
0.1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
Length (ky*kz ), mD-ft
The reservoir is generally heterogeneous in the horizontal plane, and the high
ky component indicates on one hand that the trajectory of the horizontal wells
intersects correctlythat is, perpendicular to channels of good characteristics; on the other hand, well productivity depends on the vertical equivalent
permeability (ky*kz)1/2, as observed in Fig.3.146. The high values of kz associated
with high values of ky correspond to the intersection of fracture planes almost
perpendicular to the well trajectory. These facts are confirmed by observations made elsewhere (well image logs).
Figure 3.146: Productivity correlation in the Hassi Messaoud field.
The well test analysis also emphasized that generally the

skin factor, sz, related to partial penetration of the reservoir,
is widely superior to the mechanical skin of damage, sm, in
the well (Fig. 3.147). The geometry of the reservoir, particularly its significant thickness, contributes to this result.
6
25
5
20
kx*ky, mD
10
5
0
10
15
20
kz*ky, mD
Figure 3.145: Comparison of vertical and horizontal permeabilities indicating anisotropy.
25
Partial penetration skin factor
15
3
2
1
0
Mechanical skin factor

Figure 3.147: Comparison between mechanical and partial penetration skins.
3 129
0.45
0.4
The azimuth and dip of the drains have, in the case of the
Hassi Messaoud field, considerable influence on well
productivity. Sensitivity on the azimuth of Well OMN-43
was assessed in the case of a variation of the effective
drain length. Results indicated that the risk becomes important beyond a drift on the order of 60 degrees (Fig. 3.148);
a substantial reduction of the productivity index would
be noticed. Evaluations performed with the simulation of
a horizontal anisotropy of 50 indicated that the risk
would become important at that level; a high reduction of
the productivity index was obtained.
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
Length, ft
TFT field casean integrated

approach to well testing analysis
Although information obtained from well tests is extremely
useful for reservoir characterization, clear identification of
the appropriate geological model may not always result
from the analysis. Integrating well imaging data can reinforce the selected reservoir picture, but numerical simulation can be an even more powerful way to shed light on
the real reservoir complexity. Later, the integration of additional real data, such as those obtained in the laboratory,
can lend a quantitative aspect that helps consolidate the
selected solution. Wells TFTz-329 and TFTz-333, producing
in the gas cap of the TFT field, illustrate this procedure.
The TFT Ordovician reservoir is composed of two units containing periglacial sediments. The main unit, IV3, has uniform petrophysical properties and thickness, whereas the
underlying unit, IV2, shows important variations in thickness and facies as well as poor characteristics. This reservoir is also characterized by the presence of sometimes
open fractures that enhance the flow of fluids.
3 130
Q = 0
Q = 30
Q = 60
Q = 90
Figure 3.148: Sensitivity to lateral orientation (azimuth). Case: ky/kx = 10. Well OMN-43.
3
2.5
Using the transformations of Besson,7 the data of Well

OMP-812 were used to assess the influence of the variation in the drain dip. In the case of an 80-degree dip, the
change of azimuth reduced the productivity when values
greater than 60 degrees were reached (Fig. 3.149). This
was noticed on a wide range of variations of the vertical
anisotropy; this tendency is accentuated more in the case
of a totally horizontal dip. Globally, the azimuth of the well
would present a moderate influence as long as it remained
in a reduced variation range, thus allowing a reasonable
management of the risks linked to the azimuth of the drain.
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.01
10.01
20.01
30.01
40.01
k v/k h
Angle = 0
Angle = 30
Angle = 60
Angle = 90
Figure 3.149: The effects of vertical anisotropy on the horizontal productivity index. Slanted well
case: 80 degrees, Well OMP-812.
To reconstitute the tests recorded in these wells, 3D simulators, containing on

average 10,000 cells and with local grid refinement in the well vicinity, were
designed with sufficient size to observe the various predictable well flow
regimes. Figure 3.150 shows in the preliminary tests the observed differences
between the measurements simulated under surface shutoffs and those simulated under downhole model shutoffs. The match was oriented toward reconstitution of the observed pressure measurements coupled with that of the well productivity index. This reconstitution was based on the permeability by considering
On both analyzed wells, FMI Fullbore Formation

MicroImager, ARI Azimuthal Resistivity Imager, and dipmeter logs were recorded to identify the available fracture networks. The FMI tool provides an image of the
well from microresistivity measurements, and the ARI
tool, with its depth of investigation and good precision in
thin beds, completes that image.
Dimensionless time group, tD/CD

10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
105
102
104
101
103
100
102
Surface shut-in
10-1
101
100
10-2
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
PD and derivative groups
p and derivative groups, bar
Downhole shut-in
10,000
1,000
Elapsed time, hr
kh = 100 mD
kv = 10 mD
L = 500 m, d = 5 m
100
Figure 3.150: Surface and downhole shut-in pressures.
the total length of the drain; the influence of the effective well length was then
assessed. With this methodology, the approach consisted of reconstituting the
average permeability tensor on the drainage area of the well.
The purpose of the first analysis was to match Well TFTz-329 (Fig. 3.151). The
influence of the horizontal and vertical anisotropies was assessed during
these matches, and their influence on the pressures and derivative, as expected,
modified the amplitude of the answer as well as the time lag. This influence
was significant; the vertical anisotropy remained prominent mainly in reaching the transition from radial flow toward linear flow.
Pressure derivative, psi
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
1,000
Elapsed time, hr
Gauge
kv1
kv2
Figure 3.151: Simulated and measured pressure derivative curves from

Well TFTz-329.
A high horizontal anisotropy coupled with a high value of vertical permeability was obtained. Indeed, the average permeability tensor obtained was
kx = 2 mD, ky = 90 mD, and kz = 110 mD. The components x and y are the horizontal components, parallel and perpendicular to the well axis direction,
respectively, whereas z is the vertical component.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
Similar results were obtained on Well TFTz-333 with a tensor k x = 5 mD,

k y = 100 mD, and kz = 115 mD. There, also, the same scheme of anisotropy
was observed (Fig. 3.152).
In the context of the TFT reservoir, this scheme would correspond to a reservoir of average quality in which both horizontal wells intersected vertical
fractured planes perpendicular to the well axis. These planes of high permeability generate on one hand the high component kz and on the other hand the
high component ky perpendicular to the well axis, thereby creating ideal conditions for maximum well productivity.
At this level of analysis, the study of the image logs obtained on both wells
becomes a powerful tool for confirming the first results obtained.
0.01
0.1
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 3.152: Pressure response matching for Well TFTz-333.
3 131
Real-time Well Testing Positively Affects Performance

When planning a well test, reservoir engineers must
fine-tune the balance between data accuracy, time and
costs, and operational constraints. Applying the appropriate expertise during the test can ensure that the well
test results in getting maximum value from the asset.
Monitoring a pressure transient test in Algeria

In a pressure transient test in an Algerian well, data were read in real time
from the downhole gauge through the LINC to surface, and then transmitted
by VSAT to the global InterACT hub. At the jobsite and in Schlumberger offices
Acquisition
system
InterACT
server
Reservoir
engineer
Figure 3.V: Satellite link between the downhole pressure gauge and the end user of the data.
InterACT services
in Algiers, pressure was monitored during buildup. When the real time interpretation showed evidence of radial flow, then a fault, a decision was made
to stop the buildup (Fig. 3.W).
109
108
Pressure and pressure derivative, psi
The Schlumberger InterACT modular service (Fig. 3.V)

provides seamless communication from the wellsite to
the reservoir engineer. The operations team and the
reservoir engineer can view the same information. This
Web-based infrastructure provides the highest level of
service, including specific viewers, download capabilities,
strict administration, and confidentiality. Benefits of
InterACT services include
optimize test duration: reduce rig cost, minimize
deferred production for buildup, produced oil for drawdown, or detect when a fault is encountered
ensure sufficient data acquisition: check that radial
flow is reached
review test plan in real time: set choke size, gas lift
rate, and pump parameters
optimize cleanup duration
project required jobsite expertise and remote support
while minimizing logistics and HSE risks
manage data: make test results available instantaneously to project participants.
107
106
0.001
0.01
10
100
Figure 3.W: Log-log plot of pressure and pressure derivative constructed in real time and used to
determine when to stop the test.
3 132
0.1
Elapsed time, hr
Given that the borehole images showed a uniform distribution of open fractures all along the drain, and knowing
that the obtained measurements were at the laboratory
scale compared to those of the numerical model, which
were on the scale of the drainage area of the well, the
obtained values could be considered representative.
Pad one azimuth

-40
(deg)
360
Hole azimuth
-40
(deg)
360
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
150
Deviation
26
Tension
10
(lbf)
1,000
2,000 10
(deg)
36
23.6340
FBST/PADA
50.9718
Caliper 2
(in.)
20
Caliper 1
(in.)
(----)
Tool rotation (RB)
20 -180
(deg)
180
This example highlights the value of combining information obtained from different measurements to enhance
the well test interpretation. The numerical simulation of
the test allowed a correct evaluation of the permeability
tensor to show a strong anisotropy generated by a vertical fractured network. This model confirmed that the trajectory of the wells corresponds to an optimal orientation
in terms of well productivity. This example also demonstrated the importance of the contribution of borehole
imaging. It reinforced the interpretation of a matrix (oriented fractured network) scheme consistent with the
derived permeability tensor. Lastly, the experiments
undertaken in the laboratory provided a quantitative confirmation by showing that the permeabilities deduced
from observed well fractures were similar to those
observed under laboratory confinement.
Figure 3.153: Indication of open fractures from FMI and ARI data for Well TFTz-329.
Indeed, the presence of fractures was identified in both wells (illustrated

in Fig. 3.153 in the interval from 2,084.5 to 2,087.5 m for Well TFTz-329 and in
Fig. 3.154 for Well TFTz-333). The analysis by Schmidt plot of fracture distribution
shows, for both wells, an orientation of the fracture networkin the direction
of 30 degrees northeast, which is surprisingly perpendicular to the well axis,
which validated the model derived from the interpretation of the well tests.
With the aim of confirming quantitatively the effect of fractures, a full-diameter core coming from the neighboring Well TFT-338 was analyzed in the laboratory. Standard measures on small plugs taken at the same depth as the drill
core were done first. They indicated, respectively, horizontal and vertical permeability values of 12 mD and 3 mD. Measurements on the full-diameter core
showed the presence of vertical fractures, and visual inspection indicated that
if, on one hand, the global permeability of the drill core appeared to be of several Darcys, on the other hand, the fractures showed asperites as well as an
absence of matrix displacement on both sides of the fracture.
Major bedding
Crossbedding
Cemented fracture
Open fracture
Induced fracture
Bedding
Propped fracture
Depth
(m) 0
Open fracture density

0
Tadpole
(deg)
(s/n)
12
Gamma ray
90 0
(gAPI)
150
X,040
X,050
X,060
Tests of global permeability measurements of the full-diameter core were performed under confining pressure. These measurements, which pertain to the
kz component of the simulation model, confirmed the effect of confinement
with relatively reduced permeability values; the obtained correlations yielded
the estimation that, in the current conditions of the reservoir, the global permeability of the core was on the order of 28 mD.
X,070
Figure 3.154: Dipmeter and fracture intensity log for Well TFT-333.
3 133
Oued Djerat (the Tassili of the Ajjer). During the Bubaline period, artists often depicted large, wild animals, such as this two-horned rhinoceros, and rendered all the anatomical
features in perfect detail.
3 134
136
Real-Time Decisions Add Value to Oilfield Data
144
3 135

Subsurface teams of oil- and gas-operating companies are
faced with great challenges when dealing with the
appraisal, development, and management of complex oil
and gas reservoirs, especially in response to upper
managements need for appropriate, accurate, and timely
recommendations for making key decisions about capital
investments and return on capital.
The evaluation of reservoir properties and fluid contents
through one control pointthe well with its logs, cores,
tests, and cuttingsposes significant technical challenges. With the addition of 3D seismic data, populating
those properties among control points at the field level in
a highly variable geological environment is even more
difficult. Subsurface staff, therefore, must have access
to seamless petrotechnical applications that integrate a
vast amount of data available from wells, model the
properties between wellseither deterministically or
statisticallyand incorporate seismic data. This is not
to say that computer-based analysis can replace the analytical eye of the reservoir geologist, but rather, can make
his or her job easier.
The following challenges are among the many that reservoir geologists in Algeria must grapple with:
Property variations are often difficult to understand and
predict, but they are key factors that must be accounted
for to avoid drilling low-productivity wells or dry holes.
One way to reduce reservoir uncertainties is to integrate the maximum amount of information to achieve
utmost consistency in reservoir representation.
Geostatistics is used to extrapolate the properties
beyond the control points. This methodology uses the
appropriate variogram and stochastic simulations,
assuming that the number of wells is sufficient.
Accurate hydrocarbon accumulation volumes and their
location and distribution are the basis for reserves calculations, which are critical for determining the level of
investment appropriate for developing a reservoir.
Reserves calculations are also used in financial reporting and are especially important to public companies.
An updated or living model of the reservoirone
that quickly integrates data gathered over the short
term (from testing and workovers) or the long term
(from drilling and seismic)is an important tool in
3 136
helping geoscientists to make timely recommendations to decision-makers.

On the basis of the seamless workflow from seismic to simulation, the
living model can be used to check the accuracy of the static model and to
reduce the decision time between the appraisal and development phases.
As a result, field development is accelerated, which improves the value of
the asset.
An integration and modeling tool such as Petrel seismic-to-simulation software, along with the expertise of the geologist, can aid the day-to-day workflow of subsurface teams. Petrel software was particularly helpful to
Sonatrach geoscientists who were faced with major uncertainties of reservoir
quality and who needed to build an accurate representation of the sand properties from a relatively limited existing dataset. The Petrel workflow was used
to integrate structural and petrophysical data with sedimentological information to generate facies and properties maps with appropriate geostatistics to
fill between wells. The models would ultimately be used to review the development of the Hassi Rmel South reservoir.
Seismic to simulation: a complete workflow

Sonatrach was looking for a good way to track and guide reservoir development in the Hassi Guettar, Tamendjelt, Hassi Rmel Global, Hassi Rmel South,
Berkine, and Berkaoui fields. In the past, the company used software applications that subdivided the various interpretive domains and integrated the data
accordingly. A more seamless integration and transfer of data among the geophysicists, geologists, and reservoir engineers was essential to their making
the real-time decisions that would optimize asset management in these fields.
Sonatrach decided to adopt the Petrel tools that would enable the asset team
to build 3D models showing fault networks, horizons, and field propertiesin
other words, they would be able to efficiently perform seismic interpretations,
structural modeling, and properties and facies modeling to calculate initial
accumulation volumes. The Petrel software promised to provide up-to-date
modelsincorporating every new piece of information, including uncertaintiesfrom which management could make real-time decisions throughout
the life of these fields.
As a first step, Sonatrach studied the possibilities of drilling new horizontal
and vertical wells in reservoirs A and Serie Infrieure (SI) of the Hassi Rmel
South (HRS) field based on the results obtained from the model. The reservoir
development team focused on the Triassic sands known as the TAGS and TAGI
series of the onshore Hassi Rmel South field, which is located in the north
central portion of Algeria.
Reservoir A was known to be of medium to good quality as a result of either

its fine granulometry or the fact that the pore volume in the sands is filled with
evaporitic cement. In addition, reservoir A, which is overlain by a thick, massive salty formation, is affected by major NW-SE faults with large throws that
exceed the individual layer thicknessesconditions that most likely mean the
juxtaposition of reservoir against nonreservoir rock. The SI reservoir, which is
sandwiched between reservoir A and the Cambro-Ordovician, was known to
be of medium to poor quality and was not producing.
Sonatrach, with the support of Schlumberger geoscientists, decided to undertake an integrated project to develop the HRS structural and static model by
combining seismic interpretation and well data to explain the geologic nature
of the facies heterogeneities and to characterize the channel bodies within
the Triassic A and SI reservoirs. The ultimate goal of the reservoir study was
to derive a predictive model that could be used to estimate reserves and optimize reservoir development. To meet these objectives, 3D numerical property
models of effective porosity, permeability, water saturation, and facies distribution were built.
Petrel modeling workflow tools were used as the software platform for 3D mapping, well correlation, depth conversion, and properties modeling. The Petrel
model was constructed using the available data and served as a dynamic 3D
database that could be updated each time new information became available.
Hassi Rmel South reservoir geology

The HRS reservoir is a faulted anticline trending N-S on the southern section
of the giant Hassi Rmel field, which is located approximately 500 km south
of Algiers in the northern Grand Erg Occidental of the Algerian Sahara.
Production, testing, and pressure data indicate that the HRS is not in communication with the Hassi Rmel field through the hydrocarbon column. Based on
this finding, Sonatrach decided that the best approach would be to model the
HRS reservoir separately from the global Hassi Rmel field.
The geology of the reservoir is complex because the area was tectonically
active during and after the time of deposition, which made it difficult to render the formation. In addition, the reservoir is a highly faulted horst and
graben system in which the major faults are oriented in a NNW-SSE direction.
The stratigraphic sequence is represented by a thin

Triassic sand reservoirinterval Aresting unconformably on rocks belonging to the SI reservoir that, in
turn, overlies the Ordovician basement strata. The
Hercynian unconformity (DH), representing the basement
of the SI, marks the erosional truncation of strata associated with Late Paleozoic structures. The SI sedimentary
sequence appears to have been accumulated as deposits
filling the existing topographic relief of the postHercynian erosional surface.
Hassi Rmel study

It was in Sonatrachs interest to obtain a more accurate
understanding of the reservoir geology to optimize the
management and development of the HRS field. The following steps were planned:
Integrate the seismic interpretation with well data
to build an accurate structural model for reservoirs A
and SI.
Explain the geological nature of the facies heterogeneity, and map the evaporite 3D distribution for
reservoir A.
Characterize the channel bodies within reservoir A.
Estimate the oil and gas accumulations in place.
Review the development of reservoirs A and SI.
3D modeling
Structural modeling
The Triassic SI and A intervals were the modeling targets. The structural framework of the HRS field was constructed in a time domain using fault and horizon data
derived from 2D seismic interpretation. The fault framework was modeled first, then the stratigraphic horizons
were inserted between the faults using the Petrel Make
horizons, Make zones, and Layering processes.
3 137
Fault modeling
Pillar gridding
Make horizons
Time
Depth conversion
Layering
Make zones
Depth
Figure 3.155: Workflow for structural modeling.
Fault modeling
Seismic horizons
The fault modeling process was used to define the initial

shape of the fault system in the HRS field by including all
the related structural data (fault boundaries, fault sticks,
and depth maps). For the HRS field model, the fault
boundaries at the D2 horizon were used to laterally
delimit the fault extensions, whereas the fault sticks
helped determine the fault dips (Fig. 3.155). The last step of
the process was to limit the HRS fault extension between
the D2 and DH seismic horizons, which represent,
respectively, the top and base of the HRS field model.
Seismic horizons were inserted into the 3D grid while honoring the grid increment and faults defined in the previous steps. The surfaces were trimmed
near the faults and projected up to the faults to provide a fault displacement
defined by the inputs.
Pillar gridding
Depth conversion
Pillar gridding was used to create the 3D framework of

the cells. This framework represents the 3D grid, which
is a 2D grid mesh extended into the third dimension. In
the HRS field case, 100-m by 100-m I and J grid increments were determined to be the most appropriate, taking into account future reservoir simulation needs. The
grid was oriented parallel to the main NW-SE fault trend.
Velocity grids prepared with the In-Depth feature of GeoFrame software were
used to depth-convert the HRS field structural model (Fig. 3.155). The grids consisted of one average velocity for the D2 horizon and two interval velocities
for the D2Top A and DHTop A intervals. The well tops were used to condition the depth conversion and ensure a depth match of the seismic interpretation with the well data.
In the HRS field structural model, Top D2, Top A, and DH time horizons, derived
from seismic interpretation, were used as the major stratigraphic subdivisions. An exhaustive determination of the throw for all the HRS faults through
each of the three horizons was calculated based on their respective depth
maps (Fig. 3.155).
Stratigraphic zones
During this phase, the model segmentation revealed data
that would be useful for future modeling needs, such as
volumetric calculation by block. Approximately 12 fault
blocks (Fig. 3.155) were identified from their position in
the model and from observed variations in fluid contact
heights deduced from wellbore pressure test and resistivity data.
3 138
The project team inserted geologic zones in the stratigraphic intervals

between the horizons using the Petrel Make horizons process (Fig. 3.155).
Because the intrareservoir architecture of the HRS field reservoirs was beyond
seismic resolution, the stratigraphic zones were mapped by upward stacking
from the A and SI reservoir bases of layer depth isochores derived from well
data alone. Finally, a mathematical editing procedure was applied to ensure
that the total reservoir isochore derived from the stacking procedure fit exactly
with the seismically defined total reservoir isochores. The Make zones
process created the D2, S4, Arg-Inf, A, and SI stratigraphic zones.
Layering
The geologic zones were then divided into finely scaled layers in order to capture the important facies and petrophysical properties data (Fig. 3.155). The
subdivision of the A and SI reservoirs into layers was based on a detailed well
core description from 35 wells as well as a sedimentological subdivision in
the corresponding chronostratigraphic units in the field. As a result, the sand
interval A of the HRS field area was subdivided into four geologic
sequencesSa, Sb, Sc, and Sdfrom deepest to shallowest and corresponding to four hydraulic flow units.
These four hydraulic units were then subdivided, respectively, into 5, 3, 6, and
5 subsequences. As a result, the number of layers within reservoir A totals 19.
The resulting stacked layer model for the A reservoir was composed of
2.34 x 106 3D cells, each with an average area of 100 x 100 m2 and an average thickness of 1.5 m.
The SI reservoir was subdivided into layers of an average thickness of 1 m.
This made the number of sequences unknown but allowed a better layer modeling that accounted for variations from well to well.
For the petrophysical logsporosity, water saturation,

and volume of shalean arithmetic averaging method
was used. This method was recommended because
these properties are additive variables. A geometric
averaging method was used for permeability, because it
shows no clear spatial correlation and has a log-normal
distribution.
The porosity log was conditioned to the facies discrete
log to maintain statistical integrity.
Geostatistical analysis
The project team chose stochastic simulation over deterministic modeling due to the complexity of the HRS
facies and properties and to the limited number and scattering of the wells. Before the modeling process, a normal score transformation was performed extensively for
all the petrophysical properties (porosity, permeability,
water saturation, and volume of shale) to ensure a
Gaussian behavior.
Variography analysis
Upscaling the well logs
The upscaling process assigns values to the cells in the 3D grid that are penetrated by well logs. Since each cell can hold only one value, the well logs
must be averaged, or upscaled. By upscaling, well information can then be
used as input to properties modelingthat is, the distribution of property
values between the wells.
For the facies logs, upscaling consisted of assigning the most frequently
occurring log values to each cell using the most of the averaging method.
10
12
14
16
A variogram is a description of the variation in a property

based on the principle that two points close together are
more likely to have similar values than points that are
distant from each other. Variograms are fundamental to
the application of sequential simulation algorithms such
as the Sequential Gaussian Simulation (SGS) algorithm
that was used for modeling petrophysical properties and
the Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS) used for facies
modeling.
The variography analysis resulted in variogram functions
for the major, minor, and vertical directions, which share
the same nugget and sill but have different ranges.
18
0.8
50,000
0.7
0.6
Vertical range: ~ 9.7 m
30,000
0.4
0.3
20,000
Semivariance
0.2
10,000
0.1
0
0.7434783 3.717391 6.691304 9.665217 12.63913 15.61304 18. 58696
Regression curve nugget: 0.112; sill: 0.745; and range: 9.81

Figure 3.156: Effective porosity variogram analysis in reservoir A of the Hassi Rmel South field.
Number of pairs (3,631,280 in total)
0.5
40,000
For reservoir A, the variograms were built using a horizontal lag distance of 1.5 km, which represents the average distance between HRS field wells, and a vertical lag
distance around 1.5 m, which represents the layer thickness of reservoir A.
The optimal spatial correlation model for effective porosity consists of a NNW-SSE (Fig. 3.156) anisotropic distribution with a vertical range of 9.7 m. This anisotropy is
characterized by a major range of 3.84 km and a minor
range of 3.14 km, as determined from variogram analysis.
3 139
Facies modeling
The first step in modeling the HRS field facies was to
create facies logs. Reservoir A, the main reservoir of the
HRS field, consists of sandstone lithology where locally the
pore space is filled with evaporitic cement. There are two
explanations for this facies formation:
the existence in the HRS field of major faults characterized by large throw, which caused a salty formation (S4),
initially in the shallower sequences, to be at the same
level as the main sandy reservoir (A)
the existence of evaporitic cement, which was reprecipitated from the overlying units into some of the uppermost A sand.
Thirteen different faciesshale, silt, paleosol, rippled
sands (SR), planar sands (SP), trough stratification (ST),
massive sands (SM), lag, evaporite, evaporitic shale,
andesites, volcanic-sedimentation, and saltwithin the
HRS field have been identified from core descriptions of
35 wells. The majority of the defined facies are common to
A and SI reservoir sequences, but a few, such as the
andesites and volcanic sedimentations, characterize only
the upper part of reservoir SI.
The facies modeling process using the SIS algorithm confirmed the lithologic lateral change and the evolution of the
sand to shale and silt toward the northern part of the HRS
field.
source of the deposits is mostly located in the southeast part of the HRS field.
From this source, a few channels developed in a NW-SE direction, guided by
major normal faults with the same direction, and diverging toward the northwest
part of the field.
These results indicated the existence of a fluvial infilling of a paleovalley, very
likely guided by these major faults, with high zones on both sides. This was most
Anticline axis
Fault
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
Figure 3.157: Facies model showing a NW-SE thickening axis, which lines up with the anticline
structure axis and shows a thinning toward its flanks.
The facies distribution within the generated model showed

a NW-SE thickening axis, which lines up with the anticline
structure axis and thins out toward its flanks (Fig. 3.157). The
thickening seems to be guided by the NW-SE major fault
trends. Based on the original facies proportions in the data
analysis, the sandy ST facies is the most well-represented
in the HRS field through the 19 layers of reservoir A, which
represent its subdivisions from top to bottom (Fig. 3.158).
By filtering the generated facies model to show only the 3D
cells of the ST facies, the major part of this facies was
determined to be distributed along a NW-SE axis between
the major fault trends (Fig. 3.158).
Because reservoir A deposits are fluvial, the ST sandy
facies, which is characterized by a medium-sized grain and
shows sedimentary stratifications with troughs, indicates a
high-energy deposition. This high energy mostly characterizes the channel deposits. The ST facies distribution shows
the source of the sediments, the flow direction, and the
width (amplitude) of an eventual meandriform channel system. As noted in other Sonatrach research studies,1 the
3 140
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
Figure 3.158: Filtered model showing only ST (trough stratification) facies 3D cells.
percolating from shallower sequences through pores and

faults and guided by the rock dip (Fig. 3.159).
Fault 6
Petrophysical modeling
Fault 19
The effective porosity, shale volume, and water saturation evaluations used for modeling were estimated with
ELANPlus software. The modeling work generated multiple realizations using SGS. The random nature of the stochastic approach means that all the realizations are
equiprobable. The previously built 3D facies model was
used as a guide for populating the petrophysical properties away from the wells by using the Petrel Conditioning
to Facies option.
Evaporites
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
Flow
Well
dire
Effective porosity modeling
ctio
Figure 3.159: Facies model showing the fault effects on evaporite (vertical) distribution.
probably followed by a structural inversion, which explains the coincidence of

the NW-SE thickening axis of fluvial deposits (ST facies) with the field anticline axis.
The model also shows the 3D distribution of the evaporite facies:
Laterally, the evaporite facies distribution in reservoir A is most likely controlled
by faults because this facies is distributed around faults and sometimes shows
repartitioning on only one side of the fault.
Vertically, the formation dip likely has an effect on this facies distribution
because this facies is sometimes found just on the fault footwall, following the
formation dip, and then seems to be controlled by the direction of water flow
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
To generate a good-quality, effective porosity model, its

values must be repartitioned according to the lithology
distribution. In this study, 10 realizations were generated
to model the effective porosity without conditioning to
the facies, but none reflected the facies distribution. The
porosity model conditioned to the facies showed better
correlation. To more clearly see this correlation, the
facies model was filtered to show only the 3D cells representing tight facies features such as shale, silt, paleosol, evaporite, and evaporitic shale and then was analyzed to see the effect of applying this filter on the effective porosity model conditioned to the facies. Good correlation became obvious between the sand facies 3D
cells and the high-porosity values (Fig. 3.160).
Effective
porosity
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
-0
Figure 3.160: Correlation between facies distribution 3D cells and their corresponding effective porosity. The good facies (SP and ST) correlate with high porosity values.
3 141
Trough stratifications: medium-grainedsandstone vs high-permeability values
Trough stratifications: medium-grainedsandstone vs high-permeability values
Shale vs lowpermeability values
Shale vs lowpermeability values
Disc.
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
Permeability
1,000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
Figure 3.161: N-S cross section illustrating agreement between the facies lateral change (within the generated facies model) and the change in permeability values (within the generated permeability model).
Permeability modeling
Reliable permeability data are rarely available to the
extent that porosity data are, and there is often a relationship between the two. As direct permeability measurements for the HRS field (core data) could not be used
due, most likely, to facies complexity and core washing
problems, permeability logs were estimated from porosity logs using a linear function to correlate both.
For permeability modeling, 10 realizations were generated
using the SGS algorithm. Because a relationship
between facies and permeability is rarely evident, permeability was modeled without using the Conditioning
to facies option. Among the generated realizations, only
the one most closely in accordance with the field specificitiessuch as deterioration of the quality of reservoir
A due to the presence of evaporites in the rock pore
spacewas retained.
3 142
In fact, the retained permeability model effectively illustrated the lateral

facies change associated with a logical and correlative change in the permeability 3D cell values (Fig. 3.161).
Volume of shale modeling

The VCL logs showed good correlation with the gamma ray logs and inversely
correlated with the estimated porosity logs. To model the volume of shale, 10
realizations were performed using the SGS algorithm. The retained model
showed the closest shale distribution to the obtained facies model.
Again, the filtering technique was used to check the degree of correlation
between the generated shale volume and the facies model. The applied filter
was set to retain only the 3D cells defining the shaly facies such as shale, silt,
paleosol, and evaporitic shale, and to see the corresponding 3D cells in the
shale volume model. As a result, the high VCL values correlated well with the
shaly facies distribution (Fig. 3.162).
Water saturation modeling

From 20 realizations obtained using the SGS algorithm, one was retained taking into account the good correlation between water saturation and the VCL
results, as well as the repartition of shaly facies such as shale, silt, paleosol,
and argillaceous evaporites.
and included the D2, S4, Arg-Inf, A, and SI zones. Using

the established structural framework, five property models of facies, porosity, permeability, volume of shale, and
water saturation were built using stochastic methods.
The filtered facies model showing only tight facies also correlated well with
the water saturation model. In fact, 3D cells with high water saturation values corresponded to the 3D cells mostly represented by the shaly facies.
Although it was difficult to assess the reliability of the

static model before validating it through production history matching, the reservoir characterization outputs
should prove reliable because these models show good
correlation among each other. Although different input
data were used, the models agreed with the results of
previous studies conducted by Sonatrach geoscientists.
Conclusions
Reservoir characterization is considered a critical component of reservoir
development because it provides a description of the essential features of
geological and petrophysical parameters affecting fluid flow in the producing
formations. Creating a reliable static model of the Algerian Hassi Rmel South
field provided Sonatrach with a better understanding of interwell propertiesa significant achievement, given the medium density of control points
(35 wells) compared to the size of the area of interest and the limitations of
the data used to map rock properties and fluid distribution within the Triassic
reservoirs of the HRS field.
The HRS field structural model was built from the top of the D2 formation to
the Hercynian discontinuity using 2D seismic interpretations and well data,
The study also identified other small faults in the HRS

structure that could explain the fluid contact variations
within the same fault block. It also revealed the effect of
the NW-SE trending major faults on the distribution of
evaporites. These faults also act as a guide for channel
stacking within a paleovalley of the same direction. This
was most likely followed by a structural inversion, which
could explain the present field anticline structure.
Reservoir A, delimited by these channels, was shown to
offer the best porosity and permeability quality, which
makes it a suitable target for drilling future wells.
Vshale
100
80
Shale
Silt
SP
ST
Lag
SM
SR
Paleosol
Evaporite
Shale-Evaporite
60
40
20
0m
Figure 3.162: Shale volume 3D model (right) compared with the facies model (left).
3 143

New processes and measurements, appropriate access to
data, and the ability to make timely decisions are benefiting the oil and gas industry as it works to boost supply
while containing costs and improving safety and environmental activities. The industry is now reaping the benefits
of IT technologies that efficiently integrate and manage
data and facilitate communication among the asset team.1
Expert
Real time enablers

The term Real Time refers to the time frame in which
engineers and geologists can work with data, make a
decision, and take action. The decision may be to finetune a well trajectory, change mud weight while drilling,
revise the logging program, adjust production choke
valves, detect downhole equipment or artificial lift pump
malfunctions, shut off water injection, or perform any
number of routine or exceptional actions in the quest for
hydrocarbons.
Field
engineer
InterACT hub
Decision
maker
Figure 3.163: The virtual team with real time tools.
Real time chain

Real-time technologies involve data transmission, a data
server, decision-making tools, and processes.
Data transmission: A variety of measurements from the
field can be sent to a remote location through real-time
surface acquisition, wellsite collection, and transmission via wide-area network (WAN). Data are streamed
during acquisition, which requires software that is
capable of transferring data securely, reliably, and confidentially throughout the process, not just at the end
of the job.
Data collection: A central server has the critical role of
receiving and dispatching data to the end user. Welldefined procedures and qualified personnel are necessary to ensure that the server is always available and
completely secure.
Real-time decision-making: The decision process must
be included in a global chain that selects contextual
data, extracts information from the data flow, and facilitates collaboration among operators, experts, and
decision-makers. The process enables a virtual team to
come up with the best solutions to challenges encountered at the wellsite.
3 144
Extracting information
Acquired data do not have much value unless meaningful information can be
extracted from them, which requires careful input from the virtual team to
discriminate and focus on the data that are actually useful. For instance, if
downhole temperature is not required to interpret a transient pressure test,
then data can be discarded through a sort-and-filter process.
put the data in context. For proper interpretation, real-time data must be
combined with companion data. For example, net pay data are required to
calculate permeability from a particular zone. Appropriate data management
can provide the information in time to make the difference for real-time
interpretation.
use the data in a model by carrying out sophisticated calculations, making
predictions, and evaluating complex variables. Using a mechanical earth
model (MEM) and an operational wellbore model with the real-time acquisition of mud weight to accurately evaluate the operating window is a good
example.
update the model. The acquired data can be used to correct the model
according to the latest knowledge, such as when MWD results are used to
update the MEM.
know the KPIs. Out of all the possible calculations, only a few are critical to
optimizing operations. The real-time system concentrates on selected KPIs.
Some companies are building onshore facilities dedicated to remote real-time

management of offshore drilling operations. In the North Sea, shore-based
management of offshore operations is common.
Real-time technologies are useful only as long as their drawbacks are understood. Parameters must be set to avoid overwhelming the user with useless
data and alarms. When all is going well, real-time support provides just the
right information in just the right quantity to help the team do their work.
Domains of real time

Real-time technologies are powerful enablers in all aspects of E&P operationsfor sporadic well construction and well intervention as well as for permanent monitoring. Where appropriate workflows are in place, Cambridge
Energy Research Associates (CERA) has reported a reduction from 5% to 15%
of nonproductive time and a 10% to 20% increase in initial production rates.
Maximizing the outcome of well construction and intervention

While constructing, working over, and evaluating a well, real-time technology
is a valuable tool for gathering a high level of expertise and sharing that
expertise among jobs while lowering logistical costs and reducing HSE exposure, particularly in remote locations. Under the scrutiny of an appropriate
data management process, the data and its context are integrated, then made
Well intervention
InterACT
hub
available to all users. Finally, the administration procedures of the central server ensure the integrity of the
data and its confidentiality. Applications of real-time
technology include
real-time drilling. Data acquired from the rig are transmitted to an Operations Support Center (OSC) where all the
data are put into MEM context. The model is updated
according to the information obtained from directional
drilling, LWD, and surface data. With this remote support, the team can maximize wellbore contact, reduce
NPT, and efficiently manage risks.
wireline acquisition. By following a job in real time, the
operator can modify the logging program to increase
data quality.
well testing. Optimizing the duration of a well test is
another benefit of real-time support. Accurate well-test
interpretation and confirmation of data quality are
important to ascertain whether the test reached the
initial objectives.
stimulation. By validating hydraulic fracture behavior
during a treatment, drilling specialists can make adjustments during the job that improve stimulation and prevent unwanted fracture growth.
Permanent monitoring
Internet
Asset monitoring
Reservoir monitoring
Firewall
Production
monitoring
Completion
operations
Drilling
operations
Wireline
logging
Optimization
Follow-up operations
Monitor
Monitor and integrate
Drilling
Wireline
Well testing
Stimulation
Pumps
Well delivery
Production
Global reservoir behavior
Reporting
Figure 3.164: Domains of real-time technologies.
3 145
Improving production output

with permanent monitoring
Data
acquisition
Drilling
operations
Data processing
visualization
te
dia
me on
Im acti
Operational
wellbore model
Fast loop update

Decision
(hours)
process
Sl
o
(da w lo
ys op
, m up
on da
th te
s)
A poll conducted by CERA was taken to quantify the savings or gains expected when using real-time technology in
a variety of well and reservoir scenarios. Respondents felt
that real-time asset management could improve ultimate
recovery by 1% to 7%, accelerate production by as much
as 6%, reduce downtime by 1% to 4%, and lower drilling
costs by 5% to 15%. These savings were realized by
mitigating production loss. When a loss of production
occurs, mitigation aims at reducing that loss by taking
the best action in the shortest time, and this process
requires the asset team to
detect the loss. The real-time system can detect
when a well is not producing at maximum capacity or
detect that a bottleneck exists at the surface. For
example, the analysis of pressure changes over time
from a permanent downhole pressure gauge can calculate the evolution of skin.
determine the best remediation strategy. Analytical
tools must work from accurate production history
data.
run the operations as efficiently as possible to return
the well to its initial or better status.
preventing production loss. Integrating the data into
predictive models can help detect an issue before it
turns into a production loss. Production loss can be prevented by detecting gradual changes, such as an
increase in skin, a high drawdown with risk of sand
production, and premature water breakthrough, or
maintaining a pump at its optimal interval.
optimizing production. With the use of a predictive
model, the asset team can perform dynamic simulations to update the model and choose the best options
within a global economic context. This can include optimization of pump production, gas lift optimization
throughout a field, or evaluating production options
from a dynamic simulation model.
increasing recovery. Real-time technology can be used
to steer wells into highly productive pay intervals and
thus enhance recovery. Workflows that facilitate the
early diagnosis of equipment problems or predict
unwanted fluid inflow allow the asset team to make
timely adjustments that may prolong profitable production. Real-time production monitoring and optimization
can extend field life by changing the economic limits
for field abandonment.
Mechanical
earth model
Figure 3.165: Real-time drilling workflow.
The InterACT server and Schlumberger Information Services tools cover the
complete range from acquisition to Operations Support Centers and many
applications, including monitoring and optimizing drilling and LWD operations,
wireline logging, testing and sampling operations, cementing services, coiled
tubing services, stimulation treatments, and production operations. It provides
a modular solution that can be applied to portions of the data chain or to the
entire dataflow.
Figure 3.166: Production monitoring with ProductionWatcher software.
3 146
Constantly invaded by the sand of the neighboring Ouan Kassa and Tin Merzouga ergs, the Tadrart sandstones present a sumptuous marriage of shapes and colors.
3 147
The sections in this chapter were completed by the following authors and contributors
Sonatrach: M. Malik AIT MESSAOUD, Athmane RAHMANI, Sissani AGOUNIZERA, Mohamed BOUBEKEUR
Schlumberger: Andreas LAAKE, Robert GODFREY, Graham MILNE
Gaz de France: Etienne LOUBENS, Frank VAN KLEEF
Sonatrach: Zahia DJEBBAR
Schlumberger: Muhammad IDREES
Gaz de France: Etienne LOUBENS, Frank VAN KLEEI
Acknowledgments
Michel VERLIAC
Borehole Imaging
Sonatrach: Noureddine BOUNOUA, Hocine KHEMISSA, Ahmed CHEBBI, Abdenour MERABET, Mourad STASAID
Schlumberger: Arnaud ETCHECOPAR, Philippe MARZA, Philippe MONTAGGIONI
Acknowledgments
Salah MEKMOUCHE, Sabrina DIDDAOUI, Said WASSILA, Mohamed BOULAHIA, Rachid BEDJAOUI, Mamar DJARIR, Hacene ATOUI, Said BACI, Mokrane
BENBELLIL, Hocine IZOUAOUEN, Hussein ABDALLAH, Nacer MOKHTARI, Mohand Sala MALLA (Sonatrach)
Mahfoud AMAMRA, Abdelkader BELBASHIR (Groupement TFT); Chris CARR, Samir BENMAHIDI (Organisation Ourhoud); Roger HAIRR (Groupement Berkine);
Teresa BATRINA (CEPSA); Cara TIPTON (Organisation OurhoudBADLEY ASHTON); Michel ENJOLRAS (TOTAL)
Bill NEWBERRY, Steve KIMMINAU, Mourad KOURTA, Paolo DAMIANI, Taofeek OGUNYEMI, Hakima ALIOUCHE, Ted BORNEMANN, Peter JEFFREYS, Nouri
BASHIR, Samia MEDJDOUB (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Noureddine BOUNOUA; Samia GUESSOUM; Lynda HACHEMI; Mounira DJEBRI
Schlumberger: Mohamed TCHAMBAZ, Nick HEATON, Steve KIMMINAU, Andrey TIMONIN, Sherif REFAAT, Francois DUBOST, Smaine ZEROUG, Asma TAHI
Acknowledgments
Tarek HABASHY, Henri-Pierre VALERO, Tom PLONA, Lisa STEWART, Fikri KUCHUK, David JOHNSON, Bikash SINHA, Eloy DIAZ, Arnaud ETCHECOPAR, Mourad
KOURTA (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Kheir-Eddine BEDJAOUI, Amina BENBATTA, Salim BACHIRI, Fethi ELAROUCI
Schlumberger: Abdelkader DELHOMME, Elie TAKLA, Guillaume COFFIN
Acknowledgments
Ahmed DAHROUG, Sherif REFAAT (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Zohra NENNOUCHE, Fadila BENRABAH
Schlumberger: Faycal BEN AMOR, Philippe SIMON
Acknowledgments
Djaouid BENCHERIF (Sonatrach), Samia MEDJDOUB (Schlumberger)
Schlumberger: Guillaume COFFIN
Individuals
3 148
who either reviewed the documents, contributed with processing results, or provided tangible support for data release and use.
References
References
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3e cycle, Universit France Compte, France (1988).
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3 151
Sfar (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Painting from the Bovidian period depicting an encampment with a hut in which there are a bed and utensils, various characters, and cattle, which during
this period were more precious than goods. Around 8,000 years ago, the Bovidians, with their mastery of cattle rearing, took over from the Round Heads and the Bubalins. (1.95 m wide).
4. Reservoir Development
Overview
Horizontal WellsExperience of the Hassi Messaoud Field
Geomechanics
15
Role and Principles
16
Rock Mechanics Laboratory Testing
24
Mechanical Earth Model
30
Well PlacementLWD for Geosteering Horizontal Wells
40
Well CementingAdvanced Technologies
50
Well ProductivityUnderbalanced Perforating Without Killing
60
Well ProductivityFormation Stability During Production
64
Well ProductivityHydraulic Fracturing and Stimulation
72
Geomechanics for Reservoir Management
86
Algeria WEC 2007 / Reservoir Development
Overview
ormations in Algeria are subject to strongly anisotropic horizontal stresses
due to the regional tectonics of North Africa. Furthermore, the structural
complexity of these formations causes a pronounced heterogeneity on a
reservoir scale. Because of this, the field of rock geomechanics, which plays a
central role in reservoir development in Algeria, is a ubiquitous theme in this
chapter. Horizontal wells, the most significant technical development of the
past decade in Algeria, is the second important theme of this chapter. The first
section, which is devoted to a discussion of horizontal wells, emphasizes the
necessity of more fully characterizing reservoir complexity before embarking
on its development. The second section provides a primer on geomechanics,
laboratory rock geomechanical measurements, and the construction of
mechanical earth models through which geomechanics is practiced and
applied in reservoir development. The last section covers key reservoir development applications as described through selected case studies. Specifically
addressed are geosteering and the role of logging-while-drilling technologies,
cementing and solutions based on CemCRETE technology, underbalanced perforating in horizontal wells, formation stability during production and the problems of sanding and fragment production, and the issues and solutions for
hydraulic fracturing in tight reservoirs. A brief account of the role of geomechanics in the life of a reservoir concludes this chapter.
The overview of the applications of horizontal well technology in the Hassi

Messaoud field summarizes the accomplishments and challenges faced (see
pages 4.6 to 4.13). Unquestionably, horizontal wells have contributed significantly to production improvement, especially from poor-quality reservoirs. But
early production-prolific periods tend to be followed by the emergence of serious problems in terms of production drop, erratic production behavior, and
operational difficulties when performing well interventions. Through a
description of the production history of example wells, the structural and
Overview
dynamical complexities of the Hassi Messaoud field are demonstrated

to be the origin of these problems. Recommendations for addressing
the issues range from the need for better reservoir characterization
especially from the geomechanical perspectiveand production diagnosis to more effective completion strategies.
The geomechanics sectiona primer on geomechanicsdiscusses
stress and strain in rocks and the unique aspects of porous materials
that characterize the mechanics of rocks (pages 4.16 to 4. 23). The section discusses the deformation of rock from elastic behavior through
failure, and the difficulties of defining failure are considered. The
complexities of the chemical deformation of rock are also considered.
The section briefly describes the origins of stress in the earth and the
state of stress created around a wellbore or perforation tunnel.
Geomechanics is a strongly empirical discipline, and this section outlines the main experimental configurations for testing rock by describing preparation and procedures. While rock samples can be used to
accurately define mechanical properties at single points in a wellbore,
sonic logs are often used to describe elastic behavior and, through correlations, parameters such as rock strength. Sonic log measurements
have the advantage of describing mechanical properties over long sections of the wellbore and thus provide a better evaluation of the range
and variability of mechanical properties. Recent advances in borehole
sonic logging, such as the Sonic Scanner tool and borehole imaging
logs, provide a valuable source of geomechanical knowledge (both
applications are described in Chapter 3). Borehole images of the wellbore wall allow calibration of mechanical properties and the state of
stress. When collected in real time, the geomechanics engineer can
also monitor any instability in the wellbore to help identify

the causes of deformation.
Geomechanical studies start with the construction of a
mechanical earth model (MEM). This section describes
what a MEM is and discusses the types of data used to
build one. The section focuses on the role of the model
during the drilling process while also emphasizing its use
in completion design and reservoir management. Using
the MEM built for the Hassi Messaoud field, the section
describes the value of the MEM within the geomechanical process by showing that not only is it a tool to help
predict wellbore instability for well planning, but also it
plays an equally important role during well construction in
interpreting rock deformation. The section describes how,
by correctly diagnosing the causes deformation, operations can be modified to remedy or manage instability.
The geosteering section in this chapter assesses the
experience gained from logging-while-drilling (LWD) in
several horizontal well placements in the oil rim of the
Hassi Rmel field (pages 4.40 to 4.49). As illustrated
through an analysis of several well logs, the use of LWD
borehole images can aid in optimizing well placement to
facilitate hydrocarbon fluid flow. While reasonable success has been achieved, the evaluation shows that complex geological structures in these wells can pose
serious challenges to the interpretation and thus hamper
decision-making. Two particular issues are identified.
The first relates to the critical ability to see azimuthally deep and ahead,
especially when encountering abrupt horizontal variations in the reservoir as
a result of crossing faults. The second relates to the necessity of making a
porosity measurement in real time to identify the most valuable section of
the reservoir and actively drill the well into it. The recommendations proposed to resolve these issues pertain to the applications of the recently introduced LWD PeriScope 15 and EcoScope tools. The EcoScope multifunction
LWD platform offers a key advantage with its safe pulsed neutron generator
that eliminates the need for a natural radioactive source. To navigate beyond
a fault, a simulated response of the PeriScope 15 tool along the trajectory of
a horizontal well, demonstrates its effectiveness in pinpointing in real time
the location of the borehole after crossing a fault.
Key cementing issues and how they have been successfully addressed through
the application of CemCRETE technologyspecifically, LiteCRETE, FlexSTONE,
and CemNET cementsare discussed in the next section (page 4.50).
The adoption of LiteCRETE cement led to the elimination of the costlier doublestage procedure to isolate the weak and fractured zones above producing
reservoirs that are prone to lost circulation. FlexSTONE cement has been used
to effectively cement the unstable and corrosive LD2 formation, and fiberbased CemNET technology is increasingly used to cement fractured intervals in
tight reservoirs with minimal damage to their production potential. Several
examples of cement evaluation logs from the Hassi Messaoud field and the
Stah field in the Illizi basin are described to demonstrate the effectiveness of
these solutions.
Minimizing formation damage and boosting horizontal well deliverability are
the subjects of the perforating section (page 4. 60). Underbalanced, oriented
perforating is described as a solution to transitioning from completion to pro-
Overview
duction in a horizontal well in the Rhourde El Echouil of the Berkine basin. The
procedure combines several technologies including the use of an
FIV Formation Isolation Valve combined with the PURE dynamic underbalanced perforating technique. Using the FIV tool keeps damaging completion
fluids away from the formation right after perforating, and the dynamic underbalanced technique cleans the perforations more efficiently than conventional
static underbalanced perforating methods. In the particular well treated with
this technique, the productivity index was boosted by a factor of four.
Problems with rock or sand production can be detrimental to well productivity.
The section on formation stability during production focuses on the methods
developed to diagnose these problems and the procedures used to mitigate
formation failure or reduce its impact (page 4. 64). Studying sanding problems
of the producing Strunian reservoirs of the Berkine area reveals that formation stability during production is not just a function of the strength of the
rockboth weak and strong rock can failbut also depends on the state of
stress created at the producing perforation tunnel and the presence of
already broken-out rock in the wellbore. A second case study reports on the
results of a survey on production problems conducted over the northeastern
quadrant of the Hassi Messaoud field (where wells are known not to suffer
from gas and water breakthrough). A strong link between drawdown pressure and decline in the productivity index is observed. Moreover, a large proportion of the production losses are linked to the collapse of the openhole
section of these wells.
Hydraulic fracturing is viewed as a key enabler to reaching economic well
deliverability in fields where formation damage or extremely low permeability originally made these reservoirs unattractive. The section on hydraulic
fracturing illustrates some of the challenges faced in the highly complicated,
tectonically stressed fields of Algeria (page 4.72). It

begins with the fundamental background of fracturing
and basic principles, and then describes the unique challenges faced in Algeria through several case studies.
These challenges include the ability to accurately characterize the reservoir in terms of stress profiling and
flow potential, to properly diagnose the problems associated with natural fractures and their impact on
hydraulic fracturing, and to develop a coherent workflow
that aids in optimizing treatment parameters to maximize well productivity.
The chapter concludes by highlighting the importance of
considering the geomechanical behavior of the reservoir
and its surrounding formations throughout their production lifetime (page 4. 86). Pore pressure and temperature
changes, due to production and fluids injection, tend to
modify the stresses acting on a reservoir as well as on
adjacent formations, its immediate underburden, and its
overburden to surface. The major implications of these
changes include wellbore instability problems for infill
wells, cap rock integrity and fault sealing, reservoir compaction, surface or mudline subsidence, casing damage
and well collapse, changes in reservoir performance and
well productivity, and interpretation of 4D seismic. These
phenomena, which impact both individual wells and overall field behavior, may require significant expenditure to
remediate and can even render fields inoperable.

In 2005, about 45% of Hassi Messaoud field output was
produced from nonconventional wells. Infill horizontal
wells produced 27%, while re-entered vertical wells produced 18% in order to recover incremental oil from poorquality reservoirs and boost overall production. Horizontal
well technology has proved to be the method of choice to
overcome reservoir areal heterogeneity and intercept natural fractures when present. Although it has significantly
improved production from poor areas, serious problems
and limitations have been encountered. Challenges have
included rapid production decline in most wells, difficulties in data acquisition, and inadequate completions for
remedial stimulations. Following is an overview of the
applications of horizontal drilling in the Hassi Messaoud
field and the performance achieved.
Field description and development

Discovered in 1956, the Hassi Messaoud reservoir is a
thick sandstone covering an area of about 2,000 km2 (see
corresponding detailed geological and reservoir descriptions in Chapters 1 and 2). It is a flattened anticline with
a sequence of horsts and grabens contained by faults oriented in a submeridian direction. The faults are generally
Oil-bearing formation
Cambrian sandstone
Production startup
1958
Current field production
310,000 BOPD
Total number of wells
+1,200
Average depth
3,200 m subsea
Initial reservoir pressure
450 kg/cm2
Bubblepoint
150 to 210 kg/cm2
Reservoir thickness
50 to 120 m
Reservoir porosity
6% to 12%
Reservoir matrix permeability
1 to 10 mD
Oil saturation
80%
Oil gravity
45 API
Solution GOR
100 to 200 m3/m3
Initial oil FVF
1.7 V/V
Initial oil viscosity
0.25 cP
Table 4.1: Average reservoir data for the Hassi Messaoud field.
oriented SSW to NNE and cross the entire Cambro-Ordovician reservoir. The
depositional environment is fluvial at the bottom to marine at the top. The
reservoir is characterized by centimeter-thick silt interbeds with meter to
kilometer lateral extension. The reservoir is naturally fractured because of tectonic activity. In some parts, the fractures are open, which improves well productivity. In other areas, fractures are plugged with materials such as shale, silica,
anhydrite, pyrite, and bitumen.
The reservoir is subdivided into four distinct formationsRi, Ra, R2, and R3
in addition to a zone of alternance, with Ra being the main reservoir and R2
the secondary reservoir. The producing Ra-Ri is subdivided into six intervals:
D5, D4, D3, D2, ID, and D1. Table 4.1 lists the characteristics of these reservoirs. Based on pressure communication and reservoir characterization, the
reservoir is subdivided into producing zones. Most zones are under miscible
gas injection. Five zones are under pressure maintenance with water injection
because reservoir pressure dropped below bubblepoint during the 1960s and
70s. Only three zones are in primary depletion. More than 600 of 1,200 wells
are producing. The remaining wells are either gas or water injectors, or are dry,
abandoned, or closed.
Production from wells is subject to numerous problems such as salt, scale,
and asphaltene deposition. Inhibitors are regularly used for barium sulfates
and asphaltenes. Salt scale is treated by desalination with water through
either direct injection or concentric tubings. About 50 wells are matrix
acidized annually to remedy damage that was caused by overbalanced
drilling. More than 300 wells have been hydraulically fractured to compensate
for low permeability or to bypass nearby wellbore damage. Because of the
availability of gas under high pressure, gas lift is extensively used for production activation throughout the field.
Main drivers for drilling horizontal wells

Prior to horizontal well applications, hundreds of conventional wells were
unsuccessful for field development because of the heterogeneity of the reservoir outside producing zones. Fig. 4.1 shows on average that 1 of 10 wells was
unproductive. Most unexploited wells were located outside zones that are
extremely heterogeneous and have low permeability. Conventional wells were
not the right choice, and going horizontal was expected to help overcome the
areal heterogeneity of the reservoir and intercept natural fractures. Figure 4.2
shows horizontal well positions relative to zones.
Another goal of drilling horizontal sections was to develop the secondary reservoir R2, which contains more than 30% of the original oil in place (OOIP). This
reservoir has better quality in the north of the field, while the Ra is almost swept
out by gas. The best layer of reservoir R2 is R2ab, which is 30 m thick and has
little contribution when perforated to commingled production with Ra. Reservoir
R2 participated by vertical influx into the Ra as the latter was depleted.
100
80
60
Success rate, %
40
20
0
1955
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
Year
Figure 4.1: Vertical well success prior to horizontal well applications.
Reservoir characterization studies demonstrated that most of the permeability

barriers and conductive channels (maximum permeability) are oriented in a
NNE-SSW direction parallel to the general trend of the reservoir faulting.
Moreover, breakout analysis showed that the maximum stress has a NNW-SSE
orientation, except for wells near faults; hence, the drilling azimuth for most
horizontal sections was chosen parallel to NNW-SSE.
Expected rates from both horizontal and re-entry well configurations were
subject to cutbacks over time. Targeted oil rates for horizontal wells dropped
from 9 m3/h for initial wells to 7 m3/h for the previous two years. Likewise,
predicted rates for reentry wells were adjusted from 7 m3/h for the first conversions to 6 m3/h for the past three years. The change was dictated by weak
results and rapid production decline over time.
Initial applications
Infill horizontals project
The first horizontal wellWell Hz-1was drilled in the Hassi Messaoud
field in 1993. It was the second horizontal drilled in Algeria; the first was
Well Hrz-1 in the Hassi Rmel gas field. The well was planned to exploit the R2
150,000
OMJ
OMK
ONI
OML
145,000
9
140,000
4
OMN
1C
OMN
OMO
7
135,000
OMP
10
11
3
1A
130,000
13
1B
20X
20A
120,000
15
14
20B
16
23
18
17
24
25
115,000
110,000
790,000
800,000
810,000
820,000
Following success in Well Hz-1, a development program

was launched in 1997 to continue developing the field
with horizontal and slant horizontal wells. By the end of
2005, more than 130 wells had been drilled and completed.
The objective was to produce the reserves trapped in
low-permeability areas and behind flow barriers, especially at the limits of the field and between the productive zones. Another purpose of drilling new horizontal
wells was to develop the R2 reservoir.
Most of the wells have been drilled slanted because the
productive zone is thick and multilayered, and the vertical
communication is uncertain due to the presence of discontinuous siltstone layers. The majority of wells were intentionally produced either in openhole or slotted liners for
maximum productivity at a lower cost. A dozen wells were
drilled using the underbalanced technique to increase the
rate of penetration (ROP) and mitigate reservoir damage.
12
MD
125,000
ONM
reservoir in zone 13. As a pilot project, a 6-in. pilot hole

was cored and logged. After evaluation, a decision was
made to plug the vertical hole and go on with the horizontal section. A top-drive drilling system and tubingconveyed logging were used for the first time. The reservoir section was drilled with 838-in. diameter to a total
depth of 4,063 m after the third sidetrack attempt. A total
of 37 drilling bits were required due to the presence of
abrasive Cambrian debris (quartz and silicium). Because of
the dogleg severity, 7-in. casing was set and cemented at
3,617 m. The remaining hole was covered with 4-in. casing
at 3,847 m. The horizontal section from 3,847 to 4,063 m
was left as openhole. The Ra reservoir was also produced,
and it was perforated from 3,432 to 3,445 m and 3,450 to
3,492 m. A dual completion was run to produce both
reservoirs separately via two 278-in. tubings and two
production lines. The vertical D1 layer produced from 3 to
7 m3/h with, at one point in the life of this well, a gas/oil
ratio of 5,000 m3/m3, then was shut in for a high gas/oil
ratio. The horizontal section has been producing around
7 m3/h with a solution gas/oil ratio.
830,000
840,000
Because of the reservoir complexity, heterogeneity, and

lack of reliable seismic data, hundreds of meters of
igneous rock have been encountered causing, in a few
cases, abandonment of holes. Coring programs, which
provided valuable information in the vertical wells,
became perceived as unpractical and not cost-effective
in horizontal wells. In fact, only 18 m were cored in one
of the horizontal wells. Instead, a combination of logs,
including borehole imaging and NMR tools, was run to
Figure 4.2: Horizontal well locations in the Hassi Messaoud field.
better characterize the reservoir and help in the completion design. Log interpretations revealed the presence of
open fractures in several wells. Once cleaned from mud
and solid particles, open fractures proved to be very
effective, especially in low-permeability wells.
140
12
100
More than 150 wells have been re-entered to date. A

new reinforced bit design was developed, causing bit
consumption to fall by half and significantly reducing
operation time. To initiate the trajectory, the cement plug
option proved to be successful and much less expensive.
The whipstock tool was used only inside casing where a
greater buildup starting angle was needed. Tricone bits
were usually used to drill the buildup section, and polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits were chosen in
most conditions to improve ROP when drilling the horizontal section. A total of 15 wells have been re-entered
with dual laterals producing into one 412-in. tubing with
simple downhole junctions. However, problems with the
downhole equipment caused temporary abandonment of
the technique.
10
60
4
Well count
40
2
0
20
Dec-92
Dec-94
Dec-96
Dec-98
Dec-00
Dec-02
Dec-04
Date
Short-radius count
Horizontal well count
Qo-Short radius
Qo-Horizontal wells
Figure 4.3: Average oil production of horizontal wells and short-radius re-entry wells.
350
300
250
Monthly production, 103 m3
200
150
100
50
0
Jan-60
Jan-70
Jan-80
Jan-90
Jan-00
Date
Production after re-entry
Production before re-entry
Figure 4.4: Production improvement related to re-entry wells.
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.5: Horizontal pressure transient test data exhibiting intermediate linear flow.
Average oil rate, m3/h
80
Pressure and pressure derivative, kg/cm2
A field revitalization strategy was then adopted to reenter most of the dry and poor-reservoir-quality wells.
Traditional techniques such as acidizing, hydraulic fracturing, and sidetracking had already been tried with little
success. It was believed that drilling a 500-m horizontal
or a slightly slanted section using short-radius equipment
would get away from the existing wellbore and hit better-quality reservoir areas, and this idea was based on
the fact that re-entry drilling has proved to be the best
economic solution where an identifiable reason for a
new wellpath exists. Also, one advantage is that the
borehole trajectory is near the original wellbore where
more is known about the reservoir from cores, logs, test
measurements, and production history. Geostatistics
software was used to characterize the reservoir around
the target area and was applied to choose the right layer,
depth, and azimuth of the candidate trajectory.
14
120
Reentry project
The first re-entry operation started in 1995 in one of the
wells (Well Re-1) in zone 14, which had been a poor vertical producer. A cement plug was set in the old 6-in. vertical hole, and a 241-m horizontal section was drilled
with a diameter of 578 in. and a 30-m buildup radius. The
trajectory went well below target, then was corrected at
the end, resulting in an S-shaped lateral with only 193 m
of lateral extension. A total of 56 drilling bits were used
for the reservoir section. Several bit types and configurations were tried during this first job.
16
A new project using underbalanced technology was

launched in 2005 to help accelerate ROP and prevent
reservoir damage in some wells.
10
Production performance
1
Horizontal wells
0.1
0.01
1E-3
0.01
0.1
10
100
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.6: Well Hz-5, horizontal pressure transient test data exhibiting dual-porosity behavior with
a high-conductive natural fracture.
During 2005, the overall contribution of horizontal wells

drilled was about 27% of the 49,000 m3 daily production
(310,000 BOPD) of the field. Six wells are shut in because
of very high gas/oil ratio or water-cut ratios. Figure 4.3
shows the average production of horizontal wells. The
first five wells were a great success. As the number of
wells drilled per year increased and more complex areas
were targeted, the average oil rate stabilized at around
7 m3/h, largely because of the sharp decline of many
wells over time.
Re-entered wells
Re-entries contributed up to 18% during 2005. Up to a
third of the output of these wells was produced from
wells that had never before produced. Figure 4.4 shows
how the production of wells was boosted using the reentry technique. Figure 4.3 shows the average production
of re-entry wells. The first wells were good candidates.
As more risk was taken, the average production per well
decreased over time and is currently about 4 m3/h.
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Productivity analysis
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.7: Well Hz-6, horizontal pressure transient test data exhibiting intermediate bilinear flow.
Horizontal wells
Because the oil rate of a well depends on the formation

characteristics and on the amount of pressure drawdown
exerted, the productivity of wells is more accurately represented by the productivity index (PI) factor. The
imposed pressure drawdown results from operating conditions such as wellhead pressure and tubing size.
10
Productivity enhancement
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.8: Well Hz-7, horizontal pressure transient test data exhibiting a pressure transient decline.
The productivity of a horizontal well strongly depends on

the effective well length and the vertical permeability.
Figures 4.5 through 4.8 show different pressure transient
responses encountered to date. It is believed that the origin of bilinear flow in some wells could be a vertical
influx from top or bottom layers into the targeted layer
and then perpendicularly into the well. Yet, this flow
regime has not been investigated in detail, as some
wells exhibited linear, then bilinear flow, while others
showed bilinear, then linear flow regimes. Analysis of 23
wells (Fig. 4.9) demonstrated the superiority of wells that

exhibited a dual-porosity behavior because of the highconductive channels and fractures intersected by these
wells. Wells with intermediate linear flow behavior
came in second; and those with bilinear flow signatures
showed relatively low productivity indices, which could
be explained by the additional pressure losses caused by
the flowpath.
Damage effects
Prior to drilling the lateral sections, these wells were usually neutralized using
brine- and oil-based muds. These fluids can cause severe damage such as
emulsions, water block, and wettability changes to the near-wellbore matrix.
In a naturally fractured reservoir, mud damage can impact well productivity in
different ways; rock matrix damage related to mud-filtrate invasion can be
minimized by appropriate mud design at near-balanced conditions, and the
internal/external mud filtercakes may necessitate a significant pressure drop
to initiate production. Failure to minimize formation damage in the existing
fracture network may result in high and irreversible losses in productivity.
0.6
Figure 4.11 shows skin values for some wells with good pressure transient data.
Except for a few damaged wells, the total skin effect was negative, in general,
because of the geometric effect of the well. Reservoir skin, which is derived
from the first radial flow regime, is traditionally negative, a characteristic of
openhole tests in the field related to natural fractures and heterogeneity. Some
wells were found damaged despite negative total skin values.
0.5
0.4
Productivity index, m3/h/kg/cm2
0.3
The underbalanced drilling technique was used in 20 wells. The results were very
promising, and productivities were much higher than those of conventional
drilling. The average PI and oil rate ratios of underbalanced versus conventionally drilled wells was 50% and 15% greater, respectively.
0.2
0.1
Heterogeneity and vertical communication
0.0
Wells
Bilinear
Linear
Dual-porosity
Figure 4.9: Measured productivity index (PI) for 23 wells classified in terms
Because of the presence of siltstone interbeds within the sandstone, vertical

communication across the reservoir section was quite poor. This was confirmed by the interpretation of horizontal well tests and partial-penetration
behavior cases in vertical wellbores. The vertical-to-horizontal permeability
ratio, kv/kh, was about 3% with a wide range of variation throughout the reservoir. A major concern in horizontal well tests is the correct vertical net pay and
the effective contributing length in the presence of lateral heterogeneity and
of inferred flow regime. Wells exhibiting a dual-porosity behavior, related

to high-conductive channels and fractures intersected, have a higher PI.
5
10
1
Plh / Plv
Because of the variation of reservoir characteristics

throughout the field, it is difficult to compare horizontal
and vertical well performances. Horizontal wells were
drilled in mainly low-permeability, laterally heterogeneous areas, whereas vertical wells were drilled within
productive zones. Attempting to make a fair comparison,
the vertical wells are assumed to be in the same locations
as the horizontal wells and have the same inferred reservoir data. Figure 4.10 shows the resulting hypothetical
productivity index factor (PIF) [PI of horizontal divided by
PI of hypothetical vertical wells, PIh /PIv]. Three groups of
wells can be identified: superior wells with a PIF greater
than 2, moderate wells with a PIF between 1 and 2,
and underperforming wells with a PIF less than 1.
Mapping this information throughout the field would be
beneficial to performance benchmarking and future
implementations.
Wells
Highly performing wells
Moderately performing wells
Poorly performing wells
Figure 4.10: Calculated productivity enhancement factors assuming that hypothetical vertical wells are
located where the horizontal wells are and using the same reservoir data inferred from the horizontal wells.
30
25
20
15
10
5
Skin factor
0
-5
-10
Wells
Total skin
Reservoir skin
Figure 4.11: Skin values for some wells with good pressure transient data. Except for a few damaged
Some buildup pressure derivative responses exhibited

rapid pressure dropoff, then rebounded to previous
values (as shown in Fig. 4.8 for a different well). This
behavior was not observed on drillstem test log-log plots
in similar wells. Hence, phase redistribution seemed
implausible. Therefore, it was assumed that this phenomenon indicated that reservoir Ra was being fed from
reservoir R2 via the wellbore and that both reservoirs
were hydraulically isolated by thick, continuous silt beds.
It is known from vertical wells that direct production from
reservoir R2 is negligible. Simulation studies have shown
that reservoir R2 is contributing through vertical influx
into reservoir Ra. Horizontal wells drilled in the R2 gave
acceptable results. On the basis of these observations, it
was recommended that future trajectory designs of
slanted wells take into account the permeability contrast
between the two reservoirs and place the two well segments correspondingly. Another alternative would be to
consider drilling dual lateral wells and produce both
reservoirs separately.
wells, the total skin effect was negative, in general, because of the geometric effect of the well.
layering of the reservoir. Log-derived reservoir height and net length are usually
assumed productive in order to solve for permeabilities. Because of operational
problems in openhole wells, fewer production logging tests were performed in
both re-entries and horizontal wells. Interpretation of two production logging
tests in two particular wells (Well Hz-2 and Well Hz-3) revealed a major contribution from the curved section in both wells. This fact was also observed in
some re-entry production logging test cases. The noncontribution of the horizontal section is indicative of very low vertical permeability, which can be
attributed to the continuity of siltstone layers even within targeted reservoir
layers. The question remained, then, about where to drill slanted and strictly
horizontal wells depending on the vertical-to-horizontal permeability ratio.
Areal anisotropy was another problem to consider

regarding the azimuth of a candidate well. Because of
the low permeability of the reservoir and the large well
spacing, interference tests were not conducted properly
in the field during the appraisal/development stage.
Natural fractures and depositional direction with siltstone interbeds are the main causes of areal anisotropy.
16
14
12
It was concluded that production logging test results were inconclusive and
that more measurements had to be obtained to better determine and locate
contributing sections and to help design subsequent remedial stimulations.
8
6
Average oil rate, m3/h
Another problem was the commingled production from reservoirs Ra and R2.
The problem was compounded by the extremely high permeability contrast
between the two reservoirs. Figure 4.12 shows a comparison of average production between 21 horizontal wells and 40 slanted wells. Statistically, true
horizontal wells targeting one single drain outperformed those slanted systems
intercepting many layers, some of which had significant permeability contrast.
In terms of productivity, true horizontals offered 40% more than slanted wells.
For instance, Well Hz-4 has a potential of 0.041 m3/h/(kg/cm2), as much as a
slanted well intersecting both reservoirs Ra (145 m long in 13 m net pay) and
R2 (884 m long in 34-m net pay). According to the well test model, only reservoir Ra in Well Hz-4 is contributing to production, although 76% of the slanted
section is in reservoir R2.
10
4
2
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Wells
Slanted wells
Horizontal wells
Figure 4.12: A comparison of average production between 21 horizontal
wells and 40 slanted wells.
11
Various pressure transient signatures and behaviors

were encountered in both horizontal and re-entry wells.
Figure 4.13 shows a log-log plot exhibiting a bilinear
flow period (14 slope) followed by a linear flow period
(12 slope) on the pressure derivative. The well PI is about
0.032 m3/h/(kg/cm2). Figure 4.14 shows another example
of a damaged, re-entered well producing about 10 m3/h
with a PI of 0.093 m3/h/(kg/cm2), a total skin of 2.72, a
geometrical skin of 4.4, and a reservoir skin of 7.11. This
well was clearly damaged during drilling and/or completion. Hence, the use of underbalanced drilling techniques
was believed to be vital to mitigating damage.
Like horizontal wells, most re-entered wells gave good
productivity results at the beginning, but production
declined quickly over time.
Notable field cases

Well Hz-5
Horizontal Well Hz-5 was drilled in the north part of
zone 19. Only 250 m had been drilled before the well
azimuth was lost and drilling ceased. This well became
an excellent producer owing to the natural fractures intercepted. Figure 4.6, a 200-hr log-log plot of pressure transient buildup, clearly demonstrates the existence of a
high-permeability interval. The test was interpreted using
a dual-porosity vertical well model with two parallel
faults. The system permeability is about 80 mD.
Well Hz-6
Drilled at the southeastern edge of zone 2, Well Hz-6
was a poor horizontal producer. Figure 4.7 shows the pressure transient behavior during a 300-hr buildup period.
The log-log plot shows a very low permeability of 14 mD-m
[k ~ 1.4 mD] and a vertical-to-horizontal permeability
ratio of 3% with a very small contributing length of 92 m
out of 615 m total drilled length. The pressure derivative
shows an intermediate bilinear flow.
12
Re-entered wells
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.13: Well Re-2, a log-log pressure transient response of a damaged, re-entered well.
A study based on simultaneous interpretation of two

pressure transient tests from two horizontal wells with
different azimuths showed that areal anisotropy is quite
strong in zone 20a. The study found that the maximum
permeability is 20 times greater than the minimum permeability, with the orientation of the maximum permeability being almost NE-SW.
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
Elapsed time, hr
Figure 4.14: Well Re-3, a re-entry well pressure transient response exhibiting bilinear, then linear
flow regimes.
Well Hz-7
Well Hz-7 was drilled in interzone 8-13 and targeted mainly reservoir R2 (35 m
in reservoir Ra and 965 m in R2) with a southeastern azimuth. This well hit a
good-quality reservoir area giving an average reservoir permeability of 6.5 mD.
Figure 4.8 shows a pressure and pressure derivative dropoff during the buildup
test, which might be indicative of crossflow from R2 to Ra during shut-in.
Well Hz-8
Vertical Well Hz-8 was drilled in 1988, and production never exceeded 1 m3/h.
In 2003, the well was re-entered. The first re-entry hole collapsed during drillstem testing, and another 500-m long section was drilled in the R2 reservoir.
The operation resulted in a 6-m3/h production rate.
Fig. 4.15 shows the production performance of these four wells. It should be
noted that the rate decline is much less pronounced in the presence of dualporosity systems (Well Hz-5 and Well Hz-7) than in homogeneous reservoirs
(Well Hz-6). Production from Well Hz-8 started at around 6 m3/h but declined
quickly.
Challenging issues
Completion and stimulation
Completion activities are both vital and critical in horizontal wells. About twothirds of the horizontal and re-entry wells were left openhole at the beginning
to limit expense and raise production. After some of the boreholes collapsed
because of weaker formations and higher pressure drawdownsmainly during
drillstem testing, production, and cleanout operationsa decision was made
to use preperforated liners to preserve borehole integrity. Currently, a workover
campaign is underway to replace openholes with preperforated liners.
they were located in areas where gas/water injection

had not yet taken place. Pressure drops quickly when a
drainage area is limited or when flow barriers are present. Another consequence of reservoir pressure decline
is the loss of effective permeability to oil. In fact, when
pressures decrease below the bubblepoint, gas bubbles
develop that cause a loss of permeability to oil. The overwhelming majority of these horizontal and re-entered
wells operate under a bottomhole pressure that is below
the bubblepoint.
Excessive water or gas breakthrough constitutes a real
challenge in openhole and screened completions. Among
the horizontals, four wells are producing more than 40%
water and four others with a gas/oil ratio exceeding
2,000 m3/m3. Conformance problems should be
addressed along with the completion selection and subsequent remedial stimulations.
Performance over time

Over time, many factors jeopardized production performance of some of the
wells. These factors ranged from borehole integrity problems and declining
reservoir pressure to unwanted fluid breakthrough.
Wellbore collapses were reported in several wells. Some took place during
drillstem operations and others during production and cleanout jobs that generated centimeter-size rock parts at the surface. Well Hz-9 was the first to partially collapse during a cleanout operation, which led to the use of preperforated liners as a matter of course.
Reservoir pressure is a major contributor to oil-rate decline over time.
Pressure declined 10 to 40 kg/cm2 per year in some wells, mostly because
25
20
15
Oil rate, m3/h
10
Dec-97
Dec-99
Dec-01
Dec-03
Dec-05
Date
Well Hz-5
Well Hz-6
Well Hz-7
Well Hz-8
Conclusions
Characterizing the reservoir vertically and horizontally,
for simulation and development purposes, was among
the objectives of the first horizontal wells. Most wells
targeted mainly highly heterogeneous and low-permeability areas where reservoir continuity was uncertain
and most conventional wells had failed. The following
conclusions are based on observations and analysis of
the horizontal wells:
Openhole logs and well test analyses revealed small
contributing portions of the drilled lengths due to lateral
and vertical heterogeneities.
Siltstone interbeds resulted in very poor vertical communication (kv/kh ~ 3%), resulting in limited well productivities compared to vertical wells. These wells should
be considered for hydraulic fracture stimulations.
Some wells were damaged by mud infiltration into the
matrix and fractures, making them good candidates for
acid stimulation. Encouraging results using underbalanced drilling indicate that this technique should be
widely adopted to avoid costly remedial stimulations.
Better reservoir characterization, preferably with 3D
seismic, would provide more insight, especially where
faults and fractures cause water production rather than
enhance productivity.
A team of experts, with a broad range of skills, is needed to address remedial interventions and review the
design-to-evaluation process for prospective wells.
Figure 4.15: Production profile of three horizontals (Well Hz-5, Well Hz-6, and Well Hz-7) and one reentry (Well Hz-8).
13
Jabbaren (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Black Bovidian period. A migrating tribe is being attacked by a band of bowmen. The cattle carry woven frameworks on their horns (1.50 m wide), a
tradition still in practice among some populations of the Sahel.
14
Geomechanics
Role and Principles
16
Rock Mechanics Laboratory Testing
24
Mechanical Earth Model
30
15
GeomechanicsRole and Principles

As oil and gas fields around the world deplete, the state
of stress in the reservoir and overburden changes. This
can cause significant problems for reservoir, production,
and drilling engineers alike. For instance, reservoir compaction during production has required some of the most
expensive remedial engineering projects in the industry.
As the stress state intensifies with depletion, sand and
solids production into surface collecting facilities has
caused field shutdowns for months at a time. Drilling
depleted reservoirs with reduced fracture gradients has
proved to be a major challenge to the industry. Overall, it
is estimated that worldwide 70% of all lost time while
drilling results from geomechanical issues.
To reduce wellbore failures, drillers are beginning to rely
on a greater understanding of geomechanical concepts
to help them respond more quickly to wellbore hazards.
More widely, reservoir management is also starting to
benefit from geomechanics, which is becoming an
accepted component of oilfield development planning
and operations. By comparison with mining and civil
engineering, the oil and gas industry has been slower to
recognize the value of the discipline. The reasons are
fairly obvious: The consequence of rock failure in a mine
or a dam may be loss of human life. Rarely does a rock
failure in a wellbore or reservoir have fatal results, but
the economic consequences of the loss of hydrocarbon
production and recovery can be sizeable.
The significant financial downside of geomechanical failures is related to the complexity of modern field development engineering practices required to deal with hazardous reservoir targets (high pressure and high temperature, for example), tectonically active or ultra-deepwater objectives, or the complicated well trajectories that
are now commonplace. The continued success of horizontal and extended-reach wells means that developments often require fewer wells to meet field production
objectives. A field that previously required 20 wells may
today be developed with as few as five. Previously, one
or two failed wells at the beginning of a project were tolerated, if inconvenient. Now, one or two failed wells can
mean disaster for the drilling budget.
Geomechanics is a quantitative discipline. Like other branches of mechanics, it

involves measuring and estimating stress and examining how materials
respond to that stress. However, unlike other branches, in geomechanics the
materials cannot be selected. Drillers and production engineers must work
with the materials presented, which could be solid, continuous formations, but
can also include fractured rocks. By contrast, a mechanical engineer would not
ordinarily choose to work with a fractured girder.
In the oil and gas industry, geomechanical principles were originally applied
in hydraulic fracturing when the stimulation engineer wanted to know the
wellbore pressures required to split the rock and the likely extent of the
induced fracture (Fig. 4.16). The application of geomechanics has been
extended to the areas of sand production and wellbore stability during drilling,
and the estimation of formation pressure in overburden shales.1,2 During production and subsequent depletion, reservoirs often undergo changes in porosity and
permeability, including changes in fracture permeability as the state of stress
in the field changes. Reservoir compaction and associated subsidence in the
overburden may activate faults as the field stresses change. These changes
may result in connectivity to an adjacent, undepleted block or may isolate that
same block. Geomechanics can be applied in all these casesfrom the perforation scale when investigating sand production to the field scale when
modeling compaction and fault behavior (Fig. 4.17).
To understand the effect of geomechanics on perforations, wellbores, and entire
reservoirs, field engineers must develop a coherent view of the earths stresses,
their magnitudes, and directions; mechanical properties of the rock such as the
elastic properties and rock strength; and fluid pressure inside the rock.
1
2
7
3
4
5
Figure 4.16: Geomechanics as applied to estimate formation pressures in overburden shales (1),
wellbore stability during drilling (2), hydraulic fracturing (3), sand production (4), reservoir compaction and associated subsidence in the overburden (5), changes in fracture permeability (6), and
activation of faults (7).
16
These parameters are organized in a mechanical earth model, which provides

a logical source of information for geomechanical planning of well construction and reservoir management.
Exploration Delineation Development Exploitation Enhanced
recovery
Pore pressure
Fractured reservoirs
Wellbore stability
Well placement
Casing point
Drillbit selection
Drilling fluid
Compaction and subsidence
Completion method
Sand control
Drilling waste
Multilateral design
Horizontal wells
Reservoir stimulation
Enhanced recovery
Diagnosis of failures
Figure 4.17: Geomechanics is applied during the entire life of the field, from constructing a
mechanical earth model in the early phases of exploration and appraisal drilling, to field management and final abandonment.
At a given well location, where measurements exist, rock

properties and the state of stress are often well understood. The natural variability of rock, however, makes the
accurate prediction of earth stresses and mechanical
properties between wells less certain. Trends can usually
be established, but the exact point of rock failure is
often uncertain. Some rock failurewhen drilling, for
instancemay not impede operations and can be managed without too much inconvenience. Drillers are generally more concerned with the loss of the wellbore, but
wellbore failure is difficult to predict because this is not
just a matter of the geomechanics but also involves the
drilling process.
Recent developments in measurement technologies and
techniques have made geomechanics more applicable to
the problem of wellbore failure. For instance, new and
improved logging-while-drilling sensors and real-time
data delivery allow the geomechanics engineer to interpret rock behavior and update the mechanical earth
model while drilling to improve predictions ahead of the
bit. The engineer can monitor how and at what rate the
wellbore is deforming so that drilling practices can be
modified to manage instability more effectively and
avoid the loss of the wellbore.
Principles of geomechanics
A
Geomechanical concepts require some understanding of

stress and strain, and how these are linked by the
response of a material such as rock.3
Stress
Normal stress
on area A is L/A
Shear stress
on area A is L/A
Figure 4.18: A column with cross-sectional area A is loaded in compression by weight L (left). The
force from the loading acts normal (at right angles) to the surface, so the cross-section of the column
is subjected to a normal stress of L/A. The same load L hangs from a hook glued to a wall over an
area A (right). The force acts parallel to the surface, so the indicated plane is subjected to a shear
stress of L/A. If, in the left diagram, a plane in the column that was not horizontal was selected for
examination, there would be components of force both perpendicular and parallel to the surface, so
there would be both normal and shear stresses acting on that plane.
Stress is force divided by the area over which the force

is applied. Force is a vector and has an orientation as
well as a magnitude. Similarly, the area over which the
force is exerted also has an orientation and magnitude,
so that stress is not a simple quantity. Figure 4.18 illustrates two points that are generally true about stress:
The relative magnitudes of shear and normal stress
acting on a plane vary with the orientation of the plane.
There are orientations of planes that have only normal
stress acting on them.
17
orientation of the cube (Figure 4.19B). In petroleum geomechanics, as in most

other branches of mechanics, specifying the magnitudes and orientations of
the principal stresses is the most common way of describing a stress state.
Normal stresses
Shear stresses
The starting point in most geomechanics studies is describing the preexisting

or in situ state of stress in the earth, which requires three magnitudes and
some orientation information. Because in most areas of interest the overburden is a principal stress (that is, one of the principal stresses is vertical), the
in situ stress state can usually be specified by three magnitudes and the direction of one of the horizontal stresses.
Rotate axes
B
Principal stresses
Figure 4.19: Components of the stress tensor, with the top diagram showing the arbitrary axes and the bottom showing the principal axes.
In general, stress has six independent components, represented by six numbers. The examples shown in Fig. 4.18
appear to have only one value because the other numbers are 0. Figure 4.19A demonstrates this concept by
showing a small cube drawn within the material of an
engineering componentfor instance, the wall of a drill
pipe. The loads imposed on the drill pipe by weight-onbit, torque, mud pressure, etc., generate stresses on the
faces of the cube. Each opposite pair of faces has a normal stress and two shear stresses acting on it, and the
magnitudes of these are the six components. Although
one normal stress and two shear stresses on three pairs
of faces implies nine components, only three of the
shears are independent.
Figure 4.19B shows another cube in the same place but
with a different orientation. The values of the six components change, although the stress state does not. This is
equivalent to changing the orientation of the plane in
Figure 4.19A; the loading on the system does not change,
but the normal and shear stresses on the plane do. It can
be shown that it is always possible to draw a cube where
there are only normal stresses acting on the facesthere
are no shear stresses. The six numbers representing the
stress state are then the normal stressesprincipal
stressesacting on the three pairs of faces, and the
18
Stress is a type of mathematical quantity called a tensor, and the stress state
is often referred to as the stress tensor. The process of finding the principal
stresses is often called rotating the axes of, or diagonalizing, the stress tensor.
The directions of the principal stresses are called principal directions or principal axes, and they are always mutually perpendicular.
Around the wellbore, the stress state may not be so simple, and the complete
specification of all six components is often needed. The dimensions of stress
are force/area, and in geomechanics, compressive stresses are denoted by
positive numbers (in most other fields of mechanics, tensile stresses are given
positive values). It is conventional in rock mechanics that the maximum compressive stress is called 1, the intermediate is 2, and the minimum compressive stress is 3.
Mohrs circle
A diagram called Mohrs circle provides a graphical way of examining how
normal and shear stresses on a plane vary with the orientation of that plane
(Fig. 4.20). This is particularly useful for rock mechanics, because the yield and
failure of intact or fractured rock depend on these quantities. Mohrs circle
allows engineers to predict graphically when yield or failure will occur in an
intact rock, and the orientation of the planes on which failure will occur. It can
also be used to predict the stress levels under which further deformation will
occur on a preexisting fracture or fault.
Effective stress
Most rocks are porous, so their mechanical response is influenced not only by
the stresses applied to them but also by the pressure of the fluid within their
pores. If the applied stress and pressure change with time, the combined
effects can be understood (for elastic materials at least) using poroelastic
models that are usually based on the work of Biot. A great deal of effort has
been devoted to obtaining mathematical solutions to Biots equations that
include the effects of temperature, anisotropy, chemical interactions, plasticity, etc., and these are useful in understanding the general principles of rock
behavior. When stress and pressure are relatively steady, or when the permeability of the rock is so high that fluid pressure gradients die away very rapidly,
a simpler approach can be used, with the concept of effective stress.
The effective stress for a particular process, such as elastic deformation or

failure, is the combination of stress and pore pressure that controls the
process. Some of these processes are discussed below, and the effective
stress for each is introduced.
Strain
Strain is a measure of the change in the shape of a material in response to
stress. Normal strains result in lengthening or shortening; shear strains result
in changes in the angles between pairs of lines in the material.
z
10
y
40
x
20
Shear stresses
0
Normal stresses
y
10
20
30
x
40
Shear stresses
Rocks can deform in a variety of ways when under stress.

They can deform reversibly, so that the original shape is
recovered when the stresses are removed, or irreversibly,
or they can fail, so that the material may, for example,
break into pieces. Because the real behavior of rocks is very
complex, it is usually represented by simplified models.
The simplest link between stress and strain for a material

is its elastic behavior, where any strain or deformation is
recovered upon removal of the applied stress. The simplest form of elasticity is linear isotropic elasticity; linearity means that applying twice the stress generates
twice the strain, and isotropy means that a given stress
generates the same strain levels whatever the orientation of the stress state relative to the material (that is,
the material looks the same in all directions).
40
x
If rock behavior is linear, isotropic, and elastic, it can be

described by two well-known elastic constants: Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio. Youngs modulus relates
axial stress and strain in a rod. If a compressive force, F,
is applied along the axis of a rod with cross-sectional
area A, the axial stress is given by F/A (a normal and a
principal stress in this case). If the initial length of the
rod was l0, and its new length is l1, the axial strain a is
(l0 l1)/l0 (using the compression positive sign convention). Youngs modulus E is calculated by
10
y
10
2
0
Material response
Elasticity
10
20
Strain is a tensor quantity like stress and can be referred

to different axis orientations, and diagonalized, just like
stress. Geomechanical methods rarely need to calculate
strains explicitly because geomechanical failure criteria
are expressed in terms of stresses. They are mentioned
below only in connection with elastic modulus.
0
Normal stresses
10
20
30
40
E=
I0 ,
= F .
a A (I0 - I1)
Figure 4.20: Mohr's circle. Usually, the two principal stress values are plotted along a horizontal line,
and a semicircle is drawn on the mid point so that the circle has a diameter equal to the difference
between the stresses. The top diagram shows this construction for principal stress values of 10 and
40 MPa. Suppose the 40 MPa principal stress lies along the x-axis in space, as shown, and the
10 MPa stress lies along the y-axis (the third principal stress must then lie along the z-axis). Planes
that contain the z-axis (like the one shown in the inset in the bottom diagram) map onto the circumference of the semicircle; the x-z plane maps to the 40 MPa point, and the y-z plane maps to the
10 MPa point. A plane at an angle degrees to the y-z plane maps to a point 2 degrees around the
circumference from the 40 MPa point, as shown in the bottom diagram. The Mohrs circle construction indicates that the position of this point along the normal stress line gives the normal stress on
and has the dimensions of stress.

The length of the cylinder decreases when the stress is
applied, but its diameter increases, from d0 to d1, giving
a lateral strain a of (d0 d1)/d0 (this is negative for a
diameter increase; it is a tensile strain). Poissons ratio
is the negative of the ratio of the lateral strain to the
axial strain:
that plane (in this case, about 28 MPa), and the vertical position gives the shear stress acting on that
plane (in this case, about 14.5 MPa).
=-
I0 .
(d0 - d1) .
d0
(I0 - I1)
19
Poissons ratio, in practice, lies between 0 and 0.5, and

between 0.2 and 0.4 for many rocks and other materials.
It is dimensionless.
For plasticity the effective stress is given by
Elastic deformation responds to both applied stress and

pore fluid pressure, and can be understood using an
effective stress for elasticity. Effective stress is denoted
by ' (rather than for total stress). The effective stress
for elasticity, for a simple material, is denoted as
Note that there is no coefficient in front of the pore pressure value.
= - PP ,
where Pp is the pore fluid pressure. The term is widely
known as Biots parameter and is related to the elastic
constants of the rock and its constituent minerals. It
approaches 0 for stiff (usually strong) rocks, and 1 for low
stiffness (usually weak) rocks.
Yield and plasticity

When a rock or other material is stressed beyond its elastic limit, it may yieldthat is, undergo permanent or
plastic deformationand when the material is unloaded,
it does not return to its original shape. This happens
widely on a geological timescale (folding, for example)
but can also happen in the shorter term. For example,
many types of shale are brittle in conventional laboratory
tests but can yield and sustain high plastic strains without breaking when loaded very rapidly, as happens under
the tooth of a roller-cone bit. Generally, yield and plasticity are caused by shear stresses; that is, they are favored
by large differences between principal stresses. The
action of yield or plasticity is to reduce shear stresses and
so to reduce the differences between principal stresses.
Yield and plasticity are important in the oilfield environment for
influencing the in situ stress field
determining the stress field in and around salt
modifying the behavior of the tips of hydraulic fractures
modifying the stress field around wellbores and perforations.
The last of these has received significant attention, with
the development of mathematical models for mud
weight limits in soft rocks.
20
= - PP .
Failure
Although often difficult to model, elasticity and plasticity are straightforward
to describe and define. Failure, however, is more difficult. A piece of metal
tested in tension may undergo small or large plastic strains before breaking
into two pieces. A piece of copper pipe or wire can be bent into a right angle
to fit its function; a large plastic strain is actually necessary for it to work
properly. The same plastic strain in the structure of an aircraft would spell disaster. In the geomechanics world, a core of rock tested under confining pressure may break into two or more pieces and still support enough load to be
viable. So failure must be defined in terms of function; elastic and plastic
deformations are characteristics of a material, but failure is a characteristic of
an engineering structure or function. This difference is vital to understanding
the prediction and consequences of wellbore instability.
Rock failure in compression and tension are very different. Most predictions
of compressive failure in rock structures are made on the basis of the failure
of cylinders of rock under compression in laboratory tests. The failure point of
such tests is usually defined as the maximum load supported by the sample,
although the sample may continue to support a residual load after failure. The
peak stresscalled unconfined compressive strength, or UCSis determined in a test carried out on a cylinder of rock under atmospheric pressure.
Because there is no side restraint in such a test, failure is often through axial
splitting of the sample, and is often violent because of the sudden release of
stored elastic energy. Another common test, the triaxial, provides a more complex measurement. The core is surrounded by a flexible jacket, with two steel
end plates, then placed in a pressure vessel. Confining pressure is applied via
hydraulic oil, and then an additional axial stress is applied to deform and fail
the sample. The axial and radial strains of the sample are usually measured.
Rock cores are commonly tested under a series of confining pressures by
using either separate core plugs for each pressure or the same core plug for
all the pressuresa multistage triaxial test. The peak stress is then plotted
against the confining pressure to generate a failure envelope for the rock. The
strength of the rock increases as the confining pressure is increased. The
Mohr-Coulomb equation is the most common failure criterion used for rocks:
1 - 3 > F .
The effective stress for failure, as for plasticity, is given by = - PP. The
coefficient N is given by
1 + sin .
1 - sin
where is the angle of internal friction of the rock, which is typically 30 to

40 degrees for sandstone, giving a value for N of 3 or more. Lower values
are typical of shales. When a rock plug fails under compressive loading, it usually splits along its axis (under low confining pressure) or shears on a faultlike plane across the sample.
Rock failure in tension is more straightforward than in compression. Rocks
tend to be very weak in tension; most natural rock masses contain many preexisting fractures and thus have zero tensile strength, and even in intact rocks,
cracks propagate very easily. The accepted criterion for tensile failure is that
the minimum effective principal stress (that is, the least compressive effective
stress) becomes more negative than the tensile strength T:
3 < T .
The tensile strength T is 0 or numerically negative. Tensile failure is by
propagation of tensile cracks across the sample in a plane perpendicular to
the minimum principal stress.
Chemical effects
As rocks interact with the water in drilling or produced fluids, their strength
may be substantially reduced, sometimes to zero. The interaction of shales in
the overburden with drilling fluids can lead to serious wellbore instability
problems, which are best addressed by good mud design and proper hole
cleaning. Interaction of weak sandstones with produced water (or water-base
treatment fluids) can weaken the rock sufficiently to promote significant sand
production. Both effects are difficult to predict quantitatively, and an empirical
approach is generally used.
Complexities
Unfortunately, rocks tend not to be isotropic linear elastic materials: bedding
and depositional fabric makes them anisotropic; the almost universal presence of cracks and microcracks makes them nonlinear; and many formations
are discontinuousthat is, they are more or less fractured. Predicting the
behavior (for example the mud weight window) of rocks with discontinuities,
anisotropy, or nonlinearity requires far more complex models and therefore
much more input data. These data are rarely available, so simple linear isotropic models are used instead, but they may not adequately predict behavior.
In such cases, more advanced modeling can help illuminate the processes underlying the behavior, but it is not
the entire solution. A reduction of drilling problems is
more likely to occur when this theoretical model is combined with better diagnosis of the problems by data collection while drilling and modification of the drilling plan
in real time.
State of stress in the earth

Geomechanical studies usually begin with the three principal stresses and their orientations. Typically, one principal stress is vertical, and the others are horizontal. If
the vertical principal stress is the most compressive, it is
a normal stress regime. If the vertical principal stress is
the minimum, it is a thrust stress regime. If it is the intermediate principal stress, it is called a strike-slip stress
regime. Each regime leads to characteristic faulting
types; these can sometimes be used to identify the stress
regime (provided the faulting is produced by the presentday stress regime rather than one in the past).
The primary source of stress in the earth is gravity or,
rather, the weight of the water and rocks above the formation of interest. This gravitational force generates vertical stress in the formation; onshore the gradient of this
with depth is typically 0.023 MPa/m, or 1 psi/ft. The horizontal stresses are generated by a combination of lateral
constraint from the surrounding rocks, plasticity, creep
and failure of the formation, the tectonic setting of the
field, and other factors; horizontal stress gradients typically lie between about 0.012 and 0.023 MPa/m (0.5 and
1 psi/ft). Many methods are used for estimating the vertical stress (usually based on rock density) and the horizontal stress (based on Poissons ratios, friction angles
derived from well logs, breakouts, and drilling-induced
fractures in wells, hydraulic fracture tests, and a few
core-based methods). Close to major faults, mountain
ranges, salt diapirs, mud volcanoes, and other geological
features, the situation may be more complex, including
the possibility of principal stresses that are not vertical
and horizontal; numerical modeling of the field is often
needed to clarify the picture.
21
In a hole in an elastic formation, parallel to a principal stress, in rock that is

porous and permeable with a filtercake on the wellbore wall, two key ideas
can be applied to potential instability problems (even if the precise conditions
are not met). These two ideas refer to the hoop stress, or the stress tangential to the wellbore wall, evaluated at the borehole wall. Suppose the two
principal stresses perpendicular to the wellbore axis are A and B, with A
being more compressive than B. Pore pressure is Pp, and the wellbore pressure is Pw. For simplicity, assume that Biots effective stress parameter
equals 1. The maximum hoop stress occurs where the wellbore wall is parallel to A; if the well is vertical and A lies in a N-S direction, the maximum
hoop stress occurs on the east and west sides of the borehole. Similarly, the
minimum hoop stress occurs where the wellbore wall is parallel to B (for this
example, on the north and south sides of the hole, as in Fig. 4.21). The value
of the maximum hoop stress is
The other important aspect of the stress state in petroleum geomechanics is the pore or formation pressure.
Again, many methods are used to estimate this pressure
in shales and to measure it in permeable formations. The
normal pressure gradient arises from the hydrostatic head
of the water in the formations, and is about 0.011 MPa/m
(0.45 psi/ft). Overpressure (up to 0.023 MPa/m or 1 psi/ft),
however, is common and is a significant hazard during
drilling. Low pore pressures can also arise, either naturally
or, more typically, by depletion of reservoirs during hydrocarbon production. This reduction in pore pressure can
lead to significant decreases in the horizontal stresses in
a reservoir formation, which reduces the fracture gradient
and can make drilling very difficult where depleted zones,
normally pressured zones, and/or weak formations occur
together.
max = 3 (A - PP) - (B - PP) - (PW - PP) + PP ,
Stresses around wellbores

and perforation tunnels
or in more convenient effective stress terms, the maximum effective hoop

stress is
When a hole is present in a stressed body, the stresses

change around the holea property called stress concentration, which may be sufficient to cause the rock
around the hole to fail and, in turn, may lead to wellbore
instability or sand production. So one of the key objectives of petroleum geomechanics studies is to calculate
the stress concentration and compare the results to a
failure criterion for the rock.
In the case of a long holesuch as a wellbore or perforation tunnelin a simple elastic medium and lying parallel to one of the principal stresses, the equations are
straightforward. For a hole in an elastic formation but not
parallel to a principal stress (deviated well), the equations are well known but lengthy. For a holeespecially
a deviated holein a nonsimple formation (for example,
in an anisotropic or plastic formation), the behavior is
less well understood. Mathematical models exist but
require much more data, which usually can be obtained
only from extensive lab testing on cores.
max = 3 A - B - (PW - PP) .

Similarly the minimum effective hoop stress is
min = 3 B - A - (PW - PP) .

A
PP
3 B - A - (PW - PP)
PW
(PW - PP)
3 A - B - (PW - PP)
Figure 4.21: Location and values of maximum and minimum tangential effective stresses, and the
radial effective stress. It is assumed that C > A > B.
22
Breakouts tend to occur at the location of the maximum hoop stress, and tensile fractures at the location of the minimum. As a rule of thumb, if the maximum effective hoop stress exceeds the UCS of the rock, breakouts and
mechanical wellbore instability are possibilities; if the minimum effective
hoop stress becomes negative, drilling-induced fractures are possible.
Wellbore stability predictions depend on refining these estimates by adding
some necessary but small corrections, relaxing the conditions imposed on the
simplicity of the situation (for example, deviating the wellbore or removing the
filtercake), and of course, computing the stresses for thousands of meters of
wellbore rather than for a single depth.
Breakouts are caused by shear fractures in the wellbore wall that connect to
allow separation and removal of fragments of rock and therefore cause hole
enlargement. They are promoted by large differences between A and B, by
low wellbore pressures, and by low rock UCS. Drilling-induced, or tensile,
fractures are openings in the wellbore wall and may or may not extend away
from the wellbore. They are promoted by large differences between A and
B, by high wellbore pressures, and by low rock tensile strength (often zero).
Breakouts and tensile fractures are illustrated in Fig. 4.22; their relationships
to the orientations of the principal stress are a valuable tool for characterizing
the stress state in a formation.
A large difference between A and B clearly promotes both kinds of failure,
so it is possible to find the worst orientation of the wellthat is, the one
most likely to encounter geomechanical difficulties. This difference occurs
when the well axis lies along the intermediate principal stress 2, since this
condition maximizes the difference between the two principal stresses perpendicular to the well (that is, 1 and 3). Unfortunately, it is not possible to
determine which orientation is best without knowing the magnitudes of the
stresses. Similar considerations of good and bad orientation also apply to perforation tunnels, leading to the possibilities of selective and oriented perforating to avoid sand production.
Complications
The above approach is simplified, so naturally there are complications, the
first of which being that drilling-induced fractures are not really a drilling
problem (although their misinterpretation can lead to problems). The fracture
gradient, which is used to determine the maximum mud weight that should be
used for drilling a well, is related to large-scale loss of fluid to extensive fractures rather than to the smaller-scale drilling-induced fractures near the well.
The condition for losses of this kind is usually that the mud pressure should
not exceed the minimum principal stress in the formation. This is, of course,
independent of the orientation of the well, unlike the conditions for the formation of drilling-induced fractures.
Failure conditions for deviated wells cannot be generated by rules of thumb
because the equations are far more complex. As the deviation of the well
changes relative to the in situ stress directionsgoing from vertical to
Figure 4.22: Location of breakouts and drilling-induced fractures relative

to the principal stresses perpendicular to the borehole. Here, A > B, and
the borehole is parallel to C.
horizontal, for examplethe minimum mud weight to

avoid breakouts also changes. It may be that there is a
window between this minimum and the maximum
allowed mud weight (fracture gradient) for the vertical
section of the well, but this disappears in inclined or horizontal sections.
Further complications also arise from the mechanics of
the formations themselves. For example, salt sections
may squeeze into the wellbore at low mud weights, leading to a tight hole. Formations that are heavily fractured
may fail at high mud weights rather than low, because
the mud percolates into the fractures and loosens the
blocks. Anisotropic or bedded formations may undergo
geometric failure modes such as roof collapse, which
seem to be independent of mud weight. In stiff (high
modulus) formations or in areas with high geothermal
gradients, thermally induced stresses can play a big role
in either stabilizing or destabilizing the wellbore.
All these complexities can be addressed by an appropriate geomechanics programsometimes quantitatively,
sometimes qualitatively. Because of the variability and
unpredictability of the mechanical properties of rocks, as
mentioned in the introduction, it is important that geomechanical studies consider contingencies as well as
just data, and that subsequent operations be planned to
allow for properly thought out actions should the rock not
behave as expected.
23
GeomechanicsRock Mechanics Laboratory Testing

A wide range of established rock geomechanical laboratory tests are available for petroleum applications.1 These
provide fundamental rock properties for characterization
purposes and well design, and information on how formations might behave under complex stress paths around
wellbores or within reservoirs during the life of a field.
Some of the more useful and common tests, several of
which are performed routinely by the Sonatrach rock
mechanics laboratory (Centre de Recherche et Development,
CRD), include
uniaxial compression tests with and without measurement of sample deformation
Test
triaxial compression and extension tests with and without measurement of

sample deformation
thick-walled cylinder collapse tests
tensile tests
Brinell hardness tests and scratch tests
ultrasonic (acoustic) velocity measurements
porosity measurements
in situ stress determination by differential strain analysis (DSA).
For petroleum rock mechanics studies, rock properties can be inferred empirically from continuous log data and may be determined directly from lab measurements at specific points. While acoustic and density logs provide dynamic
elastic properties, their static (mechanical) equivalents and corresponding
Description
Test
Description
Uniaxial compression test
Direct tensile test
Crushing strength test
10
Brazil indirect tensile test
Uniaxial compression test with measurement of sample deformation
11
Brinell hardness test
Single-stage (ISRM type I) triaxial compression (or extension) test
12
Ultrasonic velocity (ATT, UWP) at ambient conditions
Single-stage (ISRM type I) triaxial compression (or extension) test

with measurement of sample deformation
13
Ultrasonic velocity (ATT, UWP) at elevated stresses
Multiple-failure state (ISRM type II) triaxial compression (or extension) test
14
Porosity by saturation and drying
Multiple-failure state (ISRM type II) triaxial compression (or extension)

test with measurement of sample deformation
15
Porosity by gas expansion
Thick-walled cylinder (TWC) collapse test
16
Differential strain analysis (DSA, DSCA).
Oil Field
Application
Test
1
Drillability assessment
Wellbore stability analyses and openhole stability prediction
Solids production prediction
Completion design and selection
Stimulation (fracturing)
Log correlations
Estimating minimum horizontal in situ stress
Formation characterization
Strength characterization
Reservoir geomechanics
Table 4.2: Various tests commonly performed in the rock mechanics petroleum community.
24
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
beyond yield). Of the four elastic parameters, E and can

be most readily and simultaneously determined from a
single test; G and K are then calculated from the estimated
values of E and . Of course there are many other parameters that can be quantified from lab measurements,1,2,3
including anisotropic properties. Tables 4.2 and 4.3 summarize the different tests commonly performed in the
rock mechanics petroleum community, but for brevity
only the most common tests and data are described here.
inelastic parameters can be derived only from lab tests. In this sense, continuous logs combined with individual lab tests complement one another. When
combined with petrophysical measurements, rock mechanics tests can also be
used to quantify coupled petrophysical/mechanical behavior that might be
needed for life-of-field and reservoir geomechanics analyses.
The rock peak strength parameters and static elastic properties that are of
greatest use in constructing a mechanical earth model (MEM) are commonly
determined from lab measurements. Assuming isotropic linear elasticity,
deformation behavior can be described using any two of four interrelated static
elastic parameters (Young's modulus E, Poisson's ratio , shear modulus G,
and bulk modulus K ) and by Biot's static poroelastic constant . For many
porous sedimentary rocks, approaches unity (tending to unity for all rocks
Test
Parameters obtained
Static elastic properties
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
E
G
K
Dynamic elastic properties
EDyn
GDyn
KDyn
VDyn
Brinell hardness
BH
Strength values
TWC
T
Y
UCS
1
(max)
Peak strength parameters
Effective porosity
In situ
Stress
Direct determination
Indirect estimate
Table 4.3: This table summarizes the different parameters obtained from the tests described in Table 4.1.
25
Sample preparation and requirements

Small-diameter plugs (1- and 112-in. diameter) of cores
are typically utilized with a length/diameter ratio of 2:1
to minimize end effects.3 Given that rock specimens are
disturbed on recovery from depth and can be further
altered due to inappropriate storage and handling, it is
always good practice to use, wherever possible, plugs
from preserved or fresh core. This is especially the case
for shales, where desiccation and fissuring may render cores unrepresentative
in terms of some of their mechanical properties, though it is less of an issue
in clean or cemented sands. Use of inappropriate fluids during sample preparation and testing can also result in further alteration (especially where
swelling clays are present); therefore, samples should be prepared and tested
using suitable wetting and pore fluids such as light hydrocarbons (for
example, kerosene) or synthetic formation brines (most often KCl or NaCl).
Kfluid
1 = axial stress
3 = confining stress
u = pore pressure
70
60
50
E, , C and
40
Flow volume, cm3
30
1
3
KBulk
20
10
0
1 = 12 MPa
3 = 12 MPa
u = 10 MPa
KGrain
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
5-stage triaxial
at 3 = 22, 25, 30, 35, 40 MPa
u = 10 MPa
Time, min
60
50
1 = 22 MPa
3 = 22 MPa
u = 10 MPa
1 = 3 MPa
3 = 3 MPa
u = 1 MPa
Kbulk and with
Measure
squeeze-out volume
0.9
Pore pressure
0.8
30
20
0.7
10
0
100
200
300
400
0.6
500
Biots constant,
Bulk modulus, kbar
40
Flush with kerosene then measure KKero
at 1 = 3 MPa, 3 = 3 MPa
uUp = 1 MPa, uDown = 0 MPa
then set uUp = uDown = 1 MPa
KKero
Time
E, , C, , R and UCS
Effective stress, bar
160
120
80
40
Bulk modulus
Biots constant,
17.0
16.9
16.8
3
16.6
1
0
Effective stress, MPa

Volumetric strain
Porosity
16.5
10
Porosity, %
16.7
12
16
20
0
24
Mean diametral strain, mstr
Axial stress, MPa
Bulk volumetric strain, mstr
K and porosity with
Axial strain, mstr

Axial stress
Mean diametral strain
Figure 4.23: Multiple measurements on a single plug. The main figure shows the loading sequence of an advanced triaxial test for determination of multiple parameters and stressdependencies using a single plug. The plug is initially loaded to a hydrostatic stress of 3 MPa and pore pressure of 1 MPa, then its permeability to kerosene is measured (lower right).
The hydrostatic stress and pore pressure were increased simultaneously (to 12 and10 MPa, respectively), and bulk and pore volumetric strains were measured to determine grain compressibilities. Pore pressure was then held constant at 10 MPa while confining stress was increased to 22 MPa, during which bulk moduli, pore compressibilities, and Biot's constant
were determined as a function of effective confining stress (left middle and lower left). Finally, a 5-stage multiple failure state triaxial test was conducted at 22, 25, 30, 35, and 40 MPa
confining stresses to determine (top left) Mohr-Coulomb peak strength parameters (UCS and friction angle), Young's moduli, and Poisson's ratio.
26
Finally, tests on dry samples are inappropriate as strengths and stiffnesses of

most sedimentary rocks increase when they are in a dry state.
Uniaxial compression tests

The most fundamental and useful description of rock strength is the uniaxial
compressive strength, or unconfined compressive strength (UCS), which is the
peak load-bearing capacity of a cylindrical sample subjected to axial compressive stress only. Although laboratory test conditions are not representative of
the rock reality when in situ, UCS represents a convenient description of the
mechanical competence and engineering behavior of a rock and is considered
a basic test for any lab investigation.
If axial and circumferential deformations are recorded during a uniaxial compression test, static Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio can also be quantified1,3 from plots of axial stress versus axial strain and diametral strain versus
axial strain. If the sample exhibits a nonlinear behavior, which is very common
with sedimentary rocks, Young's moduli and Poisson's ratio can be defined in
numerous ways.3 The most useful method for routine MEM construction is the
average moduli.3
Since the elastic properties of sedimentary rock materials usually vary with
confinement, any elastic moduli measured in uniaxial compression often corresponds more closely to rock material in the walls of a perforation cavity or
wellbore (where the minimum effective stress is near zero or at greatest equal
to the fluid overbalance) than to the far-field reservoir condition or state of
stress in the walls of an induced stimulation fracture. This makes these data
especially suited to wellbore stability and sanding applications, or for calibration of log-derived properties obtained from sonic measurements, but a uniaxial compression test does not provide a full description of the strength behavior. Therefore, while a uniaxial compression test is usually the cheapest and
easiest compression test to achieve, it does not provide optimal data or make
the best use of the available core, nor does it simulate far-field conditions that
may be of interest to reservoir geomechanics (stress changes, compaction,
etc.). To achieve this, some form of triaxial test is usually required.
Triaxial tests
In triaxial tests, which simulate conditions of burial, the sample is initially
confined at some appropriate isotropic stress (replicating the effective stress
at depth), then axial compression (or extension) is achieved by increasing the
axial stress (or decreasing the axial stress for extension) until compressive
failure occurs. The test may also include axial and lateral (that is, circumferential) deformation measurements to quantify elastic properties.
In a single-stage or ISRM type I test,3 deviatoric loading takes place in a single cycle and therefore only one peak strength is determined. To quantify the
peak strength behavior using a Mohr-Coulomb criterion

(that is, in terms of friction angle and UCS or cohesion),
several triaxial tests on similar samples at different confining stresses are required. Alternatively, in what is one
of the most useful rock mechanics tests available for oilfield studies, a multistage, or ISRM type II triaxial, test3
involves deviatoric loading just until peak strength occurs
(not failure). Axial stress at this condition is recorded,
then confinement is adjusted to a new value. Axial loading (or unloading in extension) proceeds until a new peak
strength is attained, and the procedure is repeated to
obtain several peak strengths (a minimum of three and
more usefully five, from which a peak strength criterion
can be defined).
The main advantages of a multistage test with deformation measurements is that elastic properties and strength
data are obtained from a single sample, thereby making
best use of available core and reducing scatter in results
that might otherwise occur due to heterogeneity between
different plugs. Another benefit is that a type II test is
very effective at identifying highly stress-dependent and
nonlinear peak strength behavior in which a small confinement can, disproportionately, enhance the strength of
the rock. This behavior can have a significant impact on
wellbore stability analyses and on the calibration of an
MEM, and is often difficult to assess from type I tests due
to excessive heterogeneity between plugs.
This same behavior is also responsible for frequent overestimation of UCS from triaxial test data for weak sands,
whereby the inferred UCS value is biased by strength
data measured at high confinements. It is for this reason
that, when used to quantify strength behavior over effective stresses ranging from the near-well (few MPa) to the
far-field conditions (burial confinement), triaxial test programs should include the greatest number of measurements at a few MPa effective confinement (that is, 1 to
5 MPa) and fewer at higher confinements.
Many variations on these triaxial tests are of value in oilfield applications and MEM generation.1,2,3 For example,
the test represented in Fig. 4.23 illustrates an experiment conducted with an advanced triaxial test system,
where a single sample is subjected to a complex
sequence of confinement, axial loading, and pore pressurization in order to quantify an extensive suite of poroelastic and strength parameters. When conducted in conjunction with laboratory measurements of P- and S-wave
27
In situ core
DSA sample with

respect to original core
+ve Y
10
+ve X
Coring
Elastic recovery + anelastic deformation
Confining pressure
9
Gauged sample with
strain measuring elements at
0, 90, 45, and 135
5
8
11
6
7
12
+ve Z
Figure 4.24: Differential strain analysis (DSA) for in situ stress determination. Oriented cubic samples are cut from core (right) that has been recovered from its in situ stress state at
depth (top left). On recovery, the rock suffers heterogeneous microcracking and stress-relaxation damage that provides the rock with a memory of its previous undisturbed stress
state. By strain-gauging the cubic sample (right) and resubjecting it to a range of confining pressures in the laboratory (bottom left), the stress-relaxation damage can be quantified
and estimates made of the in situ stress directions and magnitudes.
velocities (Fig. 4.24), triaxial tests also permit direct correlations to be established between rock mechanics
properties and petrophysical/geophysical parameters
measured downhole using wireline logs and LWD tools.
sanding studies,3 but the test also permits parameters describing 3D failure
criteria (after Lade or Drucker-Prager) to be quantified.
Unfortunately, while the TWC test is easy to conduct, care must be taken to prepare samples according to the highest standards and tightest tolerances to
avoid serious data discrepancies (for example, bore diameter and concentricity).
Thick-walled cylinder tests

Another commonly performed test is the thick-walled
cylinder (TWC) collapse, or polyaxial, test. This test, in
which a hollow cylinder is confined externally until it collapses, provides a convenient method of quantifying the
strength of rock in proximity to a cylindrical opening,
where partial confinement will induce plasticity and
enhance stability of the cavity. Its greatest use is in
28
Tensile tests
When rock materials fail in tension they do so in a sudden and brittle manner
at stress magnitudes on the order of only 112 to 18 of their UCS, and direct
measurements of tensile strengths of sedimentary rocks invariably yield
results below 7 MPa (1,000 psi).
With tensile strength so low, it is usually sufficient, for practical purposes, to

estimate tensile strength as some proportion (10%, for example) of UCS or
ignore it altogether. When accurate values are desired, such as for fine-tuning
an MEM using image logs of induced tensile fractures, a direct tensile test or
one of the multipoint bending tests provides the most rigorous lab methods.1,2,3
However, such tests are rarely practical when dealing with oilfield cores, and
the Brazil indirect tensile test (involving tensile failure brought on by com-
pression of a disc across its diameter) is the most convenient method.3 Like UCS, a measure of tensile strength
is really an index property (sample geometry and test
configuration dependence), but with such a low tensile
strength, it is an adequate assessment for most practical
applications.
In situ stress determination

Pulser
Switch
Digital
oscilloscope
Transducer
Sleeve
PC
Pre-amp
Printer
Triaxial cell
Transducer
Typical frequency response: 200 kHz to 1 MHz
Switch
VP, VS and dynamic elastic moduli

at confinement
under deviatoric loading
at varying degrees of saturation, etc.
Figure 4.25: Coupled ultrasonic-mechanical laboratory set-up. Test configurations such as this allow
measurements of rock ultrasonic velocities (Vp, Vs1, and Vs2) under various confinements and devi-
Log- and lab-derived rock strength and rock deformation

parameters play a role in helping constrain and quantify
the magnitudes of the in situ stresses in the MEM.
Experimental techniques also exist for obtaining in situ
stress magnitudes and directions from measurements on
core. These techniques include differential strain analysis, stress relaxation undercoring, differential thermal
expansion, and shear-wave splitting conducted on lab
samples, and also anelastic strain relaxation (ASR) conducted on cores at the rig site.1
The most widely used, the DSA test (Fig. 4.25) has a distinct advantage in that it is performed in the convenience
of a laboratory rather than at the rig site immediately
after core recovery, and the test has a higher success
rate (though typically still only 50%). However, as with
all these core-based methods, its success is limited to
relatively stiff rocks and it is unsuited to soft shales,
clayey or weak sands, and weak carbonates (chalks).
atoric loading conditions, and at varying degrees of saturation, etc. These measurements permit correlation of petrophysical and log-derived parameters to rock mechanics properties, and thereby
allow a range of wireline and LWD log measurements to be used for geomechanics analyses.
29
GeomechanicsMechanical Earth Model

A mechanical earth model (MEM) is an explicit description of the state of stress, pore pressure, and mechanical
properties of the subsurface. The model may include only
the reservoir or the entire subsurface down to and below
the reservoir.1 An MEM includes details of geological
structure, such as faults and formation tops, as well as
details of rock fabric, such as fractured zones or
anisotropic mechanical behavior in the rock.
An MEM is the cornerstone of a geomechanical study. It
provides information for the geomechanical calculations
of many aspects of well construction (for instance, wellbore stability boundaries for drilling), sand stability limits during production, or the geomechanical parameters
needed to design stimulation jobs. As a field depletes,
an MEM can be used to estimate changes in the stress
state caused by the reduced reservoir pressure. These
stress changes can lead to reservoir compaction, which
may affect permeability, or subsidence in the overlying
formations, or they can cause fault and fracture activation. In a fractured reservoir, the latter can significantly
affect drainage, possibly changing the direction of preferred flow as a different fracture set becomes more
permeable as stress changes. These stress changes can
also have a significant effect on later, infill drilling; it is
often observed that the fracture gradient falls in
depleted reservoirs reducing the stable mud window.
Not only can the fracture gradient change, but formation
stability can also be affected.
Construction of an MEM draws on data from numerous
sources, including geophysical log data from wells, such
as sonic, gamma ray, bulk density, borehole images, and
formation pressure measurements; drilling reports and
records; geological and seismic structural mapping; and
core samples. The complexity of the model depends on
the available data and the geological structure. A complex model based on limited data would have little value
and could be very misleading. Equally, where significant
geological relief or geomechanical variation exists, a simple model can be similarly misleading. Ultimately, the
30
model must be fit for purpose, reflecting the complexity of the subsurface but
sufficiently simple to provide quick, useful geomechanical information to
assist in operational decision-makingperhaps while drilling a well or for
managing formation stability while producing to avoid sanding.
An MEM can be constructed in either one or three dimensions. With a 1D
model, the geomechanical parameters vary on only one axis. Typically, this axis
is either vertical or along the wellbore axis. A 1D model assumes the geomechanical parameters are laterally constant and is often used for geomechanical modeling of a single wellbore. 3D MEMs are used to represent multiwell
data or where significant lateral variations in geology or geomechanics are
present.
The natural variability of rock makes accurate geomechanical prediction at
any point in the subsurface unlikely. When planning a new well, for instance,
the geology and geomechanics can and will change from the offset wells,
where measurements have been previously acquired, to the new well.
Therefore, estimates of stress and the mechanical properties that control rock
deformation in a well are usually approximates; in other words, an MEM cannot be expected to be predictive-perfect.
However, an MEM is always likely to have some uncertainty, but it has a second and perhaps more important function. An MEM allows interpretation of
the geomechanical behavior of the field. Just as a scientist in a laboratory
acts on a system in an experiment and then monitors and interprets the
response, the same scientific process can be applied while drilling a well. The
response of the wellbore to the drilling process is monitored and compared to
the model.
Drilling changes the state of stress in the wellbore region. If a failure criterion
is exceeded, rock in the wellbore wall will deform. Deformation can occur,
however, in a number of ways depending on the stress state created and the
strength and structure of the rock. The response of the wellbore is compared
to the predrill MEM to understand how the well is deforming. It is important
to identify correctly the mode of failure to ensure the correct treatment is
applied to stabilize the wellbore. The MEM shows when a certain mode of
failure should be anticipated and draws attention to this potential event so
that the drilling team can rapidly respond to avoid or manage any instability
that may develop. Misdiagnosing the mode of failure can lead to the wrong
treatment and a worsening of the instability.
Although the MEM may predict the rock failure, it may not do so at the
expected mud pressure. This new measurement, however, adds to the drilling
teams understanding of local wellbore stability and helps reduce the uncertainty in prediction through the later, undrilled sections along the well trajectory. The new information can be added to the model to aid in a quick
understanding of which drilling procedures and parameters can be optimized
to reduce the risk of lost time and equipment. These procedures and parameters cannot be established without the model, whether or not the observed
wellbore deformation occurred as expected.
For field development and management, a mechanical

earth model can be used in a similar manner to plan
drilling campaigns and production schedules, taking into
account the changing state of stress and, hence, changing stability boundaries, as the field depletes.
The discussion about wellbore deformation during drilling raises another

question: If rock in the wellbore wall breaks, is it wellbore failure? The question is difficult to answer because wellbore failure and rock failure are not the
same. Rock failure occurs when the state of stress created by the presence of
the wellbore exceeds the rock strength. On the other hand, wellbore failure is
an engineering concept regarding the loss of function. In other words, the
wellbore no longer does what it should, which might be to allow a drillstring
to pass smoothly. Therefore, if the wellbore is badly deformed but does what
it should, it has not failed.
Underbalanced drilling can have a dramatic effect on the

rate of penetration (ROP) and the efficiency of a drilling
operation, particularly in strong rocks where drilling rates
can be particularly slow. Drillers working in the Hassi
Messaoud field, where compressive rock strengths may
exceed 100 Mpa in this Cambrian reservoir, have found
underbalanced drilling makes a huge improvement in
drilling rates for horizontal wells.
Rock failure is controlled by the geomechanics, but wellbore failure is a combination of geomechanics and the drilling process. Therefore, exceeding a
mud weight window while drilling does not necessarily equate to a stuck pipe
incident or wellbore collapse. However, if some length of the wellbore is damaged by excessive stress or weak rock, the risk of wellbore failure may be
increased. There is, though, no figure or cutoff for this wellbore failure.
Wellbore failure is often defined by an eventstuck pipe, for instance.
Given these drawbacks to predicting wellbore failure, does a mechanical earth
model have value? Specifically for drilling, the model identifies hazards associated with particular trajectories so that the well planner can select the well
path with the least risk. While there may not be a well path that avoids rock
failure, management of deformation may limit instability and avoid wellbore
failure. The model allows the driller to select appropriate mud weights and
design other aspects of the drilling plan, such as swab and surge limits and tripping speeds. During drilling, an MEM allows the driller to interpret the response
of the well in order to remediate instability rather than making it worse.
Horizontal drilling in the

Hassi Messaoud field
A disadvantage of the underbalanced procedure is the

increased risk of wellbore instability. Under normal, overbalanced conditions, mud pressure on the wellbore wall
supports the rock and avoids collapse. Drilling a well
underbalanced removes this mud support. Without mud
support, stresses around the wellbore increase and can,
in some cases, exceed rock strength. This causes shearing of the rock into fragments in the wellbore wall. These
fragments can be dislodged either by gravity or the
drilling process, producing breakouts in the wellbore
wall. This, in itself, is not wellbore failure, but the production of rock fragments, or cavings, into the bottom of
a horizontal wellbore is difficult to clean, particularly
when drilling with the very light fluids needed to create
an underbalanced state. If a sufficient volume of cavings
are produced without being removed from the wellbore,
a tight hole or stuck pipe can follow.
31
Although some Hassi Messaoud reservoirs exhibit very

strong rocks, the disparate strength of different reservoir layers can lead to abrupt variations in the vertical distribution of
the strength (UCS). At the same time, the Hassi Messaoud
field is subject to strongly anisotropic horizontal stresses
due to the regional tectonics of North Africa. The structural complexity of the reservoirs causes in situ stresses
(magnitude and orientation) to vary throughout the field.
An MEM is a powerful tool for determining the best

azimuth for a horizontal well at a specific location in the
field and providing data to calculate the safe mud density
window along the chosen well path. Of particular importance is calculating the maximum drawdown that should
not be exceeded in underbalanced drilling. The UCS values provided by the model along the planned well path
are also used to select the most suitable drilling bits.
Stress conditions and wellbore stability in the Hassi
Messaoud field are not constant. Stress measurements
made during drilling and hydraulic fracturing over many
years of production show a steady decline in the horizontal stress (Fig. 4.26), which increases the risk of instability. The MEM can be used to forward model this evolution
in the stress state to assist in planning a drilling and completion program that aids in managing wellbore stability
and solids production.
2.38
2.05
1.72
1.39
1.06
Sh, g/cm3
Sonatrach initiated a project to build an MEM that would

model the geomechanical behavior of the Hassi
Messaoud reservoirs with the aim of minimizing drilling
problems. In addition to supporting drilling, the objective
was to extend application of the model to determine formation stability conditions for production. The MEM would
help planning and drilling horizontal wells by providing stability information to determine the best underbalanced
conditions for the specified well path within the field.
2.71
0.73
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
Depletion, bar x 100

Figure 4.26: Closure pressure versus reservoir pressure in zone 14 of the Hassi Messaoud field.
An MEM for the Hassi Messaoud field was constructed in five phases:
Phase 1: Compile and review data
Phase 2: Construct structural model
Phase 3: Construct 1D mechanical earth model
Phase 4: Construct 3D mechanical earth model
Phase 5: Generate wellbore stability DrillMAP plans for the proposed wells.
Following is a more complete description of each phase and a discussion of

the problems encountered.
150,000
9
4
140,000
130,000
1c
1a
7
3
23
120,000
2ex
1b
10
11
2
20a
13
20b
15
16
17
12
14
19
24
25
Mechanical earth model construction

Building a mechanical earth model for the Hassi
Messaoud field was a significant challenge. The field is
structurally complex with an intricate faulting network
and covers an aerial extent of 50 km x 50 km. At the
same time, the field has been on production for more
than 40 years and depletion across the structure is irregular. To form a tractable project, the model had to be reasonably simple but also provide sufficient resolution and
accuracy to support well planning and field operations.
32
110,000
795,000
805,000
815,000
Sonic
Image
Sonic/image
Core, approximate well location
825,000
835,000
10,000 m
Figure 4.27: Locations of wells in the Hassi Messaoud field with sonic and borehole imaging logs
used to build the 3D MEM (not all these logs are from Schlumberger).
A fault map based on well test results was also available.

Key wells for the project were those that had a complete
set of data from which to construct a 1D MEM, but wells
with less complete datasets were also useful. These
wells either contributed a specific measurement, such as
stress direction, or could be used later to validate predictions in the 3D MEM.
Sonic, bulk density, porosity, and gamma ray logs were
quality controlled to ensure raw measurements and environmental corrections were accurate. These data were
also checked for consistency.
Figure 4.28: HMD field fault model.
Phase 1
The first step in building a mechanical earth model was to audit and check the
available data. For Hassi Messaoud, there were 1,130 wells with geological
surveys (formation tops of reservoir layers). More detailed data for geomechanical modeling, however, was limited to only 80 horizontal wells (Fig. 4.27).
In these wells the main data collected were
log data comprising sonic compressional and shear slownesses, bulk density, gamma ray, caliper, and borehole images
closure pressure measurements from leakoff tests and fracturing data
measurements of pore pressure
daily drilling reports
bit records.
Pore pressure measurements were absent from some

wells. To estimate pore pressure in these wells at the
time of drilling, a correlation that accounted for the pressure compartmentalization in the field was used to
choose the most representative offset wells. It was
important that pore pressure be estimated at the time of
drilling in order for it to be associated with the logging
measurements.
Phase 2
The structural model is the geological framework for the
mechanical earth model. The structural model includes
information about formation surfaces including pinchouts,
unconformities, and faults (Fig. 4.28). Mechanical properties and stress parameters would later be distributed
within this framework.
The model was initially constructed from geological surveys of the 1,130 Hassi Messaoud wells using Petrel*
geological modeling software. These surveys were used
to map the formation tops across the field. At the time of
modeling, however, only a partial 2D seismic survey
existed over the northern part of the Hassi Messaoud
field, and the fault maps were derived from well test
analysis.
During this phase of modeling, borehole image interpretations from the 80 horizontal wells were used to better
define fault locations and the compartmentalization of
the reservoir (Fig. 4.27). From this phase came a new 3D
structural model of the Hassi Messaoud field (Fig. 4.29).
Figure 4.29: Fine-layered stratigraphic model with subsea depth color coding.
33
Phase 3
The first step in constructing a 3D MEM is to compute
the mechanical properties and earth stress profiles for
individual wells within the fielda 1D MEM (Fig. 4.30).
Using log data as the primary input, elastic properties are
calculated first. Through empirical algorithms these
properties provide unconfined compressive rock strength
(UCS). For the Hassi Messaoud model, a number of core
samples from the reservoir were mechanically tested.
These UCS measurements were correlated to their respective Youngs moduli to establish a local rock strength
algorithm. Log-derived rock strength values were then
calibrated using these core-derived strengths (Fig. 4.31).
Elastic strength
Youngs
10 modulus 100 0
0
Earth stress and pore pressure
Friction
angle 70
Stress, MPa
Poissons
ratio
1 20
UCS
400
Stress direction S
200 W
N
E
Fault?
PR
UCS F
Regional trend
The 1D stress models were based on a combination of log

data, measurements of closure pressures from leakoff
tests and fracturing data, and DSCA core measurements.
The vertical stress was calculated by integrating bulk
density logs from a number of vertical wells across the
field. Local or actual pore pressure measurements, if
available, were included for both total and effective
stress calculations at the time of drilling. Horizontal
stresses were then estimated using poroelastic strain
modeling, which is a calculation of the magnitude of the
horizontal stresses due to loading from the overburden
and tectonic strain. The minimum horizontal stress estimation was fixed with closure pressure measurements.
While the magnitude of both the minimum horizontal
stress and the vertical stress can usually be measured, it
is not possible to measure the maximum horizontal
stress. DSCA measurements made on core samples from
several wells provided an initial estimation of the ratio
between the horizontal stresses (Fig. 4.31). This gave an
initial estimate of the maximum horizontal stress, which
was then further constrained by comparing predictions of
wellbore deformation, such as breakout, with actual
events observed on image and caliper logs.
Phase 4
The structural model, well surveys, and geomechanical
parameters from the 1D MEM model were imported into
the 3D mechanical earth model. The resolution of the model
corresponded to grid cell dimensions of 200 m x 200 m
laterally and 3 m vertically, which were the parameters
used in the structural model. Once all the necessary well
data had been loaded, the 3D MEM was populated
through a combination of geostatistical mapping and
analytic computations.
34
PP
Sh SH
SV
Figure 4.30: Parameters for a 1D MEM model.
The next step in the modeling procedure involved editing geomechanical log
data and removing outliers. The mechanical properties were then upscaled to
form a 3D mechanical stratigraphy. Directional variograms of the upscaled log
data were constructed both parallel and normal to bedding, and a geostatistical
variogram model was built to represent the spatial anisotropy of each parameter for geostatistical mapping. Geostatistical mapping of these properties
was then performed. With mechanical properties volumes in place, stresses
could then be mapped in the 3D model (Fig. 4.32).
E_sta
Sand
TVD
(m)
3,250
Gamma ray
(GPa) 100 0
Pr_sta
()
SH/Sh DSCA
0.5 0
UCS
Youngs Modulus
Poissons ratio
SH/Sh
MD
(gAPI)
(m)
0
()
5
0
(kPa)
100,000
0
(GPa)
100
0
(
)
0.5
30 150
3,250
3,260
D4
3,260 D3
3,270
3,270
3,280
3,280 D2
3,290
3,290
3,300
3,300 ID
3,310
3,310
3,320
3,320 D1
3,330
3,330
3,340
3,340
3,350
3,350 ZPSG
3,360
3,360 R2
3,370
3,370
Figure 4.31: Core and log comparison for Well B.
To check that no distortions had occurred during construction of the 3D MEM, geomechanical properties
were extracted along actual trajectories and compared to
the 1D MEM profiles.
Phase 5
The final stage of the project was to apply the 3D MEM
data to plan new underbalanced horizontal wells in the
Hassi Messaoud field. Geomechanical properties were
again extracted for the model, but this time along proposed
trajectories. To improve resolution along the proposed
measured depth, geomechanical profiles from a nearby
well were superimposed on the local, low-resolution 3D
MEM values. This did not provide an exact representation, but rather an estimate of the local variability of the
geomechanics.
-25
-50
-75
-100
-125
-150
Figure 4.32: Aerial view of a stratigraphic slice through the MEM showing the azimuth of the minimum horizontal stress for reservoir zone R2.
To ensure a consistent stress field across the Hassi Messaoud model, a single moment in time during production was selected. Stresses were computed
for this point. The model could then be advanced as required to predict future
stress conditions for well planning.
Depth, m
Mud weight = 0.88 g/cm3
Analytical wellbore stability calculations were then performed, accounting for the well orientation with respect
to the local state of stress. Various levels of underbalance for the drilling fluid weight could be tested to
assess the amount of rock failure and decide on an
acceptable level for drilling (Fig. 4.33).
Mud weight = 0.75 g/cm3
Mud weight 0.60 = g/cm3
-3,500.00
-3,500.00
-3,500.00
-3,600.00
-3,600.00
-3,600.00
-3,700.00
-3,700.00
-3,700.00
-3,800.00
-3,800.00
-3,800.00
-3,900.00
-3,900.00
-3,900.00
-4,000.00
-4,000.00
-4,000.00
-4,100.00
-4,100.00
-4,100.00
-4,200.00
-4,200.00
-4,200.00
30.00
120.00
210.00
300.00
30.00
120.00
210.00
300.00
30.00
120.00
210.00
300.00
Orientation, degrees
Figure 4.33: Simulations of wellbore damage along a proposed reservoir section for different underbalanced drilling fluid densities.
35
Wellbore image logs were run on these newly drilled

wells to offer some validation of the model. As previously
discussed, rock failure does not equate to wellbore failure
and, in fact, not necessarily to wellbore breakout; that is,
failed, or sheared, rock can remain in place in the wellbore wall if it is not dislodged. The lower resolution of the
model compared to the high-resolution wellbore images
also limited comparison. Therefore, the log data were
considered a broad indicator of the validity of the model,
and comparisons of the prediction of rock failure and the
observed wellbore deformation were reasonably good.
Figure 4.34 is a predrill simulation of the wellbore image
log showing the expected breakout due to the shear failure limit (red shading) exceeding the mud weight (green
line). A shift in the breakout orientation was also recognized as the well crossed a fault. In the image logs actually acquired from the well, these predicted breakouts
and the shift in breakout orientation were also detected,
although further down the well the additional deformation observed was unexpected. Also not predicted was a
keyseat, which was created along the low side of the well
as a result of mechanical damage from the drillstring
rather than the geomechanics.
Figure 4.35 also compares the predrill prediction with the actual wellbore
image logs. In this case the mud weight was set to avoid shear failure in the
wellbore wall, and as predicted, wellbore deformation was not recorded in the
wellbore images.
Predrill result
Postdrill result
Mud weight UB
0
(g/cm3)
Tensile failure
Wide breakout
Shallow knockout
Mud weight LB
0
(g/cm3)
Breakdown
X,280
Gamma ray
0 (gAPI) 150
Narrow breakout
Losses
Sand
TVD
(m)
4 Low-angle echelon
High-angle echelon
Deep knockout
MD
(m)
X,300
Kick
Breakout
0
(deg)
360 0
(deg)
360
D2
ID
D1
X,330
X,400
ZPSG
X,340
X,500
X,345
X,600
R2
X,349
X,700
X,354
X,800
X,358
X,900
X,363
X,000
X,367
X,100
Figure 4.34: The 3D MEM model can be used to assist in an underbalanced drilling operation. Shown
are the predrill model predictions (left) and postdrill results (right) for Well C.
36
The Hassi Messaoud mechanical earth model and DrillMAP results helped the
drillers select preferred well trajectories and suitable underbalance conditions. Additionally, the model raised their awareness of weak sections that
might be encountered so they could take action rather than wait to respond to
unexpected wellbore instability.
Predrill result
Postdrill result
Mud weight UB
0
(g/cm3)
Tensile failure
Wide breakout
Shallow knockout
Mud weight LB
0
(g/cm3)
Breakdown
Gamma ray
0 (gAPI) 150
Narrow breakout
Losses
Sand
TVD
(m)
4 Low-angle echelon
High-angle echelon
Deep knockout
MD
(m)
X,293
X,300
X,355
X,400
Kick
Breakout
0
(deg)
360 0
(deg)
360
The model resolution will be improved as new data

become available from newly drilled wells. Knowledge of
specific geomechanical parameters, such as the unconfined compressive strength and the least principal stress,
is also expanding with the inclusion of new measurements. Currently, the stress model is approximated
assuming a stratigraphically horizontal structure, or layer
cake. This was initially judged to be a reasonable first
assumption given the Hassi Messaoud geological structure. However, as the resolution of the model is
increased, a more detailed stress model will be required
and plans are being discussed to produce a fully balanced stress model for the field using the ECLIPSE geomechanics software. This work may also consider in
more detail the complex stress changes that occur in the
many faults in the field.
D5
D3
D2
ID
X,404
X,500
X,409
X,600
X,411
X,700
X,413
X,800
X,416
X,900
X,418
X,000
X,420
X,100
X,423
X,200
R2
Figure 4.35: Predrill prediction versus postdrill well image logs.
37
Sfar (the Tassili of the Ajjer). This perfectly proportioned Black bowman is depicted in an athletic pose with graceful movement and purity of line. The Black Bovidians were undoubtedly master painters and loved to depict their everyday life. (16 cm high).
38
40
50
Well ProductivityUnderbalanced Perforating Without Killing 60

64
72
39

Wells drilled in the eastern part of the Hassi Rmel gas
reservoir (Fig. 4.36; see also Chapter 2, page 2.24 to 2.29)
revealed a large oil rim that extends in a NNE-SSW
direction over a distance between approximately 4 km
and 60 km wide. The first horizontal well, HRZ-01, was
drilled in the Hassi R'mel field oil rim in 1991. Twelve
horizontal wells have been drilled to date.
Horizontal well drilling method

Except for Wells HRZ-01 and HRZ-02, which were drilled with a pilot hole at
the beginning of the reservoir development to confirm fluid contacts, the other
wells were drilled as follows:
The 24- and 16-in. sections were drilled vertically. The kickoff point (KOP)
was set at a vertical depth (VD) of around 1,900 m (Triassic Saliferous I).
Moved water
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
Moved water
Oil
Moved
hydrocarbon
Gas
Water
Quartz
Gamma ray
Oil
Oil rim
(gAPI) 150
Bound water
Gas
Anhydrite
Caliper
6
(in.)
16
Bit size
MD
1:200
(m)
(in.)
SWE
KINT
0.2 (mD) 2,000
16
ELAN fluid
analysis
KINT
0.2 (mD) 2,000 1
Sw
0.5
(V/V)
Illite
Chlorite
SUWI
PIGE
(m3/m3)
0 0.5 (m3/m3) 0 1
ELAN volumes
(V/V)
2,210
Gas production well

Gas injection well
Oil well
Uncompleted well
Abandoned completed well
Observation well
Oil processing center
2,215
10 km
2,220
Gas/oil contact at 2,223 m (-1,490 m)
Figure 4.36: Position of horizontal wells in the oil rim structure. By 2004,
2,225
12 wells had been drilled.
The target reservoir for producing this oil rim is Level A

of the Triassic sands, which is 24 m thick. The water/oil
contact (WOC) is often encountered in this reservoir.
Based on a sedimentological description from cores and
interpretation of petrophysical log properties (Fig. 4.37),
the reservoir was subdivided into three main units that
could be correlated over the field. The middle unit is the
main target, with a thickness of 8 to 15 m.
To delay potential waterflooding and gas coning in the
horizontal wells, an optimum wellbore path had to be chosen and drilled. The wells were drilled using geologic
steeringor geosteeringtechniques.
40
2,230
Oil/water contact at 2,231 m (-1,498 m)
2,235
2,240
2,245
Figure 4.37: Petrophysical properties of a typical vertical well in the Hassi R'mel oil rim. Level A of
the Triassic sands, here between 2,213 and 2,237 m VD, constitutes a column of oil with a gas cap
having an initial GOC at 1,490 m VDSS (vertical depth subsea) and WOC at 1,498 m VDSS.
W e l l P l a c e m e n t LW D f o r G e o s t e e r i n g H o r i z o n t a l W e l l s
From interpretation of the wireline logs, the target layer

for the remaining reservoir (horizontal) section was
selected.
In terms of production, the best results were obtained
from wells drilled in a 110-degree north direction.
Following this azimuth, the wells were drilled perpendicular to the orientation of fluvial channels (running
mainly north-south), and better petrophysical properties
were encountered (Fig. 4.38). By applying this practice, the
largest drainage areas were intersected.
Wellbore
Channel, gas sands

Channel, oil sands column
Channel, water sands
Flood plain, shale deposits
One problem encountered when drilling some of the horizontal wells was the discontinuity of the reservoir,
mainly due to the lateral change of facies or tectonic
features (faults) with a significant throw. The example
presented in Fig. 4.39 shows a lack of correspondence on
the logs between the intervals at measured depths of
2,330 m and 2,335 m (interval A, Fig. 4.39, descending
phase) and between 2,490 m and 2,515 m (interval B,
Fig. 4.39, rising phase).
Figure 4.38: Schematic distribution of sandy deposits in the Hassi Rmel Triassic reservoir. In this
meandering fluvial environment, the main channel orientation is NNE to SSW.
2,000
Bit Rt
(ohm.m)
Attenuation resistivity, real time
(ohm.m)
0
(m)
ROP
(m/h)
Descending phase
2,500
2,350
2,325
20
2,240
(gAPI)
0
GST gamma ray
150
150
(gAPI)
0
CDR gamma ray,

real time
On another well, HRZ-12, the gamma ray, resistivity, FMI

image, and MDT formation test logs showed that the
reservoir in this zone was compartmentalized into various blocks with different WOCs.
0.2
0.2
2,230
TVD
2,000
(ohm.m)
0.2
Phase-shift resistivity, real time
2,000
Deviation was then increased at a rate of approximately 1 degree per 30 m

down to the clays in Level A0 of the Triassic sands, corresponding to the end
of the 1214-in. phase.
While drilling the final 812-in. phase, logging-while-drilling (LWD) resistivitygamma ray measurements were recorded in order to recognize the
bottom of the reservoir, or until the oil/water contact was encountered. At
that point, drilling stopped and a wireline logging operation (gamma
rayneutron-densityformation test) was performed. The challenge was to
keep the well as far as possible from both the water/oil and gas/oil contacts
and therefore remain in the oil-saturated sands for as long as possible.
Rising phase
Figure 4.39: LWD resistivity profile of Well HRZ-11 showing a lack of similarity in the resistivity responses of the descending and rising phases. Consequently, drilling was stopped
due to the high risk of not finding the reservoir again.
41
At the entrance to Level A, identified at 2,222.5 m vertical depth, an observed break in the resistivity readings
was interpreted as an area of invasion by the mud filtrate
due to the good petrophysical characteristics of the
reservoir (Fig. 4.40). The WOC was identified at 2,231 m
vertical depth (1,481 m vertical depth subsea (VDSS), 5 m
higher than expected (1,486 m VDSS). Drilling continued
and crossed another zone of oil resistivity with an WOC
at 2,236 m vertical depth (1,486 m VDSS). The rise of
the water level in the first block, compared to the second
WOC encountered, was due to a depletion caused by
adjacent well producers.
While drilling the section around 2,540 m measured depth
(MD), corresponding to 2,230 m VD, the geosteering
evaluation based on resistivity responses showed that
the well was getting closer to the top of the reservoir. A
change in the trajectory inclination was required in order
to track back to the medium part of the reservoir where
there were better quality sands.
Block 1: OWC at 2,231 m TVD

Bloc 3: OWC at 2,239 m TVD
Block 2: OWC at 2,236 m TVD
Figure 4.40: Final profile of Well HRZ-12 showing the three reservoir compartments and the three different associated oil/water contacts, which were identified by different methods of investigation
the LWD resistivity, MDT formation test, and FMI images.
Around 2,680 m measured depth (2,234 m vertical depth),

the resistivity reading indicated that the bit was near the
bottom of the reservoir, which was unexpected with
respect to the understood structure of the reservoir. This
was explained by a second fault with a slight throw of
approximately 2 m. Drilling continued at the same vertical depth until 2,830 m measured depth (Fig. 4.40).
In order to optimize the time it would take to drill a horizontal well and to avoid having to run wireline imaging
tools at every anomaly, Well HRZ-13 was drilled using
the RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool. This combination of
LWD and resistivity imaging enabled the identification of
zones of relatively low resistivity associated with fractures. Those intervals were not perforated, and as a
result, the initial production was water free.
Compartment 1
2,350
P = 14 psi
Compartment 2
2,550
42
Compartment 2
showing an oil gradient
P = 30 psi
Low mobility data
2,650
Compartment 3
showing an oil
gradient from
2,605 to 2,880 MD
Sample taken
at 2,907 m
Compartment 3
2,750
2,850
P = 44 psi
Sample data: water recovered
Water zone
2,950
3,050
2,600
2,700
2,800
2,900
3,000
3,100
3,200
Formation pressure, psi

Figure 4.41: Plot of pressure points recorded by the MDT tool as a function of measured depth in
Well HRZ-12. The first compartment, where the contact is estimated at 2,231 m measured depth,
differs in pressure by 14 psi from the second compartment. A 30-psi difference exists between the
second and third compartments.
Oil zone as seen in

compartment 1
during the MDT run
Water zone
2,450
Measured depth (MD), m
Another block starts at around 2,900 m MD. The WOC in

this new compartment was observed at 2,239 m vertical
depth. The MDT pressure measurements showed significant differences between compartments (Fig. 4.41).
2,250
Lessons learned
These examples provide an illustration of the problems experienced while
drilling horizontal wells in the Hassi Rmel field oil rim. Strict drilling-specific
requirements had to be followed to overcome the difficulties related to the
local geology and to meet production constraints for optimum results.
Experience in Wells HRZ-12 and HRZ-13 demonstrated the value of imaging
while drilling for interpreting the structural context and the importance of
obtaining such information in real time. Likewise, real-time evaluation of neutron porosity readings would be invaluable for optimizing the choice of intervals drilled, and an improvement in production could legitimately be expected.
Environmental regulations, however, prevented the use of tools containing
natural radioactive sources while drilling (neutron tool) due to the risk of
losing these highly contaminating materials if the string were to become stuck
downhole so that the well would have to be abandoned.
Since the initial horizontal well drilling campaign, two options are now
available for recording porosity measurements while drilling without compromising the safety and ecology of the zone:
These tools could save the time currently spent making

wireline measurements without compromising a rigorous
evaluation of the reservoir properties, while offering the
necessary assurances of environmental safety (see
Optimizing Drilling, Well Placement, and Formation
Evaluation with the EcoScope Service, page 4.45).
2,516
2,514
2,512
2,510
2,508
2,506
2,496
2,494
2,492
2,490
2,488
VDN VISION Density Neutron tool, which has a natural

radioactive source positioned at the top of the tool so
that it can be reached and retrieved in the event of a
stuck drillstring.
EcoScope multifunction logging-while-drilling service,
which offers an alternative to the natural radioactive
source. To limit the environmental impact should the tool
have to be abandoned in the formation, it is now possible
to record porosity and density measurements from the
nuclear activation generated by an artificial radioactive
source. Once the energy resources of the EcoScope minitron are exhausted, it no longer emits any radioactivity.
Figure 4.42: Intervals 2,488 to 2,498 m and 2,506 to 2,516 m show low resistivity values associated with fractures noted on the RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit image. These subvertical
fractures represent a high risk of early water production. Blue sinusoids highlight fractures, and green ones show formation dip.
43
Neocomian (~400 m VD)
24 in.
Triassic anhydritic (~1,700 m VD)
16 in.
Triassic saliferous I (~1,900 m VD)
Kickoff point
Build angle: 1/30 m
Clays A0 (~2,200 m VD)
121 4 in.
Gas level (local)
Triassic sands Level A

WOC
Triassic sands Level A (floor)
Figure 4.43: Well drilling profile. The reservoir section is drilled until the WOC or the bottom of the reservoir is reached. Drilling is then stopped for wireline logging (gamma ray, density-neutron, and MDT tool). After interpretation, the exact well trajectory is placed within the best sand interval.
Improving well placement in

relation to fluid interfaces and faults
Figure 4.43 illustrates the well profile used when drilling
in the Hassi Rmel field oil rim.
Identifying the WOC interface

In the past, locating the WOC or the base of the reservoir
required a U-form path during the landing phase in the
reservoir (Fig 4.43). In many cases, however, this type of
trajectory affects well efficiency by
causing cementing and completion problems
facilitating water inflow because the cementation
cannot always make the perfect seal along the aquifer
zone
increasing the offset of the well and consequently
reducing its net-to-gross ratio
reducing oil flow produced by the section below the
U-form path.
Drilling through faults

Conventional geosteering methods are based on an evaluation of the position of the borehole in the reservoir correlating to a model of the reservoir built prior to drilling
with the logs recorded in real time. Alternatively, correlations can be based on the measurements made in a
descending interval and a rising interval (with respect to
the geologic structure), as in the well profile used at
44
Hassi Rmel. In either case, these methods are relatively ineffective when the
well passes through a fault, constituting a break in the bed-to-bed correlation
process.
As presented in Well HRZ-13, by interpreting GVR geoVISION resistivity
images in real time, the position of such faults and fractures can be identified.
It is not generally possible, however, to identify the position of the borehole
in the lithological column on the other side of these faults. The only exception
occurs when passing through a level previously surveyed along the well. It is
then possible to quantify the vertical displacement of the fault. Unfortunately,
it may be necessary to drill several dozen meters before encountering one of
these characteristic beds. Therefore, using a tool that can evaluate several
dozen meters of formation at a time while differentiating between formations
above and below the well is a valuable way to work around the many faults
that compartmentalize some zones in the Hassi Rmel reservoir.
An efficient solution
The PeriScope 15 directional, deep-imaging-while-drilling tool performs an oriented electromagnetic induction measurement several meters into the formation. The coils in the tool enable the magnetic field to be focused and thus supply a directional measurement, while the increased transmitter/receiver separation distance and the use of a lower frequency permit measurement with a
depth of investigation of 4 to 5 m in the formation (see Proactive Geosteering
Using the PeriScope 15 Tool, page 4.48). Therefore, the use of real-time GVR
images and deep azimuthal data from the PeriScope 15 tool improve fault identification and the evaluation of fault throws while drilling horizontal wells.
Optimizing Drilling, Well Placement, and Formation Evaluation with the EcoScope Service
The EcoScope multifunction logging-while-drilling (LWD) service integrates a
full suite of formation evaluation, well placement, and drilling optimization
measurements in a single collar. In addition to the suite of resistivity, neutron
porosity, and azimuthal gamma ray and density measurements and images, it
provides new LWD measurements such as elemental capture spectroscopy,
neutron gamma density, and sigma. Drilling optimization measurements
include APWD Annular Pressure While Drilling, calipers, and shocks.
Safer source
The EcoScope service is designed around a pulsed neutron generator (PNG)
that generates neutrons on demand. This design eliminates the need for an
americium beryllium (AmBe) chemical source, reducing risk during transportation and at the wellsite. Measurement of formation density without the sidemounted cesium source is an option, making the EcoScope service unique in its
ability to offer LWD nuclear logging without traditional chemical sources.
Formation evaluation and well placement

A PNG produces more neutrons with higher energies than a traditional
chemical source, resulting in deeper and more precise measurements. It
also enables several new LWD measurements. Among these are neutroninduced capture gamma ray spectroscopy data, which provide mineralogy,
lithology, and matrix properties. Formation sigma, a salinity indicator, provides a viable alternative to resistivity for determining hydrocarbon saturation. The neutron gamma density is a measure of the gamma rays that are
generated from neutron formation interactions, providing an alternate bulk
density measurement. Other EcoScope formation evaluation measurements
include resistivity, azimuthal natural gamma ray, azimuthal cesium density,
azimuthal photoelectric factor, and thermal neutron porosity. The dual-frequency propagation resistivity array makes 10 phase and 10 attenuation
Azimuthal
natural
gamma ray
Annular
pressure
while drilling
Azimuthal density
and photoelectric
factor
Ultrasonic
caliper
The combination of petrophysical and borehole images is achieved through

2D and 3D visualization tools.
measurements at several depths of investigation, providing invasion profiling and formation resistivity.
A focused natural gamma ray detector allows the
EcoScope service to provide gamma ray images in addition to density and photoelectric factor images. This
multiimaging capability allows the selection of the
most suitable measurement, relative to the formation,
for identifying the optimal well trajectory for well
placement. All EcoScope measurements can be transmitted to the surface in real time.
EcoScope sensors are integrated into a single collar, so
the measurements are made close to the bit, reducing
the invasion effects. This advantage, combined with the
services deep measurements and high sampling rates,
enables a comprehensive, accurate characterization of
the formation and provides for optimal well placement.
Porosity sigma
spectroscopy neutron
gamma density
2-MHz and
400-kHz resistivity
Three-axis shock and vibration
Inclination
The EcoScope service provides a full suite of formation evaluation, well placement, and drilling optimization measurements.
45
GR
ATR
-0.5 0.5 -15 15 0.2 200

SPO1 SAS4
PSR
SPS4
SAD1
-0.5 0.5 -15 15

SPO4 SAD4
Rt_h, ohm.m
10
11
-0.5 0.5 -15 15 0.2 200 0 150
1 2
2,205
-0.14
-0.25
-0.46
-0.83
-1.51
-2.73
-4.34
-8.36
-16.22
-29.39
-53.23
-96.42
-174.65
-316.35
-573.01
-1,037.93
Trajectory for Well HRZ-12

2,210
2,215
2,220
2,300
2,225
2,450
2,230
True vertical depth, m
2,235
2,350
2,500
2,550
2,400
2,600
2,650
2,700
Water zone
2,750
2,800
2,850
2,900
Water zone
2,240
Water zone
2,245
Fault
2,250
120
160
200
Fault
240
280
320
360
400
440
480
520
560
600
640
680
720
760
800
True horizontal length, m

Figure 4.44: Model based on interpretation of Well HRZ-12 data showing simulated logs from the PeriScope 15 tool. The first track on the top shows the gamma ray curve; the second track presents resistivity curves (actual) from the CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity tool. The third and fourth tracks show, respectively, the attenuation and phase shift measurement (simulated) from the PeriScope 15 tool. The numbers at the top and related dashed lines refer to entries in Table 4.4.
In the case of the borehole path used in the Hassi Rmel

oil rim, the characteristics of the PeriScope 15 tool make
it possible to identify the WOC or the reservoir floor
remotely without having to drill through it. It also allows
optimization of the wellbore path by limiting doglegs
and avoiding the exposure of different phases of the
reservoir. After landing, it is then possible to position
the well as close as possible from the top of the reservoir, again with the aim of optimizing future production
from the well.
46
Figure 4.44 illustrates the possible utilization of the PeriScope 15 tool. Based on
the measurements recorded while drilling in Well HRZ-12, the PeriScope 15 tool
response curves were simulated. A detailed description of the results of the simulation is presented in Table 4.4. As this example indicates, the distance between
the borehole and the upper or lower bed boundary or fluid contacts is directly
affected by a change in the resistivity of the different layers of the model.
Step 7 of the simulation in Table 4.4 confirmed that the PeriScope deep measurement could aid in evaluating the borehole location after crossing a fault
within the needed time frame. Various steps of the simulation clearly illustrate
Point
Interval
between points
Description of PeriScope15 measurement
Interpretation of measurement
Phase shift curves show positive response
Tool tracking a better sand below the well path.
Curves show increasingly negative response
Tool tracking conductive medium below the tool (WOC).
Apex of the negative response
Borehole crossing WOC.
2-3
Curves show increasingly negative response
After crossing the first fault, tool tracking a new WOC below the well
path.
3-4
Curves show likely constant negative value
Well path parallel to the WOC; just below it in the second block.
4-5
Curves slowly returning to null value
Borehole slowly increasing distance with the WOC below.
Phase shift curves show positive response
Tool tracking sand above the well path with poorer resistivity value.
5-6
Curves show null value, finally starting to increase to positive
Null value indicates that there is no resistivity contrast in the range of

reading of the tool (borehole in the middle of a bed). Later on, the well
is getting closer to a conductive medium above the tool (top of the
reservoir).
6-7
Curves slowly increasing before returning to 0
The distance between the borehole and the top of the reservoir above
is monitored (getting closer to it) before getting indication that the
borehole is going away to deeper sand.
All curves show abrupt change from null values to high positive values
Sudden change in drilling environment; borehole just crossed

a fault.
7-8
Curves initially showing high positive value before decreasing
In the new environment after the fault, tool indicates that the biggest
contrast is with a conductive medium above the well path; tool
tracking the top of the reservoir.
8-9
Curves turn from positive to null and back to positive
Initially, borehole going away from boundary above, then returning

near it.
9-10
Curves show initial increase before returning to null
Tool indicates the borehole is first reducing distance to top of the

reservoir, before adjustment of the trajectory, resulting in increase in
distance to boundary above.
10-11
Curves turn from positive to null and back to positive
Initially the borehole is going away from boundary above, before

returning near it.
Curves show initial increase before flattening off
Tool indicates the borehole is reducing distance to top of the reservoir,

drilling through it (as shown on the other curves) before trajectory is
adjusted to slowly return to reservoir.
1-2
2
After 11
Table 4.4: Detailed description of the simulation results.
that a bed boundary or fluid contact can be identified before the well is actually drilled through it, and therefore a revision of the standard landing procedure is possible.
This simulation demonstrates that using PeriScope 15 technology can aid in
understanding the reservoir geometry and therefore serve as a valuable tool
for optimizing the placement of future horizontal wells in the Hassi Rmel oil
rim or similar environments.
Conclusions
In thin reservoirs with significant lateral variations, the use of logging-whiledrilling borehole images can aid in optimizing well placement to facilitate
hydrocarbon fluid flow. The experience gained in drilling

several wells in the oil rim of the Hassi Rmel field
showed that complex geological structures can pose
serious challenges to the task. Also highlighted was the
critical ability to see azimuthally deep and ahead, especially when encountering abrupt horizontal variations in
the reservoir as a result of crossing faults. Additionally, it
emphasized the necessity of making a porosity measurement in real time to identify the most valuable section of
the reservoir and actively drill the well into it. The
PeriScope 15 and EcoScope tools provide potential ways
to address these challenges. Indeed, a simulated
PeriScope 15 measurement in a modeled reservoir with
several faults demonstrated this potential.
47
Proactive Geosteering Using the PeriScope 15 Tool

Accurate wellbore placement is vital to the success of
any drilling program. It grows increasingly critical as
exploration and production companies turn to extendedreach wells to access oil that would be uneconomical to
recover with conventional technology. Optimal wellbore
placement requires the ability to steer the well along a
path defined less by preconceived geometries than by
observed reservoir boundaries. This can be a major concern when attempting to navigate thin oil rims, when
drilling reservoirs without significant stratigraphic markers, or when drilling near unconformities where local dip
does not reflect the overall structure.
Traditional LWD resistivity measurements have proved
insufficient in many cases to steer wells, owing to the
limited depth of investigation and lack of directionality.
The measurements are insensitive to whether the
R3
T5
T3
T1
tool can tell in which direction those contacts or bed boundaries lie. Using
this information to optimize wellbore placement, operators are realizing payoffs through increased production, fewer sidetracks, and improved wellbore
stability. Directionality of the resistivity measurement helps drillers maintain
position within the pay zone without depending on stratigraphic markers.
PeriScope 15 tool layout

The antenna layout of the PeriScope15 tool is shown in Fig. 4.A. The measurement system includes a set of conventional propagation resistivity measurements with the antennae aligned with the tool axisthat is, transmitters
T1 and T5 and receivers R1 and R2. At both ends of the tool are two tilted
receiver antennae, R3 and R4, inclined 45 degrees with respect to the tool
axis, and the transverse transmitter, T6. This symmetric tool configuration
enables removal or amplification of sensitivities to dip, anisotropy, and nearby
boundaries, resulting in simplified responses and interpretation.
R1
R2
T6
T2
T4
R4
Figure 4.A: PeriScope 15 tool layout.
boundary is approached from above or from below.

Conventional geosteering relies on logs from an offset
well or from a pilot well and on the use of real-time
imaging technology; this assumes the layered structure
extends without much variation. This assumption is
often invalid, particularly in wells in which horizontal
length may be on the order of kilometers.
The PeriScope 15 directional, deep imaging-whiledrilling service uses electromagnetic measurements for
geosteering. This directional measurement capability
enables the tool to detect fluid contacts and bed boundaries as far as 15 ft [4.6 m] away. Just as important, the
48
Novel real-time interpretation workflow

Throughout 360 degrees of coverage around the borehole, the PeriScope 15
tool determines the direction presenting the highest conductivity contrast.
Measurements along this direction are used to determine distance to up to
two nearby boundaries or two boundaries oriented 180 degrees apart. During
drilling, structural interpretations along the well trajectory are updated and
presented in real time to facilitate timely geosteering decisions. An automated
inversion program processes all available data for display on a graphical user
interface.1
The resulting presentation shows the distance to boundaries and the azimuthal
orientation, along with formation resistivity. Visual results are displayed in two
0
X,002
30
-60
X,004 B
60
X,006
-90
90
120
-120
-150
150
180
X,008
True vertical depth, ft
X,010
8-ft distance
to boundary
-30
C
Y,600 MD
Y,700 MD
Y,500 MD
X,012 A
Y,800 MD
Y,400 MD
X,014
1,800
1,850
1,900
1,950
2,000
2,050
2,100
2,150
2,200
2,250
True horizontal length, ft

Figure 4.B: PeriScope data are shown from two different perspectives: azimuth view (left) and curtain section view with color-coded resistivities (right).
was critical for drainage of the remaining reserves.2 A

complete image of the reservoir is shown in Fig. 4.C. The
boundary shows modulation over large intervals that
correspond to different surfaces. The lower track shows
the distance to upper and lower boundaries. Despite the
change in trajectory inclination, the interpreted position
of the boundaries is consistent. The image produced
during drilling was used to update the geological model
(Fig. 4.C, left). As a result of real-time interpolation of
the location of the reservoir top boundary, the trajectory
was moved up about 15 ft compared to the original plan.
distinct views. A polar plot shows the position of boundaries around the wellbore projected into a plane perpendicular to the tool axis (Fig. 4.B, left).
Distance to the boundary or boundaries and their orientations are indicated on
this plot. A curtain section display (Fig. 4.B, right) provides a side view showing structure and formation properties along the trajectory.
Well placement example in a North Sea field

A well placement example using the PeriScope 15 tool is from a mature field
in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, where the optimal well placement
15800
9600.00
16000
16200
16400
16600
16800
17000
17200
17400
17600
9610.00
9620.00
2,200 2,250 2,300 2,350 2,400 2,450 2,500 2,550 2,600 2,650 2,700
True horizontal length, m
Top reservoir as interpreted while drilling
Top reservoir as interpreted before drilling
Drilled trajectory
Plan trajectory
1000.00
581.71
326.38
183.12
102.75
57.65
32.34
18.15
10.18
5.71
3.21
1.80
1.01
0.57
0.32
0.10
Trajectory
9630.00
depth (ft)
distance (ft)
10.00
up
down
5.00
0.00
15800
Resistivity
Show Error
16000
16200
16400
16600
16800
17000
17200
17400
17600
Figure 4.C: Image of the North Sea reservoir produced in real time (right); geological model enhanced by PeriScope15 real-time interpretation (left).
49
Cretaceous
Senonian
Lithology
Dogger
This section discusses the principal cementing challenges

in Algeria and describes advanced technologies that have
improved primary cementing results and reduced the
need for remedial cementing. The discussion is supported
by case histories that illustrate the benefits of these new
technologies.
Geologic features of the Hassi Messaoud and Hassi Berkine fields are similar
(Fig. 4.45). The main productive reservoir in the Hassi Messaoud is the
Cambrian sandstone, located at a depth of 3,429 m [11,250 ft]. The average
pay thickness is about 275 m [900 ft]. The bottomhole static temperature is
about 120C [248F]. Across the 958-in. production casing, the pore and fracture
pressures are very closeequivalent to fluid densities of 2,000 and 2,100 kg/m3
[16.7 and 17.5 lbm/gal], respectively. However, the underlying reservoir is
largely depleted. To prevent formation breakdown and lost circulation, the
density of drilling fluids is restricted to 800 to 900 kg/m3 [6.7 to 7.5 lbm/gal]
in the 838-in. reservoir section. Another productive zone lies just above the
Cambrianthe Cambro-Ordovician. This formation is a highly fractured combination of shale and sandstone, and has low permeability. Lost circulation is
a risk, and cement slurry invasion can cause significant formation damage.
Liassic
When these problems occur, expensive remedial

cementing is usually necessary to establish zonal isolation. Remedial cementing, however, is often unreliable,
and more than one treatment may be necessary to
achieve the goal.2
The Hassi Berkine field began producing oil in the 1990s. Exploration revealed
the presence of several billion barrels of oil in the fielda production level
that may eventually rival that of Hassi Messaoud.
Salt-bearing
Zonal isolation is the prerequisite for optimal well productivity and longevity. The principal goal of primary
cementing is the complete and permanent isolation of
permeable zones located behind the casing. To meet the
objective of zonal isolation, drilling and preflush fluids
must be removed from the casing-borehole annulus, and
the annular space must be filled with cement slurry. Once
in place, the cement must harden and develop the
mechanical properties necessary to maintain a hydraulic
seal throughout the life of the well. Failure to do so may
cause the following completion, production, and environmental problems:1
Oil and gas may be lost from the pay zone to contaminate other zones, such as aquifers, or escape to the
surface and atmosphere.
Unwanted fluids, such as water, may be produced into
the wellbore.
Casing may be inadequately supported in the borehole
to cause loss of well integrity.
Casing corrosion may occur because of exposure to
subterranean saline brines.
Stimulation fluids or enhanced recovery chemicals may
bypass the zone of interest during injection.
Cementing challenges in Algeria
50
Ordovician
3,429 m
Sandstone-shale
Eruptive
Quartz
Sandstone-shale
Shale-sandstone
Sandstone-shale
Sandstone
3,484 m
to 3,394 m
Stopping depth
at 3,389 m
3,418 m
Hamra quartzites
Atchane sandstone
Gassi sandstone
Alternance
RI-D5
RA
R2
Casing design
221 m
343 m
Dolomite
443 m
Anydrite
640 m
767 m
Salt
26- 1858-in.
875 m
Limestone
section
1,030 m
Anydrite
1,378 m
Sandstone
16- 338-in.
1,403 m
Dolomite
section
1,664 m
Shaly sand
1,843 m
Dolomite
2,080 m Shale and marl
2,189 m
Shale
Anydrite
2,419 m
2,479 m Dolomite/anhydrite
2,581 m Salt-anhy-shale
Anhy-dolomite 1214- 958-in.
2,642 m
section
Salt-shale
2,701 m
2,735 m
Marl-dolom
KOP point
2,786 m Salt-dolom-anhy
2,988 m Salt-anhy-shale
Salt-shale
3,226 m
838- 7-in. liner
3,383 m
Shale
Triassic clay
sandstone
Andesite
Cambrian
The two principal oil-producing areas are the Hassi

Messaoud and Hassi Berkine oilfields (see Figs. 2.1, 2.2,
and 2.9). Hassi Messaoud has been in production since
the early 1960s. With more than 1,000 wells, it is the
largest field and accounts for 45% of Algerian oil production. Aggressive development of the field is in progress,
with the goal of doubling production within 5 to 7 years.
Miopliocene
Eocene
Carbonate
Anhydrite
Salt
Turonian
Cenomanian
Albian
Aptian
Barremian
Neocomian
Malm
Clayey
Lagoonal
LD1
LS1
LD2
LS2
LD3
TS1
TS2
TS3
Triassic clay
Depth
3,427 m
1858 in. at 500 m
1338 in. at 2,300 m

Liner hanger
50 m above
the LD2
958-in. at 3,200 m
7-in. liner at 3,300 m TVD

3,400 m MD
86.28 deg
Figure 4.45: Stratigraphic profile of the Hassi Messaoud oilfield. Problematic sections include the
Cenomanian, Albian, Aptian, LD2, TS2, TS3, Triassic Clay (TA), and Triassic Clay Sandstone (TAG).
Several problematic sections above the producing formations present a variety of cementing challenges. In the upper intermediate section, weak zones
and lost circulation have prevented the use of long cement columns. Isolation
is crucial, however, and this section was commonly cemented in two stages
as standard practice. The Albian is a freshwater aquifer, and excellent zonal
isolation above and below this formation is critical to preventing contamination. The Cenomanian is an evaporite zone that lies directly above the Albian.
Because of its solubility, the risk of washouts can threaten zonal isolation. In
addition, the formation can creep. If stresses are not adequately balanced, the
cement sheath may fracture. The Aptian, which lies directly below the Albian,
is a dolomitic formation that contains an aggressive brine containing mainly
Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32 and Cl. Such brines can cause severe casing corrosion if
zonal isolation is not achieved.
In the 1214-in. hole section, the LD2, at about 2,642 m [8,668 ft] comprises
intercalated dolomites and anhydrites. Like the Aptian, this section contains
very corrosive saline brine and the formation pressure is unusually high
2,200 kg/m3 [18.3 lbm/gal] equivalent circulating density (ECD). In addition,
the brine contains high concentrations of calcium and magnesium chlorides,
as well as dissolved CO2 and carbonates. Conventional Portland cement systems are vulnerable to calcium and magnesium salts, as well as to carbonation, thus resulting in deterioration and loss of zonal isolation.
The Triassic Saliferous (TS1), at 2,786 m [9,140 ft], contains salt, dolomite
and anhydrite; therefore, it presents challenges similar to the Aptian and
LD2. At 2,988 m [9,803 ft], the Triassic Saliferous (TS2) consists of plastic
shales that can slough and cause washouts. Directly below is the Triassic
Saliferous (TS3), a massive salt formation that can also slough. The formation has a tendency to creep and poses a long-term threat to cement sheath
integrity. These formations must be drilled with high mud weights, as pore
pressure ranges between 2,000 and 2,200 kg/m3 [16.7 and 18.3 lbm/gal] ECD.
The Triassic Clay (TA) and Triassic Clay Sandstone (TAG) are weaker formations with fracture gradients equivalent to 2,160 kg/m3 [18.0 lbm/gal]. They
are located at 3,383 m [11,100 ft]. Frequent total losses have resulted in hole
collapse. In these situations, kickoff plugs must be placed in order to drill to
the producing formations.
Advanced cementing
technologies and case histories
During the past 15 years, several cementing technologies have been used to
overcome many of the obstacles presented by the problematic formations at
Hassi Messaoud and Hassi Berkine.
Eliminating stage cementing

Traditionally, cement systems are designed without considering the particle sizes of the ingredients (primarily
cement, extenders, and weighting materials). When conventional additives are used to adjust the slurry density,
performance difficulties are frequently encountered. If
the solid/liquid ratio is too high, the slurry is difficult to
mix and pump. If the converse is true, the slurry is unstable and cannot develop sufficient compressive strength.
Such problems can be avoided by controlling the particle
sizes of the solids in the slurry.
CemCRETE concrete-based oilwell and cementing technology employs an engineered-particle-size approach to
cement system design. For CemCRETE systems, the
slurry and set-cement properties depend on maximizing
the packing volume fraction (PVF) of the solids (see
Engineered Particle Size Cement Systems, page 4.57).
The PVF can be maximized by using coarse, medium, and
fine particles in specific volumetric ratios (Fig. 4.D). The
fine particles fit in the void space between the mediumsize particles, and the medium-size particles fit in the
void space between the coarse particles.3 This arrangement reduces the amount of water required to prepare
mixable and pumpable slurry. As a result, compressive
strength increases, and porosity and permeability
decrease (Figs. 4.E and 4.F).
The LiteCRETE slurry system is the low-density member
of the CemCRETE family. The slurry density varies
between 840 to 1,560 kg/m3 [7 to 13 lbm/gal]. Such
slurries perform comparably to ordinary 1,900-kg/m3
[15.8-lbm/gal] slurries in terms of compressive strength
and permeability. However, LiteCRETE slurry stability is
superior to conventional systems because the water content is lower.
In the Hassi Berkine field, operated by Groupement
Berkine, the Albian freshwater aquifer overlies oil-producing Cambrian sandstones and underlies salty
Cenomanian carbonate and evaporite rocks. Additional
geologic complications include weakness of certain formations below the Albian that are prone to lost circulation during drilling and have the potential for flowing
salt. The traditional cementing approach has been to set
a stage tool below the Albian, cement the lower zones,
51
Typical casing
program
LiteCRETE casing
program
Fresh water
The stage tool created
a weakness in the
958-in. casing, requiring
7-in. casing to surface
Low fracture
gradient
958-in. intermediate
casing cemented
in two stages to cover
freshwater zone with
low-permeability cement
7-in. full production

string
The bond index is denoted from 100% to 0% in Track 2, with yellow indicating cement behind the casing. The cement map in Track 3 is a circumferential
representation of the acoustic impedance of the material present behind the
casing. The cement map was generated by USI UltraSonic Imager data; a scale
from 0 to 4 MRayl was used to better fit to the lower acoustic impedance of
LiteCRETE cement. Dark areas, equivalent to 4 MRayl, indicate excellent
cement bond to the casing. Track 4 displays classic cement bond log information, including amplitude (solid purple), transit time (blue and red dotted), and
958-in. casing
cemented in one
stage with
LiteCRETE slurry
CBLF
0
(MV)
50
Transit time
7-in. production
liner replaces the
full string due to
the elimination
of the stage tool
400
Figure 4.46: Elimination of stage cementing. In the Hassi Berkine field,
Gamma ray
LiteCRETE technology meets multiple operational challenges: protection
0 (gAPI) 100
of freshwater supplies, high compressive strength with low density, and
Caliper
reduction of cost and risk. By eliminating stage cementing, a 7-in. production string to surface could be replaced by a 7-in. production liner.
and then isolate the Albian in the second stage of

cementing operations. Stage cementing is costly, however,
and often results in suboptimal zonal isolation that
requires remedial cementing.
Bonded from
USBI to LHF2
10 (in.) 20
Gas from
LHF2 to USGI
Bit size
Liquid from
10 (in.) 20 USGI to USBI
Cement
map with 0
impedance
classification
0.00
0.30
1.90
2.0909
2.2818
2.4727
2.6836
2.8545
3.0454
3.2364
3.4273
3.6182
3.8091
4.00
(s)
200
TTSL
(MV)
50
DCD PA 100 BI
(MV)
50
DCD PA 80 BI
0
(MV)
50
Min
Casing collar locator

-35
(----)
5 200
Sonic VDL curve

amplitude
Max
(s)
1,200
Because of its low density and high performance,

LiteCRETE cement has made it possible to isolate all
zones in one stage (Fig. 4.46). A typical single-stage operation in this area can save almost a full day of rig time
and decrease the cost of fluid contamination that might
occur during stage cementing. In this case, a 1,330-kg/m3
[10.85-lbm/gal] LiteCRETE slurry allowed the elimination
of the stage tool. This removed a known weak point from
the 958-in. casing string, making it possible to replace a
full 7-in. production casing to surface with a 7-in. production liner. Additional savings stem from the low incidence of remedial work, which typically requires 2 days
of rig time as well as additional cementing costs.
Excellent zonal isolation was confirmed by logs (Fig. 4.47).
In the first track (from left to right), the green gamma ray
curve shows minor lithology variation with depth; the
black curve indicates bit size; and the red curve, hole size.
Figure 4.47: Evaluation of LiteCRETE cement in a well in Algeria using bond logs. Results confirm
excellent cement integrity and zonal isolation behind the 958-in. casing.
52
casing collar locations (black). Additionally, the orange and green solid lines
represent the expected amplitude for 100% and 80% bond. Finally, the
Variable Density cement bond quality log in Track 5 provides information
about the quality of the cement-formation bond displaying a color-coded
traveltime trace at every depth. The relatively low color contrast at early times
indicates weak casing arrivals, which is expected when there is a good bond
between the casing and a relatively low acoustic impedance cement.
Success of the single-stage cementing process has not been limited to the
Hassi Berkine field. The technique has also improved cementing results in the
In Amenas, Hassi Messaoud, Berkaoui, Hassi R'mel, and Gassi Touil fields.
Ensuring long-term zonal isolation with flexible cements

Sonatrach recently began an aggressive program to increase oil production
from the Hassi Messaoud field. The goal is to drill and complete 100 new horizontal wells in 2 years. The main challenges are zonal isolation of the waterbearing Albian formation and of the unstable and corrosive LD2 formation.
Isolating the LD2 is particularly critical. Allowing the acidic carbonated brine to
flow after cementing would dramatically reduce the life of the cement sheath,
inducing communication between formations, casing corrosion, and casing collapse. Portland cements are thermodynamically unstable with respect to carbonated brine CO2.4,5 As carbonation proceeds, the calcium silicate hydrate
binder is reduced to calcium carbonate and silica gel, resulting in severe deterioration. Flowing carbonate brines accelerate the process.
Casing corrosion from brine exposure would eventually lead to water production. To correct such problems requires a large expenditure of time and money
on remedial cementing and also results in lost production time.
CemSTRESS sensivity analysis base case

70%
130%
75%
Weight of inner casing
120%
3,450 MPa
Well presure change

10,300 MPa
Compressive strength
of inner cement
4.7 MPa 6.3 MPa

990 MPa
Youngs modulus
of inner cement
1,660 MPa
Standoff of
inner casing
80% 100%
-48
-24
Youngs modulus
of information
24
48
Parameter value change, %

Cement system passes
Cement system within 80% to 100% of final strength
Cement system fails
Figure 4.48: Typical CemSTRESS sensitivity analysis, which allows one-to-one comparison of FlexSTONE
cement systems with conventional systems against the variance of numerous wellbore parameters.
Even when a cement slurry is properly placed and initially

provides adequate zonal isolation, changes in downhole
conditions can induce stresses that compromise the
integrity of the cement sheath. Loss of zonal isolation
can result from disturbances during subsequent well
operations, changes in formation stresses during production, or even seismic events. In most cases, microannuli
form at the casing/cement and casing/formation interfaces; in extreme cases, the cement sheath can be
reduced to rubble.
The traditional cement system at Hassi Messaoud was a
2,060-kg/m3 [17.2-lbm/gal] Class G slurry containing
hematite and silica. The slurry also contained 18% NaCl
by weight of water for compatibility with the formation
brine. Of the wells completed in 1999, 75% have zonal
isolation problems, and of those completed in 2000, 78%
have pressure on the annulus. Clearly, a better cement
system was needed that could withstand the chemical
environment and the rigors of production.
The solution was FlexSTONE advanced flexible cement
technology. FlexSTONE systems combine the engineered
particle-size distribution of CemCRETE systems with flexible particles that accommodate wide ranges of temperature, pressure, and fluid density.6 These particles lower
Young's modulus, thereby increasing the flexibility of the
set cement. To improve bonding, these systems can be
designed to produce up to a maximum of 2% linear
expansion after full cement hydration.
Formation properties play a critical role in the performance of wellbore cements. It is not possible to alter the
properties of the formation, but FlexSTONE technology
gives engineers an enhanced ability to ensure that the
cement sheath is more flexible than the surrounding formation. A 2D modeling package, CemSTRESS cement
sheath stress analysis software, helps engineers simulate the behavior of the cement sheath in different pressure and temperature regimes and wellbore configurations. The software inputs include well configuration,
points of interest, cement properties, formation properties, and casing properties. Formation properties are
derived from sonic logs and core analyses from complete
sections. The software calculates the cement properties
required to maintain integrity and also detects risks of
cracking in tension, rupture in compression, or formation
of a microannulus (Fig. 4.48).
53
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)

150
-19

-19
(s)
200
Tension
(lbf)
3,000
250 5,000
Transit time
450
(s)
Transit time sliding gate

1

450
250
Depth
(m)
(s)
400
Tension
Transit time
CBL amplitude
0
(MV)
Variable density
Min amplitude Max
100 200
(s)
1,200
200
(s)
(lbf)
400 0 4,500 0
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(m)
CBL amplitude
sliding gate
(MV)
CBL amplitude
(MV)
100
Min
100 200
Variable density
amplitude Max
(s)
1,200
X,775
X,650
X,800
X,675
Figure 4.49: Cement bond log from Well A (left) and Well B (right) at Hassi Messaoud completed with FlexSTONE cement. The logs highlight good cement coverage and isolation in
the LD2 intervals (X,770 m to X,798 m in Well A and X,651 m and X,674 m in Well B), revealed by the low CBL amplitude (Track 2) and formation arrivals exhibited by the waveform
Variable Density log (Track 3).
Compared to conventional systems, FlexSTONE cements

contain less Portland cement and are less permeable
because of the high solids volume fraction and low
porosity. Consequently, there is less reactive binder, and
the corrosive brine in the LD2 formation cannot easily
penetrate the cement matrix.
FlexSTONE cement was introduced in Hassi Messaoud in
2003. A comparison of the slurry properties compared to
the original conventional cement is shown in Table 4.5.
Of the 13 wells cemented with the new system, no
annular pressure has been detected and no remedial
cementing has been required. Figure 4.49 shows typical
logs that demonstrate excellent zonal isolation. In both
wells, the cement bond log (CBL) amplitude (Track 2) is
low [below 20 mV in Fig. 4.49 (left) and less than 30 mV
in Fig. 4.49 (right)], and the waveform Variable Density log displayed in Track 3
exhibits formation arrivals that tend to correlate well with the gamma ray (GR)
in Track 1 (see Well IntegrityCement Evaluation, Chapter 5, page 5.32).
Fibers cure lost circulation

Encountering partial or complete lost circulation has been a common occurrence in the Hassi Berkine basin. The producing Cambrian sandstone reservoir
contains fractures that are either natural or induced by drilling (Fig. 4.50). Lost
circulation through the fractures can result in low cement tops and impaired
production arising from the plugging of conductive fractures.
Density, kg/m3
24-hr compressive
Youngs
Porosity, % modulus,
strength, MPa
MPa
Conventional cement
2,060
40
58
9,000
FlexSTONE cement
2,060
19.3
40
4,500
Table 4.5: Comparison of the FlexSTONE slurry properties and conventional cement slurry properties.
54
High of amplitude
(FA75)
0
CFVL
Gamma ray
0
(rps)
Depth
(m)
50
(db)
50
Min of amplitude
(UAMN)
0 (m/hr)150,000
RSAV
(db)
Max of amplitude
(UAMX)
(gAPI) 150
CS
50
Median of amplitude
(FAED)
450 (s/m) 750 0
(db)
In the Stah field of the Illizi basin, Sonatrach had used conventional lost circulation materials (LCM) in an attempt to
curtail the losses, with varying degrees of success. Typical
logs from wells completed with cements containing conventional LCMs showed evidence of limited isolation and
free pipe, which has resulted from lost circulation.
Remedial cementing was necessary to establish adequate
zonal isolation.
0
8
(db)
50
Low of amplitude
(FA25)
0
(db)
50 -500.0000
Corrected amplitude
(db)
15.0000
UBAZ
X,669
X,670
X,671
Most LCMs are sized granular materials that aggregate

and plug thief zones as the cement escapes. The size and
concentration of the LCM must be carefully chosen to
control the volume of slurry that escapes into the formation and to maintain proper annular circulation. Such concerns are minimized when fibers are used instead of
granular materials. Fibers congregate and form bridges
more efficiently.
CemNET fibers, optimized for size and flexibility, are
mixed with the cement slurry and pass through pumping
equipment to form mat-like bridges across loss zones
(Fig. 4.51). Losses during cement operations are eliminated,
reducing the need for remedial operations. CemNET
fibers are inert; therefore, they do not affect the thickening time or compressive strength and are compatible
with other cement additives. In addition, there is no temperature limitation with their use.
X,672
X,673
X,674
X,675
X,676
Figure 4.51: CemNET fibers. Dry fibers (right) are supplied as small bundles
that facilitate mixing with the cement slurry. When wet, the fiber bundles
X,677
break apart, and the fibers associate to form a mat (left).
Figure 4.50: UBI Ultrasonic Borehole Imager log of fractured sandstone in Well C in the Stah field.
Such fractures (natural or drilling induced) chronically cause lost circulation leading to low cement
tops and impaired production.
55

-19
-19
600
(s)
Transit time
600
(s)
(gAPI)
400
200
Tension
(lbf)
500
200 2,500
Gamma ray
150
Transit time
Depth
(m)
(s)
200

400
CBL amplitude
0
(MV)
Min
50 200
Variable density
amplitude Max
(s)
1,200
X,200
(lbf)
200 0 4,000
Gamma ray
0
B
(s)
(gAPI)
Tension
150
Depth
(m)
Fluid compensated
CBL amplitude
0
(MV)
Min
50 200
Variable density
amplitude Max
(s)
1,200
X,150
X,200
X,250
Figure 4.52: Cement Bond Logs from two nearby wells in the Stah field. (a) Well C was cemented with CemNET fibers and its log shows excellent cement coverage and isolation
revealed by a low CBL amplitude and formation arrivals. (b) Well D was cemented with a conventional system, and its log shows a free-pipe response with a high CBL amplitude and
strong casing arrivals. This indicates an absence of cement due to fluid loss in the zones below. Well D is believed to feature fractured intervals as exhibited in Well C.
After reviewing the capabilities of CemNET technology,

Sonatrach elected to use fibers to control lost circulation. The success of CemNET technology is apparent
from typical logs from two wells (Figs. 4.52A and 4.52B),
one cemented with CemNET fibers (Fig. 4.52A) and the
other using LCMs (Fig. 4.52B). Figure 4.52A shows a low
amplitude of the CBL (below 20 mV), and Fig. 4.52B indicates a rather high amplitude, reaching 80 mV. The formation arrivals exhibited by the waveform Variable
Density log in Well C (Fig. 4.52A) reinforce the conclusion
of good coverage and isolation in Well C, while the
strong casing arrivals in Well D (Fig. 4.52B) indicate the
absence of cement filling the annulus. In Well C, the primary cementing objectives have been met, and no remedial cementing has been necessary.
56
Summary and future work

Petroleum extraction in Algeria can be unusually problematic because of the
complex array of geologic obstacles. These obstacles are especially significant
in the context of cementing. As a result, Sonatrach and its partners in Algeria
have been proactive in the adoption of advanced LiteCRETE, FlexSTONE, and
CemNET cementing technologies.
Use of FlexSTONE technology has been largely confined to major fields such
as Hassi Messaoud. Other fields in Algeria may also benefit from this technology; therefore, investigations should be conducted to determine whether its
use should be expanded.
Cement corrosion owing to CO2 exposure remains a significant challenge.
CemCRETE and FlexSTONE cements offer improved resistance because of
their lower permeability and Portland cement content. Nevertheless, there is
room for improvement. Research is under way to better understand cement
carbonation and develop a truly robust solution.
Engineered Particle Size Cement Systems

Cement slurry properties depend on many variables: the amount and properties
of solids (including cement), the additives, the temperature, and the amount
and type of mix water, and pressure. Achieving optimal cement performance
can be difficult at the extremes of the slurry density range. At slurry densities
above 2,100 kg/m3 [17.5 lbm/gal], designing a stable and pumpable slurry can
be difficult. In the low-density range (less than 1,680 kg/m3 [14.0 lbm/gal]),
achieving rapid compressive strength development and high final compressive
strength can be challenging. In conventional well cement systems, the slurry
density is adjusted by varying the water/solids ratio or by adding weighting
agents or low-density extenders. A more sophisticated design method,
CemCRETE concrete-based oilwell cementing technology, considers the particle-size distribution of the solids in the cement slurry.
CemCRETE concept
For CemCRETE cement systems, the slurry and set-cement properties depend
on the following:
properties of the solids
packing volume fraction (PVF) of the solids in the blend (fpV)
solid volume fraction (SVF) of the resulting slurry (fsV).
In a powder, the PVF is defined as the volume of space

occupied by the solid particles (the absolute volume)
divided by the total volume of solid particles plus the void
space between them (the bulk volume):
fpV =
(Va)solids .
Vbulk
The packing of a powder is a purely geometrical phenomenon. Therefore, the PVF depends only on the size and
shape of the particles. A perfect arrangement of spheres
with the same size (compact hexagonal packing) has a
PVF of 0.74. A random packing of the same spheres has
a PVF of 0.64. In other words, the solids occupy 64% of
the bulk volume, and the void space occupies 36% of the
bulk volume.
Higher PVFs can be achieved by preparing powders with
solids that have more than one particle size. The smaller
particles fit inside the void spaces between the larger
ones. In particular, when the smaller particles are sufficiently small and they are all the same size, they can fill
64% of the void left by the larger size. Hence, the PVF of
such a blend would be
fpV =
0.64 + (0.36 x 0.64)

= 0.87 .
1.0
The PVF can be maximized by using at least three different

granulometric fractionscoarse, medium, and fine particles in specific volumetric ratios. As shown in Fig. 4.D, the
fine particles fit in the void space between the
medium-size particles, and the medium-size particles fit
in the void space between the coarse particles. When
the blend is properly formulated with the right proportion of each of the different classes of particles (having
their respective mean particle diameter and particle size
distribution), the PVF may increase to as much as 0.95.
Figure 4.D: Illustration of PVF concept in CemCRETE technology.
57
The solid volume fraction (SVF) is the ratio between the

volume of solids in a slurry and the total slurry volume
(solids + mix water):
Vsolids .
Vslurry
In CemCRETE systems, the density of the slurry is adjusted

first by varying the density of the blend, b, for a given
slurry SVF, and then, by possibly readjusting the SVF of
the slurry:
5,000
4,000
Compressive strength, psi
fsV =
6,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
16
24
Time, hr
slurry = 8.345 x [ b x fsV + (1- fsV) ] .

In addition to affecting slurry density, the SVF influences
the cement slurry and set cement properties in the following ways:
thickening time (the lower the SVF, the longer the thickening time)
compressive strength (the higher the SVF, the higher
the compressive strength)
stability (the higher the SVF, the better the slurry stability)
fluid loss (the higher the SVF, the lower the fluid-loss
rate)
rheology (the higher the SVF, the higher the slurry viscosity).
CemCRETE slurry design

The SVF of a neat, 1,897-kg/m3 [15.8-lbm/gal] Class G
slurry is 0.42. Maximizing the PVF of the solids reduces
the amount of water required to prepare a pumpable
slurry. In most cases, the optimal SVF in CemCRETE slurries is 0.55 to 0.60. Within such a narrow SVF range,
CemCRETE slurry design relies on only two parameters:
the particle-size distribution and the specific gravities of
the blend components. As a result, CemCRETE cement
systems have several advantages over conventional
cement systems:
18-Ibm/gal DensCRETE slurry

12-Ibm/gal LiteCRETE slurry
15.8-Ibm/gal conventional slurry
Figure 4.E: Compressive strength development. CemCRETE slurries develop compressive strength
earlier and reach higher levels than conventional cement slurries.
The slurry rheology is significantly less dependent on the slurry density.

The compressive strength and permeability of the set cement are significantly less dependent on the slurry density.
The slurry is more stable.
Better fluid-loss control is achieved.
Slurry density
Table 4.A presents some common cement slurry solids with various specific
gravities, organized according to their position in the trimodal particle-size
scheme. Assuming that the particles in the blend are spherical, it is possible to
achieve PVFs as high as 0.88. The available selection of particles enables the
preparation of stable CemCRETE slurries at densities from 960 to 2,760 kg/m3
[8.0 to 23.0 lbm/gal].
Fine
Light (< 2 sg)
Medium
Coarse
Glass bubbles
Cenospheres
Medium (> 2 sg < 3 sg)
Micronized silica
Cement silica flour
CaCO3, silica sand
Heavy (> 3 sg)
Manganese tetraoxide
Hematite
IImenite, hematite
Table 4.A: Some common cement slurry solids with various specific gravities.
58
Slurry rheology
Compressive strength and permeability
The rheology of a concentrated suspension depends on the packing behavior

of the particles. At PVFs as high as 0.88, the resulting slurries have low plastic viscosities across the slurry density range (Table 4.B). For a given SVF, the
yield point, y, decreases as the concentration of dispersant increases. This is
also true for conventional slurries. Using a dispersant is important in
CemCRETE slurries to prevent agglomeration of the fine particles. The y of
most CemCRETE slurries is usually less than 9.6 Pa [20 lbf/100 ft2].
The increase in solids content allowed by blend optimization has a beneficial effect on the properties of the set
material, particularly at the upper and lower ranges of
the slurry density scale.
3,000
2,500
Compressive strength, psi
2,000
1,500
The increase in solids content of CemCRETE slurries

allows early compressive-strength development and a
higher ultimate compressive strength (Fig. 4.E) to be
obtained where required. Figure 4.F shows that, at very
low slurry densities, CemCRETE slurries develop more
compressive strength than foamed cements. With
FlexSTONE technology, optimization of the blend also
allows systems with low Youngs modulus to be
designed. Increased solids content also reduces the permeability of the set cement substantially (Fig. 4.G).
1,000
500
0.20
0
10
Density, Ibm/gal
Foamed cement
CemCRETE
0.15
Figure 4.F: 24-hour-compressive-strength foamed cement and CemCRETE cement at various densities.
0.10
20
8.7
SVF, %
58
60
Yield point y, Ibf/100 ft2

After mixing
15
At 185 F
14
Plastic viscosity, cP
After mixing
255
213
At 185 F
181
163
10-min gel strength, Ibf/100ft2
19
32
1-min gel strength, Ibf/100ft2
11
20
28
12
0.05
Permeabilty, mD
Density, Ibm/gal
0
Cement systems
Extended lightweight cement
15.8-Ibm/gal class G cement
CemCRETE cement
Figure 4.G: Set cement permeability. Permeabilities to water of conventional cement systems can be as high as 0.20 mD. The granulometric optimization of CemCRETE systems results in set-cement permeabilities
API free water, mL/250 mL

Fluid-loss rate, mL/30 min at BHCT
below 0.05 mD.
Bottomhole circulating temperature
Table 4.B. Slurry properties.
59

Transitioning from completion to production often
requires killing the well immediately after perforating,
thus exposing the formation to potentially damaging kill
fluid. And to optimize perforation tunnels, the transition
may require cleanup to remove formation damage.
To improve horizontal well deliverability by minimizing
formation damage, an innovative underbalanced oriented
perforating technique was devised and successfully
implemented for the first time in Algeria. The procedure
combines the use of the FIV Formation Isolation Valve
with a dynamic underbalanced perforating technique.
Using the FIV tool keeps damaging completion fluid away
from the formation right after perforating, and the dynamic
underbalanced technique cleans the perforations more
efficiently than conventional static underbalanced perforating methods. In addition, a gun-orienting system with
an accuracy limit of 10 degrees is used to orient the perforations away from the oil/water contact, located nearby
below the horizontal sections.
Shifting tool engaged
Closed, guns removed
Trip saver opened
Production tubing
Permanent packer
The new technique was used in 2003 in horizontal well

REC-2H, which was drilled by Groupement SonatrachAgip in the Tadrart sandstone formation of the Berkine
basin. After successful results in this well, Groupement
adopted its use in 2005 for two additional wellsROM-5
and ROM-9.
Work string
Using the FIV system for

underbalanced perforating
During underbalanced perforating operations, the well is
normally displaced with completion fluids to lower the
hydrostatic pressure below the formation pressure. This
circulation can be performed before or at the same time
the tubing-conveyed perforating (TCP) string is run in. The
FIV shifting tool is placed at the end of the bottomhole
assembly and then run with the coiled tubing (CT) completion string in the ball-open position (Fig. 4.53). As the string
is run through the valve, it slides beneath the FIV collets
and past the open ball. Once at proper depth, the guns are
fired. As the guns are retrieved through the FIV tool, the
shifting tool on the bottom of the gun string closes the
valve of the ball, and the well becomes isolated. At this
60
FIV Formation Isolation Valve
Production casing
Guns
Figure 4.53: The FIV system for underbalanced perforating.
Shifting tool
stage, tubing pressure can be bled off and the guns safely retrieved. The well
can then be immediately put on production by pressuring up the tubing above
the FIV tool, and reopening it using a tubing pressure cycle.
Well REC-2H
The Rhourde El Echouil structure, located in the dipping sector of Block 403d,
Zemoul El Kbar, is about 7 km southwest of ZEK-1. This region is characterized by two fault systemsone main fault that runs parallel to the NE-SW El
Bourma fault, and a second system having a NW-SE direction. Well REC-2H is
located in an anticlinal structure elongated in a NNE-SSW direction and is
bounded toward the west and south by normal faults (Fig. 4.54). The limit in the
other directions is ensured by the dip of the structure and toward the northeast by a depression that separates this structure from the ZEK-1 structure.
WNW
Well REC-2H
REC NW structure
REC structure
Trias
Devonian
CT perforating
with HSD guns
328 m
TD 4,600 m
Tadrart reservoir
Upthrown block
Tadrart reservoir
Downthrown block
Silurian
Figure 4.54: Trajectory of Well REC-2H in the Rhourde El Echouil structure.
Ori
Inv
To bring the REC-2H well on production, Groupement

Sonatrach-Agip and Schlumberger collaborated to use not
only FIV technology but also other novel technologies,
including the PURE Perforating for Ultimate Reservoir
Exploitation system, DepthLOG depth locator, and deeppenetrating shaped PowerJet charges conveyed via coiled
tubing. The two companies also jointly designed and
planned the well to ultimately achieve a successful result.
Operations
Oriented perforating
The horizontal section of Well REC-2H was drilled in the
bottom part of the reservoir with the aim of perforating
the high side of the wellbore to maximize oil recovery
(Fig. 4.55). The Schlumberger oriented perforating system
was used to accurately align the guns across the desired
intervals in the horizontal section. By means of passive
orienting weights and gun sections joined by roller-bearing swivels that handle high loads, the system orients
gun sections longer than 1,000 ft [300 m] to accurately
shoot within 10 degrees of the predetermined direction.
By shooting upward in Well REC-2H, the perforated channels were more effectively cleaned since any debris fell
to the bottom and the wellbore remained isolated from
the water zone located below it. PowerJet high-shot
density (HSD) charges were selected, loaded into 278-in.
carriers with a density of 3 shots per foot (spf), and oriented upward.
Completion and FIV installation
en
ted
Job design
pe
rfo
rat
ion
ad
ed
zo
ne
Wa
te
rc
res
ti
OW ng
OC
Figure 4.55: Oriented perforations in the horizontal section of Well REC-2H.
The well was completed with 412-in. production tubing,

and the 2-in. CT rig-up began. A 2-in. gamma ray/casing
collar locator string was conveyed by the coil to provide
a base log of the well and a reference depth. After the CT
logging string was pulled to surface, the CT perforating
stringmade up of a circulating ball firing head, depth
logging tool, gamma ray/CCL, and 340 m of 278-in., 3-spf
PowerJet HSD gunswas run in the hole to 4,021 m
(bottom shot).
After correlation with the DepthLOG tool, an 800-psi
underbalanced condition was reached by displacing
diesel in the well. At that stage, a 58-in. ball was dropped
inside the coiled tubing and the string pressure was
increased to 2,910 psi to activate the gun firing system.
After firing, the formation fluid immediately entered the
61
Results
Groupement Sonatrach-Agip forecast REC-2H production
at approximately 5,000 BOPD. Actual production reached
7,000 BOPD. The productivity index (PI) was estimated to
be four times higher in Well REC-2H than in Well REC-1H
located in the same field and completed with a standard
system using a slotted liner. Additionally, the Groupement
estimated a rig time saving of 13 days. With this success,
Groupement decided to apply the same underbalanced
perforating technique to Wells ROM-5 and ROM-9 in the
Rhourde Messaoud field.
Groupement Sonatrach-Agip found a workable solution to transitioning from

completion to production in the Berkine basin. The high PIs noted in the three
wells confirmed that the Tadrart formation was not impaired by the underbalanced CT perforating operations. DepthLOG correlation ensured that the gun
string hit the target, and deep, clean perforations were achieved with the
Schlumberger PURE system and PowerJet charges. The innovative FIV underbalanced perforating technique was used to successfully isolate the perforated
interval until the well was placed on production. The cross-disciplinary solution protected the formation from damage, enhanced reservoir production,
and improved the safety of underbalanced operations.
While application in the Berkine basin wells confirmed the viability of this
technique, it also indicated that successful application in complex reservoir
structures depends on preliminary wellbore and formation analysis based on
borehole imaging and 3D seismic, and on maintaining a precautionary distance from the oil/water contact.
3,000
3,720
2,500
3,715
1,500
500
Pressure, psi
CoilLife depth, m
3,690
0.5
-500
-1,000
0
13:48:58
14:22:18
14:55:38
15:28:58
62
16:02:18
Time, hh:mm:ss
Wellhead pressure
Circulation pressure
Total pump rate
CoilLife depth
Figure 4.56: Real-time monitoring of the complete cycle of CT perforating operations.
Pressure, psi
4,000
25
3,000
20
2,000
15
1,000
10
5
FIV open at WHP = 920 psi
-1,000
0
06:00:06
06:25:06
06:50:06
07:15:06
Time, hh:mm:ss
Wellhead pressure
Circulation pressure
Total pump rate
Figure 4.57: Opening the FIV tool by pressure-cycling the tubing.
1.5
1,000
3,700
3,695
2.0
Perforation indication,
600-psi WHP
CT at 3,702 m
3,710
In September 2005, the same technique was used in

Well ROM-9. The TCP string was run to 4,042 m, and
after the brine was displaced with diesel, an interval of
245 m (4,035- to 3,790-m depth) was perforated in a onetime shooting operation. Subsequently, well testing
operations performed on a 1-in. choke showed an estimated production of 9,000 BOPD.
The three wells were subsequently monitored. In Well
REC-2H, rapid water production after 1 year was correlated to fault conductivity. ROM-5 and ROM-9 showed no
indication of fault connectivity and sustained the initial
production and water cut during the first year.
CT reel repositioning
for dropping the ball
2,000
3,705
In February 2005, Well ROM-5 was perforated underbalanced using the same FIV tool shoot, no kill technique.
A total of 252 m of 278 in. HSD PowerJet guns (phasing
60 degrees, 3 spf, high-side orientation) were run to perforate three interval zones. After the FIV tool was closed
and the TCP string was pulled out of the hole, the FIV tool
was opened again and production testing operations
started. A production level of 10,000 BOPD was measured with a flowing tubinghead pressure of 120 bar,
exceeding the total anticipated production by 30%.
2.5
CBF activated 2,910 psi
Total pump rate, bbl/min
To open the FIV tool, pressure in the production tubing

was cycled 13 times to bring it up to 3,500 psi (Fig. 4.57).
The well started producing on August 29, 2003.
Conclusion
07:40:06
Total pump rate, bbl/min
production string. The CT perforating string was then

pulled out of the hole. Once the bottomhole assembly
was at the FIV depth, the shifting tool engaged the FIV
closing system. The ball valve closed, isolating the formation. The CT was then safely pulled out of the hole.
Figure 4.56 illustrates the real-time monitoring of the
complete cycle of operations.
PURE System: A Dynamic Underbalanced Technique for Increased Productivity
Casing
Cement
Perforation tunnel
Formation damage
Figure 4.H: The PURE System removes the damage caused by the perforating process.
Underbalanced perforating has proved to be the technique of choice for

removing perforation damage and producing productive perforations (Fig. 4.H).
In conventionally designed static underbalanced perforating operations, the
wellbore pressure is set below the reservoir pressure before the guns are
fired. This static underbalanced methodology, however, sometimes results in
disappointing levels of productivity.
Single-shot perforating experiments at the Schlumberger Productivity
Enhancement Research Facility (PERF) in Rosharon, Texas, have shown that
2,500
Differential pressure, psi
1,500
500
0
-500
-1,500
-2,500
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Time, s
Figure 4.I: Perforating experiments have demonstrated that wellbore pressure varies considerably
during the first half-second after a charge is detonated.
50
0
Differential pressure, bar
-100
-150
Wellbore pressure
-200
-250
-300
-1
10
Time, s
Figure 4.J: Dynamic underbalance enables perforation cleanup immediately after perforating in this
tubing-conveyed perforating job.
The PURE perforating system optimizes the dynamic

underbalance (Fig. 4.J) and consistently minimizes or
eliminates perforation damage, thus maximizing well
productivity or injectivity. With the PURE system, the permeability of the crushed zone compared with the undisturbed reservoir (kc/k) can be close to 1.0, in contrast to
the 0.05 to 0.3 range typical of conventional static underbalanced perforating. The dynamic underbalance is
achieved with minimal or no initial static underbalance.
The PURE technique has been applied successfully in
more than 180 wells in hard- and soft-rock formations, oil
and gas reservoirs, and sandstones and carbonates. It
can be conveyed via wireline or coiled tubing.
Benefits of the PURE perforating system include
enhanced acidizing and hydraulic fracturing operations
and treatment results
improved isolation resulting from minimal cementsandface hydraulic bond disruption
controlled post-perforation surge to minimize the
chance of a gun sticking
clean perforations when multiple wireline runs are
required
elimination of remedial perforation-wash acid jobs.
Reservoir pressure
-50
the dynamic underbalance (the transient underbalance

just after creating the perforation cavity)not the initial
static underbalancegoverns perforation cleanup. In
fact, wellbore pressure has been found to vary considerably in the time just after the perforation tunnels are created (Fig. 4.I). Additionally, PERF experiments have indicated that improvements in perforation characteristics
can be achieved by accounting for the completion geometry, fluids, and perforating hardware in the job design.
63

Formation failure is a serious problem in several producing areas of Algeria. It can be as subtle as the failure at
the sand grain scale where sand grains are dislodged
through rock failure and are produced, to massive failure
of formation material of sufficient volume to cause a catastrophic loss of the wellbore. Even minimal sand production can create havoc in producing facilities through
premature erosion of valves, wellheads, and piping.
Eventually, sand production results in a reduction or loss
of well productivity. Algerian production has experienced
formation failure that represents the spectrum from production of sand to the production of rock fragments,
which have ultimately caused a partial or complete loss
of wellbore productivity. Understanding why a formation
produces sand is the first step in developing a methodology to mitigate and manage formation failure.
Formation stability during production is normally
addressed during the well planning phase. Formation
instability, however, can be a persistent problem that can
surface any time during the productive life of a well, and
the occurrence of formation instability may instantaneously turn a productive well into an unproductive one.
This section includes descriptive case studies of sand and
rock production that illustrate specific problems encountered in Algerian wells. These studies describe the methods developed to diagnose the problem and the procedures used within Algeria to mitigate formation failure or
reduce its impact. The role of technology to enhance the
prediction of sand production is also discussed.
Rock strength and stress:

components of analyses
Reservoirs in Algeria have experienced formation failure
ranging from sand production, observed in the vertical
wells of the Berkine field, to the loss of productive lateral
length in the horizontal wells of Hassi Messaoud. In each
case, there is a delicate balance between maximizing the
productivity of the well and providing the highest security
against wellbore damage due to formation failure.
64
Production in both fields is through screenless completions. The production tunnel can either be an uncased wellbore or, often, a perforation. Sanding is generally caused by mechanical failure of the production tunnel, which occurs when
the state of stress around the production tunnel exceeds the rock strength.
Sand production in the Berkine area

In many cases sand failure occurs where the sandstone is weakest, but this is
not always the case. In the Berkine area in the east of Algeria the Strunian
reservoirs exhibit a wide variation in the porosity of sandstones that make up
the main reservoirs. Some of these sands have porosities up to 30%.
Operators who encountered these high-porosity sands suspected they might
be quite weak and were immediately concerned about the possibility of sand
production when wells in the field were brought on stream. Laboratory tests
on cores showed that the high-porosity sands are weak, with rock strengths in
the region of 5 MPa [750 psi]. Lower porosity sands, in comparison, have much
higher rock strengthsin the area of 70 to 80 MPa [10,000 to 12,000 psi].
Operators naturally assumed that the high-porosity zones would be the most
unstable and that these sections would have to be isolated during production.
They also assumed that the stronger zones could sustain the bottomhole flowing
pressures that would be imposed during production without failure. However,
a review of the borehole image logs (Fig. 4.58) recorded immediately after
drilling the reservoir indicated that, in fact, the lower porosity sections of the
reservoir showed breakout during drilling, while weaker sections showed no
damage. The presence of breakouts indicated that the stress acting on the
strong rocks had exceeded their peak strength. This unexpected observation
suggested that stresses were much higher in stronger sections and that the
selection of perforation zones after casing and cementing the wells would be
a more complicated task.
Sanding prediction
A sand stability study was conducted to select zones for perforating that
would not fail during production. The first step was to construct a mechanical
earth model of the reservoir. The model described the state of stress in the
reservoir, rock properties including rock strength, and reservoir pressure. The
description of the state of stress included the magnitudes of the principal
stresses and their directions.
Mechanical earth model

The mechanical properties of the Strunian reservoir, including the unconfined
compressive strength and the elastic properties of the sands, were measured
from cores at the Sonatrach mechanical core testing facility in Hassi
Messaoud. These tests included unconfined and triaxial tests on core plugs
Shale
Caliper
Sand
TVD
(m)
Gamma ray
0 (gAPI) 400
4
MD
(m)
X,290
X,290
X,300
X,300
X,310
X,310
X,320
X,320
X,330
X,330
X,340
X,340
X,350
X,350
X,360
X,360
X,370
X,370
X,380
X,380
Effective porosity
0
(%)
30
Borehole
image
(in.)
14
Bit size
4
(in.)
14
selected from each facies in the reservoir. Mechanical

properties were also estimated from well log measurements of sonic compressional and shear velocity, and
bulk density. A vertical profile of the rock strength was
constructed from all these data.
The model of in situ stress in the reservoir first considered the vertical, or overburden, stress and reservoir
pressure. The vertical stress was calculated from the
integrated bulk density logs through the overburden, and
the reservoir, or pore, pressure was directly measured
with the MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester. Once
these parameters were established, the two principal
horizontal stresses were estimated. Initially, they were
bounded within feasible limits using a Mohr-Coulomb
failure model. Hydraulic fracture data constrain the least
principal stress. The horizontal stresses were further
constrained using a poroelastic strain model that
includes the effect of both vertical and tectonic loading
and the stiffness of the rock.
Stiffer rocks, those with a higher Youngs modulus, transmit any lateral, tectonic stress in the earth more effectively than softer formations do. Imbalance in horizontal
stresses is created by these tectonic stresses. This
imbalance is estimated by forward modeling the borehole breakout observed on the wellbore images. To help
confirm the imbalance between horizontal stresses,
DSCA tests on core samples were performed. These
tests measure strains in the core sample as it is loaded
that can be converted to principal stress ratios.
Figure 4.58: Borehole image log showing wellbore breakout in low-porosity sands (strong rock)
between X,296 and X,300 m. Higher porosity sands (weaker rock) between X,290 and X,293 m have
also broken out, while other high-porosity zones are intact. The caliper log shows the depth of the
wellbore enlargement.
65
It soon became clear that the horizontal stresses are

much higher in the stronger, stiffer layers of the reservoir,
and the maximum horizontal stress exceeds the vertical
stress. In the weaker, softer layers, both horizontal
stresses are lower than the vertical stress (Fig 4.59).
With the mechanical earth model for the Strunian reservoir complete, sand failure analysis was performed. In a
screenless completion, the production of sand along with
oil and gas is influenced by a number of factors, including
the rock strength and stress in the near production tunnel
region, the diameter and orientation of the production tunnel, and the drawdown pressure applied at the sandface.
The production tunnel can either be an uncased wellbore
or, often, a perforation. Sanding is generally caused by
mechanical failure of the production tunnel, which occurs
when the state of stress around the tunnel exceeds the
rock strength (see How Sanding Occurs, page 4.67).
Geomechanical parameters from the Strunian reservoir
mechanical earth model were used to calculate the critical drawdown pressures for a perforated completion in
these vertical wells using the Sand Management Advisor.
The results quantified sand stability for the Strunian
reservoir, showing that the weakest sands would be
expected to fail in a cased, cemented, perforated vertical
well; stronger sands would remain stable, but might fail
later in the life of the field as the reservoir depletes and
the stress state intensifies.
In the strongest sands, where stresses are most intense,
the wellbore images had shown that some of these sections had already broken out during drilling. Under production conditions overbalance created by the drilling
mud is removed, and the rock is more unstable. Sand
Management Advisor showed that, indeed, this was the
case for an openhole completion. However, a perforation
is a more stable structure, and the prediction for a horizontal perforation showed that some of these very strong
sections would be stable under production and, depending on the relative magnitudes of rock strength and in
situ stress, others would not.
The prediction for sand stability assumes the reservoir
rock is in a continuous, unfractured state. However, wellbore images had already shown that the strongest sections could be broken in some orientations. Perforations
shot in these orientations would expose this failed rock to
fluid flow, increasing the risk of sand production from
these sections. Therefore, when choosing perforation
66
intervals the production engineer had to consider not only isolating both strong
and weak sections that could fail during production but also isolating sections
that had previously failed during drilling.
To assist model calibration and monitor any sand production in this complex
geological environment, Sonatrach introduced a well-defined startup procedure for wells in the Berkine field. The procedure involves checking the well
TD before and after a DST to discover whether solids have been produced
during testing. If solids have been produced, the type of sediment deposited
is also checked to ensure that it is, in fact, formation sand. The well is then
put on production for 15 days at a low drawdown, after which the TD is
rechecked. Drawdown is then increased to the required production level but
not exceeding the calculated critical drawdown. Fill in the well is periodically
monitored to assess any changes with depletion.
Pore pressure
0 (kPa) 100,000
H1
Mud weight
0 (kPa) 100,000
0 (g/cm3) 4
Shale
h1
Breakdown
Sand
0 (kPa) 100,000
Losses
V OB
UCS
TVD Gamma ray MD
(m)
(m)
0 (gAPI) 400
0 (kPa) 100,000 0 (kPa) 100,000
X,290
X,290
X,300
X,300
X,310
X,310
X,320
X,320
X,330
X,330
X,340
X,340
X,350
X,350
X,360
X,360
X,370
X,370
Kick
Synthetic
image
log
prediction
Breakout
0 (deg) 360
Borehole
image
Figure 4.59: Mechanical earth model for the Strunian reservoir in the Berkine area, showing principal
stress magnitudes (H1max horizontal stress; h1min horizontal stress; vob vertical stress) and
rock strength (UCS). Predicted breakout when drilling (red > green, mud weight, line) is presented as
a synthetic image log and compared to the actual borehole image log.
How Sanding Occurs

It was once thought that sand production was mainly controlled by fluid flow:
when the flow from a well became too high, sand grains were pulled from the
sandface. Theory and experiment have shown that, except for unconsolidated
formations, fluid flow has a negligible role to play in failing rock but does have
an effect when the rock has already failed.
Radial and axial flow were introduced into the sample,

and a circumferential stress was applied to the core.
These three parameters could be varied independently to
assess their importance.
Figure 4.K shows the experimental equipment used to
study the effects of flow on sand production. A cylinder
of weak rock (150-mm diameter) with a perforation tunnelsized hole along its axis, is surrounded by a permeable bead pack, then an impermeable rubber jacket, and
placed in a pressure vessel. The stress around the perforation tunnel can be varied by changing the pressure in
the vessel, and the flows through the rock into the tunnel
(green flow path) and directly along the tunnel (blue flow
path) are varied independently. The sand production rate
was measured with a batch weighing technique. The
flow through the rock was found to contribute to sand
production only from its addition to the axial flow; it had
no independent effect. In addition, flow alone could not
initiate sand production; the rock had to be failed by the
application of stress first.
Figure 4.K: Experiment to study effects of radial and axial flow, and stress on sand production
through a perforation tunnel in weak sandstones.
Experiments at Schlumberger laboratories in Cambridge, U.K., helped unravel

the effects of stress and flow experienced at a perforation during production.
Researchers calculated that the radial flow into a perforation, which was the
flow thought to be responsible for dragging sand grains from the sandface,
was insufficient in all but the very weakest sands.
To test the theory, cylindrical cores of a similar sandstone were prepared with
bores drilled along the axis of the core to simulate a perforation tunnel. These
were very weak sandstones where the effects of radial flow would be expected.
Endoscope
Rock
Pressure vessel
Light guide and

ring mirror
The experiments conclusively showed that sand was produced only after the compressive stress around the sample had begun to cause failure in the rock. Once the rock
had failed, only axial flow produced the sand.
To understand what actually happened at the wall of the
perforation, additional experiments were conducted with
similar equipment, concentrating on the stress and the
axial flow. The radial flow loop was, of course, no longer
needed. To observe the process inside the perforation, a
light guide was introduced at one end of the bore and an
endoscope at the other.
Figure 4.L depicts the experimental equipment for studying failure mechanics during sand production. A cylinder
of weak rock (150-mm diameter) with a perforation tunnelsized hole along its axis is surrounded by an impermeable rubber jacket and placed in a pressure vessel.
Kerosene in
Figure 4.L: Experiment to monitor failure mechanics and sand production due to stress and flow
along a perforation tunnel.
67
bottomhole flowing pressure, the shear pressures generated in the tunnel

wall eventually start to collapse the structure. Although the mechanism creating the failure was always the same, the way in which the bore deformed
was always different. Depending on the sandstone type, some boreholes
developed wide breakouts, some narrow, incisive slots, and in some cases,
the bore just oozed closed.
Figure 4.M: Image of ring of light projected onto perforation tunnel to

monitor failure mechanics of perforation tunnel.
The stress around the perforation tunnel can be varied by

changing the pressure in the vessel, and kerosene can be
flowed along the tunnel. A light guide and mirror are
inserted halfway into the tunnel (right-hand side), and
the ring of light projected onto the tunnel wall is
observed with an endoscopic camera (left-hand side). As
sand failure and transport proceed, the size and shape of
the ring changes.
The researchers captured the deformation of each tunnel on video and plotted
the changes in cross-sectional area of a perforation tunnel against confining
pressure applied to the core sample (Fig. 4.N). The data shown were for a
sandstone of approximately 7-MPa unconfined compressive strength. The first
sand grains were removed at point A; as the stress increased to point B, the
tunnel closed down to its minimum area (as sheared rock was pushed into the
tunnel), and as the stress increased further, the cross-sectional area increased
again as the rock fragments were loosened and washed away.
The experiments showed that the production of sand first requires that the
rock in the tunnel be broken by stress and then transported by flow along the
tunnel. In the field, both stress and flow are controlled by the applied drawdownthe difference between the reservoir pressure and the bottomhole
flowing pressure.
0.1
0.05
A
Hole enlargement, in.
Figure 4.M shows the ring of light from the sand production visualization experiments. This view is from the
endoscopic camera looking along the perforation tunnel.
Kerosene is flowing toward the camera at a velocity high
enough to transport sand grains and fragments. The
background is the wall of the tunnel (i.e., sandstone), the
large light circle is a ring of light projected onto the wall
by the light guide, and the dark circle is the end of the
light guide itself (the small light circle within this is the
reflected image of the camera). The ring is almost circular. The small deviations at about 2:00 and 5:00 are the
beginnings of shear failure.
-0.05
-5
B
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Pressure, MPa
Figure 4.N: Changes in cross-sectional area of a perforation tunnel against confining pressure applied
These experiments showed that the mode of failure is

always compressive shearing of the rock in the production tunnel. As the compressive stresses around the
production tunnel increase due to a reduction in the
68
to the core.
in the case of perforations, their orientation from the

main bore, both with respect to the in situ stress field.
The orientation of in situ stresses to the perforation tunnel can have a tremendous bearing on sand stability. The
analysis also makes allowance for the diameter of the
production tunnel so that barefoot completion stability
can be compared to the stability of a perforation in the
same rock.
4,000
3,000
Wellbore pressure, psi
2,000
Safe drawdown
1,000
Formation failure
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
Reservoir pressure, psi

Figure 4.O: Sand Management Advisor output.
Sanding prediction
To predict sand failure during production, the first step is to construct a
mechanical earth model of the reservoir. The model describes the state of
stress in the reservoir, the rock properties including rock strength, and the
reservoir pressure. The state of stress includes the magnitudes of the principal stresses and their directions.
Apart from the parameters normally available from the mechanical earth
model, the experiments at the Cambridge laboratories also demonstrated that
other aspects of the rock and production tunnel were important. The crosssectional diameter of the tunnel had a significant influence on stability: largediameter bores were less stable than narrow bores. This was not new information, as the effects of scale have long been recognized. However, the
Cambridge researchers were able to quantify the effect of the production tunnel diameter in the sanding process.
All this knowledge was captured in Sand Management Advisor software,
which is used to predict sand failure during production. Sand stability can be
forecast for various screenless completion options including openhole and
perforations. The software accounts for the orientation of the main bore and,
Figure 4.O shows an output from the Sand Management

Advisor. This software considers various combinations of
stress and rock mechanical properties together with
details of the geometry of the production tunnel to estimate a safe drawdown pressure. As the figure shows, the
boundary between safe drawdown and formation failure
varies as the reservoir pressure falls, which results from
the increases in stress experienced in the reservoir as the
field depletes. Pressure support by water or gas injection,
for example, can arrest this stress change.
Once the wellbore has succumbed to sand, models exist
to predict the movement of sand present in the tubulars.
How sand grains or fragments move from the sandface
along a perforation to the main wellbore, however, is not
well understood and almost impossible to predict under
downhole conditions. For instance, there is no knowledge of flow in a specific perforation, which is vital information for accurately predicting sand transport. The mixture of fluids in the well compounds the problem. At this
stage, the rate or volume of sand production cannot be
determined.
In summary, the failure of sand at the sandface can be
predicted with some accuracy providing the conditions of
rock strength and stress are known, but the transport of
material is still hard to forecast once failure has
occurred.
69
Production engineers working in the Berkine area have,

therefore, found that the variable sand strength causes
the stress state to change rapidly between different sand
layers. Under these conditions, formation stability during
production is not just a function of the strength of the
rockweak and strong rock can both failbut also
heavily depends on the state of stress created at the production tunnel and the presence of already broken out
rock in the wellbore.
150,000
142,500
135,000
127,500
120,000
Finally, while the combination of wide variability in sand

strength and high tectonic stresses in the Berkine area
are unusual, the case study emphasizes a general need
to account for the stress state as well as rock strength
when considering sand stability during production.
112,500
A survey, taken to try to understand the reasons for this

behavior, revealed that one of the main causes of the
70
800,000
810,000
820,000
10 km
830,000
840,000
Figure 4.60: Map of the Hassi Messaoud field showing the northeast quadrant surveyed.
unsatisfactory production was related to sand failure. The survey examined

horizontal wells in the northeast quadrant of the field (Fig. 4.60). This area was
selected because although the wells have incurred production losses, these
losses were not associated with water or gas breakthrough, which may have
masked other effects.
Active wells per month
Solids production in
the Hassi Messaoud field
Horizontal wells drilled in the Hassi Messaoud field have
had a higher probability of intercepting good productivity
sections than previous vertical penetrations. And often during production, vertical wells have suffered a reduced oil
column due to water breakthrough and gas injection.
Although openhole horizontal wells have not been as
affected by these issues, neither have they been as prolific
as originally expected. These wells have suffered severe
production drops, erratic production behavior, and operational difficulties when performing well interventions.
790,000
16
20
14
16
12
12
10
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Average production, bbl/month
Wellbore images have been found particularly useful for

identifying sands that have already failed. These images
also greatly assist in the construction of the in situ stress
model, which has been critical to sand prediction in the
Berkine area.
Date
Active wells
Oil production
Figure 4.61: Average monthly production from horizontal wells and the number of active horizontal
wells in the northeast quadrant of the Hassi Messaoud field.
Each well in the survey was reviewed to identify events

or characteristics that could be responsible for the production losses. These included
irregular drops in production
major reductions in reservoir pressure (>100 kg/cm2 in
a year)
significant drops in PI
production of rock reservoir fragments
interventions
and obstructions in the openhole
reservoir section.
25
Productivity index decline, m3/day/kg/cm2
Total number of wells

20
15
10
5
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Drawdown pressure, kg/cm2

Figure 4.62: Reduction in PI versus well drawdown pressure. Wells with drawdowns below 35 kg/cm2
are shown in the cyan box.
Figure 4.61 shows the average monthly production for all horizontal wells in
the northeast quadrant as well as the number of active wells each month.
Although the number of horizontal wells has steadily increased, the average
production of each well has fallen. The aim of the survey was, therefore, to
obtain a clearer view of the behavior of horizontal wells in the northeast
quadrant
identify the causes of the production difficulties
propose a plan to improve the completion for future wells.
The main difficulty encountered in the survey was the lack of measurements
and data from wells in production zones. The complex drawdown profile along
the horizontal sections of the wells added to the difficulties in estimating bottomhole conditions. These constraints meant that a simplified approach was
required to analyze their behavior.
The production index (PI) and drawdown pressure were calculated for each
horizontal well in the survey using surface measurements, the bottomhole
flowing pressure (BHFP) calculated by NODAL analysis software, and the
reservoir pressure estimated at the same date.
PI was defined as
PI =
Q ,
P
The survey found a strong link between the reduction in

PI and the drawdown pressure: generally, once the drawdown pressure in a well exceeded 35 kg/cm2, a high
decline in the PI was observed (Fig. 4.62).
The survey also found that 80% of all production losses
were linked to the collapse of the openhole section.
Where interventions had been performed, 25% to 75%
of the effective drain length had been lost. Even after
coiled tubing operations were performed to clean out the
collapsed sections, production was impaired again soon
afterward. Of the various reservoirs in the field, the R2
was the most prone to sand failure. The study also found
that although preperforated liners allowed much higher
drawdowns, some reduction in PI remained. Finally, the
study observed that wells with higher reservoir pressures could sustain much higher drawdowns before a
significant loss in PI occurred, whereas more depleted
wells were less able to accommodate high drawdowns.
Recommendations to restrict drawdown to a less-thancritical level, fit liners in wells with significant sand
failure, and hydraulically fracture to increase stable
drawdown in low-PI wells are being considered. Field
management must be enhanced by periodic and regular
control of bottomhole pressure measurements.
Extending the survey to the rest of the Hassi Messaoud
field has also been proposed.
where
P = Pstatic - BHFPcalculated .
71

As hydrocarbon production in Algeria matures from normal-pressured, medium- to high-permeability reservoirs
to challenging but prolific low-permeability reservoirs, or
as depletion effects increase the occurrence and magnitude of skin damage in higher-permeable zones, techniques to increase productivity must be employed to
maintain their economic viability. While hydraulic fracturing is a common technique used to improve the productivity of marginal wells, it does not guarantee an economic well. Many parameters must be considered for
both the identification of the correct candidate for fracturing and the design of the optimum fracturing treatment for the candidate.
This chapter describes the basics of hydraulic fracturing,
its application in the industry, and its importance to
Algerian reservoirs as demonstrated in two case studies.
The future of Algerias oil and gas reservoirs depends on
the ability to properly apply hydraulic fracturing technology
to enable the economical production of hydrocarbons in
fields that are believed to be marginal at best or, through
depletion, are becoming less attractive. Additionally, the
need for critical process flow must be addressed to
understand the wells potential and the impact of
hydraulic fracturing prior to operational investment.
involves contact with a large volume of rock, it is often more convenient to

describe diffusion in terms of transmissibility (kh/) versus permeability alone,
since fluid viscosity and the amount of exposed permeable rock plays a large
role in fluid leakoff. If the flow rate into a unit of rock is greater than its ability
to diffuse out of the unit, pressure builds within the rock mass. It continues to
build until the effective stress exceeds the fracture pressure of the rock, a combination of its minimum in situ stress and pressure magnification due to its
inelasticity (toughness). Stress profiles derived from sonic data alone and that
are not calibrated to direct measurements of minimum stress via microfracs
and MDT measurements, for example, lack the component of tectonics and
rock toughness. At this point, the rock fails and a fracture is created. Once the
hydraulic pressure is removed, the fracture is normally kept open by the introduction of proppant material of high conductivity under stress into the fluid
stages of the treatment. This fracture creates a conductive pathway to the
wellbore that is intended to greatly exceed the existing conductivity of the
near-wellbore region.
Figure 4.63 shows a simple step-rate test performed on a formation in Algeria
where fluid was pumped into the formation in increasing rate steps. The pressure was recorded with rate at increments in time (blue dots). These pressure
and rate points were then plotted on a Cartesian scale for analyses of fracture
properties (Fig. 4.64). The plots shown in Fig. 4.64 illustrate the equations of state
where fluid was injected into the matrix above its ability to diffuse fluid, causing an increase in pressure (Phase 1). Phase 2 illustrates rock failure. Fracture
propagation (Phase 3) is normally associated with a lesser slope of pressure
increase as the increased fracture area, with time, allows for increased
Background
14,000
72
9
8
7
12,000
6
11,000
5
4
10,000
3
2
9,000
1
8,000
4
10
11
0
12
Slurry rate, bbl/min
Fracturing involves the pumping of fluid at a rate sufficient to overcome the rocks ability to diffuse the liquid
through its pore spaces (this space can be taken to be the
combination of matrix or natural fracture porosity). At a
micro-level this diffusion is associated with the permeability (k) of the rock. However, since hydraulic fracturing
10
13,000
Pressure, psi
A basic description of hydraulic fracturing involves the

balance of three equations of state and thermal dynamics:1 conservation of mass and energy (or mass balance),
linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), and fluid
mechanics. Conservation of mass and energy states that
for any fixed system, mass and energy entering the system must be accounted for at the exit. In fracturing,
therefore, fluid or gas pumped into the wellbore must be
accounted for through fluid loss to the matrix, fracture
creation and growth, or an increase or decrease in pressure (or combination of these).
Treatment time, min

Calculated bottomhole pressure
Slurry rate
Figure 4.63: A simple injection step-rate test for a formation in Algeria. The test describes the transition from matrix injection to fracture propagation and extension.
fracturing as a useful tool for improving well productivity.

Figure 4.65 shows a core porosity/permeability relationship for a particular field to illustrate the main fracture
design focus as a function of permeability range.
Permeability is grouped into three ranges, and those less
than 0.001 mD are not addressed.
14,000
13,000
Extended rate: 2.12 bpm

Pc (UB): 13,643.62 psi
Est. P(i): 6,355.11 psi
12,000
Phase 3Fracture propagation

11,000
Phase 2Rock failure
10,000
Pressure, psi
Phase 1Matrix injection

9,000
8,000
0
Zone 1 corresponds to the permeability range from 0.001 mD

< k < 0.1 mD; zone 2 corresponds to 0.1 mD < k < 2.0 mD; and
zone 3 corresponds to k > 2.0 mD. These ranges are for comparison purposes only; fracture design optimization should
take into consideration a wide range of parameters and economic constraints such as well spacing, desired return/NPV
(net present value), and reservoir characterization.
Slurry rate, bbl/min (bpm)

Bottomhole pressure at each step rate
Phase 1Matrix leakoff
Phase 2Rock failure
Phase 3Fracture propagation
Figure 4.64: Analysis of the step-rate test shown in Fig.4.63 with a depiction of what generally
occurs in the borehole during the three phases.
leakoff capacity of the rock at a constant pump rate as the fracture extends.
From this analysis (Fig. 4.64), useful formation properties such as breakdown
pressure, pore pressure, upper bound on minimum in situ stress (closure pressure), and fracture extension rate can be estimated.
The majority of fracture treatments performed prior to

the mid 1990s were concentrated in zone 2 wells or in
highly damaged zone 3 wells that were less likely to perform economically without a fracture treatment.
However, encouraging oil or gas shows during drilling
substantiated zonal reserves. Reservoirs with permeabilities in zone 3 in nondepleted zones produced naturally at
rates that exceeded internal economic hurdles (even in
drilling-damaged condition). Reservoirs in zone 1 were
often bypassed due to relatively poor return on investment, as they often would not produce naturally, and the
fracturing technology needed to economically produce
these wells was not yet available.
Marginal
economics
Fracture design
Fracture
conductivity
Natural
completion
30
25
20
15
Core
points
10
Core porosity, %
Hydraulic fracturing has been used in the petroleum industry since the early
1950s to increase productivity of oil-, gas-, and water-bearing zones.2 In the
late 1970s, massive hydraulic fracturing treatments were done where more
than 1 million pounds of proppant were placed in a single treatment. But generally, technology limitations associated with equipment and fluid performance meant that in the majority of early treatments relatively small amounts
of proppant were placed. Early fracture studies in the mid 1980s revealed that
productivity increases were often much lower than expected as a result of
inadequate fluid or equipment performance or inaccurate modeling of the
impact of fracture stimulation.2,3 Later, in the mid 80s, fluid technology and
equipment performance improved sufficiently to allow massive hydraulic fracturing treatments (primarily in North American gas fields). The competition
between operators to successfully place the largest fracturing treatment
peaked during this period so that placing proppant volumes exceeding 1 million
pounds in a single fracturing treatment became commonplace, establishing
Fracture
length
5
0
0.0001 0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0 1,000.0
Core permeability, %
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Figure 4.65: Fracturing design range based on core permeability.
73
Current technology has improved the effectiveness of

zone 2 treatments with better fluid properties, equipment
performance, and software to improve modeling, forecasting, and evaluation of fracture treatments. With this,
the petroleum industry has applied fracturing technology
to declining zone 3 reservoirs to counter the impact of
excess drilling mud invasion and damage. The microDarcy reservoirs in zone 1 are considered the next frontier of petroleum exploration.
Hydraulic fracture perpendicular to natural fractures

Natural fractures
Hydraulic fracture parallel to natural fractures
Fluid pressure in fracture
The situation in Algeria

Algeria is in a particularly unique position as it has a vast
potential reserve base locked in tight zone 1 reservoirs
(in the Hamra quartzites in particular). Combined with
matrix permeability in the microDarcy range and the
irregular presence of natural fractures due to active tectonic activity, this formation can move from an ultratight
zone 1 formation to an excessive leakoff zone 3 permeability state due to the presence of open, conductive natural fractures. Fracture propagation into natural fractures
dramatically increases system leakoff, reduces fracture
net pressure and subsequent induced fracture width, and
impacts the fracture mechanics of extension because
there is a loss of fracture leverage depending on natural fracture orientation. Figure 4.66 illustrates the potential result of intersecting a natural fracture of differing
orientation during a hydraulic fracture treatment.
Theoretically and experimentally, it has been found that
fracture behavior for reasonably stiff rock can be characterized chiefly by equations for linear elastic fracture
mechanics and fracture tip effects to a much lesser
degree. In theory, hydraulic fractures propagate much like
the splitting of lumber. With brittle materials, it has been
observed that preexisting cracks (which may be caused
by perforations, natural fractures, or drilling-induced
fractures in rock formations) may be the preferred plane
for fracture initiation when its orientation is significantly
close to the maximum horizontal stress direction. This significance can be approximated to less than 20 degrees
deviation from the maximum stress direction. However,
when the existing stress state is such that a large deviation exists between the minimum and maximum horizontal stress direction (or sigma 2 and sigma 3 for abnormal
stress regimes) and the preexisting crack is outside this
20-degree orientation, a fracture may not extend (or even
initiate) at this failure but at a place of lower stress. This
has been observed in many field studies.
The initial split (or failure) takes a great deal of energy
(less, if there is an imperfection such as a crack or perfo-
74
Figure 4.66: Fracture propagation through a naturally fractured rock.
ration in the case of rock mechanics). But as the crack becomes longer, a
leverage effect takes place where the incremental length requires less
energy to create. In rock mechanics, this leverage is provided by the fluid
pressure acting perpendicularly to the fracture face. When a propagating
fracture reaches a preexisting natural fracture (depending on the contents
of the natural fracture, fluid, or gas), a nearly instantaneous spurt loss (filling of the void) is expected that may reduce both net pressure within the
fracture and subsequently the hydraulic fracture width, depending on the
volume of natural fractures. However, if the natural fracture is parallel to
the hydraulic fracture, the vector forces (Fig. 4.66) acting on the fracture face
still work to keep the propagated fracture open. Conversely, if the natural
fracture system is perpendicular to the propagating fracture, after the filling or pressurizing of the natural fracture by the hydraulic fracturing fluid,
the vector forces work on the face of the natural fracture to potentially
extend the network away from the hydraulic fracture. Additionally, a loss of
fracturing leverage results from the decoupling at the fracture tip due to the
presence of the natural fracture. Therefore, phenomena such as pressuredependent leakoff and premature screenouts have been observed in fracture treatments in naturally fractured reservoirs.
Fracturing or not fracturinga production comparison

Hydraulic fracturing can have a tremendous impact on the investment
needed to economically develop a field. A holistic approach must be taken
to investigate the impact of hydraulic fracturing in the field development
planning stages. The following examples illustrate the impact of fracturing
on the development of a field. Meant specifically for lower-permeability
(tight) reservoirs, the impact of fracturing versus the cost of additional
drilling is compared.
In the first example, how many wells must be drilled to effectively drain a
reservoir area of 100 acres, and what is the impact of fracturing? For simplicity a homogenous, single-phase (gas) reservoir (Fig. 4.67) with the properties described in Table 4.6 and yielding a reservoir gas volume of 21 Bcf
of gas in place has been simulated with an analytical production decline
software application. Under the described circumstances (assuming no reservoir damage), it would take 2 wells to completely drain an equivalent area
of 100 acres in natural flow with a permeability of 0.5 mD. Furthermore, the simulation shows that adding a 200-ft hydraulic fracture would increase the 3-yr
cumulative production by nearly 40%. Under the same conditions in a tight
reservoir with a permeability of 0.05 mD, it would require nearly 10 unstimulated wells drilled in the formation to drain 100 acres in the same 3-yr period.
But with a 500-ft hydraulic fracture treatment in this 0.05-mD reservoir, the 3-yr
cumulative production is increased back to the level of an equivalent 0.5-mD
reservoir (this is not to say that hydraulic fracturing should be simulated as an
equivalent reservoir permeability increase but rather an equivalent wellbore
radius increase). As a result, the economic comparison is the cost difference
between drilling an additional 4 to 5 wells (unstimulated) and performing an
optimized, well-executed fracture treatment in a single well for the same
recovery factor. Other comparisons have been made for stimulated and unstimulated horizontal wells to vertical wells.4 The economics are very simple.
A suggested approach to selecting candidate wells
n
Single formatio
Figure 4.67: A simple homogenous, single-phase (gas) reservoir (with the
properties described in Table 4.6) used for illustration of the production
comparison in the well fracturing decision.
Homogeneous reservoir?
3-year example
Much has been said about the correct methodology for selecting wells for
fracturing. Regardless of the methodology nomenclature, the fundamentals of
candidate selection remain the same:
Understand the potential of the well.
Understand the gap between current production and the wells potential.
Understand why a well is not producing to its potential.
100-acre drainage pattern

300-ft net pay
Sw = 0.20, = 8%, Pi = 5,500 psi

OGIP = 21 Bcf
Cumulative production (Gp ) in 3 yrs at Pwf = 1,500 psi
Much like medical diagnostics, candidate selection in remedial wells involves

investigative work to fully understand the symptoms of an underperforming
well (reduced production, change in decline rate, etc.) and the conditions that
could be causing the symptoms (damage mechanisms), and then to prescribe
the treatment that provides the best results.5,6,7 For new well locations, it is a
matter of understanding the upside potential (provided in the earlier example)
of fracturing and the impact on field development.
By definition, stimulation is an act that increases a desired response (namely
oil or gas production). Success in stimulation or hydraulic fracturing is not
merely success in pumping all the material into the formation but in achieving
the desired increase in production forecast prior to the treatment. Therefore,
the challenge on the front end is to properly characterize the reservoir and
choose the appropriate method for optimizing the design of the treatment.
Fracturing in tight reservoirs

For many decades, most of the production in Algeria has come from reservoirs
of moderate to high permeability. Even in lower-permeability reservoirs, production has been augmented greatly by natural fracturing caused by fieldwide
tectonic stresses. However, when neither good matrix permeability nor natural fracturing exists, a decision must be made as to whether the reservoir can
be proved economical through stimulation.
k = 0.5 mD; Gp = 10.9 Bcf

k = 0.5 mD with a 200-ft fracture; Gp = 14.4 Bcf
k = 0.05 mD; Gp = 2.3 Bcf
k = 0.05 mD with a 500-ft fracture; Gp = 9.8 Bcf
Table 4.6: Properties of the formation in Fig. 4.67.
Tight reservoirs are further classified as conventional and

nonconventional. A simple definition of a conventional
tight reservoir, for comparison in the following case study,
is a reservoir in a low-porosity environment having blanket packages of finely sorted sand grains. Porosity may be
further reduced by water migration and deposition of clay
into the pore spaces. However, permeability is relatively
consistent within these packages that can cover tens to
hundreds of meters of net thickness. The unconventionally
tight reservoirs in Algeria present a much more complex
picture. In these turbidite environments is often a thin
(1 to 5 m) layering of relatively clean sandstones over and
underlain by silty/shalely intervals of relatively equal net
thickness, both comprising the gross pay interval to be
stimulated. This combination makes basic log interpretation and stress profiling difficult.
75
The Ordovician Hamra quartzite sandstone formation in Algeria can be classified as a conventional tight reservoir with permeability greatly augmented by
the presence of natural fractures. The formation varies in depth from 2,000 m
to 5,000 m. These thick reservoirs are characterized by high fracture gradients
(often reaching 0.9 psi/ft), extensive natural fracturing, and heterogeneous
stress profiles. Early attempts to fracture these formations failed repeatedly.
These failures are attributed to a combination of coarse analysis and diagnosis
of the inherent problems associated with these reservoirs, the unavailability
of tools to adequately characterize them, and subsequently an inefficient
approach to mitigating the risk of screenout associated with these challenges.
50
12,000
11,500
40
11,000
30
10,500
20
10
9,500
9,000
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0
2.0
Efficiency, %
Fracture pressure, psi
10,000
Pressure
Efficiency
Figure 4.68: Fall-off analysis for Well A in the Rhourde Nouss field.
127
Rhourde Noussa conventional tight

reservoir with natural fracturing
123
Geology and reservoir
Well temperature
107
Gamma ray
MD
(gAPI) 150 (m)
X,500
(C)
The following case studies illustrate the challenges faced in both conventional
and nonconventional tight reservoirs. Earlier approaches in conventional tight
reservoirs resulted in productive success due to the potential of the reservoir
through natural fracturing rather than to reservoir understanding and characterization. However, as reservoir complexity increases, consistent success is
gained through a systematic approach of reservoir investigation, diagnosis,
and the ability to tie together many strands of information into a cohesive picture of the reservoir.
Well temperature
113
(C)
Well temperature log

(expanded scale)
X,550
Top slotted liner

X,600
X,650
X,700
The Rhourde Nouss gas field is situated on the eastern edge of the Amguid
spur 250 km south-southeast of Hassi Messaoud, Algeria. The field has 13
structures and up to 10 productive horizons, the most important of which are
the Triassic fluvial deposits and the Ordovician shallow marine deposits
(Hamra quartzite sands). The Hamra quartzites reservoir is found at a depth of
3,000 m to 4,000 m and consists of tight rock (0.3- to 0.5-mD permeability and
2% to 5% porosity). Composed of quartzites and quartzitic sandstones, the
reservoir is relatively homogeneous and naturally fractured in some zones. The
sand is 200 m to 250 m thick. The condensate content of the gas varies between
250 and 315 g/m3, and it has about 80 g/m3 of gas propane liquid (GPL).
Gas production in the Rhourde Nouss Hamra quartzites has been improved significantly by the use of hydraulic fracturing stimulation. Well A was fractured
to assess the production potential of the Ordovician quartzitic sandstone. With
the overall improvement in gas production, engineering efforts focused on
wellbore completion activities and improving stimulation. The high productivity
noted in Well A as a result of the successful hydraulic fracturing treatments
paved the way for additional investment in the Rhourde Nouss field.
The main objective of Well A, drilled in 1995, was to reach the Triassic reservoir and evaluate the Hamra quartzites reservoir. The formation gross height
was estimated at 100 m from composite logs with permeability of 0.25 mD.
Openhole logs indicated 3% porosity with a gas saturation of 98%. The formation pressure was evaluated at 5,800 psi.
Fractured main body

Figure 4.69: Temperature measurement for Well A in the Rhourde Nouss field.
76
In the original plan, the Hamra quartzites reservoir was not considered the
main objective of the well. Indeed, it was completed with a mixed slotted liner
Pad
80,000 gal
Slurry stage Ramp 1 1,500 gal with 0.5-Ibm/gal 20/40 high-strength proppant
Ramp 2 5,000 gal with 0.5-Ibm/gal 20/40 high-strength proppant
Ramp 3 6,000 gal with 2- to 4-Ibm/gal 20/40 high-strength proppant
Ramp 7 500 gal with 10-Ibm/gal 20/40 high-strength proppant
Total planned 20/40 high-strength proppant: 131,000 Ibm
Table 4.7: Fracturing treatment design criteria for Well A.
of 412-in. x 5-in. material to isolate the upper zone and to connect the fractures to the wellbore, which would avoid additional stimulation costs.
Production from the slotted liner was connected to surface via packer and 412-in.
tubing. All the parameters were evaluated separately to build a consistent
model for fracture treatment analysis and to align the stimulation method
with the overall field development strategy.
Fracturing treatment
20,000
45
18,000
40
16,000
35
14,000
30
12,000
25
10,000
20
8,000
15
Pressure, psi
6,000
4,000
10
2,000
0
15:36:00
16:04:48
16:33:36
17:02:24
17:31:12
18:00:00
Time, hr:mm:ss
Treatment pressure
Bottomhole pressure
7-in. string annular pressure
958-in. string annular pressure
Slurry rate
Proppant concentration
Bottomhole proppant concentration
Rate, bbl/min, and proppant concentration, ppa
Well A presented several concerns when planning the hydraulic fracturing

treatment:
The reservoir had been stimulated via slotted liner completion of a 204-m
open interval.
The well exhibited a high fracture stress gradient.
The well had significant integrity limitations.
Bottomhole pressure was difficult to calculate because the production packer
was set 1,000 m above the reservoir. In other words, the pressure friction
calculation during pumping was a function of the interval diameters of the
412-in. tubing and 7-in. casing.
In early 1998, an attempt to fracture the well failed due

to early screenout, which required that 18,650 lbm of
20/40 high-strength proppant be placed into the formation with a final concentration of 4.56 lbm/gal at the
wellbore. The failure was attributed to low fluid efficiency
and perforation restrictions. After reperforating the same
interval and to optimize the next fracture treatment, a
calibration treatment was performed, which consisted
of pumping 25,000 gal of crosslinked gel140 high-temperature delayed (HTD) yield factor instead of the
135-HTD yield factor used in the first attemptto determine closure pressure and estimate fluid efficiency. From
the calibration test analysis of the first attempt at fracturing, a closure pressure of 9,300 psi was estimated.
A higher closure pressure of 10,350 psi (corresponding to
a fracture gradient of 0.88 psi/ft) was determined from
the calibration test of the second attempt (Fig. 4.68). The
higher stress value was thought to be more representative. The derived fluid efficiency was 15%. A temperature
survey was logged after the calibration test for fracture
height estimation and to adjust the simulation parameters
(Fig. 4.69). The fracture height was estimated at 100 m
(Fig. 4.69). Table 4.7 shows the fracturing treatment design
criteria for Well A.
A 75% pad was designed to ensure proppant placement.
Screenout occurred when the 4-lbm concentration
entered the formation, which could have indicated an
insufficient fracture width resulting from an excessive
fracture height and/or the presence of natural fissures.
Premature screenout occurred with only 60,750 lbm of
20/40 proppant at a 7-lbm/gal concentration having been
placed in the formation. A total of 127,000 lbm of proppant was pumped (Fig. 4.70).
Post-job simulation
Again, it was not possible to predict the outcome of the
main fracturing treatment by using the calibration test
parameters. The leakoff coefficient had to be multiplied
by 2, increasing from 9e-3 ft/min1/2 to 18e-3 ft/min1/2 in
order to predict any sensible increase of net pressure
that could explain the screenout. The most likely causes
for the early termination were
excessive fracture height growth
subsequent low fracture width
fractures
high stress gradient.
Figure 4.70: Main fracture treatment for Well A.
77
Production results
The post-frac production test demonstrated the effectiveness of the stimulation. Figure 4.71 presents the preand post-frac well test production results. Although the
fracture treatment resulted in a screenout, production
increased significantly.
faced with the operational difficulty of stimulating these reservoirs, are left
with the difficult decision of whether or not production can be enhanced
effectively. Quite often, these reservoirs are never converted from the probable to the proven reserve category. Even worse, attempts may never be made
to stimulate due to the poor track record of past attempts by other operators.
In either case, huge amounts of hydrocarbons are left behind.
Conclusions
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
Wellhead pressure, psi
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
100,000
300,000
400,000
Oct 97 pre frac
Jul 97 pre frac
500,000
Aug 98 post frac
Premature screenout
Stimulation treatments in layered tight gas formations
are prone to early screenouts in Algeria (and Tunisia, as
the formation trend continues across borders). The early
screenouts are often believed to be due to near-wellbore
complications associated with tortuosity. Many operators,
78
700,000
Aug 00 post frac
Sw
Overburden stress
Clay
volume
VCL
0
Gamma ray
(kPa) 110,902
30,000
(kPa) 190,000 7,719 (GPa) 33,857 50
UCS
Lithology
(%) 100
MD
(m)
Porosity
101,382
Youngs modulus Effective porosity
In situ stress
30,000
Poissons ratio
(kPa) 100,000 0
X,205
X,210
X,215
Success in a nonconventional tight formation is equally

weighted between the operational ability to achieve the
objectives and whether the production results justify the
expenditure. The following case study looks at the stimulation attempts in a nonconventional tight reservoir in the
Menzel Ledjmet field where tectonic stresses impose added
difficulty in correctly analyzing pressure data and impact
the exploitation of the reservoir. In this study, PowerSTIM
analysis with an emphasis on geomechanics was used to
characterize the reservoir fracturing parameters.
600,000
Figure 4.71: Pre- and post-frac production test on Well A in Rhourde Nouss field.
0 (gAPI) 150
Segenian F6-1 formation

a nonconventional tight formation
200,000
Gas rate, m3 STD/day
Perforations
The main concern when selecting drilling locations in the

tight Hamra quartzite reservoirs is the extent of the natural fractures, which determines the production potential
more accurately than does the nature of the reservoir
rock. The success of hydraulic fracturing operations in
these Algerian reservoirs, therefore, has been the consequence of following well preparation and data gathering
procedures that enable the stimulation engineer to
design jobs in less-than-ideal situations (fracture height
growth, fractures, and high stress gradients). While the
fractures make the treatments more difficult to place,
they are also the cause of increased production.
Therefore, the primary benefit of fracturing operations
probably comes from connecting the hydraulic fracture
with already existing fractures within the reservoir and
thus compensating for the low petrophysical properties
of the Hamra quartzites. Most of the wells completed in
the Hamra quartzites have been hydraulically fractured
using cemented liners and high-density annular fluids,
since this has proved to be the most effective method for
boosting production from these formations.
X,220
X,225
X,230
X,235
X,240
X,245
X,250
X,255
X,260
X,265
X,270
X,275
X,280
X,285
X,290
X,295
X,300
Figure 4.72: Geomechanical interpretation of the F6-1 formation.
(----)
(%)
Water saturation
0.5 100
(%)
F6-1 formation
The F6-1 interval at approximately X,200 m is a layered formation consisting
of alternating layers of sand, siltstone/shale combinations. The net-to-gross ratio
of the interval is below 35%. Figure 4.72 shows the typical petrophysical interpretation of the F6-1 formation in a sample well in the Menzel Ledjmet field,
100,000
10,000
1,000
Air permeability, mD
0.100
Less than 0.01 mD
(not measured)
0.010
Reconciling past attempts
0.001
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
Helium porosity, %
Figure 4.73: Core porosity versus air permeability from samples of the F6-1 formation.
16,000
10.00
8.00
12,000
6.00
8,000
Pressure, psi
4,000
2.00
0
100.0
0
300.0
200.0
Rate, bbl/min
4.00
Treatment time, min

Treating pressure
Bottomhole pressure
Slurry rate
Well B
11,000
11,000
10,000
10,000
9,000
9,000
8,000
Closure time
Surface pressure, psi
7,000
7,000
6,000
6,000
5,000
5,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,000
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Nolte G time function

Surface pressure
ISIP (instantaneous shut-in pressure) - G dP/dG
2,000
1.4
ISIP - G dP/dG, psi
8,000
First Calgary Petroleums Ltd. (FCP) made several attempts

at fracturing the F6-1 interval prior to 2006. During these
attempts, the maximum allowable fracture treatment
pressure was reached during the DataFRAC phase, before
the first grain of proppant reached the formation.
Effective stimulation was not possible on these initial
attempts. Figure 4.72 shows that while the net pay does
not appear massive within each wellbore, the combined
reserves, considering the interval has been observed
across the entire field, are substantial. This fact alone
gave FCP reason to consider attempting another stimulation but by taking a new approach. The company used the
PowerSTIM well optimization service to investigate the
circumstances and determine a course of action.
A DataFRAC treatment, performed on Well B, consisted

of two injection and decline periods (Fig. 4.74). Both
injections used lease brine, and declines represent the
injection of brine into the formation. Approximately 23 bbl
of fluid were injected into the formation during the first
period followed by a pressure decline period of approximately 271 min (4.5 hr).
Figure 4.74: Injection test on Well B.
2,000
located approximately 300 km southeast of the Hassi

Messaoud field. Although not typical of all F6-1 pay in
this field, this is a typical well targeted for hydraulic fracturing by FCP in 2006.The average porosity in the pay
interval is below 10%. Air permeability measurements
on core samples, however, have yielded permeabilities
ranging from 0.01 to 10.0 mD, with average values below
0.1 mD, which indicates that where there is good clean
sandstone, permeability can be relatively good (Fig. 4.73).
However, packages of sandstone have been rarely
observed greater than 5 m thick. Therefore, the bulk permeability would likely be dominated by the surrounding
shaly intervals.
Figure 4.74 shows that the maximum allowable treating

pressure of 10,000 psi was reached at a pumping rate of
less than 4 bbl/min. The initial analysis of these data was
performed in November 2005 and yielded the following
results based on diagnostic analysis of pressure decline
and characteristic decline function (red) shown in Fig. 4.75:
surface ISIP = 9,213 psi
bottomhole closure = 12,991 psi
net pressure = 2,298 psi
fluid efficiency = 0.34.
Figure 4.75: Initial regression analysis.
79
16,000
1,500
Layer 3
15,000
1,300
1,100
Layer 2
14,000
900
13,000
500
12,000
300
11,000
10
11
12
13
G dP/dG, psi
700
Layer 1
Pressure, psi
Further investigation of this analysis revealed several

inconsistencies. In the closure pressure selection, the
value corresponds to a relatively low fluid efficiency
(0.34), and the total leakoff is lower prior to closure than
after closure (indicated by the concave signature in the
pressure decline). Review of the initial injection data
showed that formation breakdown occurred at approximately 1.3 bbl/min (Fig. 4.76). This analysis is consistent
with data shown in the introduction to this chapter.

16,000
Pressure derivative
G dP/dG
Pressure
10.00
8.00
12,000
Figure 4.77: Revised decline analysis of Well B.
Breakdown pressure and rate

6.00
8,000
Sw
4.00
0
0
5.0
10.0
15.0
0
20.0
Treatment time, min

Treating pressure
Bottomhole pressure
Slurry rate
Figure 4.76: Breakdown test on Well B.
VCL
0
Gamma ray
0 (gAPI) 150
Youngs modulus Effective porosity
Lithology
(%) 100
MD
(m)
Perforations
2.00
Rate, bbl/min
Pressure, psi
Porosity
CGR-SGR
4,000
7,719 (GPa) 33,857 50

Closure gradient
14,848
(kPa/m) 21,651 0
X,135
X,140
X,145
X,150
X,155
A second analysis was performed using the Superposition

G Function diagnostic (Fig. 4.77).8 This analysis identified
three distinct layers as shown by the fracture compliance
linear signature of the G dP/dG plot. The closure of layer 1
was estimated to occur at 13,696-psi bottomhole pressure. Layer 2 closure was observed at 12,148-psi bottomhole pressure. Layer 3 closure was not observed because
the diagnostic signal never departed from fracture compliancy during the period monitored. Therefore, after 4.5 hr
of monitoring, there was no concrete evidence of fracture
closure. This was further substantiated by the observance
of higher pumping pressures at lower pumping rates for
the second injection. The fracture was still in an open
state, and net pressure was immediately gained due to
extremely low fluid leakoff. However, since the perforation interval covered multiple lithology types, it was difficult to know with certainty which layers corresponded to
those identified in the pressure diagnostic without direct
sampling with the MDT tool.
80
X,160
X,165
X,170
X,175
X,180
X,185
X,190
X,195
X,200
X,205
X,210
X,215
X,220
X,225
X,230
X,235
X,240
X,245
Figure 4.78: Geomechanical interpretation from Well C logs.
Poissons ratio
(%)
Water saturation
0.5 100
(%)
An attempt to fracture this well could not be completed

due to fluid communication found during the DataFRAC
analysis performed after this evaluation.
16
15,000
13,000
12
Well C
11,000
8
9,000
5,000
100
200
300
Rate, bbl/min
Pressure, psi
4
7,000
Time, min
Bottomhole pressure
Rate
Figure 4.79: Injection test on Well C.
The most significant aspect of this case was the amount of net pressure generated during the DataFRAC period. The newer interpretation yielded 3,000 psi
of net pressure (compared to the original estimate of 2,290 psi). However,
since the uncalibrated base stress profile (Fig. 4.72) showed low confinement,
this amount of net pressure would ordinarily result in the fracture growing
uncontrollably out of zone. On the contrary, the fracture height would have to
be confined within a very short interval in order to substantiate the observed
net pressure. As a result, decision-makers had to question the stress profile
developed from sonic data or the actual concept of fracture propagation within
layered formations. These assumptions were further tested in the second
case study.
14,200
2,000
13,800
1,600
Period of pressuredependent leakoff
800
400
12,600
12,200

Pressure derivative
G dP/dG
Pressure
G dP/dG, psi
13,000
Pressure, psi
1,200
Period of fracture
compliance
13,400
Based on the findings of the first evaluation, the operator decided to revisit the failed attempt on Well C performed in November 2005. The F6-1 formation in Well C
contains a larger package of sand than Well B (Fig. 4.78).
It is perforated at the top of the sand and does not
appear to cover any shaly intervals. While the sonic data
used to compute a stress profile contained missing data
at the top confining layer, containment was expected to
be much better in this wellbore due to the thicker packages of sand and shale, relatively speaking. This was
confirmed by the positive slope pressure response seen
in both injections.
DataFRAC analysis was performed on Well C in
November 2005 in preparation for a fracturing treatment.
As with Well B, the analysis consisted of two injection
and decline periods. The first injection consisted of pumping lease water at rates approaching 12 bbl/min followed
by a 2-hr shut-in period. The second injection consisted of
pumping at rates approaching 18 bbl/min and displacing
a combination of linear gel and crosslinked gel into the
formation followed by a shut-in of approximately 1.5 hr to
analyze decline. A significant increase in both pumping
pressures and ISIP were noted between the first and second injections. As a result of the pressure response, the
operator decided to cancel the fracture treatment on this
well due to the insufficient pressure margin required to
complete treatment. The pressure/rate history for the
injections is shown in Fig. 4.79.
The initial analysis performed on this well during the 2005
injection tests identified two closure points (14,150 psi
and 13,500 psi), both well within the pressure period
affected by pressure-dependent leakoff (Fig. 4.80) and
representing fluid efficiency below 0.5. What was not
identified at the time but is currently noted was the clear
signature of an open fracture through the remainder of
the pressure decline after these closure selections.
Figure 4.80: Reevaluation of the first injection test conducted on Well C in 2006.
81
Given the clear fracture compliance signature in the diagnostic plots and fracture confinement shown through the
positive slope of pressure versus time (during pumping) for
both injections, there was ample evidence in the reevaluation of data that a fracture was created and sustained in
both injection periods. Also, consistent with the first study,
closure of the main fracture was not observed in the first
decline period, which represents the lowest decline pressure of the two injection periods. By default, then, a closure in the second injection would be unexpected, and only
a magnification of the pressure-dependent signature due
to the elevated treating pressure would be anticipated.
Given the level of net pressure observed in both wells, the
width of the main fracture was of lesser concern. The
major concern was the impact the pressure-dependent
leakoff (or tortuosity) would play on fracture propagation.
As a result, the redesign contained the following key steps:
injection with step-down (without decline period) to
determine level of near-wellbore effects
proppant slug to reduce these effects and promote
bridging at fracture tips
reduction in designed pump rate to further minimize
height growth and pressure-dependent leakoff.
1,000
15,000
800
Period of fracture
compliance
Period of pressuredependent leakoff
14,600
Pressure, psi
Revised approach
15,400
600
14,200
400
13,800
200
13,400
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
G dP/dG, psi
Therefore, at higher pressures (going from injection

decline 1 to 2), a magnification of this pressure dependency was noted (Fig. 4.81). At the lower pump rates and
pressures, however, a clear fracture was created and
easily propagated.

Pressure derivative
G dP/dG
Pressure
Figure 4.81: Reevaluation of the second injection test conducted on Well C during 2006.
the nonconventional tight reservoir poses the greatest challenge to both characterization and exploitation. Reservoir layering, layer thickness, and completion
strategy play a large role in fracture propagation characteristics. These range
from the presence of pressure-dependent leakoff and tortuosity to elevated
pumping and net pressures.
Assumptions made during the diagnostic analysis guide the actions that will
be taken to overcome the obstacles. For example, an incorrect selection of formation closure pressure leads to an underestimation of fluid efficiency, excess
pad usage, excessive closure times, and inefficient fracture placement. In
extreme cases, as shown above, a poor selection may preclude the ability to
fracture the reservoir due to pressure restrictions and concerns about fracture
propagation (i.e., horizontal fractures). Tight gas reservoirs provide the next
great horizon for the oil and gas industry. However, nonconventional reservoirs
require a complete methodology to properly assess their characteristics (from
flow capacity to geomechanics) and flow capability.
Results
Summary
These two case studies show the impact of investigative
analysis and engineering on developing a clear reservoir
picture for designing effective fracturing treatments in tight
reservoirs. Of the reservoir types encountered in Algeria,
82
20,000
14.00
Step-down to determine present
level of near-wellbore effects
12.00
15,000
10.00
8.00
10,000
6.00
Proppant slug
to arrest
vertical growth
4.00
2.00
0
100.0
150.0
200.0
Treatment time, min

Treating pressure
Calculated bottomhole pressure
Slurry rate
Proppant concentration, ppa (pounds of proppant added)
Bottomhole proppant concentration
Figure 4.82: Fracture treatment on Well C.
250.0
0
300.0
Rate,bbl/min
5,000
Pressure, psi
Where the original DataFRAC treatment failed, the first successful fracture treatment, with PowerSTIM support, was
pumped in the F6-1 formation. The treatment was designed
to be pumped at nearly 50% the rate of the original
DataFRAC treatment (8 to 11 bbl/min versus 18 bbl/min),
placing more than 100, 000 lbm of proppant into the formation with a maximum proppant concentration of 8 ppa.
Results are shown in Fig. 4.82.
StimMAP Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring

Direct measurement of hydraulic fracture geometry
Microseismic events triggered by stimulation treatments are detected and
located in 3D space relative to the well being treated. This enables the accurate reconstruction of the locations, geometry, and dimensions of hydraulic
fracture systems as they are created (Fig. 4.P), and thus help to ensure optimal hydraulic fracture placement and improved reservoir development.
Treatment well
Monitoring well
Receivers
Microseismic event
Reservoir
Hydraulic fracture
model survey is performed in a nearby monitoring well

where the VSI tool is positioned for StimMAP data acquisition. This borehole seismic survey is performed before
fracturing, usually with a vibroseis truck as the surface
acoustic source.
Improved treatments
VSI data can be processed on location to generate a 3D
image of the fracture system, providing an opportunity to
reengineer the stimulation treatment of subsequent
stages. Additionally, comparing the actual fracture
mapped by the StimMAP service with the FracCADE fracturing design and evaluation software model (Fig. 4.R)
provides useful information for improving future treatments.
Real-time data sharing

Figure 4.P: Microseismic monitoring uses sensitive, multicomponent sensors in monitoring wells to
Acquisition and processing
Engineers at the monitoring or treatment well can communicate with one another using InterACT real-time
monitoring and data delivery, a Web-based data transmission service. Remote office locations can be included
in the communications loop, which makes data instantly
accessible for processing and interpretation (Fig. 4.Q).
Microseismic data for StimMAP services are acquired with the multishuttle VSI
Versatile Seismic Imager. (Fig. 4.Q). To create the velocity model needed for
microseismic data analysis and processing, a seismically calibrated velocity
In all, lessons learned from the StimMAP service enable

operators to optimize well stimulation costs and provide
insight for new and in-field drilling opportunities.
Figure 4.Q: Computer-generated illustration of a hydraulic fracture creating microseismics (mini-
Figure 4.R: Microseismic events created during the hydraulic fracture can
earthquakes) that are detected and located by the VSI tool in an observation well.
be compared with FracCADE hydraulic fracture predictions.
record microseismic events, or acoustic emissions (AE), caused by rock shearing during hydraulic
fracture treatments. The microseismic data are then processed to determine the distance and
azimuth from the receiver to the AE and the depth of the AE.
83
Sfar (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Black Bovidian period. In this portrait of a migrating tribe, the cattle carry the women and children as well as various bundles, while the bowmen march
ahead, bow in hand, ready to defend the group from any attack.
84
86
85

All geological formations are subject to some type of in
situ stress. Drilling and completion activities can perturb
the stresses in the near-wellbore region, which may lead
to rock failure and hence wellbore instability or solids
production. Other activities occurring during the life cycle
of a field can cause pore pressure and temperature
changes within the reservoir, which tend to modify the
stresses acting further away from the wellbore. These
stress changes affect not only the reservoir but also adjacent formations, its immediate underburden, and the
overburden to surface (Fig. 4.83).
Such changes may be caused by the production of hydrocarbons from the reservoir water extraction from
aquifers. They can also result from the injection of gas,
water, or steam into the reservoir to assist recovery and
production (i.e., SAGD); the injection of waste water into
other layers; the reinjection of slurried cuttings or CO2 for
disposal; and the underground storage of gas or water.
stresses acting on the rock, which would normally tend to compress the reservoir in all directions. Since large lateral shrinkage of a reservoir is unrealistic,
any depletion of a reservoir must be accompanied by a reduction in the horizontal stresses so that the reservoir will maintain, more or less, its original
lateral dimensions (Fig. 4.84). These production-related stress changes affect
all depleting reservoirs, including the competent and stiff formations that are
typical of Algeria and the Hassi Messaoud field.
Conversely, pore pressure increases due to injection can result in corresponding increases to the horizontal stresses in the injection layer so that the
rock does not bulge outward (Fig. 4.84), and again, this effect occurs in stiff
and soft formations. In contrast, unless the immediate overburden is able to
act as a bridge and support part of the weight of the overlying rock (which
sometimes happens), the total vertical stress acting on the reservoir remains
fairly constant and equals the weight of the overlying material.
When cold fluids are injected into a reservoir for the purpose of pressure
maintenance or enhanced oil recovery, they cool the rock below its ambient
temperature. The normal tendency would be for the rock to thermally contract
in all directions, but again, some reduction in the horizontal stresses will take
The consequences of these stress changes include rock

deformation, rock property changes, rock failure, and
fault and fracture slippage. These effects may be significant enough to dominate the reservoir response, affect
4D seismic measurements, compromise field and well
integrity, or impact subsequent drilling and production
operations (Fig. 4.83). The discipline of geomechanics
seeks to understand and quantify these changes and
their effects in order to optimize reservoir development
and field management practices. If ignored, the same
effects can cause a number of undesired phenomena
that may have a detrimental impact on well and field
operations and, perhaps most importantly, on field life
and field economics.
Changes to reservoir
pressures and temperatures
Figure 4.83: Depletion, injection, and temperature changes during the operation of a field can lead
to stress changes in the reservoir and surrounding formations throughout the life of the field. These
Defining the changes in pore pressure that occur in a formation is the first step to understanding some of the
effects associated with depletion. The primary effect of
decreasing reservoir pressure is the increase in effective
86
stress changes impact both individual wells and overall field behavior, affecting wellbore instability
of infill wells, well stimulation, completion stability, cap-rock integrity and fault sealing, reservoir
compaction, surface topography, casing and well integrity, fracture behavior, reservoir performance,
well productivity, and 4D seismic responses.
Geomechanics For Reservoir Management
Far-field stresses
h stress trajectories
h concentration
Depleted zone
When steam or hot water is injected into a reservoir during thermal recovery operations, the rocks tend to undergo thermal expansion. Since they are confined laterally
by the surrounding rock, the opposite effect occurs in the
injection zones and their bounding layersthat is, their
horizontal stresses tend to increase. While compaction
might normally be associated with soft porous formations, these thermally induced stresses are most significant in stiff and dense formations such as those in
Algeria.
h along wellbore
New h
Initial h
place so that the reservoir does not shrink laterally. While

cooling in the injection zone is due to convective heat
flow as the fluid front moves through it, additional conductive heat flow and cooling occurs in the layers immediately below and above the injection interval. Therefore,
the layers adjacent to the reservoir also experience cooling-induced stress reductions although they may not
undergo pressure change or exposure to fluid injection.
Increased stress above reservoir

Reduced stress in reservoir
Horizontal stresses change with depletion
Region of reduced h
Cap rock
Pressurized zone
Initial h
New h
Potential
fracturing
Horizontal stresses change with injection

Figure 4.84: Depleting a reservoir leads to a reduction in its horizontal stresses and sometimes a
change in the vertical (overburden) stress at the top of the reservoir. In response, stresses are transferred to the adjacent formations so that the system remains in static equilibrium with its surroundings. Conversely, local repressuring due to high-pressure gas or water injection leads to an increase
in horizontal stress in the injection zone and a corresponding reduction in stress in the adjacent
intervals. This may cause the fracture pressure in the cap rock to exceed that of its over- and underburden, increasing the potential for cap-rock breaching and loss of containment or for bypassing
reserves by the injection fluid. These depletion- and injection-induced stress changes can also
influence well and completion stability, wellbore stability during infill drilling, fault and fracture
stability, and reservoir behavior.
Once these pressure- and thermal-induced stress changes

occur in a reservoir or injection zone, residual effects may
occur within the immediately surrounding rocks. For example, changes to the stresses in one interval tend to put the
rock out of equilibrium with its surroundings and with
regional stresses acting at its boundaries. The result is a
corresponding transfer of stress between the reservoir or
injection interval and its immediate over-, under-, and,
sometimes, its side-burden. In other words, a depleting
reservoir undergoing horizontal stress reduction experiences increasing horizontal stresses in its surrounding
rocks. Conversely, any increasing stress in a layer (resulting
from steam injection or pressurization, for example) results
in some stress reduction above and below it.
If the extent of the depletion or injection zone is not too
great and if the overlying formations are capable of supporting the overlying rocks, the stress changes and transfers can also modify the vertical stresses acting on the
affected region and its surroundings (Fig. 4.84). This is
known as a bridging or arching effect. However, as
87
pressurized or depleted zones grow outward from wells

over the life of the field, or as zones around neighboring
wells begin to interact, the bridging effect may diminish
and additional time-dependent changes in rock stresses
and strains may occur.
12,000
ion
ple
De
9,000
Safe
drawdown
6,000
Well pressure, psi
The significance of these temperature- and pressureinduced stress changes and their potential to impact field
development, field operations, and production depends on
the mechanical properties of the rocks, natural fractures
and faults, and the way the different effects coalesce
throughout the life of the field.
Thrust
3
15,000
Strike-slip
2
3,000
1
0
0
3,000
6,000
9,000
12,000
15,000
Reservoir pressure, psi

Normal
1
Consequences
The displacements, strains, and potential instabilities
that occur with production- and injection-induced stress
changes can be beneficial (for example, with compaction
drive mechanisms in some reservoirs). But usually and if
not taken into account during field planning and field
development, the strains and displacements occurring
within a reservoir and its surrounding formations can be
detrimental to reservoir behavior and performance, to
existing wells and completions, and to subsequent construction of infill wells.
An immediate effect of these changes to the total and
effective stresses is that the rocks, in the reservoir and
its surroundings, undergo strains, volume changes, and
movements. These phenomena are most pronounced in
soft and porous rocks, and if the reservoir is compressible and its depletion and corresponding stress changes
are significant, the rock may yield and fail, resulting in
large irrecoverable (i.e., plastic) vertical compactions and
loss of porosity. Depending on the reservoir geometry,
depth, and stiffness, such movements may be dissipated
in or transmitted through the overburden and manifest as
surface subsidence.
A well-known example of irrecoverable deformation
caused by increased groundwater extraction was the
dramatic lowering of the ground surface around Venice,
88
3
2
Figure 4.85: As a field depletes and its stresses change, the order of the stresses may be radically
altered such that the reservoir evolves from a thrust faultingtype stress regime, through one of
strike-slip, and ultimately to one of normal faulting. Therefore, a completion type or a perforation
direction deemed to be most stable and optimal at the onset of production may in fact suffer early
failure. In this horizontal well, which has an initial thrust faultingtype stress regime in the reservoir,
horizontal perforations will permit the greatest safe drawdown and solids-free production. However,
as the field depletes and the stresses change, the horizontal perforations will collapse first.
Italy, in the 1950s and 1960s. When the water wells where shut and fluid
pressures partly reestablished, the subsidence did not reverse. An increasing
number of serious subsidence cases resulting from oil and gas activities have
also been documented. One of the earliest happened in the Goose Creek field
(near Houston in the U.S.), which was first noticed in 1918. More recently,
noticeable subsidences in the Wilmington field in California, several fields at
Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, and the Groningen field have resulted in environmental problems due to the surfaces above these field being at or near sea
level. In the North Sea, the chalk Ekofisk, Eldfisk, and Valhall fields have experienced mudline subsidence to such a degree that it has posed a risk to platform safety and operations. The Ekofisk complex required more than $3 billion
(U.S.) in remedial work, not including the cost of replacing and working over
lost and damaged wells and completions. Stress-induced movement in the
Ekofisk field was further exacerbated by the injection of water in an attempt
to maintain pressure and delay compaction, which had the opposite and unfortunate effect of softening the formation and causing greater compaction.
Stress changes and rock deformations can also compromise the integrity of
existing completions within the reservoir and overburden by deforming and
damaging them or affecting their ability to exclude produced solids from the
produced hydrocarbons. Damage can occur in the compacting reservoir or in
the overburden as wells deform due to the development of a subsidence bowl
and possible shear displacements in faults and weak bedding planes (especially above the flanks of the field). Even where compaction in the reservoir
occurs but surface subsidence is absent, wells can be damaged by the stretching that occurs in the overburden. Damage and well failure are most pronounced in those fields where wells and completions have not been designed
to accommodate such strains, but meticulous geomechanical analyses and
well planning are the key to designing wells that can survive large reservoir
and overburden deformations.
Reservoir compactions are usually accompanied by some change in the permeability of the reservoir, which can impact performance and hydrocarbon
production during the life of a field. Compaction, therefore, not only causes
surface subsidence with all its associated remediation costs and downhole
well failures, but in some instances can also provide a strong production drive
mechanism that can benefit field efficiency. Either way, the economic impact
of compaction and subsidence can be huge if fields and wells have not been
designed to accommodate the fields geomechanical response to depletion.
As stresses change in a depleting or repressurizing environment, so can the
ratios and order of vertical and horizontal stresses. This can cause the stress
Production
v = 1
regime in the reservoir to move back and forth between

one of a thrust faulting regime (Maximum horizontal >
Minimum horizontal > Vertical), a strike-slip regime (Maximum
horizontal > Vertical > Minimum horizontal), and a normal faulting regime (Vertical > Maximum horizontal > Minimum horizontal)
(Fig. 4.85).
This change in stress regime can occur in strong, rigid
strata, not just in soft porous formations. In fact, wells
and completions that are selected as the most stable at
the onset of field operations may become the least stable later in the life of the field and, therefore, susceptible to early failure. Again, diligent geomechanical analyses can predict these instabilities so that wells are completed in a way that may not be optimal at the onset of
production but that increases their longevity and efficiency
over the long term.
Not only can stress changes in the reservoir modify the
reservoir properties and cause deformations and compaction, they can cause instabilities and movements of
faults and fractures (Fig. 4.86). Again, this can affect
weak as well as stiff rock formations. If these movements lead to an increase in permeability in the fracture
network, the overall effect on the reservoir and field
Production
h = 3
H > v
H > v
v
H
Shear stresses
Lateral stress reduction may lead to

mobilization of normal faults
Lateral stress increase may lead to mobilization of low-angle faults, or slip at

weak bedding or interfaces
Figure 4.86: With depletion of a reservoir, reduced horizontal stresses may lead to mobilization of any normal faults that bound or intersect the reservoir. The same can occur with
normal faults in the overburden when injection causes a reduction in horizontal stresses within neighboring formations. This may result in loss of seal in the fault, which could compromise reservoir integrity, provide fluid paths for injected gas or CO2, or lead to shearing of wells that pass through the faults. Where one or both horizontal stresses exceed the
overburden, and when local repressuring and injection cause an increase in the horizontal stresses in the reservoir (or where depletion in a reservoir causes the horizontal stresses
to increase in neighboring formations), low-angle faults may instead be mobilized and slip may occur at weak interfaces or inclined bedding planes. This also poses a risk to wells
passing through these regions and to reservoir integrity and seal. Conversely, any movement of an otherwise conductive fault that causes a loss in permeability could result in the
isolation of a reservoir unit or fault block from adjacent producing intervals and existing production wells.
89
production may be beneficial. However, an increase in

fracture permeability can lead to greater water movement
and fingering through the reservoir, which may be highly
detrimental to both field and individual well performance.
Also, some fractures may open as they are stressed and
displaced during a production or injection scenario, but
others may close under the same circumstances.
Therefore, the directional permeability and preferred
flow directionfor hydrocarbons or watermay
change over the life of a field. This, in turn, may mean
that optimal placement of production and injection wells
can change as a field matures. The overall effect of
depletion and stress changes in a fractured reservoir,
therefore, may be dynamic and result in fundamental
changes in well performance, reservoir performance, and
water movement as the field stresses change and the
fractures open and close.
repressuring of a reservoir, especially where hot fluids are injected for thermal recovery operations. In such cases, fracture pressure increases in the
reservoir but decreases in the cap rock and underburden, which presents a
dramatically increased risk of the injected fluids fracturing the cap rock or
migrating downward, breaching the reservoir, and bypassing reserves. When
this happens there is an increased risk of the injected CO2 finding a migration
path into a potable aquifer or to surface.
One final consideration is the impact of stress changes and movements in the
reservoir and overburden on the seismic response of these formations and on
the interpretation of 4D seismic data. For example, a time-related change in
the seismic response of a field might be incorrectly attributed to fluid movements and changes in saturation in the reservoir. In reality, seismic velocities,
mode conversions, and attenuations could be influenced greatly by the geomechanics of the system. Therefore, geomechanical analyses are becoming
an important aspect of planning and interpreting 4D seismic surveys.
Monitoring for reservoir geomechanics

In addition to fracture movements in the reservoir, changing stresses can also mobilize existing or generate new
fractures and faults in the over-, side-, and underburden
formations, and can cause slippage at weak bedding
interfaces or at interfaces that are otherwise composed
of hard, competent rocks. These movements can damage
existing wells in the overburden. This has occurred in
hard overburden carbonates in some Middle Eastern
fields. More important, however, is the fact that for many
types of rock, fracture movements can lead to cap-rock
breaching and changes in the integrity of a fault seal. For
example, a sealing fault that forms a reservoir boundary
might mobilize and hence provide a conductive pathway
for reservoir leakage. In the context of CO2 sequestration,
this leakage poses the risk of creating a migration path
to surface. Equally, a nonsealing fault might experience
changes that cause it to lose permeability that would
otherwise connect two offset reservoir units.
Another concern of stress changes in cap rock is the consequence of prolonged injection and local near-wellbore
90
A range of monitoring techniques can be used to detect and measure fieldscale geomechanical effects and some localized phenomena in the subsurface. For example, surface subsidence (especially onshore) can be detected
and measured using terrestrial surveying, GPS stations, surface and borehole
tilt meters, satellite surveys, and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
(InSAR). Offshore techniques include air-gap measurements on platforms,
bathymetry, and the protrusion of wellheads from the surface.
Compaction can be detected and monitored from casing collar movements;
formation subsidence monitoring tools where radioactive bullets are fired into
the compacting formations with repeat surveys of their spacings using gammaray logs; time-lapse formation logging (both openhole and behind casing); and
time-lapse seismic studies (as in the case of the Valhall carbonate field).
Microseismic also provides a technique for detecting regions of movement
and rock failure during depletion, and is particularly useful for identifying and
locating fracture movements and events within a reservoir and the surrounding formations during injection and thermal recovery processes. Microseismic
is particularly applicable to monitoring subsurface geomechanical phenomena
in stiff formations.
Conclusions
Depletion, injection, and temperature changes during the operation of a field
can lead to stress changes in the reservoir and surrounding formations. The
accompanying problems may not be associated with significant reservoir compaction but can affect otherwise competent formations such as those in
Algeria and the Hassi Messaoud field. Moreover, the effects are dependent on
time, pressure, temperature, and operations, which affect the field and its surroundings from initial appraisal, through development, to final abandonment.
The major implications of these changes include wellbore instability problems
for infill wells, cap rock integrity and fault sealing, reservoir compaction, surface or mudline subsidence, casing damage and well collapse, changes in
reservoir performance and well productivity, and interpretation of 4D seismic.
These phenomena, which impact both individual wells and overall field
behavior, may require significant expenditure to remediate and can even
render fields inoperable.
When the appropriate conditions prevail, geomechanical

studies can be used to delineate many aspects of depletion, pressurization, hot/cold injection, disposal, CO2, and
underground storage of gas or water. Therefore, reservoir
geomechanics is an important factor throughout the
development and operation of any field. Analytical and
numerical techniques can be used to evaluate and predict geomechanical effects, and some of these effects
can be measured with monitoring techniques. Therefore,
the diligent use of geomechanical analyses makes it possible to design, develop, and operate wells and fields in
ways that increase well survivability and mitigate effects
that have the potential to detrimentally affect life-offield operations and economics.
The Duprez cypress (Cupressus dupreziana) is an endemic Mediterranean species unique to the the Tassili of the Ajjer. Its age, estimated at approximately 2 millennia for the oldest
examples, makes it the oldest tree in the world after the North American pine tree with barbed leaves.
91
Sonatrach: Brahim ACHI, Rabah ZEGHOUANI
Sonatrach: Khelil KARTOBI
Schlumberger: John COOK, John FULLER
Sonatrach: Mohamed BENAMEUR
Schlumberger: Robert MARSDEN, Walid BEN-ISMAIL
Sonatrach: Kamal BELKHEIR
Schlumberger: John FULLER, Walid BEN-ISMAIL
Acknowledgments
Mohamed BELHOUCHET, Mohamed MERAD (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Noureddine BOUNOUA, Karim BELABED, Mohamed HEDIR
Schlumberger: Jean-Michel DENICHOU, Tamir EL-HALAWANI, Dzevat OMERAGIC
Sonatrach: Nacer DOUMAZ, Hocine BOURAS
Schlumberger: Erik NELSON, Smaine ZEROUG
Acknowledgments
Dominique GUILLOT, Bernard PIOT, Eugene TOUKAM, Jamal ZAKARIA (Schlumberger)
Groupement Sonatrach/AGIP: Ahmed DAOUD, Giovanni Luca MINNECI, Achille TIRIBELLI
Schlumberger: Mourad AMANOV, Fathi GHODBANE, Pietro CASTELLI

Sonatrach: Khelil KARTOBI, Toufik MADDI
Schlumberger: John Fuller, Walid BEN-ISMAIL, George DOZIER
Acknowledgments
Abdelkader DELHOMME (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Said BENELKADI, Mohamed Seghir BRAHAM CHAOUCH, Noureddine BOUNOUA
Schlumberger: George DOZIER
First Calgary Petroleums Limited: Dave SALAHUB
Acknowledgments
Ernie BROWN, Hacene KAMLI (Schlumberger)
Schlumberger: Robert MARSDEN
Individuals
92
who either reviewed the documents, contributed with processing results, or provide tangible support for data release and use.
References
References
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2. Bradford et al: When Rock Mechanics Met Drilling: Effective Implementation of Real-Time Wellbore Stability Control, paper IADC/SPE 59121, Proc.
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA (February 2000).
3. Fjaer et al: Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics, Developments in Petroleum Science 33, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1992).
1. Comprehensive Rock Engineering: Volume 3: Rock Testing and Site Characterization, JA Hudson (ed.), Pergammon Press, Oxford, UK (1993).
2. Vutukuri VS, Lama RD, and Saliya SS: Handbook on the Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Volume 1, Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal (1974).
3. Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring: ISRM Suggested Methods, ET Brown (ed.), Pergammon Press, Oxford, UK (1981).
1. Akbar et al: Watching Rocks ChangeMechanical Earth Modeling, Oilfield Review 15, no. 2, (Summer 2003): 22.
1. Omeragic D, Habashy T, Esmersoy C, Li Q, Seydoux J, Smits J, and Tabanou JR: Real-Time Interpretation of Formation Structure from Directional EM
Measurements, SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium (June 47, 2006).
2. Wiig M, Berg E, Kjaerefjord JM, Saltnes M, Stoldar EA, Sygnabere TO, Laastad H, Raeper G, Gustavsson E, Denichou J-M, Darquin A, and Omeragic D:
Geo-steering Using New Directional Electromagnetic Measurements and a 3D Rotary Steerable System on the Veslefrikk Field, North Sea, paper
SPE95725, Transactions of the SPE Annual Technical Conference (October 912, 2005).
1. Brooks R and Grant WH Jr: Primary Cementing, Worldwide Cementing Practices, API, Washington, DC, USA (1991) 5269.
2. Marca C: Remedial Cementing, Well Cementing, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1990) 13-113-28.
3. Boisnault JM et al: Concrete Developments in Cementing Technology, Oilfield Review (Spring 1999) 11, No. 1, 16.
4. Nelson EB and Drecq P: Special Cement Systems, Well Cementing, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1990) 7-117-12.
5. Barlet-Goudard et al: Mitigation Strategies for the Risk of CO2 Migration Through Wellbores, paper IADC/SPE 98924 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Miami, Florida, USA (2006).
6. Abbas et al: Solutions for Long-Term Zonal Isolation, Oilfield Review (Autumn 2002) 14 no. 3, 16.
Background Section
1. Economides M and Nolte K: Reservoir Stimulation, third edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, England (2000) Chap. 6, 6-16-48.
2. Ibid, Chap. 5, 5-15-27.
3. Brim HB: A Post-Audit of Fracture Stimulations in the Vicksburg Formation of South Texas, paper SPE 15508 presented at the 1986 SPE Annual Technical
Conference & Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, 5 October.
4. Mukherjee H and Economides M: A Parametric Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical Well Performance, paper SPE 18303 presented at the 1988 SPE
Annual Technical Conference & Exhibition, Houston, Texas, 25 October.
5. Siebrits et al: Refracture Reorientation Enhances Gas Production in Barnett Shale Tight Gas Wells, paper SPE 63030 presented at the 2000 SPE Annual
Technical Conference & Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, 14 October.
6. Sencenbaugh et al: Restimulating Tight Gas Sand: Case Study of the Codell Formation, paper SPE 71045 presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Petroleum Technology Conference, Keysone, Colorado, May 2001.
7. Dozier et al: Refracturing Works, Oilfield Review 15, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 3853.
8. Barree R and Mukherjee H: Determination of Pressure Dependent Leakoff and its Effect on Fracture Geometry," paper SPE 36424 presented at the 1996
SPE Annual Technical Conference & Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, 69 October.
93
Tin Aressou (the Tassili of the Ajjer). White Bovidian period, or Proto-Berber, dating from approximately 6,000 to 7,000 years ago. In this highly animated composition that brilliantly
portrays the dynamism of the characters, a band of hunters attacks a lioness using jet black cudgels and spears. (40 cm high).
5. Production Optimization
Overview
Cased Hole Formation Evaluation
Production MonitoringSurface Multiphase Flow Measurements
16
Production MonitoringReservoir Fluid Sampling and Analysis
26
Production MonitoringDownhole Multiphase Flow Measurements
28
Well IntegrityCement Evaluation
32
Enhanced Oil Recovery Management
46
Attaining Efficiencies Through Integrated Project Management
54
Algeria WEC 2007 / Production Optimization
Overview
eyond technologies used to evaluate and characterize formations
(Chapter 3) and beyond technologies used in reservoir development
(Chapter 4), production optimization considers, as much for the operating
company as for the service company, the technologies and competencies
needed to improve reservoir management.
The leading section of this chapter covers first the use of cased hole evaluation
technologies, then production monitoring technologies through both surface and
downhole multiphase measurements. Well integrity and cement evaluation follow with a description of conventional measurements and recent advances.
Finally, monitoring of an enhanced oil recovery program through a water-alternating-gas process closes this presentation on pertinent technologies. The second section highlights the integration of complex technologies and project
management through selected reservoir case studies.
In the recently developed Alrar oil rim, cased hole logging has enabled the
evaluation of perturbations created by depletion of the gas cap at the
oil/water and gas/oil contacts. Logging of two wells with recently introduced
cased hole technologiesthe CHFR Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool and
the ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy sondealong with pressure and
density measurements showed a 20% reduction in the thickness of the oil rim
in both wells. This variation, which is attributed to a local water level rise,
informs on the dynamics in place and on future well performance. These measurements and their interpretation were followed by underbalanced perforating
with PURE technology that has induced flow rates as high as 1,250 bbl/day.
Overview
Contingency logging was critical in the case of a well in the Zemlet

Enouss field. Indeed, due to drilling-induced borehole stability problems, the well had to be urgently cased and openhole logging could
not be performed. Reservoir evaluation and particularly water saturation determination were conducted with cased hole logs. Using the
RST Reservoir Saturation Tool in Sigma and carbon/oxygen modes and
the CHFR tool, the three Triassic banks of the Zemlet Enouss reservoir
were assessed despite the presence of numerous problems such as
severe mud invasion and the presence of cement carbonates that
affected the data. Integration of recorded logs as well as information
derived from neighboring wells led to the conclusion that the two
lower banks were invaded by formation water while the upper bank
was potentially anhydrous.
Similar to the development of downhole technology, the domain of surface measurements has seen dramatic improvement with the introduction of the simultaneous triphase measurement. Conventional
separation with all its problems (extent of the installations, multipipe
transport, limited measurement quality, complex flows, and emulsions)
is today widely exceeded by new technology that is both more precise
and more convenient. Its use in gas or oil mode has wide coverage in
the range of fluids encountered in terms of gas fraction and water content. Examples from wells tested in the Hassi Messaoud demonstrate
its diverse applications. For instance, instabilities in production and
injection of gas used for lift were registered on observation time cycles
that are relatively too short for conventional measurements to capture.
Cleanup duration was consequently reduced thanks to fast detection of
the stability of the well in drainage.
When the PhaseWatcher fixed multiphase well production monitoring system is used in continuous mode, it
allows the control of production from a set of wells and
supplies relatively precise back allocation of production
volume. This back allocation, which is particularly valuable for fiscal allocation of production among multiple
partners operating the same field, is demonstrated by
PhaseWatcher systems installed on the manifolds of
fields in the Berkine basin. Similar installations were conducted in the gas fields of Reg, Teg, and Krechba.
Highlights from recent advances in this domain include
multiphase pumping and multiphase sampling.
Multiphase pumping has many advantages including
extended tieback of remote wells or fields, greater production without flaring gas, increased formation recovery,
and thus increased overall asset profitability. The active
sampling device connects to a multiphase flowmeter and
enables sampling without the need of a separator.
Sometimes, the quality of produced fluids poses problems to operators. In this context, the PVT Express service, a recently developed fluid sampling technology for
fast and robust onsite analysis, is described in the following section. The case study presented pertains to the
Ourhoud reservoir from which 80 samples were collected
and used for extensive PVT and flow assurance analysis.
The data were used to evaluate and tune the existing equation of state for the
reservoir system and were integral to evaluating the miscible gas injection
project and subsequently optimizing reservoir production.
Downhole production logging and its particular use in horizontal wells are
described next through the recently introduced FlowScan Imager system.
Production in horizontal wells is affected by numerous problems such as stratification, recirculation, segregation, etc.conditions that cannot be adequately evaluated with conventional logging. The FlowScan Imager horizontal
and deviated well production logging system supplies a real-time tomography
of the well flow. Considering the extensive use of horizontal drainsnotably
in the fields of Hassi Messaoud, Hassi Rmel, Stah, and Mereksenand also
considering the practice of water and gas injection, the use of this technology
remains very promising for production optimization.
The next section covers cement evaluation. Conventional sonic (CBL and
Variable Density logs) and ultrasonic (USI UltraSonic Imager) evaluation tools
are discussed through an illustration of their use to interpret logs from a well
in the TFT field in the Illizi basin. This description highlights the limitations of
these technologies for evaluating lightweight cement technologies, with their
fluid-like acoustic impedance, and for all cements in complex situations. A
description of the recently introduced advanced Isolation Scanner service follows. This service provides enhanced cement evaluation especially for lightweight cements and in complex situations. A case study from a test conducted
in the In-Salah field demonstrates the tools effectiveness in resolving low
acoustic-impedance solid sheaths from liquid, providing casing eccentering
within the hole, informing on the nature of the cement sheath in terms of its
sound velocity, and imaging of the formation wall geometry where large
cavities are detected through casing and cement.
Overview
The processes of tertiary recovery remain particularly expensive, and their

implementation requires a relatively careful and laborious approach.
Undoubtedly, water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection is a complex process of
tertiary recovery. It remains, however, a powerful technique for oil recovery
improvement and promotes economic effectiveness by reducing the contribution of gas in the injection.
The WAG pilot project conducted in the Hassi Berkine field aimed at verifying
the validity of the procedure before its generalization. An observation well
was drilled 150 m from an experimental WAG injector well. The changeable
nature of the reservoir facies, coupled with a multilayered structure and the
presence of permeability barriers, had shown the necessity of carrying out a
pilot study. Several gas-water cycles were injected while oil, gas, and water
saturation distributions were monitored in an observation well. The use of the
RST Reservoir Saturation Tool in carbon/oxygen and Sigma modes was coupled with the CHFR tool to regularly monitor the fluid saturation profiles during the first four injection cycles. The saturation data were converted to real
saturations owing to the miscibility of the injected gas.
Attaining efficiencies in well drilling and construction and in field development is the subject of the last section. The raison detre of the Schlumberger
IPM organization is described here through a case study where Rosneft, a
company with a small presence in Algeria, collaborated in a drilling campaign
that had a successful outcome. Besides drilling, the project also consisted of
the construction of platforms, access roads, and water wells. In this project,
Schlumberger was responsible for activities that included selection of staff,
procurement, planning, management of operations, reporting, evaluation, and
review. An extension of the project was then carried out in 2005 with the use
of a rig and local staff. The section concludes with highlights of the recent
drilling project initiated by Sonatrach and IPM.
The Algerian Alrar is a gas condensate reservoir that

overlies a thin oil rim. Located in southeast Algeria and
discovered in 1961, the sweet, wet gas reservoir produces from the Devonian F3 sandstone at an average
depth of X,600 m (Fig. 5.1). Developed through continual
gas cycling for 25 years, the field produces rich gas, which
is processed at the surface to extract liquid plant products.
95
One of the interpretation challenges in the Alrar oil rim zone was the identification of the gas/oil contacts from the openhole logs. For example, the openhole log in Fig. 5.2 is from a well located near another well whose oil rim
depth was confirmed by a well test. The oil/water contact in the example,
however, is not at the expected depth, and the gas/oil contact cannot be
determined from the log suite because the separation between the neutron
and density curves is almost constant and corresponds well to the lithology
effect in sandstone. Several explanations were considered:
There is no free gas and possibly no condensate in the zone crossed by the well.
There are hidden lithology variations that mask the gas effect.
The hydrocarbon saturation has been flushed by the drilling mud filtrate, and
therefore, the effect of the formation fluid on the shallow nuclear measurements has been minimized.
The differences in the oil/water contact could be the result of well deviation
or actual variation in the contact level.
Oil/water contact (OWC)
-1,926
-1,935
Well A
-1,936
-1,920.5
-1,922.5 -1,900
-1,920
Gas/oil contact (GOC) -1,956 -1,931-1,926
-1,875
-1,857
-1,910 -1,926
-1,875
-1,921
-1,833
-1,925
-1,847
-1,900
-1,950
-1,812
1,875
-1,856
-1,909
Well B
-1,900
-1,801
-1,795
-1,875
-1,824
-1,775
-1,956.5 -1,925 -1,913 -1,900
-1,830.4
-1,789
-1,830.5
-1,909
-1,787 -1,745
-1,925
-1,842
-1,856
-1,910
-1,790 -1,777.50 -1,925
-1,919.4
-1,800
-1,836
-1,840
-1,900
-1,837 -1,825
-1,875
-1,850 F2
-1,925
-1,92
5
-1,924
-1,900
1,862
-1,871
-1,875
-1,850
-1,892
-1,850
0
0
1,833
1,834 25
1,9 -1,875
1,8
4
-1,850 -1,87
1,812
-1,8
1,800
-1,8 25
00
-1,775
-1,798
-1,775
-1,750
-1,925
-1,974
L i b y a
Evaluating the Alrar oil rim
Openhole data interpretation

challenges and model inconsistencies
-1,
Two case studies for cased hole formation evaluation in

Algeria, successfully completed, are presented. On the
Alrar oil rim, the selected well had been drilled and
cased more than 25 years ago; cased hole logs and correlation with the original openhole data were used to
accurately determine the current fluid contacts and then,
pinpoint the optimum zone for perforating. In ZemletEn
Nouss field, due to wellbore stability problems, the casing has been run immediately after drilling, thus precluding acquisition of openhole logs. A suite of ABC Analysis
Behind Casing logs were acquired as a contingency option
that allowed a formation evaluation with an acceptable
accuracy for well completion.
Two wells have been evaluated by this method to date, and results were
matched with available openhole logs for comparison. Good agreement
between the ABC and openhole data was observed except in intervals of
changing formation fluids distribution. The presence of casing was successfully compensated for, and the ABC logs were key to determining with confidence the fluid saturations and contacts, and then accurately selecting the
perforation interval and carrying out drillstem tests.
When drilling new wells, operators occasionally

encounter formations with difficult openhole logging
conditions. Rather than risk losing tools due to sticking,
operators may opt for cased hole formation evaluation,
or they may acquire cased hole logs to complement logs
acquired while drilling. In areas where openhole logging
is difficult, operators save time and money and optimize
their formation evaluation programs by planning cased
hole logging operations ahead of time. Cased hole logging
also helps operators evaluate the effects of production,
such as the movement of fluid contacts, changes in saturation and pressure, and depletion and injection profiles.
As part of a plan for a reservoir blowdown, the thin oil rim, encountered during
the delineation of the structure in the northern part of the reservoir in 1969,
was being considered for full development through horizontal reentry wells or
existing verticals. This area had never been produced, and existing data were
inconsistent. Therefore, new logs were run through casing in several wells
using the ABC Analysis Behind Casing technique.
-1,
80
In mature fields, commonly known as brown fields, operators often reevaluate zones that might have been logged
decades ago using only gamma ray, spontaneous potential, and resistivity devices, or that have an incomplete set
of logging data. New measurements facilitate formation
evaluation through casing regardless of the age of the
well.1 Typically, the cost of acquiring data from cased
holes is far less than that of drilling a new well just to
gather data, and the risk of cased hole logging operations
is also substantially lower than that of drilling operations.
F1
Possible extension limit of F3
Figure 5.1: Structural map of F3 reservoir top with well locations and fluid contacts.
D-N separation
Deep laterolog Neutron porosity
0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000
0.45 (m3/m3) -0.15
Hydrocarbons
Vw Sigma
(m3/m3)
0.25
0
Moved water
Moved water
Moved
hydrocarbon
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
Water
Hydrocarbons
Oil
Oil
Open hole (OH)
Quartz
Bound water
Bound water
Illite
Illite
Gamma ray
0
Sigma
MD
(m)
1 (V/V) 0 1:300 50 (c.u.)
ELAN
X,650
X,650
X,660
X,660
X,670
X,670
X,680
X,680
X,690
X,690
Figure 5.2: Openhole logs and interpretation.
Vw OH
Hydrocarbons
(m3 /m3)
RST porosity 0.25
0 Sw OH
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
(gAPI) 150 0.25
0 Depletion 1
0
Light HC-RST
Quartz
Gamma ray MD MSFL resistivity

Density
Sw OH
ELAN
(m)
3
3
3
0 (gAPI) 150 1:300 0.2 (ohm.m) 2,000 1.95 (g/cm ) 2.95 1 (m /m ) 0 1 (V/V) 0
Water
Neutron porosity
PIGN
Sw RST
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
0 1
0
0 0.225
-0.025 0.25
Figure 5.3: Pulsed neutron capture (PNC) evaluation of Well A.
Previous study of the oil rim

In 199798, the existing reservoir model was updated to evaluate the economical feasibility of developing the oil rim. Pulse neutron capture (PNC) logs
were run in three wells. Figure 5.3 illustrates the results of the PNC log, run
with the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool, in Well A. In this unperforated, cased
hole, the oil/water contact is observed at the expected depth based on the
reservoir model. The gas/oil contact, however, was detected 2 m deeper than
expected, which meant that the height of the oil rim was 8 rather than 10 m.
Because of this shrinking oil column with gas production from the upper part of
the reservoir, it was concluded that developing the oil rim was not feasible.
Oil rim reevaluation

In 2004, the reservoir model was reviewed again to
verify the reservoir properties
estimate the current water saturation
identify the gas/oil and oil/water contacts with maximum confidence
perforate Well A and perform wells tests to further evaluate possible production from the oil rim.
The oil rim reevaluation would include a robust detection of the fluid contacts,
and to this end, an extensive set of data would be collected to cross-verify the
reservoir properties. Based on the available reservoir properties information
and the study requirements, a comprehensive ABC Analysis Behind Casing
suite of logs was planned:

CHFR Cased Hole Formation Resistivity
CHFP Cased Hole Formation Porosity, including a formation capture cross section (Sigma) measurement
CHFD Cased Hole Formation Density
ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy for deriving
lithology.
The combination of the CHFP, CHFD, and ECS logs would
gather porosity and mineralogical data along with permeability estimates. Water saturation analysis and oil/water
contact detection would be derived from the CHFR measurement, since resistivity is the primary measurement for
saturation analysis. The Sigma measurement from the
CHFP service would be used to cross-check the results
with the previous cased hole PNC study. Detecting the
gas/oil contact would be the most challenging task, given
that the oil column was likely overlain by condensate but
not free gas, which meant that the expected properties
contrast would be low. Therefore, a neutron-density overlay was selected for its proven ability to detect the properties contrast between oil and condensate/gas.
It was hoped that the uncertainties of logging through

casing would be offset by the availability of openhole
measurements using the same measurement principles,
the absence of invasion effects, and the fact that the well
had not been perforated. If the oil rim were detected, the
PURE perforating system would be used to minimize formation damage and skin effect and thus optimize flow.
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
200
Main Rt CH
Electrode identifier
19
-1
0.2
(ohm) 4*10-5
0.2
()
(ohm) 4*10-5
The evaluation began with Well A, which was successfully logged (Fig. 5.4) and then perforated as a result of
on-site interpretation. The resistivity decrease and
Sigma increase clearly pinpointed water in the formation. The separation between the neutron and density
curves (shading between the density and CHFP sandstone) indicated the gas zone. The lithology identified by
the ECS log (Fig. 5.5) generally agreed with the expected
formation composition, although variations in clay content and the presence of siderite could not be detected
from the conventional log suite. The ECS log clearly
showed, however, that the changes observed on the
other logsparticularly the neutron and density logs
were not related to lithology variations but rather to
changes in the formation fluids.
MD
(m)
1:300
APSC
0.4 (cm3/cm3) -0.2
(ohm.m) 2,000
Resampled Rt CH
0.2
(ohm.m) 2,000 50
Gas
(ohm.m ) 2,000
Repeated Rt CH
LCSR
0
UCSR
Logging and interpretation results
APLC
0.45 (cm3/cm3)
SIGF APS 2004

(c.u.)
Density (CHFD)
0 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
X,650
X,660
X,670
X,680
Figure 5.4: ABC logs in Well A, with gamma ray in Track 1, CHFR resistivity in Track 3, formation
The cased hole log data were sufficient to fulfill the tasks
of the study, but final decisions were based on comparisons of both the cased hole and openhole information to
verify the quality of the data and to check the contacts
movement from direct signs (Fig. 5.6). Resistivity logs
(openhole LLD and CHFR resistivity) showed very good
agreement except for the shaded zone in the bottom part
of the reservoir where a resistivity decrease was evident.
The Sigma logs showed reasonably good overlay except
for the shaded zone in the middle of the reservoir and a
significant separation in the top shale, which was related
to the difference in the way the tools characterize porosity.
The neutron logs showed reasonably good overlay; the
separation was related primarily to the physics of measurements (the RST TPHI has larger capture effects than the
CHFP epithermal hydrogen index, which has minimal
lithology effect). The density logs also showed a noticeable difference, but when compared to the other logs,
specifically the neutron log, it was determined that the
CHFD density was more accurate than the openhole measurement, which had been obtained with a much older tool.
The dataset was used to perform a full-scale petrophysical
evaluation with the ELAN multicomponent solver (Fig. 5.7).
Overall porosity estimates were in reasonable agreement with the expected range, and the lithology informa-
Sigma in Track 4, and CHFD/CHFP in Track 5. Acronyms used in the headers of this and other logs are
defined in Table 5.1, page 5.15.
Clay
Q-F-M
Carbonate
DXFE
Pyrite
DXFE
Siderite
RHGE
2.5 (g/cm3)
SIGE
60
(c.u.)
(Kgf/kgf)
0
0.2
MD
(m)
1:300
DWAL
DWSI
DWCA
DWFE
DWSU
DWTI
DWGD
ECGR
DWAL
DWSI
DWCA
DWFE
DWSU
DWTI
DWGD
(gAPI) (Kgf/kgf) (Kgf/kgf) (Kgf/kgf) (Kgf/kgf) (Kgf/kgf) (Kgf/kgf) (ppm)

0 0 200 0
0.2 0
0.5 0
0.5 0
0.2 0 0.25 0 0.05 0 100
X,650
X,660
X,670
Figure 5.5: ECS data and lithology analysis from the DecisionXpress system for Well A.
RT decrease
Gamma ray
0
RTCH main
(gAPI) 200
0.2 (ohm.m)2,000
Electrode
identifier
19
()
-1
LCSR
RTCH repeat
APLC
0.2 (ohm.m)2,000
0.45 (m3/m3)-0.15
Resampled RTCH SIGF APS 2004
0 (ohm) 4e-05
0.2 (ohm.m)2,000 50
(cu)
NPHI (1978)
RHOB (FDC 2,004)
tion was used to establish a permeability profile that

was more accurate than that derived from conventional
logs. The oil/water contact, clearly identified from the
CHFR and CHFP data, was also in agreement. Some mismatch between the two water saturation estimates was
attributed to the difference in vertical resolution and possible variations of the cementation exponent.
0 0.45 (m3/m3)-0.15 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
MD
LLD (1978)
SIGM RST (1998) TPHI (RST 1998) RHOB (CHFD)
(m)
0 (ohm) 4e-05 1:300 0.2 (ohm.m)2,000 50
(c.u.) 0 0.47 (m3/m3)-0.15 1.95 (g/cm3) 2.95
UCSR
X,650
X,660
This evaluation showed that the oil/water contact was

positioned approximately 5 m higher than previously estimated from cased hole logs. From this information, along
with the resistivity log comparison, it was concluded that
the oil/water contact in Well A had not remained constant even between the openhole logging and the PNC
logging done in 1998.
It was also determined that the gas/oil contact had moved
approximately 4 m upward compared to the previous
cased hole run, which yielded the current oil rim thickness
at 7 to 7.6 ma reduction compared to the previous status.
X,670
X,680
Figure 5.6: Openhole (LLD, NPHI, FDC), RST (SIGM, TPHI), and ABC (RTCH, SIGF, APLC, CHFD) log
comparison for Well A.
Water
Oil
Gas
HC
Calcite
Water
Pyrite
Siderite
APS sigma fluids
CHFR fluids
SUWI
Quartz
Water
Water
Bound water
Oil
Oil
SW APS SIGMA
Illite
Gas
Gas
1 (m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
Volumetric
MD
ELAN analysis ELAN analysis
SW CHFR
k Lambda
analysis
(m)
1:300 1
(V/V)
0 0.5 (V/V)
0 0.5 (V/V)
0 1 (m3/m3) 0 10,000 (mD) 0.1
X,650
X,660
X,670
X,680
Figure 5.7: Final interpretation of Well A using ELAN analysis.
These observations of the oil/water and gas/oil contacts

in Well A over time indicated that, unlike the previous
hypothesis, the oil rim changes were better described as
a piston-like upward movement with a gradual reduction
in thickness.
Based on this interpretation, a decision was made to perforate in the middle of the detected oil rim in a determined effort to avoid both gas and water breakthrough
during the test and possible future production. PURE
technology was used to design the perforating program
so that the top of the perforation zone corresponded
exactly to the initial gas/oil contact established for the
field. The 2 m perforated interval produced 1,250 bbl/d
with a complete radial flow subsequent to the wellbore
effects, along with water-free production and a stable
minimum producing gas/oil ratio.
Conclusions
An extensive cased hole log evaluation was performed in
two wells on the Alrar field to re-evaluate reservoir properties, estimate saturation, and identify fluid contacts. The
ABC analysis on Well A led to a perforating program that
finely targeted the oil zone. Results of the perforating
program were confirmed by DSTs which showed complete radial flow, water-free production and a stable
gas/oil ratio. the reevaluation method demonstrated that
ABC analysis with a finely targeted perforating program
can overcome the limitations of poor-quality or incomplete openhole logs.
ABC Analysis Behind Casing

Nowadays, similar-quality formation evaluation measurements performed in openhole can be provided by
ABC Analysis Behind Casing services,1 which satisfy
three primary logging requirements:
To obtain essential well log data under any conditions:
operators often prefer to case wells having hole stability
problems immediately after they are drilled, which no
longer precludes obtaining accurate formation evaluation measurements.
To find and evaluate bypassed pay: large amounts of
bypassed hydrocarbons often exist in old wells.
Exploring for these hidden hydrocarbons in old wells is
considerably more cost-effective and often more environmentally friendly than drilling new wells.
To optimize reservoir management: formation evaluation measurements in representative old wells, whether
on a one-time or a time-lapse basis, can greatly aid in
efficient reservoir management. ABC evaluation of formation petrophysical properties such as formation density, porosity, and acoustic properties in cased wells, is
even more significant in wells for which primary evaluation data were lost, of poor quality, or never acquired.
An operator may also wish to re-evaluate the formation
with measurements that were unavailable at the time
that the well was drilled. ABC services can apply the
latest formation evaluation technology to wells that
were drilled as much as decades ago, so it is no longer
necessary to drill new wells in existing fields solely for
the purpose of gathering new data.
ABC data are processed and interpreted to provide a total solution for efficient
operations, enhanced production, and extension of the economic life of an
asset. ABC services can provide comprehensive formation evaluation under
most conditions. As a suite of services, measurements can be chosen on the
basis of objectives, type of formation, type of completion, borehole environment, lithology, reservoir dynamics, and the availability of primary evaluation
data. The ABC suite includes the following components:
CHFR-Plus Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool makes direct, deep-reading
formation resistivity measurements through casing and cement. The concept
of measuring resistivity through casing is not new, but recent breakthroughs
in downhole electronics and electrode design have made these challenging
measurements possible. Now the same basic measurements can be compared for open and cased holes, thereby eliminating the errors caused by
comparing different types of measurements.
RST-Pro Reservoir Saturation Tool makes both formation Sigma and
carbon/oxygen (C/O) ratio measurements. In formations with high-salinity
formation water, the Sigma measurement has been used for several decades
to determine saturations. Nowadays, the C/O ratio measurement, acquired
with the RST in inelastic capture (IC) mode, can accurately evaluate formation water saturation, regardless of salinity, in moderate- to high-porosity
formations. In IC mode, the thermal capture spectra can be analyzed by
SpectroLith software to characterize the formation matrix and shale content
essential for an accurate water saturation computation. Time-lapse measurements of formation water saturation can be used to monitor the performance of a well or reservoir over time. Due to oxygen activation, the formation natural radioactivity increases whenever oxygen (in the form of H2O or
CO2) flows by the electronic source and the gamma ray detectors, which
enables water entry and, in stationary measurements, water flow velocity to
be determined.
CHDT Cased Hole Dynamics Tester is used to determine formation pressure in old or new cased wells.
10
ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy tool measures the formation content

of Si, Ca, S, Fe, Ti, and Gd, from total clay, formation lithology, and matrix
properties (density, neutron response, and thermal neutron capture cross
section are calculated).
CHFP Cased Hole Formation Porosity service makes accurate formation
porosity and Sigma measurements in cased wells. The CHFP measurement,
based on an electronic neutron source instead of a chemical source, uses
borehole shielding and focusing to obtain porosity measurements that are
affected only minimally by borehole environment, casing standoff, and formation characteristics such as lithology and salinity. The CHFP thermal neutron detector also allows acquisition of the formation thermal neutron capture cross section.
CNL Compensated Neutron Log has traditionally been run as a porosity indicator in cased wells. Although it provides a good estimation of formation
porosity in most conditions, for the highest possible accuracy, the CHFP service is preferred.
CHFD Cased Hole Formation Density service makes accurate formation density measurements in cased wells. A chemical gamma ray source and threedetector measurement system are used to make measurements in a wide
range of casing and borehole sizes. The density measurement made by the
three-detector system is corrected for casing and cement thickness.
Sonic Scanner provides accurate formation compressional and shear slowness measurements in cased wells. It also provides an enhanced evaluation
of the cement bond to casing and to formation. The quality of the slowness
estimation over a wide slowness range is significantly higher than that
obtained from the preceding generation sonic tool, the DSI Dipole Shear
Imager. This stems from the higher quality of the signals acquired by the Sonic
Scanner (see the Advanced Borehole Sonic Measurements section, pages
3.106 to 3.119). The better signal quality enables, under certain conditions,
advanced geophysical and geomechanical applications based on dipole mode
dispersion curves similar to those in the openhole case. Enhanced cement
evaluation is provided using the CBL/Variable Density log type of representation but with an improved processing technique that takes advantages of
the enhanced tool hardware to compensate for the several effects known to
plague the traditional CBL measurement, such as tool eccentering within the
casing and environmental parameter (temperature and pressure) changes.
CHDT Cased Hole Dynamics Tester is used to determine formation pressure
in old or new cased wells. It also provides efficient, cost-effective fluid sampling without the inherent risks of standard sampling techniques. The innovative CHDT tool seals against the casing and uses a flexible drill shaft to
penetrate through the casing and cement into the formation. The use of
explosives is eliminated. Downhole sensors measure formation pressure,
pressure transients, and formation fluid resistivity. Combining the CHDT tool
with various modules of the MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester
enables enhanced fluid identification, contamination monitoring, and highquality sampling. After all measurements and samples have been taken, the
tool inserts a corrosion-resistant metal plug into the hole drilled in the
casing, thereby preserving casing integrity and eliminating the need for costly repair procedures. Operators
can use this technology to identify zones with bypassed
hydrocarbons and to monitor depletion of reservoirs,
the effectiveness of water or gas injection, and
changes in fluid contacts.
ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy tool measures the formation content of Si, Ca, S, Fe, Ti, and Gd.
11
Contingency logging in
the ZemletEn Nouss structure
Geological setting
The ZemletEn Nouss structure is located on the Dahra
mole between the El Borma field in the south-southeast
and Keskassa field in the north-northwest (Fig. 5.8), where
the Lower Triassic shaly sandstones (TAGI) are recognized
as a good hydrocarbon reservoir. Reservoir thickness
varies from 15 to 75 m and reaches 100 to 200 m in the
El Borma area where the Hercynian unconformity surface
shows deep erosion of the underlying Paleozoic formations. The Triassic depositional environment involves
numerous facies changes as well as restricted reservoir
extensions. These are usually multilayered producing
zones isolated by clay intercalations corresponding to
flood plain deposition.
The ZemletEn Nouss reservoir comprises the Triassic
sandstone (TAGI) formations, which are encountered at
an average depth of X,500 m and can be divided into
three distinct groups separated by continuous shale beds:
upper level A
middle level B and C+D
lower level E.
Porosities range from 6 to 22% with an average exceeding 12%, while permeabilities range from 10 to 100 mD. Static pressure is about 290 kg/cm2, and
water salinity is approximately 280,000 ppm. Reservoir qualities are controlled
by diagenesis, dissolution of feldspars and carbonate, crystal feeding, mineralogical redistribution of clays, and various cementation processes.
CCLC
-0.9
(V)
0.1
Gamma ray - RST

0
(gAPI)
150
-1
()
FCOR RSTFSTK
19
-0.05
Resampled RTCH
LCSR
0
UCSR
0
0.2
(ohm) 0.0001
(ohm) 0.0001
MD
(m)
1:200
(ohm.m) 200 50
Processed RTCH
0.2
(ohm.m ) 200 0.5
SIGM
(c.u.)
0.2
NCOR RSTFSTK
0 -0.05
()
0.2
Carbon far
TPHI
(m3/m3)
()
Far < near
X,650
S e a
36
X,670
34
A l g e r i a
T u n i s i a
X,680
32
ZemletEn Nous area

30
X,710
06
Oil field
Gas field
08
0
Figure 5.8: Location map of the ZemletEn Nouss structure.
100 km
Figure 5.9: Composite log showing CHFR, RST Sigma and RST-C/O data, corresponding to layer
TAGI-A (interval X,647-X,657 m), layer TAGI-B (interval X,664-X,681 m) and layer TAGI-C (interval
X,705-X,717 m).
12
Well ZES-3 was drilled to cross the TAGI on the A, B, and C reservoir layers. The
well is situated 1,656 m east of Well ZESW-1 and 2,284 m west of Well ZES-1.
History and data acquisition

The complex geologic conditions, characterized by high horizontal stresses
and alternating sand/shale sequences, generated wellbore stability problems
in Well ZES-3, to cause loss of circulation, hole collapse, and bridging.
Under these conditions, the reservoir section could not be

logged in open hole. The operator characterized this well
as high risk and evaluated the timing between drilling and
casing as critical. It was further determined that the borehole could deteriorate during the time spent acquiring
openhole logs, to the extent that successful casing might
not be possible. Therefore, the operator recommended
that 412-in. casing be run immediately and that the well
be cemented to minimize hole instability problems.
CCLC
-0.9
(V)
Oil/diesel
Gamma ray - RST

0
(gAPI)
Carbonate
150
Sandstone
-1
()
Silt
19
LCSR
0
Bound water
Resampled RTCH
(ohm.m) 0.0001
0.2
(ohm.m)
Clay
200
MD
Processed RTCH
(m)
(ohm.m) 0.0001
0.2 (ohm.m ) 200 1
1:200
UCSR
Once that was done, the formation evaluation was conducted with ABC servicesthe RST Reservoir Saturation
Tool and the CHFR Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool.
On January 8, 2004, the well was logged with three complete passes in Sigma mode, four passes in IC mode, and
three CHFR passes.
Water
0.1
SW CHFR
(m3/m3)
Logging interpretation
ELAN CHFR
0 1
X,650
X,670
X,680
(V/V)
Porosity and lithology were determined first, followed by

an estimate of water saturation using:
cased hole resistivity (from CHFR)
formation Sigma (from RST)
IC mode carbon/oxygen ratios (from RST).
Figures 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, and 5.12 show the raw data and
interpreted results (over intervals X,647X,657 m;
X,664X,681 m; and X,705X,717 m) corresponding to
the TAGI-A, TAGI-B, and TAGI-C layers in offset wells.
The reservoirs are described as sandstones with varying
amounts of silt, clay and rare presence of carbonate
cement. Effective porosity ranged between 10 and 20%.
Some disagreement between the saturation estimates
was probably due to environmental issues, differences in
the properties between formation oil and oil-base mud
filtrate, the presence of washed-out sections, and the
lack of openhole resistivity data, which were required for
the CHFR resistivity calibration.
Water saturation from CHFR

X,710
Figure 5.10: CHFR evaluation results corresponding to layers TAGI-A, B and C.
Water saturation from the CHFR log varied between 65%

and 30%, with the average at about 48% in TAGI-C, 52%
in TAGI-B, and 36% in TAGI-A (Fig. 5.10). The CHFR depth
of investigation is generally greater than that of the RST;
however, in a resistive mud invasion environment (OBM),
the apparent resistivity is affected and the depth of inves-
13
tigation decreases. Nevertheless, in Well ZES-3, the CHFR

resistivity profile showed good correlation with Well ZES-1
logged in open hole conditions, thus justifying the use of
this investigation in this case. It shows high resistivities in
TAGI-A, medium values in front of shales, and lowest
values in zones TAGI-B and C located below the regional
OWC. Therefore, on the basis of relative changes in saturation between the zones and comparison with offset well
data, the TAGI-A appeared to have potential to produce oil.
Given the highly saline formation water environment, intervals flushed with
cement or injected in nearby wells in the same interval would have an effect
similar to that observed in Well ZES-3, as both Sigma and resistivity logs cannot
differentiate easily between fresh water and hydrocarbons. Owing to the strong
effect of mud filtrate invasion on these measurements, it is a challenge to
determine whether the oil saturation drop is the result of an overestimated carbonate fraction (calcite) used in the saturation analysis or OBM filtrate invasion.
Disagreements between the saturation estimates were probably due to environmental effects that influence differently each type of measurement, in
Water saturation from Sigma

Water saturation from Sigma varied between 70% and
30%, with an average level of about 60% in TAGI-C, 56%
in TAGI-B, and 44% in TAGI-A (Fig. 5.11).
Water
Oil/diesel
Carbonate
Because the Sigma measurement has a limited depth of

investigation (10 to 12 in.), it was estimated to be operating in the invaded zone. Sigma saturation estimates
strongly depend on the matrix parameters used in the
interpretation.
Sandstone
Silt
CCLC
-0.9
(V)
SIGMA
0.1
Gamma ray RST
The TAGI formation, especially its upper zone, was

known to contain various concentrations of material with
high neutron capture cross section, most likely dry salt
fractions containing accessory minerals. These conditions often cause additional ambiguity in the saturation
analysis because such accessory minerals are difficult to
detect and quantify. Although the use of consistent
parameters over the entire section provided general confidence in the average saturation estimate, it could also
create small anomalies and minor disagreements with
the other measurements. Also, Sigma measurement does
not differentiate between formation oil and diesel (OBM).
(gAPI)
Bound water
150
50
MD
(m)
0.5
1:200
(c.u.)
TPHI
(m3/m3)
Clay
0
SW SIGMA
0 1
(m3/m3)
ELAN SIGMA
0 1
X,650
X,670
RST C/O mode

The RST C/O depth of investigation is about 6 in., which
means it is the most sensitive to environmental effects.
The variations in oil saturation and differences compared
to the other log measurements are most likely due to the
strong effect of OBM filtrate invasion. The presence of
carbonate cement also affects the readings. The oil saturation drop noted over intervals X,650 to X,653 m and
X,675 to X,677 m may be due to an overestimation of the
calcite fraction in the formation (Fig. 5.12).
X,680
X,710
However, unlike the Sigma and resistivity measurements,

the C/O measurement is independent of the water salinity.
Figure 5.11: RST Sigma evaluation results corresponding to layers TAGI-A, B, and C.
14
(V/V)
addition to the lack of openhole resistivity data required

for CHFR resistivity calibration.
Water
Carbon-far
OBM
VUOI WIN
Far < near
Clay
VUOI alpha
QZ-FS-MC
Carbonate
0.3 (m3/m3) -0.1 0.3 (m3/m3) -0.1
YO NCOR RSTFSTK
0 ( ) 1 -0.05 ( )
Oil/diesel
0.2 0.3
VUOI COR
PIGE
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
-0.1 0.3
SpectroLith
-0.1
(kgf/kgf)
MD
FCOR RSTFSTK
PIGE
Low porosity
Oil saturation
Dry weights
(m)
1:200 -0.05 ( )
0.2 0.3 (m3/m3) -0.1 20
()
0.5 0 (m3/m3) 1 0 (kgf/kgf) 1
X,650
Comparing the processed logs and interpretation results to

offset well logs (ZES-1 and ZES-2), some CHFR resistivity
increase was noted; water saturation from the RST Sigma
and CHFR logs decreased over the zone X,647X,657 m,
corresponding to TAGI-A. The ZES-3 resistivity profile
was similar to that in Well ZES-1, where the TAGI-A was
reported as an oil producer.
Therefore, in Well ZES-3, it was concluded that TAGI-B
and TAGI-C zones are most likely water-bearing or having
a very low oil saturation; TAGI-A has a high potential oil
production.
Recommendations
Results in ZemletEn Nouss field demonstrated that the
CHFR tool can be used for primary formation evaluation in
new wells that do not have openhole log data. It provides
saturation estimation that is a significant improvement
compared with results obtained by PNC tools typically
used for behind-casing evaluation (RST Sigma and C/O
modes). The C/O ratio can be used to determine the formation oil saturation independent of the formation water
salinity, which is particularly helpful where the water
salinity is unknown. These measurements can be used to
detect and quantify the presence of injection water having
different salinity from formation water. The accuracy of
the water saturation evaluation depends upon the lithology and shaliness estimation derived from the RST IC spectroscopy data. Overall, cased-hole resistivity and pulsed
neutron measurements, when combined for an enhanced
saturation evaluation, are equivalent to an interpretation
using openhole log data.
X,670
X,680
X,710
Figure 5.12: RST C/O evaluation results corresponding to layers TAGI-A, B, and C.
APLC
APS Near-Array Limestone Porosity Corrected
NCOR RSTSTK
Near Detector Carbon/Oxygen Ratio Stacked
APSC
APS Near-Array Sandstone Porosity Corrected
PIGE
ELANPlus Intergranular Effective Porosity, Total Porosity minus

volumes of capillary-bound water and clay-bound water
(without fracture volume and isolated pore volume)
PIGN
ELANPlus Intergranular Porosity, Total Porosity minus volume

of clay-bound water (without fracture volume and isolated
pore volume)
DWAL
Dry Weight Percent of Aluminium
DWCA
Dry Weight Percent of Calcium
DWFE
Dry Weight Percent of Iron
DWGD
Dry Weight Percent of Gadolinium
Q-F-M
Quartz - Fluids - Miscellaneous Minerals
DWSI
Dry Weight Percent of Silicon
RHGE
Matrix Density from Dry Weights
DWSU
Dry Weight Percent of Sulfur
SIGE
Sigma Matrix from Dry Weights
DWTI
Dry Weight Percent of Titanium
SIGF
APS Formation Capture Cross Section
DXFE
DWFE - DWAL difference used for siderite volume computation
UCSR
Upper Casing Segment Resistance (CHFR)
ECGR
Environmentally Corrected Gamma-Ray
VUOI COR
Volume of Oil Computed from RST Carbon/Oxygen Ratio
FCOR RSTSTK
Far Detector Carbon/Oxygen Ratio Stacked
VUOI WIN
Volume of Oil Computed from RST Windows
LCSR
Lower Casing Segment Resistance (CHFR)
YO
Oil Holdup
Table 5.1: Acronyms used in log headers of this section.
15

Oil and gas exploration and production activity in Algeria
has contributed significantly to the economy of the country. Hydrocarbons are being extracted from new fields as
well as from fields that are either good producers or marginal. In addition to the expected E&P challenges, boosting and pumping from wellsites to processing facilities
are also contentious. Factors related to distance, irregular surface conditions related to sand dunes, and the gasoil condensates that travel through the pipeline must be
overcome to increase production and improve the efficiency of the transportation media.
In addition, it is now possible to allocate production without conventional

phase separation and to overcome processing constraints, or bottlenecks, in
existing surface facilities. Accurately quantifying individual fluid phases in a
production stream allows operators to make more informed decisions about
well performance. Engineers can now better identify, understand, and remediate multiwell flow problems, optimize artificial lift operations, and build
dynamic reservoir models.
Conventional separation and well testing

Conventional test separators are scaled-down versions of the large production
separators that segregate and measure gas, oil, and water at surface processing facilities (Fig. 5.13). In established field operations, test separators are permanent installations. For exploratory and field-delineation wells, companies
must deploy modular test separators. Several test separators in series or parallel are sometimes needed to handle high-rate wells, heavy oils, or condensate-rich (wet) gas.
The conventional method for handling multiphase flow

uses systems that separate the gas, which is sent through
a dedicated gas line, from the liquids, which are pumped
out through a separate line. More efficient systems use
multiphase pumps that allow the gas, water, and oil to be
pumped from the wellsite to the processing facility without separation. Advances in this area are fundamentally
changing the way complex flow from producing wells is
measured. This transformation is driven by new technology
that accurately measures rapid variations in three-phase
fluids, including slug flow, foams, and stable emulsions
that were previously difficult to quantify. The capability to
meter multiphase flow in real time increases operational
efficiency, saving both time and money.
Pressure-relief
valve
Second
pressure-relief valve
Typically, test separators are cylindrical vessels that are deployed horizontally.
Separators receive produced effluent from individual wells and segregate the
different fluid phases through a gravity-based process. Two-phase vessels
separate gas from liquids, and three-phase vessels further separate the liquids
into oil and water. These systems meter separate fluid phases individually as
they leave the vessel before commingling and returning the fluids to a flowline.
Gas is routed to a separate gas line or flared. Normal operating conditions
Coalescing
plates
Foam breaker
baffle plate
Gas outlet to orifice meter

Mist extractor
Access door
Effluent inlet
Oil-level controller
Vortex breaker
Deflector Additional
plates
outlet
Water-level
controller
Water outlet
to mechanical meter
Vortex
breaker
Oil outlet to mechanical meter

Weir baffle plate
Figure 5.13: Conventional separators and fluid measurements. Production separation begins with well flow streams entering a vessel horizontally and hitting a series of perpendicular plates. This causes liquids to drop to the bottom of the vessel while gas (red) rises to the top. Gravity separates the liquids into oil (brown) and water (blue). The gas, oil, and
water phases are metered individually as they exit the unit through separate outflow lines. Mechanical meters measure fluids; an orifice meter measures the gas. Both devices
require periodic recalibration.
16
for a test separator are limited to pressures between 200 and 1,000 psi [11.4
and 6.9 MPa] with maximum working pressures up to 1,440 psi [9.9 MPa].
Because this pressure can be substantially lower than that of the production
line, the effluents have to be compressed before going back to the line, adding
to the complexity of the traditional setup.
Test separators are not designed for specific wells, but instead must handle a
wide range of flow rates. At the time of installation, test separators are often
intentionally oversized to serve as backup or supplemental production separators and to accommodate future increases in field output.
Obtaining reliable measurements from a test separator requires relatively
stable conditions within the vessel, which can take several hours. Well-test
protocols associated with these units generally emphasize operational efficiencya one-size-fits-all approachrather than setting the measurement
instruments and controlling flow rates based on individual well conditions.
Time constraints and personnel limitations often preclude optimization of the
separation process. In addition, operating conditions sometimes prevent complete separation of the fluid phases. Some oil remains in the water, some
water in the oil, some gas in the liquids, and some liquids in the gas. These
different scenarios are all caused by insufficient retention time. These conditions cause errors in separator instruments, which are designed to measure
streams of single-phase gas, oil, or water. Test separators also have difficulty
measuring certain anomalous flow regimes because of the need for stable
processing conditions and the fact that response to dynamic flow conditions
is always delayed.
Problematic flow regimes include fluid slugs, in which one phase is interrupted
by another phase; foams, which conventional separators cannot handle; and
stable emulsions that require additional heat or chemical treatment to separate
the one phase that is suspended in another. In addition, viscous fluids, such as
heavy oil, make separation and accurate test measurements extremely difficult.
Last but not least, the volumes of monophasic fluids at

the pressure and temperature of the separator need to be
recomputed to express the results at standard conditions,
taking also into account the phase transfers that happen
during the expansion. The results are as good as the set
of correlations built in the processing computer, provided
they are used within their range of application.
Multiphase approach
Unlike conventional separators, multiphase meters continuously measure gas, oil, and water flow without physically separating the flow stream into individual fluid
phases. Multiphase flowmeters accept three-phase fluids
directly from a flowline, make measurements, and immediately return fluids to the flowline.1 These meters yield
measurement results within minutes of being placed in
operation. Pressure drop across multiphase flowmeters is
significantly less than for conventional separators, which
allows wells to be tested close to actual producing conditions. In permanent metering applications, these devices
have minimal footprints at surface locations or on offshore platforms. Multiphase meter maintenance is minimal, and the meters have no moving parts.
Multiphase flow measurements also help allocate production among working- and royalty-interest owners or record
volumes for custodial transfer at pipeline stations or port
terminals. This information is essential for project partners
and for governments, which mandate testing requirements
for accurate computation of taxes and royalty payments.
And when new production is brought online, multiphase
Vx testing in the Hassi Messaoud field.
17
flowmeters eliminate the need to install costly separation

capacity. In fact, the addition of a multiphase flowmeter is
about 40% of the cost to add a single separator.
In some cases, multiphase meters allow operators to
convert test separators for use as production separators.
This added capacity increases field production rates and
enhances operational flexibility. Multiphase flowmeters
are more accurate than conventional test separators and
are much less affected by complex flow regimes.2
Multiphase measurements also identify phase conditions that might not be detectable by the exclusively volumetric measurements of conventional test separators.
Furthermore, unlike test separators, multiphase flowmeters normally have no moving parts, and the associated
maintenance requirements to maintain measurement
accuracy is low. These benefits mean that well tests may
be conducted more frequently while providing more
accurate measurement quality.
Flow computer
Nuclear detector
Venturi
throat
Nuclear source
Differential-pressure
transmitter
Pressure
transmitter
Flow
Figure 5.14: Vx multiphase well testing technology. The venturi shape is based on the industry standard. Absolute- and differential-pressure measurements are made at the same location in the venturi throat. Nuclear-transparent windows in the venturi allow gamma rays to pass from source to
detector with negligible loss caused by the hardware, enhancing measurement accuracy. The
nuclear source is barium133 with a half-life of about 10.5 years. A flow computer provides sensor processing and flow rate data plus more than 30 other parameters at standard and line condi-
Multiphase flowmeters enhance operational safety by

eliminating the need for high-pressure valves and relief
lines. Also avoided is storage of substantial volumes of
hydrocarbons under potentially unstable conditions in
test separators. There are also no fluid disposal problems. These are important considerations wherever well
testing takes place in environmentally sensitive areas.
Multiphase flowmeters not only eliminate obstacles to
greater measurement consistency, reliability, and quality,
but the measurement process itself becomes a continuous monitoring function. Even when wells are not
metered all the time, measurements are typically more
frequent and over longer time periods. Because of this,
operators can obtain dynamic multiphase flow data. This
ability to observe in-line multiphase flows over an
extended period in real time affords a step-change
improvement in the quantity and quality of data available
for production optimization decisionswhether to
schedule remedial workovers, or to optimize or choke
back on particular wells. Finally, the phase unit can interface securely with the Internet to allow monitoring and
remote decision-making about well and field operations.
Vx multiphase well testing

Because of the limitations inherent in conventional test
separators, Schlumberger and Framo Engineering AS
jointly developed the Vx multiphase well testing technology. This multiphase flowmeter system is applicable for
permanent installations, mobile testing, and artificial lift
optimization.
18
tions. It stores more than 200 well profiles that include well-specific fluid characteristics, enabling
multiple wells to be flowed through the same meter.
The principal components of the Vx multiphase flowmeter are a venturi meter

equipped with absolute- and differential-pressure sensors, and a dual-energy
spectral gamma ray detector paired with a single, low-strength radioactive
chemical source to measure total mass flow rate and the holdups, or fractions,
of gas, oil, and water (Fig. 5.14). A key aspect of the entire device is the fast
acquisition system, which allows it to capture any type of flow and accurately
characterize the flow/fractions.
Vx technology functions without the need for an upstream flow-mixing device,
which minimizes the size and weight of the unit. These systems have no moving parts and are essentially maintenance free. In-line flow passes through an
inlet into a short straight length of horizontal pipe leading to an inverted tee
with one horizontal end closed. This blind tee preconditions and directs the
flow upward through a venturi section in the Vx meter. Pressure is measured
just before fluids enter the venturi and as the flow stream passes through the
narrow venturi throat.
The dual-energy spectral gamma ray detector is mounted on one side of the
venturi section, directly across from a barium source, which emits gamma rays
at various energy levelsapproximately 32, 81, and 350 keV. The detector
measures radioactive count rates, which are related to gamma ray attenuation
through the fluid mixture at the 32- and 81-keV energy levels. The higher energy
level chiefly measures mixture density, which is affected by the gas/liquid
ratio; the lower energy level corresponds essentially to fluid composition,
which is influenced by the water/liquid ratio.
Because total mass flow rate and holdup are measured at the same time and
same placethe venturi throatthe dual-measurement systems in Vx meters
evaluate the same flow. This configuration and stringent equations for the
fluid dynamics associated with flow conditioned by a venturi throat provide a
robust measurement capability unaffected by upstream flow regimes.
The detector makes complete calculations of gas, oil, and water fractions
every 22 milliseconds, or slightly more than 45 measurements of fluid-mixture
density and three-phase holdup per second.
The rapid sampling and measurement speed allow the flowmeter to derive the
velocity of liquid and gas phases in a flow stream and to compensate for highfrequency instabilities in the venturi throat. As a result, the Vx meter can
measure flow conditions caused by downhole conditions and surface piping,
including slug flow, foams, and emulsions (Fig. 5.15).
The PhaseWatcher multiphase well production monitoring device is the main
permanent monitoring application of Vx technology. For mobile well-testing
applications, the PhaseTester portable multiphase periodic well testing equipment is available. This compact system weighs about 3,750 lbm [1,705 kg] and
can be transported easily on a truck, trailer, or modular skid. A gas-testing module is also available for permanent-monitoring and mobile-testing applications.
Multiphase measurements in gas wells

The benefits of multiphase flow measurement are now being applied to gas
wells.3 To address the need for a broad solution to wet-gas flow measurement,
a new interpretation model has been developed using the hardware platform of
Gas slugs
4,500
100
4,000
80
3,500
3,000
60
2,500
40
1,500
1,000
20
500
0
11:02
0
12:14
13:26
14:38
15:50
Water cut, %
Gas and liquid flow rates
2,000
Time
Multiphase meter
Gas, Mcf/d
Liquid, B/d
Water cut
Conventional separator
Gas, Mcf/d
Liquid, B/d
Water cut
Figure 5.15: Multiphase flowmeter and separator data comparison. Continuous measurement data
from a multiphase meter clearly identify the presence of periodic slug flows in the well. The data
points from the test separator show that the separator may or may not detect these slugs, depend-
the Vx multiphase flowmeter. It has produced excellent

predictions for the gas flow rate across the full range of
gas volume fraction (GVF), from 90% to 100%. Liquid rate
and water-cut predictions are achieved to an acceptable
accuracy without additional measurements. The measurement applies continuously across the range to all
gases, from dry gas to extremely wet gas that is rich in
condensate.
Furthermore, the measurement applies where water production measurement is required in full three-phase flow
conditions. In GVF flows as high as 98%, due to the
water/liquid ratio (WLR) prediction from the second
energy level of the density measurement, a quantitative
measure of the water flow can be achieved. The full
range of water properties is accommodated, as is the full
range of WLR.
With the development of this new flow interpretation
model for wet gas with the Vx multiphase flowmeter, a
broad range of applications have been identified, including some that were not previously considered as practical
alternatives to separation-based well testing. One example of where this new dual mode approach can bring new
flexibility to current operational difficulties is in drillstem
testing of exploration wells. In this application, the operator often needs the ability to test in the same well consecutive zones containing different fluidsfrom oil to gas.
Also, it allows the measurement of liquids (drilling, completion, frac, and stim fluids) recovered during the cleanup
of gas wells. In mobile production well testing applications, the new model can be applied to a gas well without
separation and product flaring, and the dual operation provides in-field flexibility by allowing testing of a wider
range of production fluids in a single well test campaign.
By nature, gas wells imply high-pressure hydrocarbon
surface inventories and high-pressure test separation
systems, often up to 3,000 psi. For new field developments, installing a PhaseWatcher multiphase wet-gas
meter on a test manifold can avoid the high costs associated with high-pressure separators and control, vent,
and relief systems, leading to an even greater reduction
in capital expenditure over traditional applications. A
multiphase wet-gas meter can also be Web enabled so
that well performance can be remotely monitored via
Web browser. Another benefit of the dual mode is that
existing field-proven meters developed for subsea applications can be directly applied to wet-gas applications.
ing on the frequency of data capture.
19
Applications in Algerian fields

30
Sonatrach adopted multiphase measurement technology in

the late 1990s and has since contributed greatly to its introduction and development in Algeria. The Vx meter was successfully tested in 1999 on the Hassi Messaoud and Hassi
Berkine fields. Since then, Vx technology has been widely
utilized in many rig and rigless well testing applications,
and for production and reallocation measurements.
14,000
12,000
20
10,000
8,000
6,000
10
4,000
2,000
The effective cooperation of Sonatrach during the Vx

testing phase enabled Schlumberger to market a fieldworthy system that can be utilized for a large array of
wells at the exploration or development stage. Starting
in 2005, the applicability of Vx technology was extended
to wells producing gas condensates or with a high
gas/oil ratio (GOR). It has since brought improvements to
the GTFT, BHP, Ohanet, and In Salah fields as well as to
gas-lift wells of Hassi Messaoud.
9:26
10:30
11:30
12:30
13:30
14:30
15:30
16:35
40
25,000
20,000
30
15,000
20
10,000
10
Oil production application in the

Hassi Messaoud field
With these results, the first commercial multiphase

flowmeterthe Vx PhaseTesterwas delivered in 2002
to the Hassi Messaoud field, where comprehensive tests
were conducted. In one test, comparative monitoring of
Well MD-204 in an area prone to water migration showed
low water production in the beginning, then a much less
stable well for all phases after a 10-month period.
Later, Well OMO-354 was selected for a four-day gas lift
efficiency study, with gas injection rates altered each
day (Fig. 5.16). Dynamic flow factors for continuous and
20
11:03
12:05
13:05
14:06
15:05
16:05
17:05
40
20,000
30
15,000
20
10,000
10
5,000
11:11
12:17
13:20
14:20
15:23
16:23
17:05
20
Liquid flow rate, m3/h; line pressure, bar
An early test of the multiphase flowmeter was conducted

in two wellsOMN-88 and OMM-413in the Hassi
Messaoud field in 1998.4 Results were encouraging. The
OMN-88, a well with high GOR, was tested using the Vx
multiphase meter. The deviation between the rates
obtained with the Vx meter and rates from a test separator was 10% for gas, 7.5% for oil, and 3.5% for liquids.
The Vx meter detected water in the liquids that was not
detected by the separator. In the OMM-413 well test, the
results were closer: 9% for gas, 5.4% for oil, and no difference for water (Table 5.2). Water was also detected
by the Vx meter in this well (Table 5.2).
5,000
10,000
1,000
10
100
10
12:14
12:41
13:14
13:41
14:30
Time
Oil flow rate
Line pressure
Gas flow rate
Water flow rate
Figure 5.16: Production over four days with daily changes in gas lift.
15:00
15:30
Gas flow rate, m3/h
Maintaining production fluids in multiphase condition up

to the production center represents a tangible advance
toward adhering to the environmental program set by
Sonatrach, reducing operational risks, and bringing
greater control and efficiency to the production phase.
intermittent gas lift were monitored with the Vx PhaseTester, which allowed
Sonatrach to optimize the gas injection system.
In the OMPZ-12 well, nitrogen injection with a coiled tubing unit was monitored
with the Vx PhaseTester during kickoff and cleanup. In the early lifting stages
of the kickoff period, gas and water flowed back with some mud traces.
Subsequently, more and more oil and mud flowed back so that the end of the
cleanup phase could be determined in real time. The behavior of the water
phase and the simultaneous surge of oil and mud phases suggested that production was coming from the first part of the horizontal section. In the last
stages of cleanup, GOR was estimated at 115 m3, which was later confirmed
during the isochronal test. With data from these tests, the cleanup period was
minimized, which reduced rig time.
The benefits of using the Vx PhaseTester were quickly apparent:
Reduced footprint of the system resulted in reduced logistics costs.
Instant stabilization of the Vx PhaseTester made it suitable for wells with
slug flow or on gas lift.
Flaring and unintentional release of hydrocarbons to the atmosphere were
avoided.
Accelerated phase monitoring during cleanup saved operating time.
Later, in six satellite oil fields in Algeria's Berkine basin, 12 Vx PhaseWatcher

multiphase flowmeters were installedseven dedicated to fiscal allocation
and five to well testing for reservoir management. Key specifications for the
new meters included internal data storage, direct linkage to a service computer,
and compatibility with existing SCADA systems.
BRN
CPF
Partner
A
Partner
B
IFM-1
B7130FT301
B7130FT302
RO2
RO16
RO7
IFM-2
A7130FT301
A7130FT302
RO10
IFM-3
D4130FT301
D4130FT302
IFM-4
C6130FT301
C6130FT302
BSF1
BSF3
BSFN1
BSFN2
BRSE1
SFN E1
ROD
CPF
Partner
C
Partner
D
PhaseMeter
Deviation (%)
Qo (m3/h)
18.6
17.2
7.5
Qw
0.0
0.7
(m3/h)
3.8
Qlig (m3/h)
3,532
2,975
Pres (kg/cm2)
10.3
12.9
Temp (C)
53.0
65.0
Qg
(m3/h)
10.0
Well OMM-413
Separator
PhaseMeter
Deviation (%)
Qo (m3/h)
8.0
7.6
5.2
Qw (m3/h)
0.0
0.4
0.0
Qlig (m3/h)
894
974
Pres (kg/cm2)
12.8
13.2
Temp (C)
39.0
51.0
Qg
(m3/h)
9.0
IFM-5
E8130FT301
E8130FT302a
E8130FT303
OMN-88 and Well OMM-413.
In these oil fields, which are jointly operated by

Sonatrach, ENI, and BHP Billiton, the challenge was to
accurately allocate production between the partners
based on their ownership and royalty percentages. One
of the fields, the ROD field, is surrounded by the Bir
Rebaa Nord (BRN) field, which is owned jointly by
Sonatrach and AGIP and is the site of the central processing facility. The challenge, then, was to further allocate flow from the ROD to the BRN field.
RO14
RO2
FGS
Separator
Table 5.2: PhaseWatcher meter and separator data comparison for Well
Fiscal allocation in the Berkine field
BRN field
Well OMN-88
SFN E2
SFN E3
SFN E7
RDB1
Figure 5.17: Simplified ROD field layout where each intermediate field manifold (IFM) has a main
production line with a Vx PhaseWatcher installed as a fiscal meter and an offsite Vx PhaseWatcher
To accelerate production, a scheme was implemented

whereby hydrocarbon flow from some facilities offsite
from the ROD development was redirected to flow straight
to one of the BRN field processing trains operated by
Groupement Sonatrach-AGIP (Fig. 5.17). With production
from two different production-sharing contracts (PSC)
commingled, the only way to allocate oil production on a
fiscal basis was by using continuous in-line multiphase
flow metering data from the Vx PhaseWatcher. With Vx
PhaseWatchers installed in each main production line,
production layouts were greatly simplified and production
pumping and flaring were avoided. To ensure highest
accuracy, the Vx PhaseWatchers were programmed so the
recorded flow rates were representative of the export oil
delivered from the BRN facility. Then, working backward,
to perform single well tests.
21
Wellhead
1
4
2
Diesel
recovery
tank
5
6
Pump unit
7
27
22
8
Choke
manifold
12
To water pit
44
Isolation valve
Vertical
separator
Horizontal
separator
10
19
14
18
17
16
15
28
23
D2
34
M3
32
33
36
35
20
11 12 13
45 46
M2
25
26
D1
P2
29
30 31
24
21
49
47
50
48
30 P1
37
51
39
38
40
41
Gauge tank
52
D4
Heater
Work
shop
Lab
cabin
42
Stack
53
D3
54
43
Air compressor
Transfer pump/diesel tank
Relief line
Surge
tank
55
Vent line
Burner
TEG field layout, May 2002
Flare pit
To mud pit
T-block and SLB SSV+ESD

MPM 52-mm Venturi throat
installed with FMF-XA bypass manifold
T1
4-in. isolation valve
ISG 6-in. 206 flare
Choke manifold
FMF-G 3-in. 10 k
Flare pit
3-in. 206 flexible hoses
Gauge tank
Air-driven pump
3-in. 602 5-way oil manifold
Surge
100 bbls surge
Tank 150 psi
Choke box to regulate pressure of

liquid flowing to the tank
(adj. choke installed)
Figure 5.18: Very high rate SWT package with twin flowline in 2003 (top) and simplified SWT package equipped with Vx PhaseTester (bottom).
22
3-in. 602
Flame arrestor
oil shrinkage was taken into account using modeled PVT tables that were input
to the meters. As an additional check, the HYSYS black oil process simulator
was used to tune the PVT analysis results to provide the best match with
expected results. A consistent match with a difference as low as 0.9% was
achieved.
Gas production application in the In Salah field

Vx PhaseWatcher technology was also put to the test in 2001 at an In Salah
Gas (ISG) project. A joint development project of Sonatrach, Statoil, and BP,
ISG comprises the development of seven gas fields in south central Algeria
and represents one of the largest gas projects in the country. Well testing
services for the Krechba, TEG, and REG fields commenced with the following
objectives:
well cleanupreduce the potential for formation damage during suspension of production and facility damage upon subsequent startup
flow deliverabilitytest the productivity of reentry and newly drilled wells
associated corrosivesgather information on CO2 and H2S content
well pressureacquire downhole pressure data during initial production in
each field
well deliverabilityupload the well and conduct a multirate test to determine overall deliverability.
An average flow rate of 50 MMcf/d was expected, but equipment had to be
able to safely handle 70 MMcf/d. Besides dry gas, the 24-hour production
tests were expected to yield up to 9% CO2, 11 ppm H2S, and varying amounts
of gas condensate, oil, mud, and BSW. In addition, flowback of diesel used for
a cushion was expected.
3,000.00
50.000
2,500.00
40.000
2,000.00
With the advent of the Vx PhaseTester, field setup was

dramatically simplified because phase separation was
no longer needed and sampling was not a critical operation (previous samples had enabled identification of
the PVT model). A comparison of the original setup used
in 2001 and the 2004 layout version that included the
Vx PhaseTester illustrates the point (Fig. 5.18). The new
layout was inherently safer than previous ones. In addition rig-up and rig-down times were significantly faster
by an average of 11.5 days. Personnel and trucks were
greatly reduced, as were support vehicles such as
cranes. The heaviest component was easily handled by
a 12-ton forklift. Overall direct cost savings from these
reductions were estimated at 28% over the previous
solution, plus associated savings in spread costs.
Four choke sizes were used on one well in Teguentour
and results were compared to flow loop tests previously
conducted in Norway and Scotland. Relative error of the
Vx PhaseTester in actual practice compared to the measurement error observed in the test loops ranged between
-3% and +1%, which was deemed satisfactory by the
operator's engineers.
30.000
1,500.00
20.000
1,000.00
10.000
500.00
0.00
8/24/05
12:00
8/24/05
18:00
8/25/05
00:00
8/25/05
6:00
8/25/05
12:00
0.000
8/25/05
18:00
Gas rate, MMcf/d
Water, bbl/d; Pressure, psi
The project implemented conventional technology available at the time, such as horizontal gravity separators,
surge tanks, manifolds, transfer pumps, and burners. In
2003 a new horizontal separator equipped with new
Coriolis meters for oil and gas measurements was introduced. The following year, Schlumberger introduced the
Vx PhaseTester in gas mode. The multiphase capabilities
of the Vx PhaseTester extended to the full range of wet or
dry gas conditions. Not only did the Vx PhaseTester provide accurate predictions of gas flow rate at standard conditions, but with no additional measurements it gave adequate liquid rate and water-cut predictions.
Water rate
Well head pressure
Gas rate
Figure 5.19: Wellhead pressure and liquid and gas rates in the main flow period during the test for
In 2005 during the Krechba field campaign, a concern

was the ability to resolve uncertainties in liquid phase
production. In an evaluation test, the gas and liquid flow
rates were clearly delineated for each different choke
size (Fig. 5.19) and were confirmed using the PLT Production
Logging Tool. Clearly, the Vx PhaseTester delivered added
value in terms of data quality and safety, and significant
cost reductions were experienced in terms of logistics,
personnel, and operating time.
Krechba 6.
23
Multiphase Technology Looks Ahead

Combining multiphase flowmeters with multiphase
pumping is becoming a more commonplace approach. In
typical installations, producing wells are connected to the
multiport selector manifold (MSM) that is fitted with a Vx
multiphase flowmeter and a multiphase pump (Fig. 5.A).
The internal selector of the manifold allows the fluids of
a particular well to be diverted into the flowmeter; the
other wells produce simultaneously through the output
line connected to the suction line of the pump. Significant
advances are being realized in both metering and pumping applications.
of the collected fluids can provide an entire fluid composition in near real time.
These measurements must be conducted in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, which is approached, over time, using a standard gravity separator.
However, the samples are most often taken at different pressures and temperatures, and several iterations are required to get the right combinations. The
Multiphase Active Sampling Device solves this problem. By taking a significant
volume measurement at the same sampling point, and through its ability to
sample at different positions in the flow stream, it is possible to capture the predominant phase in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium under any flow regime.
The active sampling concept involves capturing a representative sample containing a majority of the desired phase, enriching it, and transferring it to a flash
kit or PVT sample bottle.
Multiport selector
manifold (MSM)
Multiphase
flowmeter
Multiphase
booster pump
Figure 5.A: Multiphase approach with a multiport selector manifold, multiphase flowmeter, and multiphase pump combination.
Multiphase sampling
Future demand for conventional test separators will
increasingly be driven by fluid-sampling requirements.
Some sampling, however, particularly for pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) analysis, will be performed with
multiphase flowmeters.
The Multiphase Active Sampling Device manifold block contains an array of

sampling probes located at discrete spots in the flow stream and includes an
optical phase detector (OPD) probe that measures the differences in refractive
index between the oil, water, and gas phases. It measures what is entering the
sample chamber just downstream from the venturi from a given probe and what
Commercial multiphase flowmeters measure flow rates

at line conditions; therefore, conversions to standard
conditions must be made using PVT data. Schlumberger
is addressing this need with a kit consisting of three elements: an active multiprobe sampling device that retrofits to the liquid sampling port on the Vx PhaseTester or
Vx PhaseWatcher; an environmental corrections kit that
takes a direct measurement of key fluid properties inputs
at line and standard conditions; and dedicated Vx data
acquisition software that receives the directly measured
fluid properties inputs (Fig. 5.B).
By collecting onsite representative phase-concentrated
fluids at line conditions, meter accuracy can be
improved. Subsequent recombination and PVT analysis
24
Figure 5.B: The Multiphase Active Sampling Device.
10 Air/light
Signal, V
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0.1
Time, s
Figure 5.C: Phase detector cell tests with recording signal for three-phase flow. The different
bandsgreen, red, and bluerepresent the three levels for gas, oil, and water.
is expelled during the enriching process. The device can determine the oil/water
ratio even in a stable homogeneous emulsion (Fig. 5.C) because of the small size
of the dispersed phase structure compared to the probe tip area.
The OPD is a versatile component that can be used for other applications such
as sample transfer and also as a second or redundant measurement of the
water/liquid ratio (WLR). Indeed, this technique has the potential to provide a
representative multiphase sample when there is no slip between the flowing
phases at the sampling point. Usually, the oil and water have very little slippage
in the surface condition and with the OPD it it possible to provide a better WLR
accuracy and therefore a better estimation of the water and oil net flow rates.
The first Multiphase Active Sampling Device was introduced in Algeria in a gas
condensate well and demonstrated the quality of the measurement against
laboratory and PVT Express measurements. The fluid properties measurement
variations were smaller than 1% between the wellsite and the other measurement. Early adoption of this technology by Algeria was key to promoting its
introduction for properly quantifying well production.
Multiphase Active Sampling Device advantages include
same-point sampling that ensures thermodynamic equilibrium
ability to enrich any desired phase during sampling
stable pressure and temperature maintained during sampling
OPD verification that the correct phase has been captured in real time
wide range of high-quality measurements at gas volume factors greater
than 99.8%
sampling without the need of a separator
accurate WLR measurement independent of the GVF.
improves production. Several wells can be connected via

a manifold to the pump suction line. Flaring is avoided,
since gas is transported right along with the liquids in
the same flow stream. When a multiphase flowmeter is
connected to the system as part of the multiport selector
manifold, production of an individual well can be measured through the flowmeter using the manifold's valves,
so a single multiphase flowmeter can serve the needs of
several wells. Alternatively, the commingled production
of all wells on the manifold can be measured. The multiphase pumps are usually driven electrically using a variable speed drive so suction and discharge pressure can
be optimized.
Multiphase pumping advantages include
greater production with no gas flaring
extended tieback of remote wells or fields
increased pipeline capacity without a dedicated gas line
automation, which allows safe, reliable operation of
unmanned facilities
increased formation recovery
increased overall asset profitability.
Conclusions
In all, growing demand and new insights into potential
applications for multiphase flowmeters, pumps, and manifolds are virtually certain to spur continuing technological
innovations and enhancements to meet new challenges
and offer benefits such as
extended tieback of isolated fields
de-manning of marginal production facilities
prolonged plateau production
significant economic value
high degree of flexibility and reliability.
No doubt all these advancements will find a home in the
continued development of Algerian oil fields.
Multiphase pumping
Often, field development projects involve transporting production over long distances to the processing facility. If allowed to separate in the field gathering
lines, production efficiency is affected and problems arise. A more cost-effective solution is to boost production using a multiphase pump. This allows gas,
oil, and water to be pumped together to the processing facility without separation. The booster pumps (Fig. 5.D) reduce wellhead backpressure, which in turn
Figure 5.D: Multiphase booster pump.
25

From reservoir to results
Sonatrach Organization Ourhoud is a consortium formed
by operator Sonatrach along with six international partners: Cepsa, Anadarko, Burlington, Maersk, Lasmo, and
Talisman. The Ourhoud field is located in the Berkine
basin 1,200 km southeast of Algiers in Algeria. The concession has been unitized in order to calculate each companys oil share across the three production blocks it covers. The 34 oil production wells currently produce
approximately 230,000 BOPD. The field also contains a
number of water and gas injector wells and water-producing wells.
The variable-volume DBR PVT cell is at the heart of the Hassi Messaoud laboratory. The fully visual cell provides confirmation of bubble- and dewpoint
pressure, and is the only cell that allows direct measurement of phase volumes. Constant composition expansion (CCE), differential liberation (DL) or
constant volume depletion (CVD), and viscosity measurements are required to
understand reservoir fluid behavior that can influence recovery and economics.
The laboratory also provides compositional analysis with Agilent 6,890 gas
chromatographs as well as full conventional PVT analysis on both gas condensate and black oil systems. The physical and compositional data are used as a
basis for equation-of-state modeling to evaluate production scenarios and optimize reservoir production.
Liquid
Single-phase
sample
h
Asp
re
ep
en
alt
In 200405 Schlumberger Oilphase-DBR conducted an

extensive monophasic bottomhole sampling campaign.
Over 80 samples were successfully captured using the
Oilphase-DBR single-phase reservoir sampler (SRS). The
majority of the samples were then analyzed with the PVT
Express onsite well fluid analysis service in the OilphaseDBR Hassi Messaoud Phase Behavior Laboratory to provide fast turnaround data for validation. Full studies were
subsequently performed to determine their physical
properties and phase behavior pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) data to gather information and help assist
successful management of reservoir production (Fig. 5.20).
One advantage of the PVT Express service is that it can deliver comprehensive
fluid properties data within hours. Small volumes of reservoir fluid are analyzed to provide bubble- and dewpoint, GOR/CGR, density, compressibility,
composition, and viscosity data. The measured properties are then input to an
an artificial neural network (ANN) model, which utilizes a database of more
than 1,000 PVT studies to provide full black oil and gas condensate predictions. The model includes a quality assurance tool that evaluates the quality
of the predictions (Fig. 5.21).
cip
i
SRS subsurface sampling system
tat
i
D
on
e
Asphaltene
Nitrogen-charged fluid
Fluid at initial reservoir

temperature and pressure
nve
lope
100%
Critical point
75%
Multiphase zone
,
ion
uid
t
rac
Liq
50%
B
Multiphase
sample
25%
Gas
Liquid, %
Pressure
The unique SRS, an advanced system for subsurface

sampling applications, captures and maintains fluid
above reservoir pressure as the tool is retrieved from the
hole. The tool can be conveyed by slickline, wireline,
electric line, coiled tubing, or sucker rod pumps, or run
within a sample carrier (SCAR) during drillstem operations. The SRS is used primarily for measurements of
samples in an unaltered condition, such as pH measurements on production water or asphaltene deposition in
oil samples.
0%
Temperature
Single-phase bottomhole sampler
Conventional bottomhole sampler
Figure 5.20: Phase envelope when sampling with the SRS.
The Oilphase-DBR Hassi Messaoud Phase Behavior

Laboratory operates two PVT systems. The PVT Express
service is used for quick turnaround validation and basic
PVT analysis, while a conventional visual DBR cell is
used for full studies, flow assurance, and enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) tests.
26
Oilphase-DBR is the reservoir fluid sampling and analysis subsegment of Schlumberger Well
Testing Services. Operating out of Hassi Messaoud in Algeria, Oilphase-DBR provides open, cased
hole, and surface sampling solutions, phase behavior (PVT) analysis, sample management, and fluid
advisory services.
Service delivery to Sonatrach Organization Ourhoud

In 200405, monophasic samples were captured using the SRS tool during
multiple well campaigns. The SRS was run without a single failure on both
wireline and slickline, in tool strings of three in series. At the surface, samples were heat restored to reservoir temperature and transferred to singlephase sample bottles for shipping to the laboratory.
At the lab, the opening pressures of all the samples were measured to ensure
the stored samples remained in single phase. The samples were then heat
restored at above reservoir pressure under agitation for extended periods to
ensure homogenization. Small subsamples subsequently underwent to PVT
Express analysis for saturation pressure and GOR measurements. These validation data were used to evaluate the quality of the samples and then select
a subset for extensive asphaltene flow assurance and conventional analysis
work overseas. During the main section of the campaign, more than 25 samples a month were captured, analyzed, and validated using SRS and the PVT
Express service.
Samples were also captured from wells adjacent to pilot miscible gas injection wells. Samples captured over perforations with gas breakthrough from
the injection project proved to contain highly supersaturated reservoir fluid.
The samples that were flagged by the PVT Express ANN quality assurance
tool due to the unusual nature of their fluids were recommended for full conventional analysis with the DBR visual cell at the Oilphase-DBR lab. After
these samples were analyzed, Sonatrach Organization Ourhoud found some
inconsistencies in the compositional and physical property data. Using the
DBR CCD measurement system and the fully visual cell, the reservoir evaluation specialists were able to visually pinpoint the saturation pressure.
The reservoir flash and compositional data for these supersaturated samples
also showed good agreement with the equation of state developed by
Sonatrach Organization Ourhoud (Fig. 5.22).
Figure 5.21: PVT Express fluid analysis system.
Figure 5.22: The fully visual DBR PVT cell directly measures phase volumes.
The Oilphase-DBR lab continues to perform monophasic

bottomhole sampling and analysis for Sonatrach
Organization Ourhoud to monitor the effects of the WAG
project since gas breakthrough has been noted in production wells throughout the field.
Results
The reservoir fluid sampling and analysis campaign conducted by OilphaseDBR provided Sonatrach Organization Ourhoud with samples that were used
for extensive PVT and flow assurance analysis. The data were used to evaluate and tune the existing equation of state for the reservoir system and were
integral to evaluating the miscible gas injection project and subsequently optimizing reservoir production.
Following the complete success of the bottomhole sampling and validation of the analysis results obtained with
the PVT Express service and the conventional DBR cell,
Oilphase-DBR continues periodic sampling campaigns
and conventional analysis as part of the gas injection
pilot monitoring project.
27

Production logging in vertical or near-vertical wells is an
effective way to determine the inflow of oil, gas, and
water phases, and this information is used for developing
optimum production strategies and designing remedial
workovers. In highly deviated wells, downhole flow
regimes can be complex and may include stratification,
misting, and recirculation. Segregation, small changes in
well inclination, and the flow regime influence the flow
profile. These and other complexities such as top-side
bubbly flow, heavy-phase recirculation, or stratified layers
traveling at different speeds can cause conventional production logging tools to deliver less-than-optimal results.
In multiphase flows, center measurements made by conventional logging tools are inadequate for describing
complex flow because the most important information is
located along the vertical diameter of the wellbore.
A new approach has been developed to understand and
diagnose these complex flow regimes. The FloScan
Imager tool, with its unique combination of hardware
design, data interpretation methodology, and data visualization, makes it possible to gather accurate data in highly
deviated and horizontal to near-horizontal wells.1 It has
the ability to deploy sensors along the vertical axis of
nonvertical wells to obtain velocity and holdup measurements in mixed and segregated flow regimes (Fig. 5.23).
Minispinner cartridge with

integrated one-wire detector
Optical GHOST probe
Electrical FloView probe
Figure 5.23: The FloScan Imager tool uses a maneuverable arm to deploy sensors along the vertical
axis of nonvertical wells. The tool body incorporates 17 sensors: four minispinners on one arm, five
electrical and five optical probes on another, and one set of sensors including a spinner and electrical and optical probes on the tool body that sits at the bottom of the wellbore. The spinners meas-
Multiphase flow dynamics
ure velocities at five different points across the vertical axis of the wellbore.
In vertical wells and in wells with deviation less than 20,

the velocity profile is smooth, and the water holdup profile varies gradually across the pipe. Once deviation
exceeds 20, the center measurements of conventional
production logging tools are usually inadequate for multiphase flow profiling. In wells with deviation between 20
and 85, some portions of the wellbore have monophasic
flow, but the overall flow structure is complex. Oil and
water flows in wells with deviation between 85 and 95
are predominantly stratified. When gas is also present,
depending on the well deviation, as many as six major
flow regimes can be encountered. For a constant flow
rate, the holdup and velocity profiles of each phase vary
with the well deviation (Figs. 5.24, 5.25, and 5.26).
slightly higher than the water holdup. As soon as the borehole deviates from
90, the oil and water flow at different velocities. At deviation less than 90
(uphill), waterthe heavier phaseslows down, and oil velocity increases.
The water holdup increases while the oil holdup decreases. Any gas present
begins to slug. Flow is predominantly stratified in wells with deviation above
90 (downhill). The water flows much faster than the oil because of its higher
fluid density. The water holdup decreases, while the oil holdup increases.
At 90, the velocities and holdups of oil and water are

nearly equal. Because oil is more viscous than water, it
has a slightly lower velocity. The oil holdup, therefore, is
28
How the FloScan Imager system works

Flow loop studies have demonstrated the ineffectiveness of conventional logging tools in multiphase flows. Center measurements made by such tools are
inadequate for describing complex flow because the most important information is distributed along the vertical diameter of the wellbore. Conventional
tools have sensors spread over long distances in the wellbore, making measurement of complex flow regimes ambiguous and their interpretation even
more difficult.
The FloScan Imager tool operates differently. On one side of its retractable
arm there are four miniature spinners designed to measure the well fluid
velocity. On the other side, there are arrays of five electrical and five optical
Velocity
Holdup
1
Top
Bottom
Water
0
Top
Bottom
Oil
Figure 5.24: In vertical and near-vertical wells, oil and water are mixed across the entire wellbore,
with oil, the lighter phase, increasing on the upper side of the well. Averaged measurements across
the wellbore are adequate for determining the velocity and holdup.
Velocity
Holdup
1
Top
Bottom
Water
0
Top
Bottom
Oil
Figure 5.25: In wells with deviation up to 85, water, the heaviest phase, segregates to the bottom
of the pipe, and the mixing layer is on the upper side of the hole with dispersed bubbles of oil. At
low flow rates, the water velocity on the lower side of the hole can be negative. At high flow rates,
differential acceleration of phases caused by the shear forces between the different fluids can lead
probes that measure localized water and gas holdups,

respectively. A fifth miniature spinner and a sixth pair of
optical probes on the tool body measure flow properties
on the low side of the well. All sensor measurements are
made at the same depth simultaneously (Fig. 5.23).
In addition, the FloScan Imager tool is designed to be run
eccentralized, which makes conveying it in highly deviated
and horizontal wells less problematic and ensures proper
deployment of the sensors across the vertical axis of the
wellbore. The tool lies on the low side of the well with
its arm deployed across the vertical diameter of the wellbore. The arm is extended to a length equal to the diameter of the production tubulars, so it serves as a caliper,
providing the area measurements needed to calculate
flow rates as the tool moves. Because the tool measures
the velocity profile along the vertical diameter of the
wellbore, it provides measurements of mixed and segregated flow regimes, including a direct independent
measurement of gas velocity in a multiphase horizontal
well. The tool even detects downhole water recirculation. Each of the five miniature spinners makes a direct,
localized measurement of the velocity of the fluid passing through it, so that a multiphase velocity profile can be
calculated.
The basic FloScan Imager sonde is 11 ft [3.4 m] long, and
the total tool string is approximately 25 ft [7.6 m] long
when combined into a typical production logging string,
including pressure and temperature sensors. The tool can
be run in wellbores ranging from 278 to 9 in. inside diameter and can be conveyed on coiled tubing, wireline, or
with a MaxTRAC downhole well tractor system. It operates in temperatures up to 300F [149C] and at pressures reaching 15,000 psi [103 MPa].
to instabilities in the flow structure.
Velocity
Distinguishing oil and gas from water
Holdup
1
Top
Bottom
Water
0
Top
Bottom
Oil
Figure 5.26: In near-horizontal wells, water flows at the bottom with oil on the top. At flow rates as
high as 20,000 bbl/d in a 5-in. liner, there is little mixing. At low flow rates, the flow is strongly
The FloScan Imager system detects water with its six

low-frequency electrical probes that measure fluid
impedance. Because oil and gas do not conduct electric
current, but water does, a threshold is set that allows the
tool to distinguish oil and gas from water. Therefore, a
local water holdup measurement, independent of fluid
properties, can be made without any need for calibrations. In addition, the bubble count measurementthe
log that represents the number of nonconducting events
detected during a monitoring intervalcan be used to
locate fluid entries.
dependent on well deviation.
29
120
Air
100
Gas (n = 1.1)
80
60
40
Reflected light, %
Conventional low-frequency electrical probes can only differentiate water from hydrocarbons. The FloScan Imager
system, however, is additionally equipped with optical
probes that detect gas. These probes are sensitive to the
fluid optical refractive index. Oil and water have high
refractive indices, whereas gas has a low refractive index
and reflects more than 80% of light (Fig. 5.27). When
reflectivity exceeds a predetermined threshold, the probe
indicates gas. Because oil and water have similar fluid
indices, the optical probes are used to distinguish gas from
liquid. The gas bubble count can also be obtained from the
raw data and used to locate first gas entries. The optical
probes allow a local gas holdup measurement without
requiring calibration because their signals are binary.
Together, the optical and electrical probes deliver a full
three-phase holdup answer from the same depth interval.
Water (n = 1.33)
20
Condensate (n = 1.4)
Oil (n = 1.5)
0
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Refractive index
Gas holdup =
Time above threshold

Total time
Time
Threshold
Software optimization
and real-time data display
Measurements are taken while the tool is moving, with
the arms deployed to touch the top of the hole while the
tool body rests on the bottom. Leaf springs drive the
opening of the arms, and a motorized hydraulic actuator
drives their closing. When desired, data can be collected
with the sonde held at a station (Fig. 5.28). In stratified
flows, the location of the fluid interfaces can be determined accurately by making measurements while closing
the arm using the station-arm scanning feature, with
results made available in real time.
When the FloScan Imager sonde is in operation, real-time
data stream in from 17 sensors, the caliper, and the relative-bearing device on the tool string. A novel approach
to data interpretation incorporates dedicated algorithms
by means of specialized software for real-time visualization of phase velocity and holdups along the vertical
diameter of the well section. Another software package
Flow
Water
Oil
Gas
Figure 5.27: The optical probes discriminate gas from oil or water by the amount of light reflected
back from the probe tip. Due to its higher index of refraction, gas reflects more light than oil or water.
Gas holdup is estimated by the period of time of reflectivity above a predetermined threshold.
provides a user-friendly display of raw data during logging operations or, later,
during playback.
The FloScan Imager software provides two views that are constantly updated
with real-time acquisition data. One view shows relative fluid velocities
measured by the spinner array; the other shows phase distribution across the
pipe section. In both views, the pipe is sliced horizontally into the five layers
Gas
Oil
Water
Figure 5.28: FloScan Imager arm scanning across the fluid interface for precise determination of interface locations and velocities. The tool is positioned in a zone of interest, and
the sensors record continuous holdups and spinner responses across the entire cross section of the borehole as the arm closes.
30
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
Figure 5.29. Real-time flow rate and phase distribution data are continuously optimized and displayed at the surface. In spinner view, five rectangles are plotted with lengths proportional
to the rotational velocities of the corresponding spinners. Each rectangle is divided into color-coded sections with widths proportional to the three phase holdups seen by the electrical
and optical probes. In the cross-sectional view, each layer is color coded to represent the phase with the highest holdup seen by the probes. The holdup values of the two remaining
phases are represented by proportionate numbers and sizes of bubbles. The relative positions of the sensors are also shown, with circles for the spinners and dots for the probes.
associated with the different combinations of spinner and electrical- and optical-probe measurements (Fig. 5.29). In addition, caliper and relative-bearing
measurements continuously show the sensor location.
The processing flow is sequential (Fig. 5.30). Phase profiles of gas holdup are
generated based on optical- and electrical-probe readings. The oil holdup profile is then deduced from those of the gas and water. The upper and lower
boundaries of the flow interface are defined as the regions where the flow is
locally multiphase. Velocities of each phase are derived after a spinner calibration. The velocity of each phase is multiplied by holdup to determine flow rate.
Horizontal and deviated wells pose a variety of challenges

for production logging. The FloScan Imager tool, however,
provides far more accurate data about fluid entry points in
complex flow regimesinformation that is essential to
prolonging field life and maximizing return on investment.
Its innovative combination of fit-for-purpose hardware, a
condition-specific data interpretation methodology, and
sophisticated data visualization make the FloScan Imager
tool a good choice for production logging in horizontal and
highly deviated wells in Algeria.
Identify fluid phase
Compute holdups
Locate fluid interface
Apply minispinner calibration
Compute velocities
Compute flow rate
Figure 5.30: Real-time processing flow. The workflow process uses a sequential algorithm (left). The holdup profile and velocity profile are continuously updated and displayed in
real time (right).
31

Importance of cement placement evaluation
Cement placement is a critical component of well architecture for ensuring casing mechanical support, protection from fluid corrosion, and most importantly isolating
permeable zones at different pressure regimes to prevent
hydraulic communication. Traditionally, cement evaluation has been performed by temperature surveys,
hydraulic pressure tests of the casing, and by running
acoustic logging tools.
Temperature surveys can locate the top of the cement
within a few hours after cement placement due to the
exothermic character of cement hydration. Hydraulic testingvia shoe bond tests, dry tests, and communication
testsis the only reliable way to check zonal isolation
after the cement is set. These pressure tests, however, can
damage the casing-to-cement bond and create a microannulusan empty space that may allow hydraulic communication between zones.
Acoustic tools, however, are noninvasive and enable the
detection of the cement material behind casing as well
as the acoustic quantification of the bond between the
casing, cement, and formation. They have become the
tools of choice for evaluating cement placement to
control the depth interval at which cement has been
placed around the casing
measure the acoustic impedance of the cement bonded
to the casing
quantify the percentage of pipe circumference bonded
to the cement.
From this evaluation, the operator can decide whether a
squeeze job, if needed, can be implemented to ensure
proper hydraulic isolation between critical zones.
Traditional acoustic logging tools include
the cement bond log (CBL), which measures the
azimuthal average shear acoustic coupling of cement to
the casing. This coupling is particularly sensitive to
micrometric microannuli,
the Variable Density log, which provides a qualitative
estimate of the azimuthal and 5-ft depth average shear
acoustic coupling of the cement to the formation,
which is insensitive to wet millimetric microannuli
32
ultrasonic tools, which use a pulse-echo technique that excites the casing into
thickness resonance mode to provide the acoustic impedance of the cement
adjacent to the casing with high azimuthal (5 degrees) and axial (1 in.) resolution.1 This technique is insensitive to wet microannuli up to 250 microns.
The new ultrasonic Isolation Scanner imaging tool combines the classic pulseecho technique with a pitch-catch technique that provides echoes arising from
a flexural wave propagation along the casing as well as from reflections at the
cement-formation interface. This tool discriminates between lightweight
cements and mud, both of which have low acoustic impedance and hence
present a challenge to the pulse-echo technique. The Isolation Scanner tool also
provides radial imaging of the cement sheath to estimate casing eccentering
within the hole, channel detection in the cement sheath, and hole shape.
Traditional logging measurements

Cement bond log and Variable Density log
The CBL and Variable Density logs are acquired with a sonic logging tool that
has a monopole transducer and monopole receivers placed respectively at 3 ft
and 5 ft from the transmitter (Fig. 5.31). The monopole sonic transmitter sends
an omnidirectional pulse that induces a longitudinal vibration of the casing.
Because of the low frequency of the measurement (1020 kHz), the data
recorded, which consist of the amplitude of the first positive peak (denoted
by E1) of the sonic waveform received at 3 ft and the full waveform received
at 5 ft, represent the averaged values over the circumference of the casing.
When bonded to a hard material, the vibration of the casing is attenuated, and
the CBL E1 amplitude is small (Fig. 5.31). The transit time (TT) taken by the
wave to travel from transmitter to receiver is used to quality control the tool
centralization and set the correct parameters for proper detection.
When the casing is fully bonded to a thick enough cement sheath, the attenuation of sonic signals traveling through the cemented casing is proportional
to the shear acoustic impedance of the cement. However, wellbore conditions
also affect the attenuation of sonic signals. For instance, the bonded-pipe
amplitude increases with casing thickness, decreases for larger casing sizes,
and depends on fluid type and weight on either side of the casing. To minimize
these effects when interpreting the CBL data, a calibration in a free pipe
section is recommended to compensate for wellbore differences, assuming
that wellbore conditions (casing sizes and weight and mud properties) remain
constant over the entire well. Later, this can be assessed with the TT value,
which varies with casing inner diameter and mud velocity.
In addition to wellbore conditions and acquisition parameters, the CBL amplitude is affected by centralization (for example, E1 is reduced by half, and TT by
4 s for a 6.4-mm tool eccentricity), and a microannulus, which results in an
increase of the CBL amplitude. This increases again with fluid-filled channeling in the cement sheath. Lastly, the CBL amplitude is affected in fast formations exhibiting a strong E1 that is no longer linked with cement quality but
with fast formation arrivals.
In a perfectly cemented pipe, we observe no or weak casing arrivals followed by strong formation P, and then S,
arrivals. In free pipe, however, the casing arrivals are
strong and appear parallel, like railroad tracks, in the log.
Hardly any formation arrivals are observed, and in front
of the casing collar, the characteristic chevron pattern
can be observed.
The Variable Density log provides a visualization of arrivals that propagate in

the casing as extensional waves and in the formation as refracted waves
(Fig. 5.31). Formation arrivals are composed of compressional (P) waves and
shear (S) waves. In general, formation arrivals show up later than the fastpropagating casing arrivals except when the formation is extremely rigid and
the compressional wave speed exceeds that of the casing extensional wave
(with a slowness of 57 s/ft). Formation arrivals can be used to correlate the
CBL and Variable Density logs to the openhole sonic log.
In partially cemented pipes (with channeling), both casing arrivals (accompanied by a high CBL) and formation
arrivals may be present, and this may also occur in the
presence of a microannulus at the casing-cement interface. To differentiate between the two situations (channeling and microannulus), the casing pressure is typically
increased and the CBL logged again. A decrease in E1
with vanishing casing arrivals and strengthening formation arrivals favors the microannulus hypothesis (with
cement in the annulus) versus the channeling hypothesis.
Ultrasonic cement evaluation principles

Casing
The USI UltraSonic Imager tool uses the high-frequency

pulse-echo technique.2 The tool operates on a rotating
7.5-rps transducer which emits, perpendicular to the casing walls, a broadband ultrasonic wave that is adjustable
between 250 and 700 kHz to excite the casing into resonance mode. The frequency of this mode depends on the
casing thickness and its amplitude decay on the acoustic
impedances of media on either side of the casing (Fig. 5.32).
Bonded cement sheath
Transmitter
Sonic pulse path
3-ft receiver
gives CBL
Amplitude
CBL
Detection level
E1
Transmitter
firing
Time
Transit time
(TT)
Ampitude, m volt
5-ft receiver
gives Variable
Density log
Transmitter
firing
Casing
arrival
Formation
arrival
Mud
arrival
E1
Figure 5.31: Cement bond log (CBL) tool and principle of operation.
Time
The USI tool scans the casing with an azimuthal resolution

of 10 or 5 degrees yielding at each depth 36 or 72 separate
waveforms. These are processed to yield the casing thickness, internal radius, and inner wall smoothnessfrom the
initial echoas well as an azimuthal image of the cement
acoustic impedancefrom the signal resonance decay.
The cement acoustic impedance is then classified as
that of gas when it is typically less than 0.3 MRayl, or
liquid when between 0.3 and 2.6 MRayl, or cement
when it is larger than the upper liquid limit of 2.6 MRayl.
The accuracy of the estimated cement acoustic impedance depends on the accuracy of the known mud
acoustic impedance. This is estimated with the fluid
measurement cell when the tool is lowered into the well
and the transducer is flipped inward to insonify a reference plate of known thickness and elastic properties.
33
However, when the estimated cement acoustic impedance is low and close to that of the mud, it becomes difficult to conclude without ambiguity whether a solid
(fluid-contaminated or lightweight or foam cement) or a
liquid fills the annular space.
Transducer
Mud
Casing
Cement
Formation
CBL/Variable Density log versus the USI tool

Resonance frequency
Resonance decay
(Internal casing condition)
Internal radius
Thickness
Cement impedance
Casing resonance
Formation
Casing
Cement
Acoustic
beam
a tio
Time
Transit time
ot
The main shortcomings of the USI tool versus the

CBL/Variable Density log are its limitations when operated
with dense muds that tend to heavily attenuate the signal (this typically corresponds to a water-based mud density of 1.9 g/cm3 or oil-based mud density of 1.4 g/cm3). It
is also unable to determine the quality of the cement-toformation bond, and has difficulty differentiating a dry
microannulus between casings and a lightweight cement
from a liquid of similar acoustic impedance.
Echo amplitude
Decay
Shortcomings of the CBL are its single averaged amplitude

value, which is highly sensitive to tool centralization and
micrometric microannuli, and it does not differentiate
between contaminated cement, channeling, or microannuli. Additionally, it is affected by mud type and density
and, when present, by concentric outer casings, in a double
string configuration, and fast formation arrivals.
The main advantage of the Variable Density log is its
ability to detect formation arrivals even in the presence
of a millimetric microannulus, which allows it to differentiate between a fluid-filled annulus pipe and a large
microannulus.
Therefore, the USI tool, CBL, and Variable Density logs
complement each other in certain areas. All, however,
are limited to providing an unambiguous diagnosis for
cements with mud-like acoustic impedance.
Transducer Metal plate

Figure 5.32: Principle of operation of the pulse-echo acoustic-impedance measurement.
Seven cubic meters of CW8-ES chemical wash was pumped prior to the Ultra
LiteCRETE cement, and 40 m3 of mud was used for cement displacement. No
losses were observed during cementation, and full return was measured during cement pumping. The plug was bumped at 3,000 psi with no return, and
the cement had to be redrilled in the shoe track from Y,000 to Y,029 m, confirming an excellent job execution.
Log interpretation
The cement top was observed on both the CBL and USI logs at X,360 m
(Fig. 5.33) instead of the theoretical top at X,206 m based upon cement volume
and assuming a perfectly gauged hole at 8.5 in. The observed cement top suggested an average openhole size of 8.9 in., corresponding to an excess of 30%
of annular volume to fill and therefore an anticipated tail cement top at
X,680 m.
Well A case study

In the gas field of Tin Fouy Tabenkort in the Illizi basin,
Well A was completed with 958-in. casing set at X,455 m,
a 7-in. 26-lbm/ft casing set at Y,029 m, and a 4.5-in. liner
set at Y,109 m with a liner hanger at X,862 m. The objective of the 7-in. casing cementing job was to have good
cementation across the shoe and up to the F6 formation top
at X,502 m. The well engineers decided to use a dual
blend cement with 4.94 m3 of LiteCRETE UL lead cement
(1,140 kg/m3, acoustic impedance of 3.7 MRayl) followed by
5.9 m3 of class G tail cement (1,900 kg/m3, acoustic impedance of 6 MRayl and compressive strength of 3,000 psi).
34
Despite all the good indicators of a perfect job execution, the cement evaluation logs suggested, at first glance, the absence of a casing-to-cement bond
up to X,950 m as measured by the USI tool and X,900 m by the CBL log.
However, the Variable Density log exhibited clear and strong late-arriving
shear formation arrivals down to X,960 m, and careful observation of the
first Variable Density log arrivals showed compressional formation arrivals,
correlating with the gamma ray curve down to Y,000 m. From this observation,
well engineers concluded that there was a large microdebonding, affecting the
pulse-echo (USI log) measurement enough for it to show a free pipe response.
This visual observation was confirmed unambiguously with the advanced processing of the Variable Density waveform, which reduces the amplitude of the
TTSL
400
(s)
TTSL
200 400
(s)
200
Minimum internal Minimum internal

radius
radius
3.7
(in.)
2.7 2.7
Transit time
400
3.7
(gAPI)
150
-20
3.7
20
(in.)
(in.)
2.7 2.7
(in.)
(s)
200
0.3 3.7
(in.)
(in.)
3.7
Average internal
radius
2.7 2.7
Average internal
radius
Eccentering
0
Transit time
200 400
Maximum internal
radius
Collar locator
( )
3.7
Average external Maximum internal

radius
radius
Gamma ray
0
(s)
(in.)
(in.)
3.7
Average external
radius
2.7 2.7
(in.)
3.7
Acoustic
impedance
0.8
Maximum acoustic
impedance
1.7
-500.0
2.6
3.5
4.3
5.2
6.1
7.0
( )
Cement map
with impedance
classification
-1,000.0
(MRayl) 10
0.3
Average acoustic
impedance
2.2
(MRayl) 10
Minimum acoustic
impedance
0
(MRayl) 10
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or dry micro an.
Bonded
3.2
CBL amplitude
4.1
5.1
6.0
(mv)
Bond index
62
Sonic Variable Density log curve

Max
Min
amplitude
7.0
( )
( )
0 350
(s)
1,200
X,350
X,400
8
X,450
X,500
7
X,550
X,600
X,650
5
X,700
X,750
X,800
X,850
X,900
2
X,950
1
Y,000
Figure 5.33: CBL and USI logs for Well A in the Tin Fouy Tabenkort field. Interpreted acoustic impedance (Track 6), CBL amplitude (Track 7), and Variable Density log (Track 8) indicate
zones of potential lack of zonal isolation.
35
casing arrivals to reveal masked formation arrivals (Fig. 5.34).

In this case, the compressional formation arrival was
clearly visible below X,880 m. The processing technique
filtered out the casing arrivals that appeared at the same
time at every depth and tended therefore to be aligned like
railroad tracks, in favor of arrivals that did not share these
features, such as formation-dependent refracted signals.3
MD
(m)
Gamma ray
0
100 0
Variable Density log

200
200
Casing arrivals
reduced
X,860
X,870
X,880
X,890
X,900
The macroannulus was probably linked with the undercompaction of this interval (as the compressional transit
time noted in Fig. 5.34 increased with depth in the shale)
on top of the high-pressure gas reservoir below the 7-in.
casing shoe and extending from the shoe up to X,935 m
(zone 1 with debonded class G tail cement). At this
depth, the USI tool read a 100% bond index and an
average impedance smaller than 4 MRayl up to X,900 m
(zone 2), which corresponded to the Ultra LiteCRETE
zone. From there up, it was observed that
zone 3 up to X,770 m was well bonded with class G
cement
zone 4 up to X,740 m had Ultra LiteCRETE cement
zone 5 up to X,612 m had class G cement
zones 6, 7, and 8 up to the top of the cement at X,360 m
had Ultra LiteCRETE cement. Zone 7 showed a high
acoustic impedance due to formation interference, as suggested by the correlation of the average acoustic impedance with gamma ray over that interval.
Formation
S waves
X,910
Filtering
of casing
arrivals
X,920
X,930
Formation
P waves
X,940
X,950
X,960
X,970
X,980
X,990
Figure 5.34: Well A. Spatial filtering of the raw Variable Density log waveforms (left) reduces the
casing arrivals and reveals formation-refracted compressional (P) and shear (S) arrivals (right), an
indication of energy transmission to the formation and hence of a strong likelihood of a microannulus
between the casing and cement.
8
Neat
Advanced cement evaluation

Isolation Scanner tool
The case study described above highlights the difficulty in
reaching a confident, conclusive diagnosis of zonal isolation with the cement bond log and ultrasonic pulse-echo
techniques. In numerous cases, especially when low
acoustic impedance lightweight cements are used or
when the cement is contaminated with mud, both techniques fail to provide an unambiguous diagnosis (Fig. 5.35).
Furthermore, when imaging the cement sheath, the low-
36
Increasing
contamination
Acoustic impedance
This interpretation was in agreement with the volume

pumped, a 30% excess, and the objectives of the cement
job were met with class G above the shoe and Ultra
LiteCRETE cement below the 958-in. shoe. The sandwiched Ultra LiteCRETE cement over zones 2 and 4 was
probably due to
the absence of a plug between the heavy class G tail
and the Ultra LiteCRETE cement
the small volumes of slurries (10.8 m3) compared to the
40 m3 of inner pipe volume.
Difficult to diagnose with acoustic

impedance or CBL-VDL
measurements alone
Light
0
Gas
Liquid
Cement
Contaminated cement
Figure 5.35: Diagnosing and distinguishing from mud cements with acoustic impedance below
3.2 MRayl pose a challenge to the ultrasonic pulse-echo (acoustic impedance) and sonic
CBL/Variable Density log techniques.
frequency, long-wavelength, CBL/Variable Density measurement is inadequate, and the ultrasonic pulse-echo tools fail to image beyond the cemented
region adjacent to the casing. More recent ultrasonic technologythe
Schlumberger Isolation Scanner tooladdresses these limitations.
The new imager combines the classic pulse-echo technique with a new ultrasonic imaging technique that provides temporally compact echoes arising from
propagation along the casing and reflections at the cement-formation interface.
The architecture of the Isolation Scanner tool is similar to the USI tool (Fig. 5.36).4
The most visible difference is a new rotating subassembly supporting four
transducers. The normal incidence transducer is oriented 180 degrees from the
other three transducers. The new ultrasonic technique, termed pitch-catch in
opposition to pulse-echo, is implemented with obliquely aligned transducers
that transmit and receive high-frequency pulsed beams (on the order of 250 kHz)
to excite the casing Lamb-like flexural mode.5 Once excited in the casing, the
flexural wave propagates while radiating acoustic energy into the annulus and
back toward the receiving transducers. The annulus-propagating energy is
reflected at interfaces presenting an acoustic contrast, such as the cement-formation interface, and propagates back through the casing predominantly as a
flexural wave to reradiate energy into the casing fluid. The two receiving transducers are placed to allow for optimal acquisition of these signals.
Flexur
Annulus
R
Formation
USI
Casing
al wa
ve
80
Pulse
-echo
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Time, s
Flexural wave imaging
USI tool
Figure 5.36: The new Isolation Scanner sub implementing the pulse-echo (normal incidence) tech-
Figure 5.37: Geometrical interpretation of the signal propagation for the
nique with a transreceiver and the new flexural wave imager with one transmitter and two receivers
pulse-echo (USI tool, red paths) and flexural wave imaging (blue paths)
obliquely aligned to excite the casing flexural (Lamb) mode.
techniques. Typical waveforms corresponding to the two techniques are

shown below.
Figure 5.37 depicts a geometrical ray interpretation of the propagation of the

signal from the transmitter to a receiver for the pulse-echo and the flexural
wave pitch-catch techniques. Typical signals for both techniques are shown.
The flexural wave signal can be separated into the early-arriving signal, or
casing arrival, and later-arriving or third-interface echoes in reference to the
(first) interface encountered within the annulusthe casing inner and outer
walls being the first and second interfaces. The attenuation of the casing
arrival amplitude is used to complement the pulse-echo measurement in providing an unambiguous answer to whether there is a fluid or a solid behind the
casing. The properties of the third-interface echoes, when they are present in
the acquired data, provide for a more enhanced characterization of the cased
hole environment in terms of the state and acoustic properties (wavespeed) of
the material filling the annulus and the position of the casing within the hole
as well as the geometrical shape of the hole (see Flexural Wave Imaging
Technique, page 5.43).
Attenuation measurement
The rate of energy radiation into the annulus depends on
the acoustic properties of the annular fill. The attenuation
parameter is estimated by capturing the reflected signals
at two receivers placed 10 cm from each other. Because
the casing arrival maintains its temporally compact
shape while propagating, the attenuation is estimated
from the decay rate of the envelope of the received widefrequency signal; it is conveniently expressed in dB per
cm. The attenuation depends also on the casing thickness:
the thicker the casing, the smaller the attenuation, implying
a lower sensitivity to thicker casings.
37
use of the pulse-echo acoustic impedance technique as presented above. On the

other hand, low-impedance cements, such as lightweight or contaminated
cements, feature a distinct attenuation from fluid providing part of the resolution power of this technique.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Flexural attenuation, dB/cm
0.4
0.3
0.2
Critical Z
0.1
0
Acoustic impedance, MRayl

Solid
Liquid
Water
Gas
The effect on attenuation of a casing-cement debonding and a water-filled

microannulus also depends on the cement impedance. For cement with impedance lower than Zc, there is a reduction in the attenuation of about 15% with
debonding of the cement from the casing. This effect is similar to what is
observed with the pulse-echo technique, where the reduction in apparent
impedance is on the order of 30%. The attenuation reading is not affected by
the microannulus width up to ~250 mm, which is on the same order of magnitude as the pulse-echo technique. For impedance above Zc, the attenuation
increases significantly with cement debonding from the casing. Furthermore,
this attenuation increases approximately with the cement impedance, again
without significant effect from the microannulus thickness up to ~250 mm. This
behavior is notably different from the pulse-echo technique and reduces the
possible confusion between a high-impedance debonded cement and mud.
Solid-liquid-gas map
Figure 5.38: Flexural wave attenuation at 200 kHz as a function of the acoustic
impedance (Z) for gas (red), liquid (blue), and solid (brown) materials. The
critical Z corresponds to the critical cement compressional wave speed.
For a fluid filling the annulus, the attenuation is approximately proportional to the acoustic impedance. For
cement bonded to the casing, the attenuation exhibits a
more complex behavior as a function of the velocities with
which the compressional and shear waves propagate in
the cement. Figure 5.38 plots the theoretical attenuation
of the flexural wave envelope as a function of the acoustic
impedance of the cement assumed to be well bonded to
the casing (this attenuation does not account for radiation
into the casing fluid). Below the critical impedance of
approximately 3.9 MRayl, the attenuation increases linearly with the annular fill impedance (whether liquid or
solid). Beyond Zc, for which only the shear wave can propagate in the cement, the attenuation drops rapidly down to
fairly small values. The graph shows that high-impedance
cements (e.g., class G) feature a similar attenuation (say
0.3 dB/cm) to a liquid. This ambiguity is resolved with the
Cement
Density in
kg/m3
P velocity
in m/s
Z in
MRayl
Class G
1,800
3,000
5.4
Ultralight cement
1,200
2,800
3.4
Ultralight cement
900
2,800
2.5
Table 5.3: Acoustic properties of uncontaminated set cements.
38
The first aim of the processing is to provide a robust interpreted image of the
material immediately behind the casing. The inputs to this processing are the
cement impedance as delivered by the pulse-echo measurement, and the
flexural wave attenuation computed from the amplitude of the casing arrivals
on the near and far obliquely aligned receivers. These two inputs are independent measurements linked to the properties of both the inside fluid and
the outside medium through an invertible relation. They are first combined in
order to eliminate the effect of the inside fluid, thus eliminating the need for
specific hardware for fluid property measurements (as is the case for the USI
tool). The output of the processing is a solid-liquid-gas (SLG) map displaying
the most likely material state behind the casing. This state is obtained for
each azimuth by locating the two measurements, corrected for the effect due
to the inside fluid on a map giving the area encompassed by each state. This
map is computed in an initialization step before the log, and uses a-priori
knowledge of the possible materials:
Gas is defined as a very low impedance material, independent of any input.
Liquid is defined as a liquid with the expected acoustic impedance of the
mud displaced by the cement, with some provision for possible deviations
from this value.
Solid is defined through the expected type of cement. Through a laboratorymeasured database, this material selection is converted into acoustic properties according to Table 5.3, and provisions are made for some contamination
or incompletely set cement.
The next step is to predict the measurements from the expected acoustic material properties, which is trivial for the acoustic impedance but requires running
a simulation model for the flexural wave attenuation. Then, multiple realizations of the measurement noise are added to generate three clouds of points
(solid, liquid, and gas) in the bidimensional measurements plane. From these
clouds of points, it is possible to define a probability of occurrence for each state

(solid, liquid, or gas), and the measurement plane can be mapped out into different regions (Fig. 5.39) with three colors corresponding to the different states.
The color white is used to designate areas corresponding to inconsistencies
between the measurements as may appear, for example, at collar locations.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
MD
(m)
CBL
Sonic VDL
Flex Att
(dB/cm)
SLG
Imp
(MRayl)
Channel
nap
Channel
with %
0.8
0.6
0.4
Attenuation, dB/cm
Beyond the SLG map that pertains to the identification of the annular fill immediately behind the casing, an additional objective of the processing is to extract
relevant information from the annulus-formation reflection echo or echoes and
quantify the full annulus between the casing and formation. First, the echoes
Nominal uncontaminated
class G cement
0.2
0
-0.2
-2
10
Zusit, MRayl
X,440
Gas
Liquid
Solid
X,450
Figure 5.39: Solid-liquid-gas (SLG) mapping of the measurement plane for a
class G cement. Zusit is the impedance estimated from the pulse-echo tech-
X,460
nique, whereas the attenuation pertains to the flexural wave technique.

X,470
following the casing arrival are detected on the waveform

envelope and their time of arrival and amplitude measured.
From the time differences between the reflection echoes
and the casing arrival, and provided enough echo azimuthal
presence is available in the data, it is straightforward to
derive the casing centering within the borehole. This is presented conveniently as a percentage (%), where 100% represents perfect centering, and 0% fully eccentered casing
(that is, in contact with the formation wall). Additionally, if
the borehole diameter is known, the time difference processing can be further converted into a material wave velocity and displayed as an annulus velocity map.
X,480
X,490
X,500
X,510
X,520
X,530
X,540
0
50
100 0 180
0 180
5,000
0 180
1
0 180
50 100
Testing the Isolation Scanner

tool in the In-Salah field
3
0
0.5
-5,000
2
1
100
Figure 5.40: Logs from the Isolation Scanner tool and CBL/Variable Density measurements in Well A in
the In-Salah field. The 9.625-in. casing was cemented to the 12.25-in. hole with, in this interval, a lowdensity (low-impedance) LiteCRETE cement. The CBL (Track 1 on the left) and Variable Density log
(Track 2) show a close-to-free pipe response with strong casing arrivals in the Variable Density log. The
pulse-echo impedance map (Track 5) shows fluid with patches of solid. Both measurements are challenged by the low-impedance LiteCRETE cement. The flexural wave attenuation map (Track 4), on the
At the end of 2003, In-Salah Groupement approved the

testing of the experimental prototype of the Isolation
Scanner tool in a vertical cased well, Well A, in the InSalah field. The 9.625-in. 47 lbm/ft (12-mm thick) casing
was cemented to the 12.25-in. borehole with a LiteCRETE
cement of density 1,080 kg/m3 (9.04 ppg) followed by a
class G cement tail of density 1,900 kg/m3 (15.8 ppg). A
water-based mud of density 1,300 kg/m3 (10.8 ppg) was
used. Both the Isolation Scanner tool and CBL/Variable
Density log were run 3.5 days after cementation.
other hand, provides a correct diagnosis of the solid behind casing. It also reveals the existence of a
fluid-filled channel between X,485 and X,465 m. The SLG map (Track 3) maintains and simplifies this
information. The azimuthal and axial extent of the channel are reported automatically in Tracks 6 and 7.
Figure 5.40 shows the diagnosis from the three different

measurements in the interval cemented with the
39
150
the formation wall reflection echo increases at the end of the azimuthal extent
of the channel]. The absence of third-interface echo, or TIE, across the cement
azimuth may be due to a low acoustic contrast between the cement and the formation. The CBL curve (Track 1) shows a fairly high reading due both to the low
cement impedance and a water-filled microannulus.
Casing
100
50
Figure 5.42 shows the top part of Well A in the double string section with a
13.325-in. outer casing. The acoustic impedance map (Track 4) indicates a free
pipe section up to X,X30 m with air above. Closer examination brings up questions about two zones. Between X,X68 and X,X73 m, the impedance map hardly
provides a differentiation with the adjacent zones, whereas the flexural atten-
-50
Channel
-100
Time, s
Formation reflection
within channel
-150
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
Time, s
MD
(m)
CBL
(mV)
SLG
Flex att
(dB/cm)
Imp
(MRayl)
TIE time
(s)
TIE
ampl
Velocity Centering
(m/s)
(%)
X,X20
Figure 5.41: Polar plot across the fluid-filled channel of the flexural wave
far receiver waveforms at depth X,477 m of the log shown in Fig. 5.40.
X,X30
LiteCRETE cement. The CBL and Variable Density log are

in Tracks 1 and 2 (starting from the left), the flexural
wave attenuation is in Track 4, and the pulse-echo
impedance map is in Track 5. The combination of the latter two yields, as described above, the SLG map in Track 3.
The impedance image (Track 5) is affected by the low
cement impedance and by the casing roughness (estimated from the pulse-echo measurement) in such a way
that locating a channel is virtually impossible. This can
be contrasted with the flexural wave attenuation (Track 4)
map, which exhibits a channel between X,465 and X,480 m
with excellent contrast. The processed SLG map (Track 3)
maintains the same quality with a clear liquid channel
embedded within the cement sheath. The SLG map has
been further processed by the hydraulic communication
algorithm to produce the channel map (Track 6) and the
channel width curve (Track 7). This processing cleans the
SLG map by discarding small liquid patches and keeping
only the liquid-connected channels with a significant vertical extension, 2 m in this case.
X,X40
Centralizer
X,X50
X,X60
X,X70
X,X80
50
1000 200
0 180
0 180
1
40
0 180
8
6
0.5
A polar plot of the flexural waveforms from the Variable

Density log provides a picture of the geometry of the casing within the borehole. An inspection of the curvature of
the annulus-formation echo detected within the channel
(Fig. 5.41) reveals that, despite the presence of a casing
centralizer at X,474 m, the casing is slightly eccentered in
the borehole and the channel is located on the narrow side
[as the delay between the casing arrival (inner ring) and
0 180
0 180
10
40
20
50 100
2,500
2,000
5
1,500
2
S
1,000
Figure 5.42: Logs of the Isolation Scanner tool and CBL in the top section of Well A (described in
Fig. 5.40). The flexural wave attenuation diagnosis reveals overall fluid in the annulus below X,X30 m
and air above it. However, the presence of intricate isolated solid zones at X,X30X,X34 m and X,X68
and X,X73 m are further revealed with the processing of the annulus-formation reflection echo (thirdinterface echo, TIE) in Tracks 5, 6, and 7.
uation map (Track 3) and the subsequent SLG map clearly identify this zone as
solid. This is further confirmed by the CBL curve where a decrease in amplitude
is observed in this zone. In the second zone, X,X30 to X,X34 m, the presence of
a nonflat interface at X,X30 m between the alleged liquid and air raises a question. A look at the annulus-formation reflection (TIE) data (Tracks 58) provides
the answers to these questions and illustrates their potential benefits in complex situations. The annulus velocity data show that the section from X,X68 to
X,X73 m has a velocity ranging from 1,800 m/s to 1,900 m/s, clearly outside the
range of plausible liquid and corroborating the independently derived SLG map.
Furthermore, this velocity map and the amplitude map both indicate that this
solid material is not homogeneous but is made of three layers of slightly differ-
MD
(m)
Flex att
(dB/cm)
SLG
Imp
(MRayl)
Gamma
ray
TIE time
(s)
TIE
ampl
Velocity Centering
(m/s)
(%)
X,720
X,740
C
X,760
X,780
C
X,800
X,820
ent materials. Looking at the top (X,X30X,X34 m) of the

liquid section, one can see that the annulus velocity again
reaches 1,900 m/s, pinpointing the presence of a solid,
although even the flexural wave attenuation barely
shows a slight increase above its fluid values. This solid
explains the nonflat upper interface, and since it floats on
top of water, its density is most probably below 1.0 g/cm3
and the targeted cement density. A small amount of segregation within the cement slurry is a likely explanation
for such a solid. Casing centralization (Track 8) is perfect
close to the casing centralizer, but 10 m below quickly
drops to about 50%.
The experimental prototype of the Isolation Scanner tool
was also tested in a nearby cased well, Well B, with similar casing, hole, and cement parameters. The resulting
logs are shown in Figure 5.43 for the section cemented
with class G tail (with a slurry density of 1,980 kg/m3).
The SLG map (Track 1) indicates uniformly good cement
across the zone. The acoustic impedance ranges from 5 to
7 MRayl, with some indication of formation reflections
around X,810 m. The flexural attenuation (Track 2)
exhibits both high (0.9 dB/cm) and low values (0.5 dB/cm),
with the low values matching the high impedance area.
The cement impedance is thus close to the critical
impedance, where the attenuation peaks. The transit
time cement-formation echo (referred to as third-interface echo, or TIE, in the figure) with respect to the casing arrival time is mapped in Track 4. At X,810 m, it
shows low values (around 5 ms), confirming that the
galaxy pattern in the impedance map is due to the casing being in closer proximity to the borehole wall. The
higher impedance spot at X,725 m and azimuth 180
degrees on Track 3 can also be related to a formation
reflection effect.
X,840
50 180
0 180
0 180
1
0 180
8
6
0.5
0 180
80
40
20
2
S
40 80 0 180
60
40
4
2
20
0
50 100
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
Figure 5.43: Logs of the Isolation Scanner tool in the class-G cement section of Well B, located nearby Well A in the In-Salah field and sharing similar casing and cement parameters. Processing results
for the impedance, flexural wave attenuation, and cement-formation reflection echo are consistent
with each other and yield a confident diagnosis of solid behind the casing. Of particular interest here
is the casing centralization (Track 8), which degrades away from the centralizers (marked with a C
in Track 1), the cement shear wave velocity map (Track 7), which is affected by formation type, the
good correlation between the cement-formation echo amplitude (Track 6), and the sand-versus-shale
discrimination of the gamma ray log (Track 5).
The casing centering curve (Track 8) is 100% close to the

centralizers (whose locations are highlighted by a letter
C in Track 1), but eventually drops to below 50% in
between for this vertical well. The small oscillations on
the time map (Track 4) and the centering curve around
X,770 m are a manifestation of the corkscrew shape of
the borehole, with a period of about 2 m (also exhibited
on imagesnot shown hereof the cement-formation
reflection echo). The annulus velocity map (Track 7),
derived by assuming an in-gauge hole, displays a rather
uniform value around 1,750 m/s, characteristic of the
shear wave speed of class G cement, with the exception
of the blue stripe at X,775 m. At this depth, the assumption of in-gauge hole breaks down. The likely slight hole
41
enlargement is rendered through a lower cement wave

speed. Indeed, this localized lower wave speed feature is
not substantiated by the uniform attenuation map across
this depth. The hole enlargement can be validly deduced
once a constant cement velocity of 1,750 m/s is
assumed. The cement-formation echo (TIE) amplitude
map (Track 6) exhibits a striking correlation with the
gamma ray (Track 5), with low amplitudes in shaly zones,
as can be expected from a lower impedance contrast
Hole enlargement
X,673
X,674
X,677
X,678
Echo from
formation
wall
Hole enlargement
X,679
X.680
X.681
X.682
X,683
X,684
Figure 5.44: Imaging of the formation wall through casing and cement with
the Isolation Scanner tool in Well B over the interval X,685 to X,673 m. The
reflection echo from the cement-formation interface, shown here at two
opposite azimuths, reveals hole enlargements (cavings) in intervals
X,673X,675 m and X,679X,683 m. The leftmost image displays the raw
data at all azimuths. It shows that the formation wall echo is present at
nearly all azimuths. (The echo moveout appears sinusoidal because of casing eccentering. Each cycle represents a tool azimuthal scan.)
42
Figure 5.44 shows the flexural wave signal in the section above described in
Fig. 5.43. The moveout of the cement-formation interface reflection echo
reveals the existence of a borehole enlargement resembling washouts in the
intervals from X,673 to X,675 m and X,678 to X,683 m. Imaging of these features, resulting from damage that is likely drilling induced, suggests that the
Isolation Scanner tool has potential for assisting in applications that go beyond
cement evaluation, such as the diagnosis of some of the geomechanical
attributes of the wellbore.
Conclusion
X,675
X,676
Casing
arrival
between the cement and shales. Apart from casing collars and centralizers,
this map is also affected by casing centering, which creates the two dark
stripes seen around X,810 m and above X,730 m.
Complementing each other, the traditional cement evaluation measurements,

based on the low-frequency CBL/Variable Density log and high-frequency
pulse-echo impedance techniques, provide adequate diagnosis of zonal isolation in certain conditions. For complex situations involving low-impedance,
mud-contaminated cements or high-performance lightweight cements, these
techniques fail to provide an unambiguous diagnosis of the annular fill. The
new Isolation Scanner tool resolves this issue by enabling a more comprehensive characterization of the cased hole environment. The new tool implements
a new flexural wave measurement concept in combination with the traditional
pulse-echo technique. The combination conserves the high-resolution casing
corrosion evaluation and reduces the ambiguity in the evaluation of the material immediately behind the casing. The processed measurements display easyto-read results, such as a solid/liquid/gas map or a channel map. When reflection echoes from the formation wall are detected, completely new measurements are possible:
casing position within the borehole, which may reveal a tight annular space
that poses a challenge to achieving zonal isolation and assists in better
interpretation of through-casing formation evaluation logs
estimation of the cement wave velocity, which provides an indication of the
cement strength to ensure durable zonal isolation
imaging of the borehole shape, which reveals rock geomechanical features
such as damaged zones and breakouts
imaging of an outer string, which reveals corrosion and damage.
Flexural Wave Imaging Technique

At high-enough frequencies (80 kHz and larger), the ultrasonic transducer
pulse interacts with an azimuthally localized area of the casing. It then
becomes appropriate and convenient to approximate this casing area as part
of an infinitely unbounded steel plate. In the frequency range of interest, two
modes dominate the wave physics of a fluid-loaded plate. The first mode has
a particle displacement symmetric with respect to the middle plane and
mainly parallel to the plate; it is referred to as the extensional mode (at very
low frequencies, it is the basis of the CBL tool). The second mode has a
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
However, the dispersion characteristics of this mode are

such that as it propagates, the wave packet (carrying the
wave energy) remains temporally compact. This can be
readily inferred from dispersion plots of the mode phase
and group velocities as shown in Fig. 5.E. Within the
most pertinent frequency band (100400 kHz), while the
phase velocity, in red, varies substantially, the group
velocity representing the velocity with which the wave
packet propagates, in blue, is nearly constant. This leads
to temporally compact signatures for both the earlyarriving signal (casing arrival) and the later-arriving
echoes from the annulus-formation interface as shown
in Fig. 5.37. Thanks to this feature, the technique provides
radial imaging of interfaces buried within the annulus
while keeping the azimuthal resolution attained with the
high-frequency nature of the signal. This feature also
provides a nearly straightforward estimation of the echo
transit time and amplitude and validates the planar
wavefront propagation shown in Fig. 5.F and the geometrical-ray interpretation depicted in Fig. 5.37.
1,500
Propagation in the cement

1,000
As the flexural wave propagates in the casing, it can

radiate compressional (P) and shear (S) bulk waves into
the cement sheath only if it is supersonic with respect to
these waves. At the central frequency of the flexural
Velocity, m/s
500
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Frequency, kHz
Group velocity
Phase velocity
Steel shear velocity
Water
Slow
cement
Fast
cement
Figure 5.E: Phase and group velocity of the flexural mode in an 8-mm thick steel plate immersed in water.
particle displacement antisymmetric with respect to the middle plane, and

mainly perpendicular to the plate; it is referred to as the flexural mode. Its
particle displacement and spectral characteristics make the flexural mode a
prime candidate for probing the cement sheath. The extensional and flexural
modes of a plate are also referred to more formally as the two lowest
symmetric (S0) and antisymmetric (A0) Lamb modes, respectively.5
Dispersion, phase and group velocities

The flexural mode is dispersive: its velocity is frequency dependent. This means
that different frequency parts of the broadband signal propagate at different
velocities. In general, dispersion leads to a spreading of the pulse in time.
P
S
P
Casing
Casing
Casing
Figure 5.F: Radiation of the flexural wave into an annulus filled with water
(left), a slow cement (middle), and a fast cement (right). Compressional (P)
wavefronts are shown in blue and shear (S) in red.
43
(t1)
(t2)
Fluid
Fluid
Casing
Annulus
Third interface
Casing
Annulus
Third interface
Formation
Formation
(t3)
(t4)
Fluid
Fluid
Casing
Annulus
Third interface
Annulus
Casing
2
Third interface
Formation
Formation
Casing arrival
(t5)
Formation
wall echo
Signal (t)
2+3+...
1
T
T
Fluid
Annulus
R
1
Fluid
Casing
Third interface
Formation
Casing
2
Annulus
Formation
Figure 5.G: Signal evolution at five different moments (t1, t2, t3, t4, and t5) to depict why the formation wall reflection echo is strong. This echo is due to constructively interfering reflections occurring over a large area on the cement-formation interface. (t1): Transmitter radiation; (t2): Flexural wave propagation and radiation; (t3): Reflection from formation wall; (t4):
Insonification of receiver by the first wavefront generating the early-arriving casing arrival, and interaction of the formation-wall reflection with the casing where each part of the wavefront, indicated by digits 1, 2, 3, can be thought of as behaving like the incident pulse shown in t1; (t5): Transmission back in fluid and insonification of the receiver by simultaneously
arriving wavefronts generating the strong formation wall echo. The last panel (bottom right) provides a geometrical ray interpretation of the echoes forming the total signal.
wavepacket (200 kHz for an 8-mm thick casing), this

means that the P and S wave speeds, Vp and Vs, respectively, in the cement have to be less than approximately
2,650 m/s (the flexural wave phase velocity at this frequency)a condition that can be derived from Snells
44
law. For oilfield cements, Vs is always smaller than 2,650 m/s. As a consequence, an S wave is always radiated into the cement sheath. However, the
cement Vp can be either larger or smaller than 2,650 m/s, depending on the
cement type and contamination. As an example, for a fully set class G
cement, Vp is larger than 2,650 m/s (a fast cement) and P waves are not
radiated into the cement, which leads to a decrease of the flexural wave
attenuation as shown in Fig. 5.38. For a mud-contaminated or certain lightweight cements (slow cements), Vp is smaller than 2,650 m/s. For a fluidfilled annulus, only a compressional (pressure) wave is radiated into it. The
different radiation-and-propagation cases are depicted in Fig. 5.F for fluids
and slow and fast cements.
Transducer beam
reflection from
formation wall
Casing eccentered
in borehole
Tool centered
in Casing
Reflection echoes from the annulus-formation interface

The waves that propagate in the annulus reflect at the annulus-formation
interface and give rise to reflection echoes whose number and type differ
with the annular fill: a PP echo for a fluid-filled annulus, an SS echo for fast
cements, and three echoes, PP, SS, and PS/SP, for a slow cement (akin to
plane-wave reflection theory in seismic wave propagation). The reflected
echoes impinge on the casing and generate flexural waves of their own,
which propagate while radiating toward the receiving transducers. Multiple
reflections between the casing and the formation may also occur.
A question may arise as to why the reflection echo from the cement-formation interface is large whereas it is considerably small in the pulse-echo
measurement. The answer lies in the fact that the echo develops from reflections occurring over an extended area of the reflecting interface and arriving
at the receiver aperture at the same time, as depicted and explained in
Fig. 5.G. In fact, this echo is commonly stronger than the casing arrival.
However, unlike the casing arrival, which is always present in the signal
except when the casing condition is deteriorated, there are conditions for
which the annulus-formation echo is small and undetectable. Factors
adversely affecting its amplitude are, in order of decreasing occurrence:
casing eccentering within the borehole. Along the direction of eccentering,
the casing wall and the formation wall are parallel. However, in other directions, they are not parallel, and the annulus-formation interface echo is not
reflected in the optimal direction of receiver signal collection, leading to an
amplitude drop (Fig. 5.H).
attenuation in the annular fill. Although water or uncontaminated set
cements have low attenuation, heavy muds or contaminated/unset/foamed
cements may have high attenuation.
acoustic contrast between annulus material and the formation. If the contrast is low, the echo amplitude is low. This is true, for example, between
lightweight cement and shales. On the opposite, in double strings, the contrast is very high, leading to rather strong echoes.
roughness of the borehole, on the scale of the acoustic wavelength or larger,
reduces the echo amplitude.
a large distance (more than about 75 mm) between the casing and the formation, due to a large hole or washouts, moves the echo outside the
recorded window and outside the optimal transmitter-receiver spacing.
When present in the acquired signal, the strength of the reflection echo
amplitude allows for a less problematic detection and accurate estimation of
its transit time and amplitude.
Casing arrival
Echo from cement
formation interface
60
30
90
0
120
330
150
300
180
270
210
240
Figure 5.H: Geometry of an eccentered casing in the borehole highlighting

a nonoptimal borehole wall reflection at azimuths where the casing and
borehole walls are not parallel.
Inversion: cement wavespeed

and borehole shape
Thanks to the dispersion properties of the flexural wave,
the difference in transit time between the casing arrival
and the annulus-formation reflection echo does not
depend on the transmitter-to-receiver spacing, transducer
standoff with respect to the casing, or properties of the
fluid inside the casing. It is a sole function of the annulus
thickness and wave velocity. Knowing one allows the
computation of the other. For example, if the borehole size
is known, the annular material wave velocity can be computed, either compressional wave velocity for a fluid, or
both compressional and shear wave velocities for a slow
cement, or shear wave velocity only for a fast cement.
Similarly, if the annulus wave velocity is known, for example from a nearby in-gauge section, the size of moderate
borehole enlargement can be estimated.
45

Oil production in Algeria is widely sustained by enhanced
recovery processes, with water injection implemented on
most fields. The Hassi Messaoud field, however, has
used miscible gas injection since the 1960s as the primary form of production support.
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) operation by gas or by water
injection have the same goal, but they differ in mechanism.
Thanks to a more favorable mobility ratio, water injection
ensures an important vertical and superficial sweep efficiency, but existing capillary forces tend to generate high
residual oil saturation. Miscible gas injection, on the other
hand, provides maximum microscopic injection but has
a lower geometrical efficiency. In addition, its viability
is directly related to the availability and market value of
injection gas.
By combining both processes, the water-alternating-gas
(WAG) approach benefits from the miscible displacement
of gas, which is pushed by the more viscous fluid, to reap
a higher geometrical efficiency. The complexity of the
WAG process is directly linked to the heterogeneity of
the reservoir, the quality of the fluids, and the characteristics of the injected slugs, the control of which determines the integrity of the miscible conditions as well as
the optimum size of the injected slugs.
right decision is made, or the company spends the next several years trying to
mitigate the results of a hasty or ill-advised choice. Faced with such a do-or-die
decision in the east Algerian syncline play, Groupement Berkine, a joint venture
of Sonatrach and Anadarko, decided to commission a pilot project to try to simulate the waterflood program on a small scale in the hope that it would accomplish the desired result when applied field-wide.
The problem facing the company was complex. The targeted lower Triassic is
a shaly sandstone reservoir characterized by numerous facies changes, multilayered producing zones, and numerous permeability barriers. Porosity varies
widely across the reservoir, from 6% to 22%, as do permeabilities, which
range from 10 to 1,000 mD. But the 42 API gravity oil populating the pay zone
represented a worthwhile prize.
The company reckoned that it could significantly improve the reservoir recovery factor and minimize production costs by implementing an efficient and
effective waterflood with high sweep efficiency. The latter requirement led
the company to consider using a WAG injection technique, one that would
improve overall oil recovery by reducing the gas mobility. By corralling the gas
with the water phase, the gas could do its work in sweeping the oil ahead of
it to the producing wells, leaving as little residue behind as possible. In theory,
the plan sounded good, but would it work when implemented?
PROD
3104
INJ
PROD
3102
WAG injection is the subject of tests in the Hassi

Messaoud field today, where a pilot project has been
launched over a zone previously flooded by miscible gas.
And in the Berkine basin, recently developed reservoirs
most notably the Hassi Berkine South and the Ourhoud
have already experienced the benefits of miscible flooding. Operators are now weighing the advantages of using
available gas, as well as improved cased hole technologies, to enhance and prolong production from these fields.
OBS
Fault
1 km
Fault
3100
3058
3056
HBNS-1b
HBNS-26
3054
HBNS-9
HBNS-11
3052
New interpretation technique

validates flood program
HBNS-34
800
Pilot projects are all about testing a technique or strategy

on a small scale with the hope of validating it for largescale application. If successful, the pilot project cost is
insignificant compared to its benefits.
When an oil company commits to an EOR strategy, there is
often no second chance to improve recovery. Either the
46
HBNS-6
WAG pilot
3050
804
808
Active producer
Inactive producer
Water injector
Water source wells
(water from Cretaceous aquifer)
Gas injector
Dry hole
Implanted locations
Figure 5.45: WAG pilot area in the Hassi Berkine field.
810
814
HBNS-46
HBNS-48
WAG
OBS
HBNS-19
HBNS-25
Testing the hypotheses

With the future of the reservoir potentially at risk, engineers at Groupement
Berkine chose to design a pilot to test the efficacy of the WAG technique to
achieve the objectives. They planned to replicate the WAG technique on a small
scale and measure the results before committing the entire reservoir. But what
sort of metrics were needed? The team chose an integrated approachone
that would combine the use of a reservoir simulator model, including fluid composition simulations, with the proper data acquisition and a robust interpretation
technique. In order to include essential log data, a cased observation well was
drilled near the WAG pilot injection well. Using predictions of hydrocarbon composition and water saturation from the simulator and their history match with
pulsed neutron and cased hole resistivity measurements from the observation
well, Groupement Berkine engineers were confident they could confirm and fine-
Water
Oil
tune the simulator model, which would then allow them to

predict the saturation changes in the WAG pilot area, as
determined by the WAG parameters. By doing so, they
believed they could adjust the WAG parameters to optimize the techniques effectiveness.
Encountering early difficulties

The technique sounds simple, but like most plans, complications set in. By injecting gas into a multiphase environment, both the phase fractions and the overall fluid
miscibility were affected. Parameters changed with both
depth and time as the flooding program progressed.
Systems designed to measure oil or gas were unable to
resolve the changing mixture because the physical differences that discriminate oil and gas tend to lose their contrast as injection gas starts flooding in.
Quartz
Silt
Bound water
Openhole CPI
(V/V)
Core porosity
1
(m3/m3)
Core porosity
0 1
(m3/m3)
-17
(Mrayl)
11
AI_MICRO_DEB
Horizontal scale: 1 : 9.425

Amplitude
0 120
240
360
Low
UBI
High
Clay 1

20
(s)
120
Figure 5.46: Petrophysical characteristics, UBI image, and cement quality data of TAGI reservoir section in the observation well.
The dilemma was solved by a new interpretation technique that calculates water saturation and the hydrocarbon carbon density factor (CDV). The interpretation uses
data from the Schlumberger RST Reservoir Saturation
Tool, run both in PNC (pulsed neutron capture, or Sigma)
and IC (inelastic capture, or carbon/oxygen) modes.
To create a representative pilot area, an observation well
was drilled through the U and M units of the reservoir
and cased. The well was located about 492 ft [150 m]
southwest of the injector well, which was situated equidistant between a pair of producing wells about 6,900 ft
[2 km] apart. The four wells were roughly in a straight
line, bounded to the east and west by faults (Fig. 5.45).
As the WAG pilot project was expected to entail both fluid
saturation and property changes, a complex logging program had been designed to provide the interpreter with
sufficient data to perform a comprehensive saturation
analysis. Original formation water salinity was 270 kppm
NaCl, but injection water was a much fresher 20 kppm
NaCl equivalent salinity. Accordingly, the team recommended running the CHFR Cased Hole Formation
Resistivity tool along with the RST tool. To minimize the
effects of evaluating the formation through steel casing, a
base run of the RST tool in both modes and of the CHFR
tool was made prior to beginning injection, allowing the
use of a time-lapse technique for future monitoring.
As additional insurance, the USI UltraSonic Imager tool
was run to verify hydraulic integrity of the cement job so
that there could be no annular communication between
the reservoir units in the observation well (Fig. 5.46).
47
Starting the gas flow

Following the acquisition of base RST-C/O and CHFR logs
in the observation well, the WAG pilot program began. In
the first complete cycle, 945 x 106 scf of gas was injected
over 45 days, followed by 756 x 103 bbl of water over a
three-month period. During the gas injection phase,
RST-C/O and Sigma mode logs were run in the observation well at regular intervals. Because the observation
well was completely cased, there was no risk to the logging string, and meticulous care was taken to acquire
representative continuous logging data across the reservoir units.
Following the first gas injection phase, it was reasonable to assume that any
changes in gas saturation were related to the injection and that water saturation was essentially constant. Using two independent techniquesRST-PNC
Neutron Porosity (TPHI) time-lapse and RST-C/O saturation analysisthe gas
and oil volumes were estimated (Fig. 5.47).
Water RST CO
Gas RST CO
Gas RST C/O

Gas saturation
Gas TPHI
Once the water phase commenced, the RST logs were

accompanied by CHFR logging runs at the same intervals.
Correlations of CHFR data with the CHFR and AIT base
logs would indicate changes in water saturation and
salinity as flood waters entered the reservoir. The combination of RST and CHFR logging continued through the
first 30 days of the second gas phase, which consisted of
1,487 x 106 scf of gas over the next 2.5 months. Once correlation was achieved between the volume of water
injected over time and the effect on saturation and
salinity, the CHFR logging was discontinued except for
periodic spot checks late in the program.
Oil RST CO
Gas TPHI
TPHI base
0.3
MD
1: 200
(m)
0.3
(m3/m3)
Openhole effective porosity

0.3
SG RST TPHI
0 0
(m3/m3)
TPHI 9-Jan-03
SG RST C/O Alpha
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
0 0
(m3/m3)
VUOI Alpha base
1 0.3
(m3/m3)
1 0.3
(m3/m3)
3,190
3,210
3,220
Deriving an elegant solution

By employing the hydrocarbon CDV factor as an interpretation output, the team was able to eliminate the necessity to precisely measure the volumes and properties of
each hydrocarbon phase.
48
VUOI Alpha 9-Jan-03
3,200
The RST-C/O and Sigma monitoring-schedule frequency

was extended to approximately 4- to 5-week intervals as
the interpreters gained confidence in the ability of the
simulation to mimic actual dynamic reservoir conditions.
In all, three gas and two water cycles were pumped. The
last water cycle immediately followed the second gas
cycle previously described, and consisted of 894 x 103 bbl
of water over 14 weeks. The final gas cycle consisted of
9 x 109 scf of gas injected over an eight-month period.
Following the final gas cycle, the observation well was
perforated, and radioactive-tracer injection tests were
performed to verify the results of the monitoring program.
Figure 5.47: Gas saturation estimates from RST-C/O and RST-TPHI time-lapse analyses.
devices. Because the CHFR tool uses the casing itself as

a return electrode, it can see an approaching fresh
water bank long before the shallow-looking RST tool can.
Saturation
SW increase
Oil RST 15-Feb
TPHI decrease
Water RST 15-Feb
Gas RST 15-Feb
TPHI base
Gas RST 15-Feb
SW base
0.3
(m3/m3)
TPHI 15-Feb-03
0.3
(m3/m3)
MD
Vgas TPHI
1 : 200
0.3
(m3/m3)
(m)
Oil RST 15-Feb
0
VOil RST C/O
0 0.3 (m3/m3)
VUOI RST 15-Feb-03

0 0.3 (m3/m3)
0 1
OH effective porosity OH effective porosity

0 0.3 (m3/m3)
0 0.3 (m3/m3)
0 0
(m3/m3)
SW 15-Feb-03
(m3/m3)
SO 15-Feb-03
(m3/m3)
3,190
3,200
3,210
To reduce uncertainties, interpretations were conducted

using Schlumberger ELANPlus analysis, used in this case
to derive an optimized answer from multiple saturation
measurements in the multifluid environment. The resulting interpretation of oil, gas, and water volumes was
considered robust enough to recommend the technique
for use in monitoring and operating the full reservoir
increased oil recovery (IOR) program.
Some key findings helped the team reach this conclusion:
The RST-C/O and TPHI time-lapse techniques provided
clear evidence of gas injection.
Use of the RST-C/O and TPHI time-lapse techniques in
combination responded well to water saturation
changes, independently of the water salinity.
The CHFR log proved to provide valuable information on
formation resistivity in the dynamic injection environment as well as to provide early identification of the
approaching injection water front.
A problem with details

3,220
Figure 5.48: Saturation analysis using RST-C/O data and TPHI-change, assuming a three-phase
environment.
Because of the good match between the volumes estimated from the independent log data, it was hypothesized that once water injection commenced,
the same technique would work even though the water saturation percentage
would be altered as soon as the waterflood front arrived at the observation
well (Fig. 5.48).
Once the fresh injection water arrived, an attempt was made to analyze the
saturation by solving two simultaneous equations using CHFR and RST-Sigma
data, which resolve the water saturation in the effectively unknown, or variable, salinity environment. The use of CHFR and RST-Sigma data to routinely
calculate water saturations was ultimately ruled out, however, because of the
large differences in vertical resolution and the depth of investigation of the
Despite the favorable results of the initial interpretation

of the pilot program data, the team had some concerns
regarding the quantifiability of the technique. Could it
indeed provide the accurate detail required by
Groupement Berkine for executing the fieldwide flood
program?
Even though the estimates were considered robust, using
the technique in quantitative analyses could be problematic. Some of the fluid relationships used were based on
constant fluid properties assumptions, and it was known
that because of the miscibility of the injection gas into
the oil, these properties were sure to change.
Additionally, as fluid properties change, the sweep continuity is altered as flood fluids traverse different conductivity paths. The situation is more complicated when
one considers the effects of gravity segregation of the
phases.
49
With these complications, the models hydrocarbon density values and composition varied widely. This, in turn,
affected individual phase properties such as the hydrogen index and CDV. As a result, the initial assumptions
were incorrect.
The interpretation team attempted to reconcile these differences by using the properties predicted by the simulation model to derive corrected saturation values. When
model-based saturation estimates were compared with
those calculated using immiscible assumptions, the solution stability was observed to decrease as the contrast
between oil and gas properties narrowed. Nevertheless,
computed gas saturation increased as expected, and
water saturation remained stable. The modeled hydrocarbon properties seemed to be driving the results
amounting to circular logic.
Initial water
Water increase
Gas
Oil
0.3
VHyd RST basic
VOil basic
()
(m3/m3)
0 0.3
VOil C/O CDV 0.4

0.3
MD
1:200
(m)
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
0 0.3
(m3/m3)
0 0.3
3,190
Because the water saturation and, therefore, the total

hydrocarbon saturation could be derived independently
from the CDV, the bulk hydrocarbon CDV could be estimated. Then, if the apparent oil volume calculated from
the RST-C/O data (with some CDV value) equaled the
total hydrocarbon volume computed independently, the
CDV value used could be validated as a proper characterization of the hydrocarbon. An iterative solution could be
50
3,200
3,210
3,220
3,230
Figure 5.49: Bulk hydrocarbon CDV estimate.
(m3/m3)
(g/cm3)
CDV oil model

0 0
OH effective porosity
Making process changes

It was deemed impractical to perform these analyses at
each iteration, so a new approach was developed. A fundamental observation made during the first phases of the
pilot program was that water saturation could be computed accurately using RST-C/O and TPHI data. The C/O
ratio, as its name implies, responds to the amounts of
oxygen and carbon from the oil. The C/O ratio could be
related to the actual hydrocarbon saturation from the
companys hydrocarbon database (constructed using
diesel oil) and the CDV could be used to compensate for
the differences between the diesel and the actual formation oil. Accordingly, because the actual formation properties were known and fixed, the apparent oil saturation
computed from RST-C/O data would be driven by the CDV
value only. Therefore, CDV could be accurately computed, given the analysis of produced oil.
0 0
RST fluid analysis
0.3
CDV gas model
(g/cm3)
CDV RST estimate

0 0
(g/cm3)
implemented using a computer to reduce statistical uncertainty to negligible

levels. However, a simplified solution was developed that provided an adequate approximation.
simulation team and the Schlumberger log interpretation

group.
Uncovering the benefits

By performing multiple processing runs on first-stage RST-C/O data, a simple
mathematical relationship between oil volume and CDV was observed, leading to derivation of two formulas that approximated CDV if it were within the
characterization range. The final CDV value could then easily be combined
with the phase properties predicted by the simulator (Fig. 5.49). This could yield
an individual phase saturation computation; alternatively, the hydrocarbon
CDV could be computed from simulated properties and saturations and then
could be compared to the log-derived CDV value. For this WAG project, the
second solution was found optimal both for the Groupement Berkine reservoir
Oil RST 9-Jul-04

SW increase
Gas RST 9-Jul-04
Saturations
Water increase
SW base
Gas RST 9-Jul-04
(m3/m3)
(c.u.)
PIFL
4 ( ) 0.1 50
(c.u.)
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
(m3/m3)
Conclusions
0
VOil RST 9-Jul-04

1 0.3
SHyd time-lapse
0 1
Oil RST 9-Jul-04

RST fluid volumes
0 0.3
SO 9-Jul-04
0 0
SIGM saline
(c.u.)
(m3/m3)
0 1
SIGM fresh
PERF 50
SW 9-Jul-04
SIGM base
50
Water-initial
(m3/m3)
0 0.3
(m3/m3)
Figure 5.50: RST run on July 9, 2004 (perforated zone U). A comparison of immiscible saturations
and Sigma log-inject-log hydrocarbon saturation.
The advantage of using an estimated CDV is its independence from the simulator model results. It reflects
the bulk volume hydrocarbon properties without considering each phase.
It provides a new way to compare results with the simulator model for history-matching.
It adds stability and robustness to the final answer by
using simple transforms with verifiable measurements
and key interpretation parameters.
Individual phase computations can be made using a linear transform.
Recomputing the CDV directly from simulator model
data in a triphase environment proved to be the most
optimal and was implemented. A comparison between
the log-derived CDV and model-derived CDV illustrated
a good match.
The pilot project wrapped up in April 2004, and the

observation well was perforated in the U zone. Singlewell chemical tracer (SWCT) tests were run, and RST
Sigma log-inject-log evaluation was performed to confirm the accuracy of the results previously derived from
the cased hole log measurements only. The resulting log
showed very good agreement (Fig. 5.50).
The project took 18 months and involved 24 RST runs and
13 CHFR runs. The final objectives of the WAG pilot program were achieved with an average decrease of residual oil saturation of 15%. Other achievements were also
noted:
A new technique was developed for comparing log and
model results in a miscible fluid environment.
The observed saturation changes agreed with modeled
results and were confirmed by the SWCT tests.
There is good potential to further develop the hydrocarbon properties characterization technique by combining
the PNC and C/O techniques.
The RST/CHFR combination works well and provides a
valuable and accurate characterization of complex multifluid systems.
51
Tin Abanhar (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Depicted in red and white, a small herd of four adults and one baby giraffe. One can easily imagine the painter nimbly sketching the lightning
before changing his role to that of hunter.
52
54
53

Integrated Project Management (IPM), a relatively young
service segment in Schlumberger, has a long history in
Algeria. In early 2000, significant work was done with
Sonatrach to prepare the reservoir optimization project
for Zones 2 and 4. In parallel, a drilling optimization pilot
project was begun with Division Forage. Neither project
was taken to full maturity, but the lessons learned made
a significant contribution to the development of IPM as
an organization in Algeria. Since then, IPM has further
evolved in terms of business models and work processes
that are geared toward successful planning, execution,
and closeout of well construction and production optimization projects for its clients.
The modern history of IPM in Algeria began with the successful execution of a two-well drilling project for
Rosneft-Stroytransgaz in 2003/2004, which proved IPMs
competence as a project management organization in the
country. The success of the project, which has now
entered a second phase involving three more wells,
marked the maturity of IPM for outsourced drilling operations in Algeria. Mid-2006 saw the launch of a new
collaborative project for which a Schlumberger team will
provide engineering and operational management support for rigs operated by Sonatrach Division Forage.
Outsourced drilling operations

in Algeria for Rosneft-Stroytransgaz
Rosneft-Stroytransgaz was awarded exploration rights in
Block 245 South during the third licensing round and
entered into a production-sharing contract with Sonatrach
in March 2001 with an initial exploration period of three
years. The company is a joint venture between Rosneft,
the Russian state oil company, and Stroytransgaz, a major
oil and gas pipeline construction company with existing
contracts in Algeria. The joint venture was created
specifically to develop Algerian interests and is operated
as an autonomous business unit.
Following a 3D seismic campaign in 2002, RosneftStroytransgaz selected two target locations for exploration wells. The company had no existing drilling team
in Algeria and no previous experience in managing the
procurement, planning, and execution of drilling wells in
the country. Rosneft-Stroytransgaz opted, therefore, to
54
outsource the drilling operations to a single lead contractor, thus leveraging

local experience and enabling them to manage the campaign with a small
executive team. The company chose a lump-sum contracting model because it
wanted a service company with a high degree of confidence in its technical
competence and ability to deliver the scope of work. In June 2003, RosneftStroytransgaz Ltd. awarded the contract for drilling the two exploration wells
in southern Algeria to Schlumberger. The scope of work covered not only the
drilling but also the construction of the two well locations plus access roads,
an airstrip, and a water well.
Long established in Algeria, Schlumberger provided Rosneft-Stroytransgaz
with the technical expertise and local knowledge necessary to identify and
address potential risks during the project planning stage and avoid startup
delays. A strict schedule was agreed on for the preparation and execution of
both wells.
Operational Phase 1
Project team, roles, and responsibilities
Following award of the contract, detailed discussions took place to clarify the
allocation of roles and responsibilities (R&R) within the project team made up
of Schlumberger and Rosneft-Stroytransgaz personnel. Rosneft-Stroytransgaz
maintained control over geological target selection, well technical specifications, and the drilling program. In addition, the company wished to retain control over making key decisions related to evaluating the exploration wells.
Operational decisions related to preparing and executing the programmed
drilling activities were made by Schlumberger. This clear R&R allocation facilitated a seamless and productive contribution from all team members.
Schlumberger provided the project team with a well construction organization,
including engineering, operations, and logistics management functions (Fig. 5.51).
The small Rosneft-Stroytransgaz team of just three local representatives was
actively involved in all decision-making that would impact well objectives. Close
communication between the IPM team, Rosneft-Stroytransgaz local representatives, and the management team in Moscow facilitated fast decision-making on
key points such as final casing depths, MDT point selection, and coring point
selection. Despite the companys low-key presence in Algeria, it maintained full
control at all times on decisions related to achieving well objectives.
Structured communication
Optimized flow of information was a key requirement for the project, particularly because the client management team was located in Moscow, Russia.
The project team had the responsibility for distributing daily operations reports
to all involved parties. A structured communications plan was included in the
Project Management Manual to assist team members throughout all phases of
the project with the distribution of information to the appropriate recipients.

Advanced technology was used to improve communication during critical phases
of the operation; this included satellite transmission of formation evaluation
data and the use of Web-based collaboration spaces to share data among
wellsite, Hassi Messaoud, and Moscow locations. The project team also provided well engineering technical support to Rosneft-Stroytransgaz to assist in
preparation of the Technical Committee meetings with its partner, Sonatrach.
Project startup
Thorough planning was probably the most important function performed by
the project team, and successful execution of the project hinged heavily on
this aspect of project management. Planning included staff selection, procurement, design, programming, operations management and reporting, evaluation, and review. A Project Management Manual detailed the processes and
the structure of the project before the start.
The project team was selected and committed early to start with the project
manager as the primary link from tender stage through execution. Four months
of key personnel time were committed to the initial planning period, which
included the ordering of all long-lead materials two months in advance of
mobilization of the rig. A project technical- and process-startup audit was performed, with peer review of the basis of design. Interaction with existing
operators in the area of the planned wellsite locations accelerated the teams
understanding of regional practices. A drill well on paper (DWOP) and teambuilding exercise were performed, which enhanced motivation and commitment and generated some outstanding ideas.
First Deputy
General Director
QHSE, project documentation,

and corporate responsibility
A Project Management Manual, Emergency Response
Plan, and Environmental Plan were developed, and the
Bridging Document was completed. The Bridging
Document defined operations standards that were to be
adhered to, the interface between Rosneft-Stroytransgaz
and Schlumberger, and subcontractor standards and procedures. A site environmental baseline study was completed as part of the initial audit, as well as an impact
study after the project. The location was cleaned and
restored after well abandonment. There was full compliance with aircraft landing requirements.
Planning and risk assessment

A project risk assessment determined potential areas of
deficiency or those requiring special focus. The top 12
risks were identified at the beginning of the project. The
Basis of Design document was modified accordingly and
peer-reviewed by area support staff.
Rig selection
Schlumberger Rig 48 was selected for drilling. The rig
team had already proved its technical competence, and
the Schlumberger culture and values already existed
among the staff. Common safety systems, such as Risk
Identification Reporting (RIR) and the Quest Web-based
Project Manager
Senior
Drilling Engineer
Chief Geologist
Rosneft
Wellsite
Representative
Controller
Geologist
Wellsite OLC
Rosneft-Stroytransgaz
Construction
Wellsite Supervisor
(Days)
Wellsite
Supervisor
(Nights)
Procure/Logistics
(SDS shared)
Drilling Engineer
Schlumberger Project Team
Figure 5.51: Organizational team for the Rosneft-Stroytransgaz Block 245 South project.
55
QHSE data capture and reporting system were already in

place, which made safety management and reporting
simpler and more effective. Colocation of the rig staff
with the IPM team further enhanced interaction and a
cooperative work ethic.
co-located with other Schlumberger groups, and many shared services were
available, some of which helped optimize project logisticsfor example, a
charter airplane for personnel transport. The existing Schlumberger well logistics and base infrastructure in Algeria was of particular benefit for the drilling
work.
Procurement strategy
Project execution
Exposure to risk of delay from long-lead items was managed by purchasing tubulars from existing operators in
Algeria, and an off-the-shelf wellhead configuration was
used for the surface equipment.
The first well was spudded in November 2003, consistent with the project
plan. Nonproductive time (NPT) was 4% on the first well and 9% on the second. Both wells were completed ahead of schedule with no major incident.
The IPM team successfully managed two well tests. Communication with
Rosneft-Stroytransgaz and Sonatrach was structured, explicit, and appreciated
by both parties. There were no accidents, and all catastrophic, major, or serious events were followed up and properly processed with a root-cause investigation and closeout report. Service quality deficiencies were identified
before any loss. Risk identification reports were prepared with full followup
and closeout of action points.
Schlumberger in-country
infrastructure and support
The Schlumberger North Africa GeoMarket (NAG) organization has headquarters in Algiers and maintains a
wide range of technical and logistical support functions
and operations bases in the region. The project team was
Bringing together a wide spectrum of Schlumberger services

This signature project for Schlumberger involved a wide range of its services
and technologies. These technologies included advanced wireline evaluation
including the FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager, the MDT Modular
Formation Dynamics Tester, the MSCT Mechanical Sidewall Coring Tool, and
the CMR Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool with MRF Magnetic
Resonance Fluid characterization. The wells were cemented using the
LiteCRETE low-density slurry system. Well testing was performed by the
Schlumberger Well Completions & Productivity (WCP) division. M-I SWACO, a
Smith International and Schlumberger joint venture company, provided mud,
brine, and engineering, whereas WesternGeco, the seismic division of
Schlumberger, handled the water well drilling and location survey.
F6
Client operational control
ACP 3
IV-3
IV-2
ACP 2
ACP 1
IV-1
Figure 5.52: Block 245 South well completion in the uncemented, naturally
fractured Ordovician producing interval.
56
Rosneft-Stroytransgaz maintained a small representative office in Algiers. It

allocated a chief geologist and wellsite supervisor to the wellsite to coordinate
key decision-making for the project. The project manager and his technical team
remained in Moscow. They received daily morning reports plus logging and geological information. Through use of modern communication systems (VSAT,
e-mail, and Web-based file sharing), Rosneft-Stroytransgaz provided a virtual
technical team, supporting the Algerian operations from Moscow and actively
monitoring progress so that key operational decisions could be made quickly
and effectively. For Rosneft-Stroytransgaz, this represented a significant cost
savings on offices and accommodations as well as on personnel expenses that
would be required to set up a large local operations office. The project execution was seamless and thorough, with client involvement at all levels through
close interaction and with a clearly articulated analysis of the available options.
The clarity of data and how they were presented enabled the client to make
decisions usually within 48 hours of receiving the data. By working this way, the
decision-makers developed increasing confidence in the Schlumberger project
team and acted quickly to provide any support required to deliver project
objectives.
Operational challenges
The wells were drilled with a water-base mud system. The mud weight was
carefully controlled to avoid losses and maintain wellbore stability. Proposed
mud weights were approved by Rosneft-Stroytransgaz to ensure well objectives and minimize mud invasion into the reservoir. The Ordovician reservoir
was drilled with PDC bits. A 7-in. liner was set and cemented with three annular chemical packers (ACPs, Fig. 5.52). The Ordovician interval was left uncemented to avoid sealing natural fractures. Two independent zones were tested between ACPs.
Schlumberger technology and services
Figure 5.53: FMI image in the Ordovician formation indicating natural conductive fractures.
Operational Phase 2
Planning for Phase 2 of the Rosneft-Stroytransgaz project
in Block 245 South started in July 2005. The drilling campaign included one exploration well and two appraisal
wells. For this project, L'Entreprise Nationale de Forage
(ENAFOR), the Algerian national drilling company, was
approached for the provision of a rig. The newly built
ENF-35 rig, which was just being commissioned, was
selected for the campaign.
-2
Gas
-3
Water
-4
DClm
-5
Log D (cm2/s)
The Block 245 South field had been explored previously; it included three wells,
the latest of which had been drilled in 1996. For Schlumberger, the main objective of the new exploration project was to deliver fit-for-purpose technology to
achieve improved well evaluation within the project budget. Some new technologies were applied to enhance well evaluation and minimize environmental
impact, including the protection of freshwater aquifers. These technologies
were carefully selected to provide the most cost-effective solution. RosneftStroytransgaz is very committed to applying new technologies to obtain the best
well evaluation results, and the company approved most of the technologies
proposed after in-house evaluation of the benefits. Key examples follow:
Cementing: LiteCRETE slurry systems were used for the surface and intermediate sections. This cement formulation was selected to minimize the
volume and impact, if any, on freshwater-bearing intervals in both wells. The
LiteCRETE system enables very low slurry densities, in this case with a specific gravity of 1.3, which minimized fluid loss due to invasion of the formation.
Once set, the quality of the LiteCRETE cement seal was evaluated with the
USI UltraSonic Imager combined with CBL Adviser cement bond log
evaluation software.
Formation evaluation: The wells were drilled in an area where changes in
water salinity make conventional log interpretation difficult. In discussion
with Rosneft-Stroytransgaz, Schlumberger adjusted the data acquisition
program to include more advanced logging technology that would better
evaluate the formation. FMI borehole resistivity imaging data showed the
extremely low-permeability Ordovician zone to be naturally fractured (Fig. 5.53),
and the CMR/MRF combination revealed that the zone contained oil (Fig. 5.54).
The MDT pumpout module was used to draw fluids from the formation, and
the LFA Live Fluid Analyzer quantified the mobility of this oil. Some of the
zones that the CMR/MRF combination identified as hydrocarbon bearing
would have been overlooked using conventional logging technology.
Completion: On request from Rosneft-Stroytransgaz, Schlumberger quickly
designed and implemented an alternative sandface completion. The solution
avoided cementing of the natural fractures but still allowed for isolation of
other reservoirs higher up in the wellbore. Results from successive well test
results proved the success of this approach.
-6
Oil
-7
-3
-2
-1
Log T2 (s)
Figure 5.54: The presence of oil in the Devonian formation was confirmed using the CMR tool with MRF characterization.
57
20.0
70.0
18.0
64.8
60.0
16.0
50.0
14.0
12.3
12.0
11.5
44.0
Take-1
Takw-1
40.0
9.9
10.0
30.0
8.0
6.0
20.0
4.0
10.0
2.0
0.0
Take-1
Takw-1
Hours
Stand per hour
44.8
Ten-1
0.0
Ten-1
Figure 5.55: Comparison of tripping performance (left) and BOP handling time (right) for Block 245 South exploration wells.
New challenges
Rig startup
Both the ENF-35 rig and its crew were newly assembled.
Due to a shortage of local drilling expertise, the crew had
mixed experience levels, and most crew members were
more familiar with workover jobs. Because of this, operations progressed slowly at first and with an unacceptably high risk of incidents. Figure 5.55 (left) shows that
tripping speeds during rig operations were 15% to 20%
lower compared to the two wells of the first drilling campaign. Figure 5.55 (right) shows that the BOP handling time
per well was 45% higher than the benchmark.
Schlumberger reacted immediately by mobilizing two
experienced rig trainers from within the organization to
provide hands-on training to the rig crew. This was followed by the establishment of a QHSE safety-training
matrix for all crew members. An IPM QHSE officer on site
assisted ENAFOR in reaching an acceptable level of
proactive safety behavior, including adequate prejob
briefings and other established practices in Schlumberger
such as the Safety Training Observation (STOP) program,
which trains each member of line management to become
a skilled observer of unsafe work practices.
Through continued, focused effort and the commitment
demonstrated by the ENAFOR personnel in charge of the
operation, the performance of the crews showed significant improvements. For example, the first 6 months of
startup operations ended without injuries.
Drillstring integrity
During drilling operations, problems were encountered
with bent drillpipe and string washouts. This led to a
58
string failure that required a subsequent fishing operation in the first well. A
plan was made to develop an inspection program with ENAFOR, and at the
same time, focus was put on educating the rig crews on proper connection
makeup practices to minimize the risk of damage to pipes that could eventually result in string failure. Again, Schlumberger training expertise proved a
great help by providing videos on the subject.
Well technical challenges

Coring
The second well campaign included a significant coring program for the three
wells to collect samples from the Devonian and Ordovician formations. The rate
of coring penetration into the Ordovician was very slow, as low as 0.3 m/hr.
Work was done with the coring contractor in an attempt to optimize the coring
bit and assembly for better performance; however, the resulting improvement
was minimal. As a result, Rosneft-Stroytransgaz decided to omit the requirement to core the third well (Fig. 5.56).
Ordovician testing
Achieving a good flow rate in the exploration phase from the unstimulated
Ordovician formation was a major design challenge, the success of which
depended largely on the presence and ability to flow from a natural fracture
system in this low-permeability formation. On the request of RosneftStroytransgaz, the same liner design used in the first drilling campaign was
adopted for the wells in the second campaign. This involved a partially
cemented liner with an uncemented section across the Ordovician. In the first
well of Phase 2, another exploration well, the FMI image indicated the presence of some conductive fractures and the selected liner design demonstrated
its value; the Ordovician produced at rates sufficient to enable RosneftStroytransgaz to declare the well a discovery.
IPM looks forwardA drilling optimization

initiative in the Hassi Messaoud field
Services integration contract

Sonatrach plans to drill an increased number of vertical and horizontal wells
in the Hassi Messaoud field to meet its 2010 production targets. The company
has solicited the assistance of service companies because its in-house
resources are already stretched to manage the current level of activity.
Sonatrach Division Forage and Schlumberger management have been in discussion with the objective of formalizing their relationship. These discussions led
to the launch, mid-2006, of a collaborative project in which a Schlumberger
team provides services integration support for three rigs operated by
Entreprise Nationale des Travaux aux Puits (ENTP), one of the two Sonatrach
subsidiary drilling contractors. The main objective of the project is to increase
the number of wells drilled per rig per year. Lessons learned from other projects
around the world, including a previous drilling optimization project with
Sonatrach, were incorporated in the jointly developed work scope and rolled out
to the project team in a workshop held at the start of the project. The project
team includes QHSE and logistics and rig specialists in addition to wellsite
supervisors and well engineers. In the current phase, the choice of service
contractors remains with Sonatrach; Schlumberger, however, has priority for
services that it can provide for the three supported rigs.
Highlights of the project include
agreeing up front to a consulted decision-making process, including the IPM
wellsite representative involvement in operational decisions and establishment of a steering committee for approval of work scope changes and
resolving high-level issues
including a gain-share incentive model for superior team performance, part
of which is destined for drilling contractor personnel.
Duties of the Schlumberger team include
provision of well engineering and operations support to Hassi Messaoud
drilling and completion operations from the Sonatrach Hassi Messaoud office
provision of onsite engineering and supervision support for Schlumberger
and third-party services to ensure cost-effective execution of drilling and
completion programs in the field
Devonian formation coring
25.0
20.0
2nd coring
point
15.0
10.0
5.0
Drilling to 1st
coring point
1st coring
point
Drilling to 2nd
coring point
assisting with timely and cost-effective delivery of

materials and services required for the project
coordinating drilling and completion services and
activities with construction and logistics groups
producing daily reports and weekly forecasts for
drilling and completions operations
coordinating invoice preparation and administration.
assisting in the preparation of an end-of-well report for
each well that highlights lessons learned and opportunities for improvement
preparing and implementing a QHSE management system, bridging document, and SIMOPS (simultaneous
operations) procedure.
Subject to a positive outcome from this phase of collaboration, Schlumberger and Sonatrach are likely to initiate
discussions for a full project management relationship,
whereby Schlumberger will assume greater responsibility
over operations planning and execution.
Conclusions
Successful execution of the first phase of the Block 245
South drilling project for Rosneft-Stroytransgaz and award
of the second phase firmly established IPM as a competent
project management organization for outsourced drilling
operations in Algeria. The award by Sonatrach of integrated
support services for drilling in the Hassi Messaoud field
provides a welcome opportunity to demonstrate the
potential for improving drilling safety and efficiency in
the country. The IPM organization looks forward to
adding value to the assets of more operators working in
Algeria through the unique combination of Schlumberger
global technology and expertise coupled with its extensive local knowledge and established infrastructure.
Ordovician formation coring

Drilling to 3rd
coring point
3rd coring
point
Drilling to 4th
coring point
4th coring
point
Wiper trip
prior to log run
Intermediate
logging operations
Days
0.0
-5.0
Phases
Cumulative actual time
Cumulative planned time
Variance
Figure 5.56: Analysis of coring times in Block 245 South Phase 2 wells.
59
IPM for Efficient Business Solutions

Until the late 1980s, large oil and gas companies typically managed the entire spectrum of services for their
projects and called upon service companies such as
Schlumberger to provide specific individual services for
their well operations. With the pressure of demand for
increased production, the dynamics of the services market began to change in the early 1990s when major oil
companies began outsourcing more work to service
companies. At the same time, an increasing number of
major oil and gas resource holdersgovernment agencies and national oil companies (NOC)began to move
away from long-established production sharing arrangements (PSA) and, instead, encouraged oil companies
to build collaborative working relationships with service
companies or turned directly to service companies for
their help in managing their national oil and gas
resources more efficiently.1
As a result of these changes in the oil and gas industry,
Schlumberger established its Integrated Project Management
(IPM) group in 1996, which has proved its ability to significantly increase operational efficiency and improve
performance. The main objective of IPM is to work with
operators in the planning, implementation, and management of their exploration, appraisal, development, production, and abandonment projects. As the operational
arm of Schlumberger Oilfield Services (OFS), IPM undertakes collaborative and outsourced projects on behalf of
oil and gas companies by integrating Schlumberger and
third-party services to deliver an efficient and optimum
business solution. In addition to direct access to
Schlumberger worldwide technology and expertise, IPM
has some 2,000 dedicated employees, including more
than 850 engineers, with specialist skills and experience
in project engineering and management. This team of
experts is a key differentiator that enables IPM to participate constructively in planning and programming activities in the early stages of a project and, thereby, to be
more effective in its implementation.
60
Oilfield operator
Schlumberger
Technology
Benefits from Schlumberger investment

in proprietary oilfield technology
Opportunities to apply and prove new

technology in new areas
Expertise
Leverages Schlumberger global

knowledge and local expertise without
increasing staff
Uniquely positioned to integrate and

apply services, technology, and
knowledge
reduction through improved

Increases production and reserves while Cost
efficiency of long-term integrated
Performance retaining equity
contracts
Partnering with IPM provides a win-win outcome for Schlumberger and oilfield operators.
Traditional
Alliance
Integrated
services
Integrated
alliance
Oil company
Oil company
Oil company
Integrated
project team
Integrated
team
Service
company
Service
company
Service
company
Service
company
Service
company
Service
company
Evolution of the integrated business environment.
Service
company
Service
company
Field development
services
Production
system
Integrated reservoir
optimization
Well construction
Production projects
Rigs
an
Production
optimization
a lu
ti
on
Ev
Completion
Well intervention
services
Execu
a ti o n
Logistics
De sig n
d pla n ning
Data management
Integrated well
services
Integrated drilling
services
Data
acquisition
Coiled tubing
Stimulation
Conformance fluids
Completion fluids
Production services
Slickline
Cementing
Drilling fluids
MWD
LWD
Directional drilling
Mud logging
Testing
Bits
Logging
Data services
Scope of IPM activities.
Some operators have been reluctant to consider even

bundled service offerings from a single service company,
which is at the low end of the integrated services spectrum, while others have fully embraced the collaborative
alliance concept to help realize their aggressive E&P
objectives. When executed correctly, integrated project
management provides significant benefits and gains,
especially in places where there is lack of experience
and a shortage of resourcesa win-win outcome.
Having invested in integrated services early and with
sustained growth in the ever-changing service delivery
market, Schlumberger is well positioned to provide services from well construction and intervention to field
rehabilitation and management. This fits well with the
strategy and changing role of traditional oil companies
wanting to leverage external project management experience for increased oilfield efficiency and value. In many
places in the world, Schlumberger is providing a world of
answers through direct, integrated access to its systems,
experience, and technology through IPM. Schlumberger
understands that when an operator outsources a project
to IPM, it entrusts IPM with its performance and reputation. Partnering with IPM provides oil and gas companies
with the global expertise of the entire Schlumberger
organization combined with local knowledge in their
oilfield operations.
+
Maximize production rate
Debottlenecking
Maximize recovery
Accelerate
production
Time
Cash flow
Minimize operating expense
Defer abandonment
Minimize capital expense
Traditional development
Reservoir optimization
IPM can improve asset net present value (NPV) by reducing the negative cash flow early in the
project life cycle and using leading technology to accelerate production.
61
Sonatrach: Nabil MOKRANI, Abdelhakim BENAOUDA, Noureddine BOUNOUA
Schlumberger: Mohamed TCHAMBAZ, Alexander SYNGAEVSKY, Jallel BENDJABALLAH, Pierre ROUELLE
Acknowledgments
Abdelkader DELHOMME (Schlumberger)
Sonatrach: Ahcene HENNICHE, Belkheir BOUBLAL
In Salah Gas (Sonatrach, Statoil and BP): Hani AGHAR, Salah BENYOUB
Schlumberger: Pietro CASTELLI, Elie TAKLA, Shaker SHANTA, Bruno PINGUET, Jaime F. MENDIETA
Acknowledgments
Jean-Michel MOUCHOUS, Frederic MILENKOVIC, Nadege HOPMAN (Schlumberger)
Organisation Ourhoud: Ahmed HADBI, Ahcene BENAMARA, Mohamed BOUKRAA
Schlumberger: James FOSTER

Edited from referenced Oilfield Review article
Sonatrach: Noureddine BOUNOUA
Schlumberger: Smaine ZEROUG, Pierre ROUELLE
Acknowledgments
Benoit FROELICH, Robert VAN KUIJK, Douglas MILLER (Schlumberger)
Groupement Berkine: Abdelhafidh FEKKANE, Don KILGORE, John ROWNEY, Joel THILLIEZ
Schlumberger: Alexander SYNGAEVSKY, Tom BAIRD, Javad TAYEBI, Abdelkader DELHOMME
Schlumberger: Gino THIELENS, Ali BAKICI
Individuals
62
who either reviewed the documents, contributed with processing results, or provide tangible support for data release and use.
References
References
1. Bellman et al: Evaluating and Monitoring Reservoirs Behind Casing, Oilfield Review 15, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 2.
1. Atkinson et al: New Generation Multiphase Flowmeters from Schlumberger and Framo Engineering AS, Proc., 17th International North Sea Flow
Measurement Workship, East Kilbride, Scotland, National Engineering Laboratory (1999).
2. Atkinson et al: Qualification of a Nonintrusive Multiphase Flow Meter in Viscous Flows, paper SPE 63118 presented at the 2000 SPE Annual Technical
Conference & Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, 14 October.
3. Atkinson DI: High-Accuracy Wet-Gas Multiphase Well Testing and Production Metering, paper SPE 90992 presented at the 2004 SPE Annual Technical
Conference & Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, 2629 September.
4. Henniche A and Loicq O: Essais en Algerie du debimetre multiphasique Schlumberger, 4th Journees Scientifiques et Techniques (JST), Sonatrach,
Algiers (April 2000).
1. Baldauff et al: Profiling and Quantifying Complex Multiphase Flow, Oilfield Review 16, no. 3 (Autumn 2004): 4.
1. Havira RM: Ultrasonic techniques in oil well logging, in Proc. IEEE Ultrason. Symp. (Nov. 1986), 563571.
2. Hayman A, Parent P, Cheung P, and Verges P: Improved borehole imaging by ultrasonics, paper SPE 28440, presented at the 69th SPE Annual Technical
Conference, New Orleans, LA (1994).
3. Miller D and Stanke FE: Method of analyzing waveforms, US Patent 5,859,811 (Jan. 12, 1999).
4. van Kuijk R, Zeroug S, Froelich B, Allouche M, Bose S, Miller D, le Calvez J-L, Schoepf V, and Pagnin A: A Novel Ultrasonic Cased-Hole Imager for
Enhanced Cement Evaluation, paper 10546-PP, presented at the International Petroleum Technology Conference, Doha, Qatar (Nov. 2123, 2005).
5. Zeroug S and Froelich B: Ultrasonic Leaky-Lamb Wave Imaging through a Highly Contrasting Layer, Proc. IEEE Ultrason. Symp. (Nov. 2003), 794798.
1. Bourque et al: Business Solutions for E&P Through Integrated Project Management, Schlumberger Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997): 3449.
63
Tin Abotka (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Around 1,500 BC, as the prehistoric period drew to a close, the age of chariot and horses took over the Black and White Bovidians. The Saharan
Libyans, contemporaries of the pharaohs, were a noble and warrior people. Upright on the platform, a charioteer drives a chariot pulled by three superimposed horses. A woman
clings to his side, and around them are various characters as well as a greyhound-like dog or tessem.
6. Health Safety and Environment

Overview
QUEST: A Worldwide Database to Support a QHSE Management System
Well Integrity Assessment and Modeling for CO2 Injection
12
Well Abandonment in Ohanet Field
18
Algeria WEC 2007 / Health, Safety, and Environment
Overview
he safety and environmental hazards inherent to the oil and gas industry, compounded by the increase in exploration and production activities,
have pushed Quality, Health, Safety, and Environment (QHSE) management issues to the top of operator and service company agendas. Reflecting
this awareness, the third edition of the Well Evaluation Conference contains
three sections selected for their pertinence in Algeria. The first relates to a
database that supports a QHSE management system. The second and third
relate to wellsite assessment of CO2 storage and well abandonment.
In the first section, the architecture and various modules of the Schlumberger
worldwide QHSE structured reporting and management system (QUEST) are
explained (pages 6.4 to 6.11). Examples of how the system is actually used by
employees and managers are presented. Its implementation in Algeria is supported by the increase in logging and identifying risks and by the reduction in
risk indicators such as lost time incidents and lost timestatistical data that
demonstrate the effectiveness of the QUEST system. Deployed in 2000, the
system has dramatically reduced the need for and time spent on QHSE
reporting while providing management with a tool to monitor performance
and support continuous improvement efforts. The description also highlights
the importance of managements focused commitment and leadership in the
success of such a tool.
Overview
Driven by increasingly tight environment regulations, CO2 storage and

sequestration are gaining interest worldwide and in Algeria in particular. Ensuring that, once injected, the CO2 remains permanently
underground is a key concern that requires site assessment and a
prediction of the long-term storability of the site. The second section
of this chapter describes an ongoing study of well assessment and
the modeling process for storage of produced CO2 in the Hassi
Touareg field, part of the Gassi Touil integrated project (pages 6.12 to
6.17). The key steps of this process include an initial assessment of
the integrity of the cement sheath and casing, and extend to the predictive modeling of the cement permeability and casing degradation.
The description concludes with a planned program to conduct a sensitivity analysis, assign risk levels, and identify economical mitigation
solutions to resolve problems wherever they arise.
By describing an abandoned well in the Ohanet field, this section
stresses the increasing importance of adopting good well abandonment practices in Algeria (pages 6.18 to 6.23). The general well abandonment procedures practiced by Sonatrach are presented, and the
discussion highlights the criticality of the original cementing job in
ensuring durable zonal isolation vis--vis environmental challenges
and the key role played by diagnostic tools.

Large companies that operate globally are constantly challenged to identify, assess, and control risk exposure.
Responsibilities for action must be identified, assigned,
and monitored for followup, and lessons learned must be
communicated to all operating units. To address this need,
Schlumberger has implemented a worldwide, Web-based
Quality, Health, Safety/Security, and Environment (QHSE)
database called QUEST.
tification requirements are assigned. Training schedules can then be prepared

by comparing the requirements with the employees current qualifications.
One method of effectively managing risk is through a

structured management system, or MS. This requires tools
to support and facilitate risk management practices. The
QUEST database performs this function for QHSE
processes. It captures all QHSE risk-related records such
as event reports (accidents, nonconformances, near accidents/misses, hazardous situations, at-risk behaviors, and
employee suggestions). Audits, assessments and inspections, management of changes/exemptions, meetings,
and recognitions are also recorded in the database.
Company-wide risk awareness is promoted through a
central Web-based application that is directly accessible
by all employees and encourages a high level of engagement and participation in QHSE programs.
Having a central database for QHSE activities has significantly contributed to

the successful implementation of the MS and the continued development of
the company QHSE culture. It has facilitated the involvement of the entire
organization and third-party contractors in QHSE processes and has significantly reduced the burden of QHSE management. QUEST also provides both
analytical and statistical information on which to base important business
risk-control decisions while establishing the companys leadership role in
QHSE activities.
Depending upon the risk and scope of responsibility, various levels of line management, with the support of the
QHSE organization, review these records. Each record type
results in the definition, capture, and assignment of action
items, and QUEST aids in follow-up and monitoring the
action through to closure. The system also generates
e-mail notifications to those responsible for the actions.
During the implementation of the management system and QUEST, the overall
QHSE performance of the company improved steadily each year. While difficult to establish which parts of the application have contributed to this
improvement, it is clear that QUEST has become a significant component of
the companys daily QHSE activities.
Background
In 1998, Schlumberger implemented a consolidated QHSE management system composed of 8 main elements and 28 subelements. As a result of annual
reviews, the MS structure has evolved to 8 elements with 26 subelements.
HSE event
Accident, near accident,
hazardous situation
Service quality event
Nonconformance, near miss
Reports
tted inp
rm a
Fo
Exemption request
QUEST
QU ST
Remedial
work plan
f ul o utp u
QUEST is also effective in training and competence verification. The application interfaces with the human
resources (HR) database. From HR job descriptions and
employees actual work tasks, job-related training and cer-
Audit, inspection,
or assessment
Use
Lessons learned from an event often have value for other

areas of the organization. Through QUEST, users can subscribe, through push technology, to the system and
receive alerts via e-mail. Line management, employees,
and QHSE support staff can then use the information to
understand potential risks for work processes and the
workplace and ensure that appropriate actions are taken
to implement and maintain risk control measures.
ut
Suggestion/QIP
SQM scheme
Statistics
Meeting report
Notifications
Recognition report
QHSE certification
Training tracking
Figure 6.1: QUEST schematic.
First implemented in 2000, QUEST has also progressed over time to actively
support all the elements/subelements. Originally focused on supporting HSErelated processes and QHSE recordkeeping/statistics in the field, QUEST now
encompasses the entire organization and supports service quality (SQ) event
recordkeeping, QHSE training and certification management, QHSE objectives
tracking, and many other activities. Its continued popularity and relative ease
of use have facilitated its expansion to cover enterprise-wide MS processes.
System architecture
Figure 6.1 shows a simplified diagram of the QUEST system. A central database is accessed in real time through a Web browser. Any employee having
computer access and an account in the company directory may connect to the
system. The company directory uses lightweight directory access protocol
(LDAP). Increasingly popular, LDAP was designed to provide a consistent,
browser-like interface for integrated access to multiple directories across corporate networks and the Internet. Login requires the user to enter an LDAP
alias and password. The QUEST application then compares the login data with
internal tables to assign the user access privileges. Basic LDAP login allows
the user to create new data entries using formatted entry pages. Further privileges such as editing existing records and general data management functions are assigned through user profiles.
SLB
Oilfield Services and WesternGeco
OFS and WG Operations
ECA
CAG - Caspian
CEU - Continental Europe
ECA Headquarters
ECA WG Vessels
NAG - North Africa
Algeria
ALG - Algiers
HBK - Hassi Berkine
HMD - Hassi Messaoud
OFS - Hassi Messaoud
WS - Hassi Messaoud
WTS - Hassi Messaoud
AL - Hassi Messaoud
D&M - Hassi Messaoud
DCS - Hassi Messaoud
REW - Hassi Messaoud
SIS - Hassi Messaoud
INA - In-Amenas
IPM Algeria
RES Algeria
Figure 6.2: Folder nodes (blue triangle) and Location nodes in the
QUEST location tree structure.
QUEST also interfaces with business applications that

provide management with dashboards to monitor general
business performance.
HSE event module

The QUEST location tree structure is organized geographically to parallel
the companys management structure. This location tree structure is broken
down between folders and location nodes. Locations are the data entry
points. Folders act as consolidation/roll-up points (Fig. 6.2).
Linked to mail servers that handle a high volume of traffic, the QUEST application keeps users notified of their involvement in action plans and informs
them when records of a particular nature have been created/edited, etc.
The location tree structure and user profile accounts are maintained by a
geographical/organizational network of QUEST administrators. Each defined
QUEST location is configured as a geographical operational unit and a company
business segment so that all data entered there can be filtered to provide
meaningful statistics and reports.
Depending on the complexity of the data to be gathered/analyzed and the
business need, statistics and reports may be calculated and presented in real
time or by reading from tables that are updated at scheduled discrete times.
QUEST interfaces with various other company business applications to facilitate efficient data entry and effective sharing. Among these applications is the
link to the companys HR application. A daily HR query provides QUEST with
employee information that facilitates a systematic assignment of certification
requirements based on job description and other criteria. The QUEST application also interfaces with other field data capture systems. Users carry out their
regular duties using these process-specific applications, and interfacing feeds
relevant QHSE-related data to QUEST to create the appropriate records.
The company strongly promotes a culture of open and honest reporting of all potential and actual risks to the organization within an accountability framework. This ethos is
the foundation for reporting all risks having the potential
to cause losses to people, the environment, assets, or
processes, including those associated with service delivery to customers. By its very nature, QUEST contributes to
the development of this culture, and the company encourages and rewards employee participation.
Event reporting and management are the source of nonconformance information, which is set up to trigger the
continuous improvement cycle. Consequently, this module was a vital component in the initial development of
the QUEST system.
Users can submit records directly into the application via
the online user interface, or by downloading a lightweight
browser client (Wizard) that allows them to create records
offline and then upload later. Locations where employees
are not assigned a computer provide a shared workstation
for users to enter records. As users enter records, they
classify the QHSE event according to one of three types:
hazardous situation
near accident
accident.
The initial classification includes a description of the

event, and users select a loss category and indicate the
severity of the event. Based on this information, the main
page generates additional tabs where the user enters loss
details, investigations, management review, and action
items. Users can also attach supporting documentation.
Records are further classified according to corporatedefined, documented standards that align with both internal and industry-recognized requirements and metrics.
Further investigation is based on the DNV loss causation model and focuses
on determining
incidents
immediate causes (substandard acts/conditions)
root causes (personal factors/job factors)
lack of MS control (QHSE MS elements/subelements).
Line management and QHSE staff monitor input to the

database and, by user access privilege, can correct inappropriate classifications and ensure that events are correctly managed to reduce exposure for future loss.
After the risk control process, including investigation and implementation of a

remedial work plan, residual risk may also be estimated by using the same
matrix shown in Fig. 6.3.
A potential risk is estimated for any event by using the

matrix shown in Fig. 6.3.
The definition of the potential for loss of any event drives
the level of involvement of line management in processing and following up.
Managers, with the support of the QHSE organization,
can then filter the database so that in addition to
responding to events with significant loss, they can also
proactively act on events classified as having a high
potential (HiPo) for risk. HiPo covers all risks that fall in
the black (nonoperable) and red (intolerable) ranges.
Potential risk
-25 to -20 Nonoperable
Evacuate the zone and/or area/country
Intolerable
Do not take this risk
-9 to -5
Undesirable
Demonstrate ALARP before proceeding
-4 to -2
Acceptable
Proceed carefully with

continuous improvement
-1
Negligible
Safe to proceed
Possible
Likely
Probable
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-6
-9
-12 -15
-8
-12 -16 -20
Light
-1
Serious
-2
Major
-3
-3
Catastrophic
-4
-4
Multicatastrophic
-5
-5
-10 -15 -20 -25
Figure 6.3: Risk matrix.
Likelihood
Severity
Prevention
Unlikely
Control measures
A management review is conducted to verify that corporate standards for reporting, investigation, and accountability have been applied and to ensure that appropriate action plans are put in place to reduce the potential for future loss.
Attachments (pictures, documents, reports, etc.) can be uploaded and downloaded to share best practices among locations.
An event cannot be closed until all action items included in the remedial work
plan have been designated as closed.
SQ event module
The SQ event module, which functions the same way the HSE module, allows
users to report
hazardous situations
near misses
nonconformances.
Based on classification of the event record and the configuration of the QUEST
location where it is recorded, users are expected to record more process-specific details to describe the context of the circumstances of the event.
Observation/intervention module
Improbable
Mitigation
-16 to -10
An action plan based on the investigation is then developed. Action plans are
discussed later.
The observation/intervention module supports the companys behavior-based

processes. In search of a QHSE performance step change, the company developed behavior-focused programs to encourage all employees (and particularly
supervisors) to observe the behaviors of employees while working and then
intervene with feedback to encourage the continued use of correct behaviors
or discourage inappropriate behaviors.
The module allows users to create a record of any observation/intervention
episode they performed. Observations against specific behaviors are recorded,
as are the associated interventions.
An .html page format serves as the source for generating a .pdf file from
which paper cards are generated. These cards may be used by individuals at
the workplace to guide them in applying the observation/intervention process
and recording the results that feed into an online report.
Create/Upload Audit
Please select one of the following options listed below.
1. Create an Audit
Create an Audit report in QUEST.
2. Upload an Audit
This option allows the creation of an Audit by uploading
a preformatted Excel sheet or XML file.
Suggestion module
The company promotes general quality management processes that encourage employees to suggest improvements to all existing processes. The QUEST
application provides a framework within which to manage these suggestions
and record the resulting quality improvement projects. All employees have the
opportunity to submit a suggestion in the system and to estimate the impact
that implementing the suggestion might have for the company. These suggestions are regularly reviewed by the location quality steering committee, which
decides whether
the suggestion will be implemented locally without need for further assessment.
the suggestion will be transferred to a higher level in the organization.
a quality improvement team will be set up to study the suggestion and make
recommendations to the location quality steering committee.
A certain number of specialized Audits are created as QUEST

templates for enhanced data entry and reporting.
Data may be entered into template Audits using one of the
following methods:
directly on line by selecting option 1.
downloading an Excel sheet template to be completed locally and
later uploaded by selecting option 2.
Audit templates may be downloaded by clicking on
this link Download Audit
PLEASE NOTE THAT NOT ALL TEMPLATES CONTAIN
DOWNLOADABLE SPREADSHEETS
Figure 6.4: Create/Upload Audit selection page.
Management of change/exemption module
Feedback may be sent at any time to the employee who made the suggestion.
This feedback follows the progress of the suggestion, such as whether a quality
improvement team has been assigned or the suggestion has been implemented.
Schlumberger implemented a management of changeexemption standard to handle the continually evolving

risks during operations. QUEST supports this standard with
forms to record the MOC or exemption process.
Then, an action plan (described more fully later) is developed. Attachments

(pictures, documents, reports, etc.) can be uploaded and downloaded to share
best practices among locations. The suggestion cannot be closed while a
quality improvement team is active, and until all action items included in the
remedial work plan have been implemented.
Deviations from standards, work procedures, contractual

agreements, etc., often arise in a work environment where
risk continually changes. All operating sites have the ability to make a request for a deviation from any documentation that defines the recognized standard way to work.
Audit/inspection module
All required locations conduct an annual MS self-audit to monitor their own
performance against the requirements of the QHSE MS. Official audits are
conducted on a risk basis every three years. Assessments are conducted to
monitor compliance with company standards. All facilities and operational
sites undergo regular inspections.
This module allows the user to create a record either by typing directly into
preformatted fields in the system or by uploading a Microsoft Excel checklist that automatically populates the appropriate fields (Fig. 6.4).
Auditors/assessors/inspectors can download process-specific checklists from
QUEST. After completion, these checklists can be uploaded to populate a
matching .html template page with summary scores and action items that
have been documented offline. Attachments (pictures, documents, reports,
etc.) can be uploaded and downloaded to share best practices among locations. A record cannot be closed until all action items included in the remedial
work plan have been implemented.
Standards and procedures set out the documented limits

within which local employees must work. If the need
arises to deviate from those limits, an MOC or exemption
must be requested from a line manager and associated
experts. Approval depends on whether the requester has
demonstrated a thorough understanding of the risks
resulting from the deviation. The request must also be
able to show that appropriate additional risk control
measures will be implemented to ensure that deviated
operations are conducted at an acceptable risk level. The
requester uses the risk matrix shown in Fig. 6.2 to establish risk levels.
When a request for approval for deviation is submitted,
all the approvers are notified by e-mail. The system provides links in the main menu to an approvals page where
all managers can go to remain up to date on all the
MOCs/exemptions they must approve. Then, an action
plan (described more fully later) is made.
Meeting module
The system can also be used to record QHSE-related
meetings. The preformatted input page allows the meeting
coordinator to document the discussion agenda, topics,
and decisions made. Action plans (discussed more fully
later) are also recorded.
Remedial work plan module

At the core of the system is the remedial work plan module, which gets input from the previously described modules. Only by implementing a remedial work plan from
associated QHSE records can the company eliminate
defects and promote an efficient continuous improvement process. A notification system ensures follow-up
until all actions assigned to employees are closed out.
Subscription Information
Description:
SLB C&M
Top Node:
SLB
Subscription Criteria
Product Line:
Business Segment:
Client:
Actual Severity:
HSE
SQ
All
Active
Change Node
(ANY)
(ANY)
(ANY)
Catastrophic
Major
Serious
Light
Potential Risk:
HSE/SQ:
Low
Medium
High
Classification:
Other:
Accident/Failure
Near Accident
Hazardous Situation
Any of the above
SLB Involved
Industry Recognized
Regulatory Recordable
Category:
Personnel
Injury
Health
Automotive
Light
Heavy
Environment
Accidental Discharge
Physical Damage
Sanctions and Scrutiny
Inappropriate Disposal
Other
Reputation
Fine/Penalties
Process
Revenue
A remedial work plan is composed of a set of action

items, each having the following attributes:
summary of the action
responsibilitythe person responsible for implementing
the action. A search can be made in the company directory to find any employees name and e-mail address
target date for implementing the action
priority (high, medium, or low)
category (any of the 28 elements of the QHSE MS)
detailed description of the action
follow-up by the person responsible
notification by e-mail (check box)
closed (check box).
Figure 6.5: Subscription form.
If notification is selected, the person responsible for the

action receives an e-mail that includes a link to the full
report, which can be consulted without having to log in
to the QUEST system. Regular reminders are sent automatically as the target date approaches, and until the
action is implemented and the action item closed.
Multiple subscriptions can also be created. For example, location managers

may subscribe to receive a notification for any QHSE event reported in their location, and for catastrophic and major events reported anywhere in the world. This
knowledge-sharing functionality is a key component in the loss prevention process.
The My Action Items link in the applications main

menu provides direct access to all the action items
assigned to the QUEST user. A remedial work plan,
imported from a Microsoft Excel worksheet, can be
downloaded, filled in, and uploaded in any module.
Edit Subscription
Assets
Equipment
Products
3rd Party
Computer
Information
Client
Schlumberger
3rd Party
Delete Criteria
Time
Client
Schlumberger
3rd Party
Return to List
OK
Cancel
This function sends an e-mail notification to the subscriber if a record is made

with the criteria specified in the subscription. Users can subscribe to any
record type described previously. This e-mail includes a link to the full report,
which can be consulted without having to log in to the QUEST system. The
system is used to notify all senior managers in the company about QHSE
events/processes in their area of responsibility.
Figure 6.5 is an example of a subscription for worldwide catastrophic and

major events.
QHSE certification
Subscriptions
The company maintains a catalog of QHSE Training and Certifications. Each

item in the catalog is related to a QHSE topic (Auditing, First Aid, Firefighting,
etc.), has a proficiency level (1 to 4), and a validity period.
System functionality allows any user to subscribe to any

type of record (provided it is not access controlled).
QUEST receives daily employee data from the company HR system. The
employee record includes the job type. For each job type, QHSE certification
requirements have been configured and are assigned using QUEST. Beyond
this systematic, corporate assignment, each location maintains a network of
training managers (each assigned specific access privileges) who assign additional requirements based on local circumstances.
Each employee then has a QUEST certification record that shows the assigned
certifications, validation date, and current status.
The module allows users to make direct links to the QHSE Training and
Certification Catalog, where a control card is posted containing all details
about the requirements. Users can also access online tests, where specified.
A safety training coefficient displays the percentage of valid certifications over
required certifications. QHSE training can be planned based on these QHSE profiles to ensure that all employees have the required QHSE expertise for their job.
This module is also being used for enterprise-wide training and certification
assignments and tracking in areas such as finance, trade compliance, and
ethics and compliance.
QHSE statistics
Functionality to show results against key performance indicators (KPIs) is a
vital component of the QUEST application. A dedicated report, called Safety
Net, provides up-to-date QHSE statistics and indicators for every part of the
organization. This report pulls information from various records in the QUEST
modules and combines it with supporting data that are entered monthly into
the system for each QUEST location node. For example, the automotive accident rate is calculated by pulling all catastrophic, major, and serious automotive events and then dividing by a monthly input data entry of miles driven.
Safety Net can be displayed to show KPIs by various protocols, that is, normalized per 200,000 man-hours versus 1,000,000, inclusive of employees plus
contractors versus employees only, for example.
Counts showing the number of records created in the system are continually
updated in real time. Indicator calculations are accurate to the close of the
previous month. Default values for head count, man-hours, and mileage are
posted as supporting data to allow best-estimate calculations until verified
supporting data are entered at the beginning of each month.
Examples of lagging and leading indicators displayed in Safety Net include
lost time injury frequency (lagging)
per 1,000 employees per year
per 200,000 hours
automotive accident rate (lagging)
per 1,000 vehicles per year
per 1,000 drivers per year
per 1,000,000 miles driven
number of QHSE events reported per employee per year (leading)
number of locations with valid QHSE MS audits (leading)

average QHSE MS audit score (leading)
number of locations with valid environmental audits
(leading)
average environmental audit score (leading)
safety training coefficient (leading).
Very little input is required from each location at the end

of each month to produce end-of-month reports:
head count
employees (from the HR system)
subcontractors
temporary workers
man-hours
distance driven (miles/kilometers)
number of vehicles
number of drivers.
Administrative reports give the status of the entry of
monthly supporting data.
A similar report type, called Service Quality Net, focuses
on quality-related records and indicators.
Output reports
Analysis reporting from QUEST is wide and varied. Some
reports show direct counts of record types whereas others are based on the data fields recorded. Some track
completion of QHSE-related prevention processes, while
others focus on indicators based on consequences. The
range of output reports is limited only by the level of
input and the need for specific indicators as required.
Figure 6.6 shows an accident triangle report. This report
presents risk identification reporting data in the familiar
format of a triangle or pyramid (as promoted by Heinrich).
10
129
598
4,79
Catastrophic
378,
Major
616
Serious
Light
Near accident/hazardous situation
Figure 6.6: August 2006 year-to-date worldwide accident triangle.
This report is designed with features to facilitate user

interaction with the database, and when any number is
clicked, it displays a list of all the corresponding detailed
records.
Failure to warn/intervene
Failure to secure/protect
Improper lifting
Improper position for task
The scope of data included in the output reports is

defined by the position set in the database location tree
structure. Setting the session at the folder called
Algeria ensures that all records that have been created
at QUEST locations that fall under the Algeria node in the
tree hierarchy are included. Filters can be applied to
focus on a business segment or location type according
to the configuration attributes for QUEST locations.
Figure 6.7 shows an example of an Investigation Analysis
report. This is an example of a report type that focuses
on data field selections within each report. In this case it
counts the number of times a certain choice is made in
the investigation process and then plots trends to show
the most frequently occurring root causes or lack of MS
control, for example.
Improper loading
Improper placement
Operating at improper speed
Using defective equipment
Servicing equipment in operation
Failure to react/correct
Failure to follow policy/standards/procedures/work instructions/
practices/rules
Failure to identify hazard/risk
Failure to check/monitor/observe
Failure to communicate/coordinate
Improper handling
Improper filing/archiving/recordkeeping
0
12 16 20 24
QHSE performance monitoring

Schlumberger performance against general QHSE indicators such as combined lost time incident rates and automotive accident rates has been steadily improving each
year since the implementation of QUEST. It is not easy to
clearly show the exact role the implementation of QUEST
has had in contributing to this performance improvement,
but it is clear that QUEST has played a significant part in
supporting all the QHSE MS processes and promoting a
QHSE culture.
Performance improvement is affected by many factors. Consequently, within

the scope of consolidated corporate QHSE performance, there is variation in
improvement shown by each suborganization within the company. Variations
in national culture, level of implementation of the MS, legislation, client influence, to name a few, all play a significant part in affecting the status of
improvement in any given workplace.
As the graph in Fig. 6.9 shows, the influence of QUEST in enabling QHSE performance improvement can be validated. Over the lifetime of QUEST it is clear
375,000
300,000
225,000
150,000
75,000
Logins
It is widely believed that QHSE performance is directly

related to the level of awareness demonstrated by
employees in terms of workplace hazards and risks.
Participation in a risk-reporting programfocusing on
near misses and hazardous situationsgives an indication of how many people are involved and can be directly
correlated with a growth in awareness. The number of
risk reports created per employee is steadily increasing,
and in addition, the results of internal IT application surveys show that QUEST is regularly voted by employees
as the most popular in terms of usability and applicability
to daily tasks.
0
Oct Feb Jun Oct Feb Jun Oct Feb Jun Oct Feb Jun Oct Feb Jun
Date
Figure 6.8 shows the increasing trend of logins to QUEST,

indicating continual growth since launch.
Figure 6.7: Investigation analysis report.
10
By month
Figure 6.8: QUEST logins by month from October 2000 through August 2006.
12,000
10,000
people as possible. By using a Web-based database

design, access is available for all those with an account
in the corporate LDAP directory.
6
8,000
RIR rate, reports/employee/year
6,000
4
3
4,000
2
2,000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
August
0
RIRs
Year
RIR/rate
RIRs
Figure 6.9: Risk identification reporting trends in North Africa (predominantly Algeria).
that general risk reporting is improving at the GeoMarket/country level. The

graph also shows that not only the number of reports is increasing, but so too
is the rate of reporting per individual.
This marked and continual increase provides a basis for proactive QHSE management including preventive action planning. The result is shown in the lagging indicators where increased awareness, improved reporting, and appropriate action planning and follow-up result in the ability to develop control
over the frequency of incident occurrence (Fig. 6.10).
Conclusions
QHSE management systems provide the framework for processes that continually improve QHSE performance. The wide variety of data and information
processed in such an MS requires a comprehensive support application. The
QUEST application supports the QHSE MS and focuses on involving as many
20
18
16
14
12
10
Input processes are designed to be relatively easy to perform for all employees, and notification mechanisms
ensure that responsible and interested parties are kept
aware of developments. The notification system is highly
appreciated by managers, who are informed immediately
about what is going on in their area of responsibility
without having to log on to the QUEST system.
By making information from all the modules readily available, knowledge sharing is facilitated at every level of the
organization. The QUEST system has dramatically reduced
the need for and the time spent on monthly QHSE report
writing, while providing management with a tool to monitor performance, ensure closure of QHSE-related actions,
and support continuous improvement efforts.
This worldwide database was first deployed in January
2000 as an HSE field-focused application, and its scope
and user acceptance have been growing ever since. In
2000, 200,000 logins were recorded. Currently the system has had more than 11 million logins and has more
than 2 million separate QHSE risk-related records. It has
become a standard management tool for auditing the
companys various QHSE-related processes and monitoring the implementation of their associated remedial
work plans. In this way, the QUEST database contributes
strongly to the continuous improvement process.
The application alone, however, does not provide the
continual improvement. It is only as successful as the
documented and communicated processes that it supports. Without these processes, the design of the tool
would be haphazard. A tool such as this is most effective
when integrated with a structured management system
and with comprehensive risk-based programs that clearly
define how the information generated must be used in
the continual improvement process.
8
6
4
2
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
CLTIF-Combined Lost Time Incident Frequency (CLTI/1,000,000 man-hours)

LTIR-Lost Time Incident Rate (LTI/1,000 emp/yr)
Figure 6.10: CLTIF and LTIF trends in North Africa (predominantly Algeria).
2006
YTD August
Above all, the success of a tool such as QUEST is derived

from focused commitment and leadership by line management with regard to the importance of QHSE excellence to the performance of the business. Promotion and
development of a strong QHSE culture throughout the
organization and a structured management system with
defined responsibilities for employees combine to create
a workplace in which the value of a tool such as QUEST
can be recognized and shared by all.
11

In various parts of Algeria, the gas produced from the
deepest horizons often contains CO2. The Gassi Touil
integrated project (GTIP) has found that 2 of the gas
fields have an 8% to 10% CO2 content. For environmental reasons and, to a lesser extent, because of export
regulations, the partners have decided to separate and
store the produced CO2 in one of the depleted areas of
the Hassi Touareg field.
An important design criterion is to ensure and demonstrate to the administration and the community that the
CO2 will stay underground, at least until it has been
trapped permanently through various mechanisms, such
as dissolution in water and mineralization. Depleted oil
and gas reservoirs are attractive for CO2 storage because
of the proven seal of the reservoir cap.
GTIP is currently determining the description of the Hassi
Touareg reservoir to quantify its storage capacity and
evaluate the injectivity of supercritical CO2. Layer continuity, faults, and chemical reactions with the rocks are
some of the key questions being addressed. Another
challenge is to ensure that the cap rock and the regional
faults will retain their sealing properties while being
pressured up again during the injection process.
Methodology
The proposed methodology is based on a well integrity performance and risk
management model with specific guidelines.1 This methodology is adequately
described by the workflow depicted in Fig. 6.11.
Initial assessment of well integrity

through measurements and modeling
A well integrity assessment starts with a complete review of available data
including cement logs, drilling and completion reports, production reports, and
existing petrophysical analyses. For each well and each well section, the
theoretical cement tops are calculated using CemCADE cementing design and
evaluation software, and then compared with values inferred from logs. A
basic analysis of the well initial cement condition is derived from a synthetic
analysis of all available data.
In the second step, well conditions during operations are analyzed from well
tests, pressure and temperature changes during injection or production, or stimulation jobs. The most likely state of each cement sheet concerning its integrity
is analyzed. Both cement fractures and bonding quality are assessed using
CemSTRESS cement sheath stress analysis software. The detailed characterization of the overall cement integrity, based on both measurements and modeling,
makes it possible to estimate the horizontal and vertical mean permeability for
each cement section, together with the corresponding level of uncertainty.
Well modeling
In parallel, work is needed to quantify the potential leakage from existing wells, under a CO2 injection environment. Hassi Touareg has 14 wells. Some of these are old
producers (production stopped in 2001), others are
closed, and a few are plugged. The oldest is 46 years old.
In this context, the partners plan to assess the possibility of converting existing wells to CO2 injectors, or determine whether they need to drill new wells. In addition,
leakage and associated impacts has to be kept to a reasonable level through the optimization of mitigation
options.
This section describes the methodology used to answer
the partners concerns and presents current results of the
ongoing study.
12
In this phase, a descriptive model of a representative injection well is constructed from a qualitative analysis using a homogenization technique.
Geological data are used to complement the well model with a description of
the surrounding formations. The final static model consists of a network of
components including formation, cement, and tubular. With regard to cement,
the model is populated with the properties estimated from the previous step.
This combined static model (well/formation) serves as the basis for modeling
well degradation under CO2 attack and associated leakages.
Dynamic modeling requires reservoir pressure, temperature, and water and
CO2 saturations as inputs, which are used as boundary conditions. Specific
degradation models enable the prediction of the porosity and permeability
evolution of the various well components under CO2 attack. The completion
degradation model is coupled with a transport code in a product called
SIMEOTM Well, manufactured by OXAND S.A. (www.oxand.com), to estimate
probable leakage paths and associated CO2 leakage rates. Degradation phenomena and rates can be characterized through experiments and reactive
transport modeling1,2 or time-lapse well integrity measurements.
Well Integrity Assessment and Modeling for CO 2 Injection
In addition to purely deterministic simulations, probabilistic analyses can be

made that account for uncertainties in the characterization of the well/formation system properties. This results in estimating a distribution of the amount of
CO2 leaked at any point in the completion (e.g., leakage to an aquifer) or to the
surface. Sensitivity analysis allows identification of critical weak components.
Risk assessment and treatment

In the next step, CO2 leakage rates or volumes are converted into risk levels
by means of a series of transfer functions and a consequence grid, defined
jointly with the operating partners. This conversion process is supported by
the OXAND S.A. SIMEOTM STOR software.
Various risk mitigation scenarios can be assessed to

check whether and how integrity can be improved.
Comparing these scenarios using a cost/benefit criterion
means that optimum recommendations can be made; for
example, additional characterization through data acquisition, integrity or leakage monitoring, well workover, or
plugging. This methodology has been applied to compare
Hassi Touareg wells from a well integrity perspective
with the objective of identifying the best candidate for
conversion into a CO2 injector. An example is used to
illustrate this methodology.
Static model
Dynamic model
10
10
11
11
k(t)
CO2(t)
H2O(t)
3
99
Cement degradation
Casing corrosion CO2
Migration limit conditions
5
6
7
88
77
66
44
10
33
11
22
55
12
11
Data and input

Leak amount and probability
Characterization cement logs

Drilling reports
Well geometry
Well Integrity
Assessment
Workflow
Conclusions
Can we re-use existing wells?
More data needed?
Probability of leakage
Type of leakage to expect
Sensitivity analysis. Risk mitigation

options. Cost/benefits ranking
Consequence grid and transfer fraction

Risk mapping and
risk ranking
20
15
10
11
13
B = 50
Stakes
Level
2
3
Minor
Weak Middle
High
Critical
Detection evolution
C
Safety
People Third
Party
A
F
B
Financial Reliability and Asset
availability
...
Envir.
1: Minor
2: Marginal
<0.2 M
3: Serious
<1 M
4: Major
<5 M
5: Critical
<20 M
6: Catastrop.
>20 M
5
6
Figure 6.11: Well Integrity Assessment Workflow developed by Schlumberger and OXAND S.A.
13
Application to Algeria and Hassi Touareg
Log data available
Data collection
Well
1338 in.
958 in.
7 in.
Log
Hassi Touareg was developed and produced between

1960 and 2001. Throughout that period of time, 14 vertical wells were drilled, all presenting very similar geometries, completions, and production history. All were initially considered potential CO2 injectors.
HTG-1
None
None
0-1473
GR-CCL-CBL-VDL
None
1,514
773-1,667
CCL-TT-CBL
TG5
None
None
1,553.0
GR-CCL-TT-CBL
TG6
65-735
1,583-275
1,542-1,768
GR-CCL-TT-CBL
TG7
None
1,517-516
1,476.0-1,664
GR-CCL-TT-CBL-VDL
TG8
50-647
1,442
1,426-1,587
GR-CCL-TT-CBL-VDL
TG9
65-652
18-1,545-648
1,490-1,691
CCL-TT-CBL-VDL
TG10
None
1,339
1,360-1,507
GR-CCL-CBL-VDL-TT
TG11
None
None
1,337-1,570
GR-CBL-CCL-TT-VDL
649
1,450
1,392-1,596
GR-CCL-CBL-VDL
TG2
TG3
3bis
TG4
Four wells were removed from the study because they

had been plugged (TG2, TG3, and TG4), or because they
did not intersect the reservoir (TG12). Only the remaining
10 wells were considered.
Drilling, completion, and well workover reports were
available. A typical well geometry, including completion, is
presented in Fig. 6.12. Available logs are listed in Table 6.1.
TG12
TG13
1338 in. J55 61 lb/ft
At 613.50 m
Table 6.1: Hassi Touareg logs used in the study. VDL stands for Variable Density log.
Cement log interpretation principles and results

In the absence of advanced cement evaluation using the most recent logging
technologies (see the Well IntegrityCement Evaluation section, page 5.32),
traditional cement bond log (CBL) and Variable Density cement bond quality log
data were interpreted using a standard technique to evaluate the initial cement
conditions (Table 6.2). The logs were in paper format (Fig. 6.13), which meant
the entire interpretation process was performed manually. For each well, seven
different geological zones were identified, each corresponding to several but
similar stratigraphic facies. For 9 of the 10 remaining wells, completion components were similarly positioned with respect to the geological zones.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Transit time CBL amplitude
Interpretation
Normal
High
Casing arrivals
Usually no formation arrivals
Free pipe
Low
No casing arrivals
Formation arrivals
Good bond to casing and

formation
High, can be Low

noisy
No casing arrivals
No formation arrivals
Good bond to casing

Not to formation
Normal
Medium
Strong casing arrivals

No formation arrivals
Poor bond to casing
Normal
Medium
Formation arrivals
Casing arrivals
Microannulus
Normal
Medium
Formation arrivals
Casing arrivals
Channeling
Low
High
Formation arrivals
No casing arrivals
Inconclusive
Low
Low
17
High/noisy
18
T/L 1,356.20 m
958
in. P110 47 lb/ft
At 1,425.5 m
1,486 m TAGS 1,512 m

T/CMT
7 in. VAM N80 26 lb/ft
At 1,560.10 m
At 1,561 m
Figure 6.12: Typical well geometry. Well TG5 is shown here.
14
Table 6.2: CBL qualitative interpretation methodology.
Inconclusive (eccentered tool)
Therefore, these wells were segmented into 11 zones (Fig. 6.14) corresponding
either to a change in the completion or to a change in geology. For each of these
zones, the cement evaluation results are presented in Table 6.3, which represents
the initial conditions of the different zones at the time of wellbore completion.
10
11
Transmitter-receiver
Transit time
400
(microseconds)
8
200
Gamma ray
0
(gAPI)
100
MD
1:200
Sonic amplitude
0
(millivolts)

50 200
(s)
1,000
6
4
3
X,490
X,500
Albian
Caprock 1
Caprock 2
TAGS
TAGI
Figure 6.14: Typical well geometry and cement zone definition.
X,510
Hassi Touareg wells-cement average interpretation per zone
Cement TG3b TG5 TG6 TG7 TG8 TG9 TG10 TG11 TG12
zone
X,520
1
2
3
4
X,530
NA
5
6
7
8
X,540
9
10
11
X,550
Figure 6.13: Typical CBL and Variable Density log assessed according to the data audit. For Well TG7, the
Bad CBL (poor cementation, channeling or annulus)

Average
Good CBL (zonal isolation is probable)
No data available
NA: zone does not exist
Table 6.3: Cement interpretation summary for 11 selected zones.
log shows transit time on Track 1 (left), CBL amplitude on Track 2, and Variable Density data on Track 3.
15
Methodology to estimate Hassi Touareg

well cement permeability
This step evaluated the permeability of each cement zone
by taking into account the history of the wellbore. For all the
wells, each cement zone was subdivided into representative layers of 1 to 10 m thick with a homogeneous cement
log response. For each layer, the effects of pressure and
temperature cycles during the production period were evaluated using the CemSTRESS modeling tool. This analysis
concluded that a microannulus (with a thickness equal to or
greater than 20 m) was likely to have formed in the bottom
section of the well up to the production tubing packer.
The horizontal and vertical permeabilities for each cement
layer were estimated from log data interpretation combined with CemSTRESS simulation results. Permeability
values and uncertainty ranges were classified into 11
representative cases (Table 6.4). The permeability values
were derived from experiments and existing literature.2
Cement layers were then recombined within each zone.
The zones vertical permeability was obtained by calculating the harmonic average of the vertical permeabilities
of each sub-layer. The zones horizontal permeability was
calculated as the average of the horizontal permeabilities of each sub-layer. The uncertainties of the permeability values were estimated in a similar way (Table 6.5).
These clearly indicated the impact on the vertical permeability of the initial microannulus in the 7-in. liner annulus
(zones 1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the bottom part of the 958-in.
casing annulus (zone 5).
khmin khmax
kv
kvmin
kvmax
Excellent bond or continuous

good bond - no microannulus
isolation
0.010
0.001
0.050
0.010
0.001
0.050
Free pipe - but cement was

injected
0.100
0.010
0.500
2,000
1,000
5,000
Free pipe and no cement

in part of the zone
50,000 50,000 50,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
Poor bond - no microannulus
0.100
0.010
0.500
100
0.100
5,000
Good bond - microannulus
0.010
0.001
0.050
10
50
Good to average bond

(50% to 100%), no isolation,
no microannulus
0.100
0.010
0.500
0.100
100
Good to average bond

(50% to 100%), isolation,
no microannulus
0.100
0.010
0.500
0.100
0.050
0.500
Average bond - microannulus
0.100
0.010
0.500
10
50
Poor bond - microannulus
0.100
0.010
0.500
100
10
5,000
10
No CBL 133 8-in. casing
0.100
0.010
0.500
2,000
1,000
5,000
11
No CBL 95 8-in. section top part 0.100
0.010
1,000
0.100
50
Table 6.4: Permeability assignment for Hassi Touareg in mD (kh: horizontal perm.; Kv: vertical perm.).
set to zero (water-wet diphasic Darcian media). Capillary pressure curves for
the system (cement, CO2, and H2O) were estimated from field experience and
previously matched simulations from the civil engineering industry.
Second, the cement (and its corresponding horizontal and vertical permeabilities) was considered to degrade mainly in the CO2 environment due to physico-
Average vertical permeabilities estimation (mD)

Cement
zone
TG3B
TG5
TG6
TG7
TG8
TG9
TG10
TG11
TG12
10
124
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
12
10
10
11
10
10
10
28
10
10
10
12
28
10
10
47
100
0.027
11
10
12
NA
10
100
100
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0.100
1,000
0.069
0.157
0.030
0.037
0.150
0.102
0.011
0.011
0.087
0.100
0.019
0.011
0.186
1,000
0.025
Cement degradation modeling
0.002
1,000
1,000
0.247
0.061
0.132
1,000
1,000
13,462
A key step for dynamic modeling was to assess possible

cement degradation under CO2 injection conditions.
Several important assumptions were made.
100
1,000
1,236
0.155
0.052
4,286
1,084
1,000
0.330
10
686
1,000
0.047
0.232
0.231
0.361
1,246
5,661
0.056
11
100
100
2,510
0.349
0.067
2,171
100
0.308
Static model
The qualitative analysis of the 10 wells considered
potential injectors was used to derive a generic representation of an injection well in the Hassi Touareg field.
The well model was completed with information on layers and formation properties (pressure and temperature
distribution). Cement thickness in each annulus was estimated, taking into account an average casing standoff
(real caliper data, if available, were used).
First, the cement in each annulus, including the possible

presence of microannulus, was modeled as a porous
media possibly containing two phases: a CO2-rich phase
and an-H2O rich phase. Irreducible CO2 saturation was
kh
Cases Description
16
Permeabilities above 10 mD
Permeabilities between 0.1 mD and 10 mD
Permeabilities below 0.1 mD
Table 6.5: Summary of average vertical permeabilities for Hassi Touareg wells before injection.
dissolved in water but becomes insignificant in dry

supercritical flows.4,5 Therefore, when dry supercritical
CO2 is injected, the inner side of the injection tubing or
casing is not corroded.
14
12
Thickness of the alteration front, mm
10
8
6
4
2
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Time, hr
Wet supercritical CO2 fluid
CO2 saturated water fluid
To the contrary, on the outer sides of the casing, where

CO2 is likely to be wet or dissolved in formation water, its
corrosive effects on the metal must be taken into account
once it is in contact with the casing. Corrosion typically
occurs once the cement has been degraded and no
longer isolates and protects the casing. The degradation
model described in Fig. 6.16 was selected and calibrated
according to injection conditions and casing grade by the
Schlumberger partner company OXAND S.A.
Figure 6.15: Alteration front of CO2 on Portland cement at 90C/280 bars immersed in a laboratory cell.3
Conclusions and future steps

chemical processes (ionic leaching, dissolution, and precipitations). A vertical
and horizontal alteration front can attack each cement cell in the numerical
model. In the presence of water, such a front progresses according to a diffusion law (as a function of time) at a speed influenced by the surrounding temperature, pressure, and CO2 concentration. Such kinetics were assessed from
in-condition experiments (Fig. 6.15).3 In the Hassi Touareg (60C, 140 bars), it
was assessed that once CO2 reached the Portland cement, the alteration front
would progress upward at a speed of up to a few millimeters per year in the
absence of any microannulus. In the presence of a microannulus, the CO2 progression speed would be much faster due to the combined effects of convection and diffusion.
Casing degradation modeling

Another essential task in well integrity modeling is to assess how casing
materials are affected by corrosion and erosion phenomena due to CO2.
Considerable documentation and records from previous wells can be used to
calibrate such models. CO2 corrosion is most significant in the presence of CO2
Time set up
Corrosion thickness
Initiation
Pinholes
Channeling
vpitting
Vdisappearance
A model-based methodology to predict leakage rate from

a CO2 injector well in the Hassi Touareg field was adopted. Additionally, static and dynamic models were built
for this well.
The next steps in the project are to compute the estimation of leakage and the corresponding uncertainty levels
for each of the main identified leak paths. Particular
emphasis will be placed on the assessment of the potential leakage into the Albian formation.
Then, a consequence grid will be constructed to rank the
severity of potential leakage-related events. The grid will
serve as the translation matrix to assess the risk from the
leakage probability.
The sources of risk will be identified via sensitivity analysis. Key parameters under consideration include
the injection temperature, which could affect the creation of a microannulus in the lower part of the well
the impact of well geometry and especially distance
from the top of the TAGS layer to the 958-in. shoe
the relative impact of cement quality in each annulus
the impact of uncertainty levels on risk.
Time
Figure 6.16: Model for casing corrosion thickness under CO2 attack (courtesy of OXAND S.A.).
The well integrity risk ranking for Hassi Touareg wells

will be one of the outputs of this sensitivity analysis. Risk
mitigation options will then be considered, such as additional logging, cement squeeze, casing repair, or regular
logging during injection. With respect to mitigating leakage risks, a cost-to-benefit analysis can be used as the
main criteria to decide whether one of the wells can be
reconverted into an injector.
17

Hydrocarbons are trapped at several kilometers depth in
the subsurface; most of these reserves are found in sedimentary basins, which appear as a succession of layers
having different lithologies, such as sandstone, clay,
limestone, and salt. Some of these layers contain hydrocarbons or water, a necessary element for life. During
geologic time, a state of equilibrium was established
between these layers. In the petroleum industry, when
drilling wells, different casing phases are used to avoid
communication between layers and disturbing the balanced state that prevailed before drilling.
development phase began in the 60s and focused on oil production. This
phase is currently completed; a second phase has been started and consists
of the abandonment of oil wells and development of the gas cap.
Because the oil wells have been in use for a long period and are generally
affected by severe corrosion, it was decided to plug and abandon them and drill
new gas producers. Figure 6.17 illustrates the severity of casing corrosion within
the first tens of meters from the surface of one well selected for abandonment.
After completion, a well goes into production if the analysis of the project indicates that it is economically feasible. Otherwise, it will be abandoned. Abandonment also
occurs at the end of the productive life of each well. To
ensure a perfect seal between layers, in particular, to
prevent any pollution of the aquifers or dissolution of salt
layers that may generate catastrophic collapse of the
overburden, petroleum companies follow rigorous and
precise well abandonment procedures. Successful abandonment is achieved when the interlayer seals that
existed prior to well drilling are permanently restored.
Although expensive and not directly revenue-generating,
these operations are mandatory and of paramount importance for long-term protection of the environment.
This section presents the general well abandonment procedures practiced by Sonatrach. These are illustrated
through an example with some relevant particularities. In
the Conclusions, comments and recommendations are
provided to improve the practical aspect of well abandonment.
The Ohanet structure, located 120 km northwest from In
Amenas, is an oil field with a sizeable gas cap. In terms
of importance, the main reservoir is the Devonian F6, followed by the Ordovician and Devonian F2. The first field-
18
Figure 6.17: Example of external corrosion seen on the shallow (dozens of meters) strings affecting
the two casings: 958 in. and 7 (or 5) in. The first (98-in.) casing is more damaged than the 7-in. casing,
indicating an external corrosion.
Well abandonment is performed in two steps:

Temporary abandonment: This consists of securing the well, isolating fluid
entry points, and allowing a possible secure workover. This phase is followed by a year-long observation period during which regular wellheadpressure monitoring is performed
Definitive abandonment: If neither a leak at the surface nor a wellheadpressure anomaly occurs, the well is plugged for permanent abandonment.
1214-in. hole
9 58-in. casing
512-in. casing
N 80
278-in. tubing
N 80
Shoe at 405 m
Drilled down to 407 m
Temporary abandonment
778-in. hole
Top of cement
at 1,840 m
For every well proposed for abandonment, its history and current situation are
assessed to correctly establish a safe and efficient workover plan.
1. Analysis of wellhead pressure may lead to an indication of leak zones
downhole. In this case, an investigation program is applied to locate and
identify the type of leak. Different observations as the ones described
below may help in identifying the type of leak:
a. A permanent balance between annular and tubing pressures indicates the
presence of a leak zone above the hydraulic packer (see Fig. 6.18 indicating
the completion type used in oil wells in Ohanet). Running a wireline
gauge cutter and an impression tool will indicate if a tear, casing dislocation, or a corrosion hole is causing the leak.
b. When the pressure inside the tubing and the gas/oil ratio (GOR) increase
suddenly while the annular pressure remains close to zero, this corresponds
to a leak located between the hydraulic and permanent packers (Fig. 6.18).
c. If the annular pressure increases and returns to zero when the annular
space is opened, a bad sealing of the hydraulic packer would be the origin of the anomaly.
Checkthe
thecementation
cementationquality
qualityatat the
the gas
gas reservoir
reservoir zones, in particular. If
2. Check
there
thereisisbad
badcement
cementororfree
free pipe,
pipe, aa squeeze
squeeze cement
cement job with either cement
retainer
retainerororpacker
packertest
testwill
willbe
becompleted.
completed.
3.Kill
Killthe
thewell.
well.
4. Set
Setup
upthe
theworkover
workoverrig.
rig.
5. Pull
Pullout
outthe
thetubing
tubingand
andmill
millthe
the permanent
permanent packer. Because sometimes tubing
a lengthy
andand
expensive
operation
of milling
and
ingcan
canbebehighly
highlycorroded,
corroded,
a lengthy
expensive
operation
of milling
well
would
be necessary
to get
downhole
access.
and instrumentation
well instrumentation
would
be necessary
to free
get free
downhole
access.
Niple X at 2,166 m
2,176 m
2,186 m
Mandrels
Hydraulic packer at
2,198 m
2,209 m
2,307 m
2,322 m
Blast joint
2,323 m
Niple XN
at 2,337 m
2,348 m
2,351 m
Permanent packer
at 2,338 m
2,378 m
Shoe at 2,398 m
Drilled down
to 2,400 m
Figure 6.18: Typical completion of oil-producing wells in the Ohanet field.
19
Amplitude
-500.0000
-5.6000
-4.8000
UCAZ
-4.0000
0 (deg) 360
-3.2000
AZEC
-2.4000
0 (deg) 360
-1.6000
Internal radius
-0.8000
-500.0000
-500.0000
-0.0680
-0.0680
-0.0520
-0.0520
-500.0000
-0.0360
-0.0360
1.0000
-1000.0000
-0.0200
2.0000
0.3000
3.0000
CS
-0.5000
Minimum
Minimum
internal radius internal radius
0 (M/hr) 1,000
(----)
RSAV
Maximum
amplitude
-8 (Rps) -6
CCL
RSAV
6
(Rps)
ECCE
0
(in.)
0.5
UFLG
0.50
1.50
2.50
3.50
6.50
(----)
3 3
(in.) 4.5
Maximum
thickness
(in.) 4.5
-0.0040
0.1 (in.) 0.6
-0.0040
3.0000
Average
Average
-0.0120
Average
thickness
-0.0120
4.0000
-0.0280
5.0000
(in.) 4.5
-0.0440
0.1 (in.) 0.6
-0.0440
6.0000
Average
Average
external radius external radius
-0.0600
-0.0600
7.0000
-0.0760
Minimum
thickness
-0.0760
8.0000
Gas or dry
micro annulus
(----)
0.1 (in.) 0.6
(----)
(----)
Bonded
(Db) 75 4.5
(in.)
(in.)
(in.)
3 3
3 3
3 3
(in.) 4.5
X,800
X,810
X,820
X,830
X,840
X,850
Figure 6.19a: Identification of a corroded and leak zone at 1,823 m using the USI tool.
20
Acoustic
impedance
micro
debonding
image
Acoustic
impedance
-0.0200
(Db) 75 4.5
Minimum
amplitude
(in.)
Maximum
Maximum
(Db) 75 4.5
Average
amplitude
-20 (----) 20
4.5
Thickness
-0.0280
4.0000
Micro
debonding
Liquid
5.0000
6.0000
7.0000
8.0000
(----)
Bond index
(-----)
-20
(---)
20
100

Depth
(m) 140
Phase
(s/ft)
40
1,800
(deg)
Phase
Depth
180 (m) 90
(deg)
270
1,800
t ref (57 s/ft)
Amplitude-bound index
1,850
Figure 6.19b: Cement bond log indicating a zone of bad cementation around 1,823 m.
1,850
Figure 6.19c: Corrosion log indicating that the casing was intact 16 years
before the abandonment date. The subsequent corrosion must be related to
a weak initial cementation at this depth.
6. Scrape the casing and perform a systematic logging for casing and cementation inspection to detect possible anomalies greater than 2 cm. Figure 6.19a
shows a USIT UltraSonic Imager Tool log acquired in 2004 during the well
abandonment phase. A corroded zone is located at around 1,823 m.
Figure 6.19b shows the cement bond log (CBL) acquired earlier in 1988 that
indicates bad quality of the cement for this depth at that time. However, the
casing inspection log indicates that the casing was still intact (Fig. 6.19c).
This confirms that the external corrosion observed at

shallow depth in Fig. 6.17, was enhanced by bad
cementation or free-pipe condition.
7. Squeeze cement for all perforated intervals. For certain wells, the gas R2 level of the Devonian F6 reservoir is perforated for auto-gas-lift, especially for wells
producing with high water cut (Fig. 6.18).
21
8. Set plug cement of 100 to 150 m in height at the bottom of hole to plug all the perforated intervals.
9. Perform casing integrity testing as indicated in
Fig. 6.20. In order not to weaken casing and cementation, pressure test is limited to 1,000 psi. In case of a
leak, a progressive relocation of the packer locates
the leak position. This test will confirm also the
anomalies observed on corrosion inspection logs and
will detect other possible leak zones < 2 cm in size.
10. Squeeze identified zones.
11. Test casing integrity between top cement and
surface.
12. If the test is positive (no leak), the mud is changed by
inhibited KCl brine, otherwise the squeeze is
repeated.
13. Install a 278-kill string at a depth of 1,200 m.
14. Disassemble blowout preventer (BOP) and place wellhead.
5. Disassemble BOP and mount wellhead.

6. Fence the well.
The final diagram of an abandoned well is given in Fig. 6.21.
First test
Brine injection through
drillpipe to test
zone below packer
958-in. casing shoe at 400 m
Monthly checks of the annular and tubing pressures are

made for one-year duration. If neither pressure anomaly
nor leak is noticed, a definitive well abandonment
request is submitted to the Ministry of Energy and
Mines.
Packer EA at 1,200 m
Definitive abandonment
This procedure is completed with the following operations:
1. Disassemble wellhead and mount and test BOP.
2. Test annular pressure with 500 psi and test tubing
(casing) pressure with 1,000 psi to check for leaks.
3. Set intermediate cement plug of 100 m height at a
depth of 1,200 m.
4. Set surface cement plug of 100 m height at 50 m from
surface.
22
Second test
Brine injection through
the annulus to test the section
above the packer
Leak zone identified with

the USI tool at 1,823 m
512-in. casing shoe at 2,400 m
Figure 6.20: Casing integrity test.
Comments and proposals
Surface
Tubing hanger
A review of all abandoned wells in the Ohanet field shows that a significant
number of leak zones were identified with casing inspection logging. Most of
these zones are located above the top of the 512-in. casing cement. A double
casing isolation from the aquifers with a cementation up to surface of the
greater casing diameter reduces the risk to the casing integrity and facilitates
the ultimate well abandonment operation.
Top plug at 50 m
For immediate application and to minimize operation cost, the use of coiled
tubing instead of a workover rig is proposed. Before setting the surface
cement plug, simultaneous perforation of tubing and casing above the
cement, followed by a squeeze and set cement plug of this entire interval, is
suggested. Well integrity, in this case, could be completed by using the appropriate combination of slim tool CBL (SCMT Slim Cement Mapping Tool) and
Multifinger Imaging tool (PMIT).
Finally, success of a well abandonment operation with optimal cost highly
depends on the original cementation quality. Indeed, residual drilling mudcake
between formation and cement constitutes potential leak zones, especially for
gas. A thorough mud cleaning just before setting of the cement reduces this
risk. The use of cement having a good elasticity coefficient such as FlexSTONE
advanced flexible cement technology (see the Well CementingAdvanced
Technologies section, page 4.50) with good centralizers distribution will
reduce the occurrence of microcracks and microannulus caused by pressure
variations during the life of the well. Additionally, thorough and effective
cement evaluation is required immediately right after well cementing and periodically, as well, to minimize the extent and gravity of leak problems (see the
Well IntegrityCement Evaluation section, page 5.32).
Installation of a wellhead and fencing around the well after a definitive abandonment will help to locate the well. A regular inspection will help to early
detect any possible leak or anomaly and take the appropriate remedial
actions.
Wellhead
Top plug at 1,200 m
512-in. casing window

at 1,800 m, squeezed
with cement
Top of cement at
1,840 m behind
512-in. casing
Top cement
plug at 2,250 m
2,322 m
Gas zone
2,323 m
2,348 m
Oil zone
2,351 m
512-in. casing shoe

at 2,398 m
Drilled down
to 2,400 m with 778 in.
Initial top of cement

at 2,378 m
Figure 6.21: Final sketch of an abandoned well in the Ohanet field.
23
Schlumberger: Paul LINKIN, Roberto ASTENASI
Sonatrach: Boubekeur MALEK
Schlumberger: Arnaud VAN DER BEKEN, Patrick PERRIN, Laurent JAMMES, Jean DESROCHES
Acknowledgments
Guillermo JALFIN (Repsol); Bruno GERARD (Oxand S.A)
Sonatrach: Noureddine BOUNOUA, Djamel BELARBI, Nacereddine MAALI, Mohamed CHIKAR
Acknowledgments
Sonatrach Division Production - Ohanet
Individuals
24
who either reviewed the documents, contributed with results/logs, or provide tangible support for data release and use.
References
References
1. Gerard B, Frenette R, Auge L, Barlet-Gouedard V, Desroches J, and Jammes L: Well Integrity in CO2 Environments: Performance and Risk, Technologies,
CO2 SC Symposium 2006, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA (March 2022, 2006).
2. Boukhelifa L, Monori N, James SG, Le Roy-Delage S, Thiercelin MJ, and Lemaire G: Evaluation of Cement Systems for Oil and Gas Well Zonal Isolation
in a Full Scale Annular Geometry, paper SPE 87195 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, USA (March 2-4 2004).
3. Barlet-Goudard V, Rimmel G, Coff B, and Porcherie O: Mitigation Strategies for the Risk of CO2 Migration Through Wellbores, paper SPE 98294
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling conference, Miami, Florida, USA (February 21-23, 2006).
4. Woollam RC, and Hernndez SE: Assessment and Comparison of CO2 Corrosion Prediction Models, paper SPE 100673 presented at the SPE International
Oilfiled Corrosion Symposium, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK (May 30, 2006).
5. Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations-Results from the CO2 Capture Vol 2, S. Benson and D.C. Thomas (eds.), Oxford, UK,
Elsevier (2005), 937-953.
25
Tamadjert (the Tassili of the Ajjer). Slim and tall, the Saharan Libyans were highly elegant. Here, two men in short tunics and two women in long robes pose side by side as if dancing.
Their clothes are made of leather, though woven cloth already existed.
7. Way ForwardPartnering to Meet the Challenges
Algeria WEC 2007 / Way Forward
Way ForwardPartnering to Meet the Challenges
The definition and completion of the content of the third edition of the Well Evaluation Conference book brought Sonatrach and Schlumberger engineers together at numerous workshops. Most of these took place in Algiers and Hassi Messaoud, while others were held at the Schlumberger Riboud Product Center in Clamart, France. Above left: The geosteering group
with a few members of the borehole imaging group. Above right: Schlumberger Cambridge Research in Cambridge, U.K. Opposite page, top: The geomechanics group that made several
contributions to Chapter 4. Opposite page, bottom: Members of the geology group evaluating their edited documents for Chapter 1 in a conference center in Algiers.

This third edition of the Well Evaluation Conference (WEC) book represents a
milestone in the long relationship between Sonatrach and Schlumberger. It
documents the successful implementation of technology used to explore and
develop Algerias vast hydrocarbon reservoirs and provides an assessment vis-vis the many identified technical challenges that must be addressed in the future.
laborate in the development and use of technology in

domains such as tight sands, nonconventional reservoirs,
reservoir management, deepwater exploration, Health,
Safety and Environment (HSE), and human resources
development and management.
Over the last decade, horizontal drilling and reservoir characterization have
been major catalysts for implementing new technology. The next ten years are
sure to be characterized by mature production that will pose new technological challenges. The near future will also see the anticipated development of a
new domaintight sands.
To maintain the energy and ensure continued progress, the

management of both companies need to continue to work
together to define developmental priorities and select key
projects according to the concerns and interests of each
party. Beyond that, they will need to promote the establishment of an environmentand the necessary resources
and processesthat is conducive to close collaboration
among the engineers and scientists of both Sonatrach and
Schlumberger.
The implementation of technology has brought Sonatrach and Schlumberger

together in a mutual effort that has strengthened their business relationship.
And the joint creation of this book has increased the momentum to further col-
Algeria WEC 2007 / Way Forward
Leveraging synergies for mutual benefit

To address the technical challenges that lie ahead,
Sonatrach and Schlumberger need to adopt an integrated
approach to implementing the latest technologies. At
times, these challenges will also require the development of fit-for-purpose technologies and solutions. For
Sonatrach, this means proposing projects as well as
actively participating in them. By working with
Schlumberger, Sonatrach can ensure that technologies
under development will meet project requirements and
integrate seamlessly with existing technology and management systems.
Research
336
Technology
4,147
Manufacturing
2,847
Boston, Ridgefield
153
Collaboration at every stage of the process

Schlumberger is currently engaged in more than 60 joint projectsranging
from relatively small-scale field studies to extensive collaboration and product developmentwith its clients. This kind of mutual cooperation often
leads to many reciprocal benefits:
clear articulation and specification of the exploration and production issues
rapid identification of approaches and solutions to resolving issues
accelerated development through access to worldwide Schlumberger R&D
expertise (Fig. 7.1)
accelerated development through access to client data and knowledge
Cambridge
104
Moscow
30
Stavanger
20
Dhahran
26
Sugar Land
1,281
Clamart
531
Fuchinobe
184
Rosharon
448
Oslo
308
Beijing
129
Houston
280
Stonehouse
266
Princeton
119
Abingdon
126
Edmonton
74
Stavanger
93
Calgary
72
Novosibirsk
91
Gatwick
75
Bartlesville
370
Belfast
240
Singapore
668
Houston
305
Tyumen/Ufa
220
Shanghai
295
Lawrence
158
Aberdeen
130
Edmonton
102
Abbeville
97
Barrow
91
Southampton
76
Figure 7.1: Global reach and footprint of Schlumberger research, development, and manufacturing centers. A strong commitment to technology through a geographically diversified
organization leverages regional strengths in science, technology, and manufacturing, and proximity to markets. These centers are seamlessly integrated to develop, deploy, and support
technology and services around the world. (Employee statistics current as of September 2006).
Reducing risk
Concept
Concept summary
Preliminary business
plan
Feasibility
Requirements
Specifications
Business and
design plans
Concept
approval
Develop
Engineering prototype
Test plan
Test
Product file
Field test and customer
acceptance test reports
Project
launch
Commercialize
Pilot series
Software baseline
Commercialization
Sustain
First customer shipment

Postproject review
Figure 7.2: The associated risks and costs are very different at every stage of the development process.
accelerated relevant testing through client support and access to field operations
rapid assessment of the value of new and integrated measurements or services
faster market validation of tools and services
exchange of complementary expertise among collaborating teams
development of human resources
optimized research funding and reduced technology investment risk.
elements of risk even in the late stages of development,

so realistic levels of expectation should be agreed upon
among the collaborating teams and their respective managements. When the correct R&D environment is put in
place, divergence eventually decreases, and the lessons
learned are inevitably applied toward developing meaningful solutions.
Through collaboration, Schlumberger and its clients share the risks and the
rewards; when R&D projects are successful, both parties share the benefits
of commercialization.
Collaborative research and development requires mutual

respect and trust, and successful R&D commands a high
level of commitment from all parties. In addition to technical cooperation, support from upper management
driven by a high-level steering committee would be beneficial. The mutual, expected timeline and outcome of
each project must be clarified, and projects should be
realistic and relevant. There should be a clear understanding of the deliverables and a recognition of their
value to all involved, followed by adherence to an
agreed-upon project engagement process (Fig. 7.3).
When circumstances change, however, built-in flexibility
can ensure project survival.
Overcoming obstacles to successful joint research

Research is a process that involves testing and learning. Opportunities for collaboration come at every stage of the development process (Fig. 7.2), but the
associated risks and costs for each are quite different. During initial research,
the risks are high because the concept or equipment is unproven, but the costs
of pursuing the project are relatively low. During the development stage, however, the risks are lower because the tool or solution has been thoroughly
tested. In contrast, the cost of field-testing is often much higher because the
technology may be applied in commercial environments such as complex
wells or offshore platforms where daily costs can be significant. There are
Barriers
Mutual top-level
management commitment
for strategic collaboration
Funding problems
Lack of resources
Unrealistic expectations
Barriers
Project
initiation
Project
screening
Fear of failure
Implementation
Mandate
Business
value
Mandate
Figure 7.3: Engagement process of joint projects.
Ouan Bender (the Tassili of the Ajjer). The chariot and horse period gave way to the Cameline period. Very near the Tuareg civilization of the central Sahara, this period dates from 300
AD. Here, a dromedary driver sits on a saddle in front of the animals hump. His feet rest on the beasts neck, and while maintaining his own balance, he uses the pressure of his toes to
guide the camel.
ABC (Analysis Behind Casing), AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), APS (Accelerator Porosity Sonde), APWD (Annular Pressure While Drilling), ARI (Azimuthal
Resistivity Imager), BorSeis (borehole processing and interpretation package), CBL Adviser (cement bond log evaluation software), CDR (Compensated Dual
Resistivity tool), CemCADE (cementing design and evaluation software), CemCRETE (concrete-based oilwell cementing technology), CemNET (advanced fiber
technology to control losses), CemSTRESS (cement sheath stress analysis software), CFA (Composition Fluid Analyzer), CHFD (Cased Hole Formation Density
service), CHFP (Cased Hole Formation Porosity service), CHFR (Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool), CHFR-Plus (Cased Hole Formation Resistivity tool), CMR
(Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool), CMR-Plus (CMR logging tool with high-logging-speed capability), CNL (Compensated Neutron Log), CoilLIFE (coiled
tubing life prediction model), DataFRAC (fracture data determination service), DecisionXpress (petrophysical evaluation system), DensCRETE (slurry system),
DepthLOG (CT depth correlation log), Dipmeter Advisor (dipmeter processing), DMR (DensityMagnetic Resonance Interpretation Method), DrillMAP (drilling
management and process software), DSI (Dipole Shear Sonic Imager), ECLIPSE (reservoir simulation software), EcoScope (multifunction logging-while-drilling
service), ECS (Elemental Capture Spectroscopy sonde), ELAN, ELANPlus (advanced multimineral log analysis), FDC (Compensated Formation Density), FIV
(Formation Isolation Valve tool), FlexSTONE (advanced flexible cement technology), FloScan Imager (horizontal and deviated well production logging system),
FloView (holdup measurement tool), FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroImager), FMS Image Examiner (Formation MicroScanner software application package),
FracCADE (fracturing design and evaluation software), GeoFrame (integrated reservoir characterization system), GeoMarket, geoVISION (imaging-while-drilling
service), GHOST (Gas Holdup Optical Sensor Tool), GVR (geoVISION resistivity sub), HSD (High Shot Density gun system), IMPULSE (measurement while perforating), InDepth (velocity analysis and depth conversion), InterACT (real-time monitoring and data delivery), IPTT, Isolation Scanner (cement evaluation service), LFA (Live Fluid Analyzer for MDT tool), LiteCRETE (slurry system), MaxTRAC (downhole well tractor system), MDT (Modular Formation Dynamics Tester),
MRF (Magnetic Resonance Fluid characterization method), MR Scanner (expert magnetic resonance service), MSCT (Mechanical Sidewall Coring Tool), NODAL
(production system analysis), OBMI (Oil-Base MicroImager), Periscope (directional, deep imaging while drilling), Periscope 15, Petrel (seismic-to-simulation
software), PhaseWatcher (fixed multiphase well production monitoring equipment), PLT (Production Logging Tool), PMIT (Miltifinger Imaging Tool), PNG (pulse
neutron generator), PowerJet (deep penetrating shaped charge), PowerSTIM (well optimization service), PressureXpress (reservoir pressure while logging service), ProductionWatcher (real-time remote surveillance of producing assets), PS Platform (new-generation production services platform), PURE (perforating system for clean perforations), PVT Express (onsite well fluid analysis service), Q-Borehole (integrated borehole seismic system), Q-Land (single-sensor land
seismic system), Q-Technology (single-sensor seismic hardware and software), Quicksilver Probe (wireline sampling-tool probe), RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit
tool), RFT (Repeat Formation Tester), RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool), RSTPro (Reservoir Saturation Tool), Sand Management Advisor, SCMT (Slim Cement
Mapping Tool), SigmaView (interactive near-surface modeling software), Sonic Scanner (acoustic scanning platform), SpectroLith (lithology processing of spectra from neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy tools), StimMAP (hydraulic fracture stimulation diagnostics), StrucView (GeoFrame structural cross section
software), UBI (Ultrasonic Borehole Imager), Ultra LiteCRETE (very low density cement system), USI (UltraSonic Imager), Variable Density (cement bond quality), Variable Density log, VDN (VISION Density Neutron), VIVID (package of seismic imaging services), VSI (Versatile Seismic Imager), Vx (multiphase well testing technology), WFL (Water Flow Log), are marks of Schlumberger.
The captioned photos of rock paintings and carvings, and the landscape views of the Tassili N'Ajjer region have been selected by Malika HACHID from her
personal collection and are printed in this book with her permission. These photos may not be reproduced without prior written permission from Malika HACHID.

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ALGERIA

WELL EVALUATION CONFERENCE

Noureddine BOUNOUA, Petroleum Engineering

Treasures of the Sahara Desert

1. Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Eastern Province Basins

The Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

Oued Mya Basin

Western Province Basins

Gourara North Basin

Bechar Basin and its Margins

Atlas/Southeast Constantine/Chott El Melrhir Basins

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Hodna Basin Constantine Basin

Oued Mya Basin

Hassi Messaoud Oil Field

Tamaza Dome Oued Namous Dome

Bou Bernous Saddle

Azzel Matti Saddle

Figure 1.1: Sedimentary basins of Algeria.

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Algeria is structurally subdivided into two major tectonic

Figure 1.3: Mining areas and hydrocarbon reservoirs.

prospecting and drilling shows have revealed excellent

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Eastern Province Basins

Eastern Province BasinsGeneralities

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Cambro-Ordovician distension and

The geologic history of the Saharan platform is very

Several tectonic phases modeled the Saharan platform:

Oued Mya Mesozoic Basin

Hassi Touareg Arch

Figure 1.6: Regional geologic column.

Eastern Province BasinsGeneralities

because of Hercynian erosion. This layer is extremely

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

area with the exception of the western regions (HBA 1,

Eastern Province BasinsThe Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

The Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Azzel shales (25 m)

HGA-1: 500 bopd

Atchane sands (20 m)

The Cambrian play is productive in the Hassi Messaoud

Cambrian Ri/Ra lithology

The Ri unit forms the transition between the coarse

TOC middle: 6-8%

MabKratta dalle (25 m)

Alternance zone (25 m)

Md-28: 1,150 bopd

HGA-1: 2,000 bopd

Primary source rock

Eastern Province BasinsThe Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

The Taconian unconformity separates the basal Ordovician (Tremadocian) from

The existence of ichnofacies associated with the presence of Scolithus, which

This 90-m thick formation is often described as massive and compact. It is

Hamra quartzites reservoir

Algeria WEC 2007 / Petroleum Geology of Algeria

Reservoir qualities vary, however, because of diagenetic

Eastern Province BasinsThe Amguid-Messaoud Uplift

Type Rhourde El Baguel

Figure 1.13c: Stratigraphic traps.