Conclusive Design:

The objective of conclusive research is to describe specific phenomena, to test specific

hypotheses and examine specific relationships. This requires that the information needed is
clearly specified. Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured than exploratory
research. It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected to
quantitative analysis.
Uses of Conclusive Design:
1 To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,
organizations, or market areas.
2 To estimate the percentage in a specified population exhibiting a certain form of behaviour.
3 To count the frequency of events, especially in the patterns of consumer behaviour.
4 To measure marketing phenomena to represent larger populations or target markets.
5 To be able to integrate findings from different sources in a consistent manner, especially in the
use of marketing information systems and decision support systems.
6 To determine the perceptions of product or service characteristics.
7 To compare findings over time that allow changes in the phenomena to be measured.
8 To measure marketing phenomena in a consistent and universal manner.
9 To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
10 To make specific predictions.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe something,
usually market characteristics or functions. A major difference between exploratory and
descriptive research is that descriptive research is characterised by the prior formulation of
specific research questions and hypotheses. Thus, the information needed is clearly defined. As a
result, descriptive research is pre-planned and structured. It is typically based on large
representative samples. A descriptive research design specifies the methods for selecting the
sources of information and for collecting data from those sources.
Examples of descriptive studies in marketing research are as follows:
Market studies describing the size of the market, buying power of the consumers, availability
of distributors, and consumer profiles
Market share studies determining the proportion of total sales received by a company and its
competitors
Sales analysis studies describing sales by geographic region, product line, type of the account
and size of the account
The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of objects, people,
groups, organizations, or environments. In other words, descriptive research tries to paint a
picture of a given situation by addressing who, what, when, where, and how questions.
Unlike exploratory research, descriptive studies are conducted after the researcher has gained a
firm grasp of the situation being studied. This understanding, which may have been developed in
part from exploratory research, directs the study toward specific issues.
Accuracy is critically important in descriptive research. If a descriptive study incorrectly
estimates a universitys demand for its MBA offering by even a few students, it can mean the
difference between the program sustaining itself or being a drain on already scarce resources.
For instance, if a cohort group of 25 students is predicted, but only 15 students actually sign up,
the program will likely not generate enough revenue to sustain itself. Therefore, it is easy to see

that descriptive research forecasting sales revenue and costs or describing consumer attitudes,
satisfaction, and commitment must be accurate or decision making will suffer.
Cross-sectional designs:
The cross-sectional study is the most frequently used descriptive design in marketing research.
Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once. They may be either single cross sectional or multiple crosssectional.
In single cross-sectional designs, only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target
population, and information is obtained from this sample only once. These designs are also
called sample survey research designs.
In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and
information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different samples
is obtained at different times.
Longitudinal designs
In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured
repeatedly. A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time. In other words, the same people are studied over time. In
contrast to the typical cross-sectional design, which gives a snapshot of the variables of interest
at a single point in time, a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures. These pictures give
an in-depth view of the situation and the changes that take place over time. Often, the term panel
is used interchangeably with the term longitudinal design. A panel consists of a sample of
respondents, generally households, who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals
over an extended period. Panels are maintained by syndicated firms, and panel members are
compensated for their participation with gifts, coupons, information or cash. Data obtained from
panels may provide information on market shares that are based on an extended period of time.
Such data may also allow the researcher to examine changes in market share over time.
CAUSAL RESEARCH
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships. Marketing
managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal relationships.
Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes:
1 To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are
the effect (dependent variables) of marketing phenomena.
2 To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be
predicted.
3 To test hypotheses.
Like descriptive research, causal research requires a planned and structured design. Although
descriptive research can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not
appropriate for examining causal relationships. Such an examination requires a causal design, in
which the causal or independent variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled
environment. Such an environment is one in which the other variables that may affect the
dependent variable are controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation
on one or more dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of
causal research is experimentation.

If a decision maker knows what causes important outcomes like sales, stock price, and employee
satisfaction, then he or she can shape firm decisions in a positive way. Causal inferences are very
powerful because they lead to greater control. Causal research seeks to identify cause andeffect relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it brings it about or makes it
happen. The effect is the outcome. Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and wet grass
is the effect.
CAUSALITY
Ideally, managers want to know how a change in one event will change another event of interest.
As an example, how will implementing a new employee training program change job
performance? Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing, another thing will
follow. A causal inference is just such a conclusion. While we use the term cause frequently in
our everyday language, scientifically establishing something as a cause is not so easy. A causal
inference can only be supported when very specific evidence exists. Three critical pieces of
causal evidence are:
1. Temporal Sequence
2. Concomitant Variance
3. Nonspurious Association
Temporal Sequence:
Temporal sequence deals with the time order of events. In other words, having an appropriate
causal order of events, or temporal sequence, is one criterion for causality. Simply put, the cause
must occur before the effect. It would be difficult for a restaurant manager to blame a decrease in
sales on a new chef if the drop in sales occurred before the new chef arrived. If a change in the
CEO causes a change in stock prices, the CEO change must occur before the change in stock
values.
Concomitant Variation
Concomitant variation occurs when two events co vary or correlate, meaning they vary
systematically. In causal terms, concomitant variation means that when a change in the cause
occurs, a change in the outcome also is observed. A correlation coefficient, is often used to
represent concomitant variation. Causality cannot possibly exist when there is no systematic
variation between the variables. For example, if a retail store never changes its employees
vacation policy, then the vacation policy cannot possibly be responsible for a change in
employee satisfaction. There is no correlation between the two events. On the other hand, if two
events vary together, one event may be causing the other. If a university increases its number of
online MBA course offerings and experiences a decrease in enrollment in its traditional in-class
MBA offerings, the online course offerings may be causing the decrease. But the systematic
variation alone doesnt guarantee it.
Nonspurious Association:
Nonspurious association means any covariation between a cause and an effect is true, rather
than due to some other variable. A spurious association is one that is not true. Often, a causal
inference cannot be made even though the other two conditions exist because both the cause and
effect have some common cause; that is, both may be influenced by a third variable. For
instance, there is a strong, positive correlation between ice cream purchases and murder rates
as ice cream purchases increase, so do murder rates. When ice cream sales decline, murder rates

also drop. Do people become murderers after eating ice cream? Should we outlaw the sale of ice
cream? This would be silly because the concomitant variation observed between ice cream
consumption and murder rates is spurious. A third variable is actually important here. People
purchase more ice cream when the weather is hot. People are also more active and likely to
commit a violent crime when it is hot. The weather, being associated with both may actually
cause both.
Establishing evidence of nonspuriousness can be difficult. If a researcher finds a third variable
that is related to both the cause and effect, which causes a significant drop in the correlation
between the cause and effect, then a causal inference becomes difficult to support. Although the
researcher would like to rule out the possibility of any alternative causes, it is impossible to
observe the effect of every variable on the correlation between the cause and effect. Therefore,
the researcher must use logic, or a theory, to identify the most likely third variables that would
relate significantly to both the cause and effect. The researcher must control for these variables in
some way. In addition, the researcher should use theory to make sure the assumed cause-and
effect relationship truly makes sense.
Causal research should do all of the following:
1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events
2. Measure the concomitant variation between the presumed cause and the presumed effect
3. Examine the possibility of spuriousness by considering the presence of alternative plausible
causal factors
DEGREES OF CAUSALITY
In everyday language, we often use the word cause in an absolute sense. For example, a
warning label used on cigarette packages claims smoking causes cancer. Is this true in an
absolute sense?
Absolute causality means the cause is necessary and sufficient to bring about the effect. Thus, if
we find only one smoker who does not eventually get cancer, the claim is false. Although this is
a very strong inference, it is impractical to think that we can establish absolute causality in the
behavioral sciences. Although managers may like to be able to draw absolute conclusions, they
can often make very good decisions based on less powerful inferences.
Conditional causality means that a cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring about an effect.
This is a weaker causal inference. One way to think about conditional causality is that the cause
can bring about the effect, but it cannot do so alone. If other conditions are right, the cause can
bring about the effect. We know there are other medical factors that contribute to cancer. For
instance, genetics, lifestyle, and diet are also plausible causes of cancer. Thus, if one smokes and
has a genetic disposition, diet, and lifestyle that promote cancer, smoking could be considered a
conditional cause of cancer. However, if we can find someone who has contracted cancer and
never smoked, the causal inference would be proven wrong.
Contributory causality is the weakest form of causality, but it is still a useful concept. A cause
need be neither necessary nor sufficient to bring about an effect. However, causal evidence can
be established using the three factors discussed. For any outcome, there may be multiple causes.
So, an event can be a contributory cause of something so long as the introduction of the other
possible causes does not eliminate the correlation between it and the effect. Smoking then can be
a contributory cause of cancer so long as the introduction of other possible causes does not cause
both smoking and cancer.